RANOBE MINE PROJECT, SOUTHWEST REGION, MADAGASCAR

VOLUME 9: FAUNAL BASELINE ASSESSMENT

Prepared for: Prepared by:

World Titanium Resources Ltd Prof. William R. Branch

15 Lovegrove Close, Bayworld Mount Claremont P.O. Box 13147, Western Australia Humewood 6010 Port Elizabeth 6013 South Africa

January 2013

Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013

This Report should be cited as follows:

Branch, W.R., January 2013, Toliara Sands Project - Faunal Baseline Assessment (Update of 2007 Report), prepared for Coastal and Environmental Services, Grahamstown.

Coastal & Environmental Services i Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

Project Background

World Titanium Resources Ltd (WTR) proposed Mine Site plans to mine the Ranobe mineral sand deposit for the heavy minerals ilmenite, rutile and zircon. These minerals will be extracted with dry mining operation.

This report:

1. Comment on current trends and changes in faunal biodiversity, by reviewing available literature to update the 2007 report. 2. Specifically assesses the impacts of the revised project including the haul road options, the pipeline options and the jetty, on local fauna.

METHODOLOGY

No fieldwork was involved and Branch (2007) forms the primary data for this review, upgraded by reference to subsequent published literature and to online sources to produce a stand-alone report.

Species of Special Concern (SSC) included sensitive species (e.g. endemic), threatened species (listed in the IUCN Red Lists), and species in International Trade (CITES).

This updated assessment is based only on published data. Potential threats associated with the current land use as well as the direct impacts from mining and product transport and the MSP location have been assessed.

FAUNAL DIVERSITY

National Biodiversity

Madagascar is one of eight important global biodiversity hotspots owing to its unique biota and the high degree of threat to its natural habitats. Despite tremendous biological interest, knowledge of the faunal biodiversity in the region is still hampered by unresolved taxonomic problems and poor sampling. Knowledge of its full faunal diversity remains poorly documented, even in relatively well- known regions.

Regional Biodiversity

The Madagascar spiny thickets or spiny desert of southern Madagascar is a globally distinctive ecoregion with the highest proportion (95%) of plant endemism in Madagascar. The forests are rapidly disappearing and becoming fragmented by anthropogenic pressure. Few detailed regional faunal surveys have been published for the region, with inventories available only for the southern Mikea region, the avifauna, herpetofauna and lemurs.

Amphibians

A total of 238 amphibian species were known from Madagascar at the end of 2007. Recent research suggests that 465 species may be present, an increase of 95%. This makes Madagascar one of the top five countries for amphibian diversity. The Spiny Forest ecosystem falls in a semi- arid region with consequent low amphibian diversity. The richest local amphibian fauna (7 species) occurred in association with patches of riparian forest in the Fiherenana River, with only four species recorded from the Ranobe Lake region. Only two common species have been recorded from the mine site.

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Most amphibians in the Mikea region are wide-ranging species. None are strictly endemic, and only one is considered threatened.

The small frog Mantella expectata is Endangered (IUCN) and endemic to a small region in south- western Madagascar. It is usually found around seasonal streams and in wet canyons where it is usually associated with narrow gallery forest. Neither of these habitats occur in the area to be directly impacted by project developments.

Reptiles

Approximately 92% of the non-marine Madagascan reptiles are endemic to the island. By 2007, around 370 nominal species of reptiles were known from Madagascar. This number continues to grow, and 393 are now known. Even this figure, however, is incomplete, as DNA-barcoding has revealed 41–48 additional undescribed species.

Reptiles are an important component of the Deciduous Thicket and Forest fauna. A detailed survey of the Ranobe Forest on the south-eastern shores of Lake Ranobe revealed 59 species (37 lizards, 19 snakes and three chelonians), of which 10 were considered regional endemics. The urban herpetofauna of Toliara includes only nine reptiles.

A field survey in the proposed Mine Site area to the east of Lake Ranobe (Branch 2007) revealed 23 lizards.

The majority of reptiles in the region are endemic to Madagascar, and 7 are threatened, including three Critically Endangered, another Endangered, and three Vulnerable (Table 1). Two others are Data Deficient and another Near Threatened.

Project area Reptiles of Conservation Concern (IUCN Red List 2012) Furcifer belalandaensis Critically Endangered Furcifer labordi Vulnerable Furcifer tuzetae Data Deficient Phelsuma standing Vulnerable Phelsuma breviceps Vulnerable Paroedura maingoka Near Threatened Ebenavia maintimainty Endangered Liophidium apperti Data Deficient Astrochelys radiate Critically Endangered Pyxis arachnoides Critically Endangered

Birds

The avifauna of Madagascar is relatively depauperate; 283 birds are known from the island, and only 209 are breeding residents of which 50% are endemic.

A number of recent important regional surveys have recorded 130 bird species in the project area. In a year-long survey 124 birds were recorded in the Southern Mikea region, of which 99 were recorded from the Ranobe region. A survey of the Ambondrolava mangrove complex north of Toliara recorded 69 bird species. In a multi-seasonal, four site, detailed survey of the PK32- Ranobe proposed protected area 124 species were recorded, including 56 Malagasy endemics and 8 species endemic to the southern eco-region. Bird diversity at each site ranged from 53 to 99, with differences mainly explained by wetland bird diversity.

Threatened birds of the wider region include the Endangered Humboldt’s heron, four Vulnerable species (Madagascar Grebe, Madagascar plover, Long-tailed ground roller and Subdesert mesite), and the Near Threatened Madagascar crested ibis. Although many threatened birds are not included in CITES appendices, three non-threatened parrot species are listed on CITES appendix

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II to regulate their trade.

Mammals

Madagascar has reduced mammal diversity due to high extinction rates during the last 2000 years. Numerous large to medium-sized mammals have become extinct, including about half of the known lemur species. A total of 204 (including introduced species) have been recorded, including 41 mammals since 2000. Lemurs comprise the most speciose group of mammals.

In the Southern Mikea region 32 mammals have been recorded, including the introduced species. With the exception of a few larger lemurs, the surviving mammal fauna in the region is mainly small, cryptic and nocturnal. Only two large true lemurs occur in the Toliara Region, and nowhere are they now abundant. Although the Ring-tailed lemur was previously (1958) recorded in the PK32 region, this species is now mostly absent and none were seen during the project surveys. A comprehensive lemur survey of the Fiherenana - Manombo Complex revealed the presence of eight lemur species, of which six were only recorded in the riparian and transitional forests of the Fiherenana and Manombo river valleys, while the spiny thicket at Ranobe contained only two mouse lemur (Microcebus species). All larger species had been extirpated by hunting in recent years.

Madagascan bats are poorly known, and 10 species were recorded during the Southern Mikea survey, with five occurring around Ranobe. No bat roost sites were recorded along the limestone escarpment edge near Ranobe, although similar caves along the Fiheranana River are known and another roost occurs in the Toliara region.

Lemurs are threatened by habitat destruction and poaching for the bushmeat trade, and contain one of the highest levels (91%) of threatened species in the world. All primates are included on CITES Appendix I. During the lemur survey of the PK32-Ranobe Protected Area, 8 species were recorded, including four Vulnerable species. Other threatened mammals in the region include the Trident-nosed bat (Vulnerable), Grandidier’s mongoose (Endangered) and the Narrow-striped Mongoose (Vulnerable). None of these species have been recorded in the project area.

SENSITIVE HABITATS

The Spiny Forest Ecoregion in southwestern Madagascar is a priority ecoregion. In the Ranobe Forest bands of different habitats lie roughly parallel to the coastline and the calcareous inland plateau. The area is considered of high biodiversity and an important wildlife corridor.

Forested habitats, i.e. dry deciduous forest, riparian forest, and Spiny forest, contain the greatest vertebrate faunal diversity. The conservation of forested habitats is a priority as they are subject to the greatest anthropogenic threats (slash-burn agriculture and charcoal production).

Bat roosts include caves and tree cavities. Registering of bat roosts, particularly caves, is an important step for bat conservation, and the Sept Lacs site near Toliara (23°30’29.1”S, 44°09’46.3”E, 150 m.a.s.l) should be registered and protected from development.

PROTECTED AREA NETWORK

National

In 2002 Madagascar had 46 legally protected areas (approximately 17 000km2 or 3% of the land area). Subsequently four new categories of protected area were created. Currently, under the Madagascar National Parks management there are over 50 protected areas in Madagascar divided into Strict Nature Reserves (IUCN category I), National Parks (IUCN category II) and Special Reserves (IUCN category IV).

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Regional

Regional initiatives to offer protection to various sites within the Ranobe region include:  Manombo-Fiherenana-PK32 Complex, Plan Ala Maiky (WWF 2002, 2003)  Manombo-Fiherenana riparian forest systems (WWF 2002)  Mikea-Fiheranana Forest Complex (Conservation International 1994, in Frontier- Madagascar 2005)

Additional private conservation initiatives in the region include:  SOPTOM Tortoise Village – inaugurated 16 April 2005 outside the village of Mangily-Ifaty.  Renalia Private Game Reserve, Ifaty, Toliara District (23˚07’22.5”S, 43˚37’13.8”E; 40masl)..

Important Bird Areas in south west Madagascar; include:  MG064 - Mikea Forest (22°18'S 43°28'E)  MG065 - Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park (22°37'S 44°49'E)  MG066 - Analavelona Forest (22°39'S 44°10'E)  MG067 - Saint Augustin Forest (23°34'S 43°48'E)  MG068 - Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve (23°41'S 44°35'E)

None fall in the Ranobe region.

The Fiherenana - Manombo Complex

This complex comprises the Southern Mikea / Mikea Sud, Toliara forest and PK32 – Ranobe. It has long been recognised as a conservation priority area and forms part of the South Mangoky centre of micro-endemism.

The site is the focus of a World Wildlife Fund (WWF) initiative to establish an IUCN Category V protected area, as part of the Système des Aires Protégées de Madagascar (SAPM, Madagascar Protected Area System). An Arrêté de Protection Temporaire (n° 21482-2008) was granted on 2 December 2008. This decree granted temporary protected status to an area of 77,851 ha centred on the Mikoboka Plateau. WWF continue to seek to extend the limits of this protected area. The Permit area and proposed transport links to the Fiherenana River lie within or adjacent to the area.

IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Summary of Project Options to be assessed

Current Land Use Impacts of current land use practices were assessed. Of the 7 impacts identified, 3 were considered to be of very high negative significance, 1 was considered to be highly negative and 3 of moderate negative significance.

Direct Impacts Associated with Mining

In addition, the potential impacts from the proposed mining activities were evaluated. Of the 9 impacts identified, 1 was considered to be of high significance, 6 were considered to be of moderate significance and 1 was considered to be of low significance.

Impacts from Production Transport Route and MSP Site

Lastly, impacts associated with the haul road, pipeline and MSP options were assessed.

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Haul Road

Mineral products produced at a Mineral Separation Plant (MSP) must be transported for export from either a new purpose built jetty or the Port of Toliara. If the MSP is located at the mine (Option MSP1), a new haul road is to be constructed to transport final products from the mine to the dedicated storage facility for export via a nearby purpose built jetty. If the MSP is located at the existing port quay the haul road will be used to transport HMC from the mine site to the north bank of the Fiherenana River and also to return waste products to the mine site. Three alternative routes are being considered for this road:

 Haul Road Option 1 (red): the old Toliara track, which is an existing route that follows a network of existing tracks and will require substantial upgrading;  Haul Road Option 2 (purple): an alternative route very similar to road option 1 but which takes a more direct route to the Fiherenana River; and  Haul Road Option 3 (green): a more coastal route that lies adjacent to settlements and associated fields.

Choice of Option 3 will limit disturbance to the sensitive spiny forest as it passes adjacent to settlements and degraded fields. Choice of Options 1 and 2 will expand existing tracks in sensitive habitat, and also allow greater access to the forest with a possible increase in unsustainable natural resource extraction.

Mineral Separation Plant (MSP)

Two alternative locations are being considered, as follows:

MSP 1: At the mine site. MSP 2: At the Port of Toliara quay.

For MSP 1 products will be trucked to a new jetty north of Toliara. In this option products are transported completely by truck. As heavy trucks cannot pass through the town a new jetty and transport linkages will need to be constructed through the extensive sand dune habitat to the north of Toliara bay. The ilmenite products will be reclaimed from the sheds and bulk loaded, via conveyor belts, onto the vessels docked at the jetty. The zircon/rutile concentrate will be either loaded into containers at the new jetty and transported to the Toliara Port Quay for loading onto container vessels or loaded into bulk vessels using the same infrastructure as for ilmenite.

For MSP 2 the HMC will be trucked to a transfer station near Belalanda, pumped via a high pressure slurry line across the Fiherenana River, and then via various pipeline options onto the MSP at the Port of Toliara.

Pipeline options

Pipelines are only required for the MSP 2 option. The three pipeline routes are:

1. A route around Toliara town, approximately 14km long. 2. A route along the coast, bypassing Toliara but passing through saline groundwater. 3. A more direct route to the coast north of Toliara and then underwater across the lagoon to the quay

Options 2-3 would require additional sophisticated corrosion control measures.

The various project options summarized above were divided into three separate components for assessment of their associated impacts:

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 System 1 Haul Road  System 2 MSP  System 3 Pipeline Routes

Although this division does not fit well with the description of the two options, as the two options involve three different systems that have different impacts, this division was required for the faunal assessment.

For each system the various components of the project can be expected to impact the fauna in different ways and/or with differing intensities. The various systems and options are discussed below under the same impact. The impacts were reviewed under three Key Issues, including: Loss of Biodiversity, Habitat Impacts and Operational Impacts.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

It is evident that current land use has had a significant impact on faunal biodiversity and ecological functioning in the area. Although amphibian and reptile diversity remains relatively unaffected by the extensive habitat destruction, significant effects on birds and mammals already exist. Impacts on birds and mammal diversity already range from moderate to high. In the absence of rapid socio-economic upliftment of human communities in the region, these impacts will continue to grow. This will lead to further faunal loss and extensive ecological disruption that will not be easily repairable in the long-term.

Impacts associated with the Current Land Use Impact

Loss of Amphibian Diversity Moderate Loss of Reptile Diversity Moderate Loss of Bird Diversity Moderate Loss of Mammal Diversity Very High Habitat Loss Very High Habitat Fragmentation Very High Introduction of Alien Fauna Moderate

The project actions resulting from the proposed Mine may have low to high environmental impact on faunal biodiversity and ecological functioning in the area. Only amphibian and reptile diversity remains relatively unaffected by the extensive habitat destruction. Existing impacts on birds and mammal diversity already range from moderate to very high, and will continue to rise. The Mine actions will involve further faunal losses and ecological disruptions that will range from LOW to MODERATE, many of which with suitable mitigation can be reduced to LOW significance.

Impacts associated with Mining Impact After mitigation

Loss of Faunal Diversity Moderate Loss of Species of Special Concern Moderate Introduction of Alien Fauna Moderate Habitat Loss Moderate Habitat Fragmentation Moderate Dust Levels Low Fire Risk Low Chemical Pollution Low Noise Pollution Low

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All the major infrastructure associated with the development of the mine site will negatively impact the terrestrial fauna. These impacts can only be partially mitigated.

Haul Road options

The impacts of greatest significance are associated with the Haul Road options, particularly Options 1 and 2. This is due to the extensive habitat loss and fragmentation associated with the construction phase and the building of a new haul road through the Ranobe Spiny Forest region. This will have direct consequences for the loss of general biodiversity and Species of Special Concern, and indirect consequences resulting from the disruption to faunal movements and the increased likelihood of introduced alien fauna. During the operational phase of the mine the heavy road traffic will result in ongoing mortality to fauna and Species of Special Concern. The traffic will also result in increased pollution (dust, chemical and noise) as well as an increased fire risk. Most of these impacts can only be partially mitigated.

Impacts associated with the Haul Road options Impact After mitigation Option1 Option 3 and 2 Loss of general biodiversity High High Loss of Species of Special Concern High High Threats to Animal Movements High Moderate Introduction of Alien fauna Moderate Moderate Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss High High Increased dust levels High Moderate Increased Fire Risk Moderate Moderate Chemical Pollution Moderate Moderate Noise Pollution Moderate Moderate

The major consideration for Option 3 is that this will limit the amount of disturbance to the spiny forest as it occurs adjacent to settlements and degraded habitats. Options 1 and 2 involve the substantial upgrade of the Toliara track. Although this is already a barrier to migration for animals, its upgrade would create a more substantial barrier through the middle of the spiny forest, with significant loss and increased fragmentation of habitat in a proposed protected area. It would also allow the possibility of greater access to the forest for local people therefore increasing the risk of greater unsustainable resource extraction, particularly the loss of habitat associated with charcoal production.

For the Haul Road, Option 3 is currently preferred based on the outcome of this study as it will have the least impact on habitat fragmentation. A possibility to further reduce the impacts of the haul road would be to monitor or prohibit access to the protected habitat in the central degraded area (where haul roads 1 and 2 are proposed) and consider rehabilitating this area as part of a biodiversity offset strategy. However, it should be noted that the surrounding communities are heavily reliant on the resources in this area and it may therefore be difficult to implement this over a large area.

Mineral Separation Plant Options

Both options are associated with significant impacts. Location of MSP1 at the mine means less road transport to move the export products extracted from the HMC. However, the additional infrastructure associated with this option lies in a region of sparsely vegetated dunes adjacent to an extensive area of sensitive mangrove habitat and the proposed transport linkages and development of the jetty may negatively impact this area.

In Option MSP 2 HMC is transported to the Port of Toliara, and has less associated infrastructure.

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However, greater volumes of road traffic between the mine and the transfer station at the Fiherenana River are required. There are additional risks associated with pipelines traversing mangrove and underwater habitats.

Impacts associated with the Mineral Separation Plant options Impact After Mitigation MSP1 MSP2 Loss of general biodiversity High High Loss of Species of Special Concern High High Threats to Animal Movements Moderate High Introduction of Alien fauna Moderate Moderate Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss Moderate Moderate Increased dust levels Moderate Moderate Increased Fire Risk Moderate Moderate Chemical Pollution Moderate Moderate Noise Pollution Moderate Moderate

Increased faunal mortality will occur during the operational phase in option MSP2. For this reason the Mineral Separation Plant Option MSP1 is preferred.

Pipeline options

In all options the pipeline is buried or (option 3) lies underwater. In options 2 and 3 the pipeline traverses highly corrosive environments. In all options the slurry first crosses the Fiherenana River, with potential of accidental discharge of slurry into the river, with resultant impacts. In all options the greatest faunal impacts will occur during the construction phase. All impacts during the construction phase can be partially mitigated, and are of Moderate or Low significance. However, they compound the other impacts associated with the preferred option MSP2. For the Pipeline Options 2 and 3 are equally preferred.

Impacts associated with the Pipeline options Impact After mitigation 1 2 3 Loss of general biodiversity Moderate Moderate Moderate Loss of Species of Special Concern Moderate Moderate Moderate Threats to Animal Movements Moderate Moderate Moderate Introduction of Alien fauna Moderate Moderate Moderate Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss Moderate Moderate Moderate Increased dust levels Low Low Low Increased Fire Risk Moderate Moderate Moderate Chemical Pollution Moderate Moderate Moderate Noise Pollution Moderate Moderate Moderate

Recommendations

All recommendations made in the sections on ‘Mitigation and management’ in the individual impact assessments should be implemented and incorporated into the Environmental Management Plan.

It is also recommended that:  To prevent cumulative environmental impacts, particularly in sensitive habitats, it is preferable that the present project be integrated into regional planning with surrounding projects in association with Madagascan conservation authorities.  Damage to sensitive habitats during ongoing and future survey work and site development must be avoided as far as possible. This is particular important where new roads are developed as they rapidly lead to strip development and increased resource extraction (e.g. charcoal production).

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 The development of fire breaks around all project infra-structure.  Short, fire-resistant vegetation cover should be established to avoid erosion and siltation into drainage lines.  The chemical control of unwanted vegetation with herbicides, and pests animals with insecticides should be fully controlled and be in accordance with national controls of banned substances.  Access to all mine areas should be controlled, and all resource extraction controlled and documented, and remain in accordance with sustainable off-take.  The sale and use of unsustainable extracted resources (e.g. charcoal sourced from areas not cleared for mining) in all mine facilities should be prohibited.  Environmental education of local communities should highlight the negative and unsustainable impacts resulting from large-scale bush clearance, excessive removal of hardwoods for charcoal production and timber, and un-necessary use of fire in the dry season to generate livestock grazing.

The site is the focus of a World Wildlife Fund (WWF) initiative to establish an IUCN Category V protected area, as part of the Système des Aires Protégées de Madagascar (SAPM, Madagascar Protected Area System). An Arrêté de Protection Temporaire (n° 21482-2008) was granted on 2 December 2008. This decree granted temporary protected status to an area of 77,851 ha centred on the Mikoboka Plateau. WWF continue to seek to extend the limits of this protected area. The Permit area lies adjacent to the area and proposed transport links to the Fiherenana River lie within the area.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Project Background ...... 1 1.2 Terms of Reference ...... 2 1.3 Consultant ...... 2 2. METHODOLOGY ...... 3 2.1 Primary data ...... 3 2.2 Secondary data ...... 3 2.3 Species of Special Concern ...... 3 2.4 Assumptions and Limitations ...... 4 3. FAUNAL DIVERSITY ...... 5 3.1 National Biodiversity ...... 5 3.2 Regional Biodiversity ...... 5 3.3 Amphibians ...... 5 3.3.1 National Diversity ...... 5 3.3.2 Regional Surveys ...... 6 3.3.3 Amphibians of the Project site ...... 6 3.3.4 Threatened Amphibians ...... 6 3.4 Reptiles ...... 7 3.4.1 National Diversity ...... 7 3.4.2 Regional Surveys ...... 7 3.4.3 Reptiles of the Project site ...... 7 3.4.4 Threatened Reptiles ...... 8 3.5 Birds ...... 12 3.5.1 National Diversity ...... 12 3.5.2 Regional Surveys ...... 12 3.5.3 Birds of the Project site ...... 12 3.5.4 Threatened Birds ...... 13 3.6 Mammals ...... 14 3.6.1 National Diversity ...... 14 3.6.2 Regional Surveys ...... 14 3.6.3 Mammals of the Project site ...... 16 3.6.4 Threatened Mammals ...... 16 4. SENSITIVE HABITATS ...... 18 4.1 National and Regional context ...... 18 4.1.1 Forested Habitats ...... 18 4.1.2 Bat roosts ...... 18 5. PROTECTED AREA NETWORK ...... 19 5.1 National ...... 19 5.2 Regional ...... 19 5.3 The Fiherenana - Manombo Complex ...... 20 6. IMPACT ASSESSMENT ...... 22 6.1 Introduction ...... 22 6.2 Impacts Associated with Current Land Use ...... 22 6.2.1 Key Issue 1: Loss of Biodiversity ...... 22 6.2.2 Key Issue 2: Habitat Impacts ...... 25 6.3 Direct Impacts Associated with Mining ...... 28 6.3.1 Key Issue 1: Loss of Biodiversity ...... 29 6.3.2 Key Issue 2: Habitat Impacts ...... 31 6.3.3 Key Issue 3: Operational Impacts ...... 33 6.4 Impacts from Product Transport and MSP location ...... 36 6.4.1 Haul Road ...... 36 6.4.2 Mineral Separation Plant (MSP) ...... 38

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6.4.3 Pipeline options ...... 40 6.4.4 Issues and Impacts associated with various Project options ...... 41 6.4.5 Key Issue 1: Loss of Biodiversity ...... 41 6.4.6 Key Issue 2: Habitat loss and fragmentation ...... 54 6.4.7 Key Issue 3: Operational Impacts ...... 57 7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 68 7.1 Current Land Use ...... 68 7.2 Mining Activities ...... 68 7.3 Product Transport and MSP locations ...... 69 7.3.1 Haul Road options ...... 69 7.3.2 Mineral Separation Plant options ...... 70 7.3.3 Pipeline options ...... 70 7.4 Recommendations ...... 71 8. REFERENCES ...... 72 9. APPENDICES ...... 78

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Location of the Toliara Sands Project comprising the M-M area and the Ranobe Permit Area ...... 1 Figure 5.1: The Fiherenana-Manombo Complex showing vegetation cover and underlying geology, as well as the study locations and the proposed limits of PK32 - Ranobe as of February 2009 (from Gardner et al. 2009) ...... 21 Figure 6.1: Haul Road routes from the mine to MSP ...... 37 Figure 6.2: Infrastructure for MSP 1 ...... 39 Figure 6.3: Alternative pipeline routes ...... 40

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Project area Reptiles of Conservation Concern (IUCN Red List 2012) ...... 11 Table 7.1: Impacts associated with the Current Land Use ...... 68 Table 7.2: Impacts associated with Mining ...... 68 Table 7.3: Impacts associated with the Haul Road options ...... 69 Table 7.4: Impacts associated with the Mineral Separation Plant options...... 70 Table 7.5: Impacts associated with the Pipeline options ...... 71

Coastal & Environmental Services xii Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Background

World Titanium Resources Ltd (WTR) plans to mine the Ranobe mineral sand deposit comprising a large mineral sands resource containing the heavy minerals ilmenite, rutile and zircon located north of the Port of Toliara in south-west Madagascar. It is planned to extract these minerals with dry mining operation, feeding directly into a slurry transport unit, which pumps mineralised sand to the Primary Concentrator Plant (PCP). This mining methodology is preferred as it will reduce the amount of water required and reduced electrical power requirement sufficiently that it can be generated by diesel engines. The Stage 1 mining operation will take up to twenty years and will cover a total area of about 455 hectares. However, at any one time only a small part- around 10– 35ha - of the deposit will be exposed, in which mining will comprise the following stages:

 Clearing existing vegetation  Removing and stockpiling topsoil ahead of the mine path for later continuous replacement during rehabilitation.  Excavating mineralised sand with front-end loaders.  Transferring the mineralised sand to a slurrying plant.  Slurrying (mixing with water) the mineralised sand.  Pumping the slurry to the PCP.  Backfilling the mined areas with sand tailings from the PCP and Mineral Separating Plant (MSP) as mining progresses.  Rehabilitating the backfilled areas by replacing topsoil and replanting with trees / crops.

Inclusion of a detailed project description was not considered necessary as this is provided in Chapter 4 of the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Report (ESIAR).

Figure 1.1: Location of the Toliara Sands Project comprising the M-M area and the Ranobe Permit Area

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1.2 Terms of Reference

The specific terms of reference on which the 2007 baseline report was prepared were as follows:

1. Undertake detailed surveys that assess the diversity of amphibian, reptile, bird and mammal species in the Toliara region. 2. Describe new species or occurrences. 3. Assess the habitat preferences of vertebrates and use these habitat preferences to assess the presence and abundance of vertebrate species. 4. Discuss Red Data Book species and other species of special concern. 5. Identify sensitive habitats and vertebrate species. 6. Discuss existing impacts on the various populations. 7. Determine the water dynamics within the wetlands, moist grasslands and swamps, in order to comment on the impact of mining, road building, urbanisation, etc., to water availability and water quality for maintaining amphibian populations. 8. Assess the likely impact on tadpole development due to changes to turbidity levels in the mining area and adjacent drainage areas. 9. Assess the impacts arising from the loss of Dry Deciduous Thicket, secondary savanna and baobab forest on faunal species (birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians). This is important as habitat loss is one of the major threats to faunal diversity in Madagascar. 10. Assess the adjacent vegetation types of the Ranobe Forest area and the limestone plateau in the east, as potential host sites for displaced faunal species. This investigation should also establish the level of protection afforded to important habitats in and around the project area in order to accurately evaluate the significance of potential habitat loss from mining. 11. In addition the study must assess the effects of any secondary infrastructure that will be developed to enable the mine to function, on the fauna of the region. 12. Provide comments on the conservation and biodiversity importance of the area in a regional, national and international context.

The following report is designed to:

1. Comment on current trends and changes in faunal biodiversity, by reviewing available faunal data, literature and reports prepared in the past five years and to update the 2007 report accordingly. 2. Specifically assess the impacts of the revised project and new infrastructure such as the haul road options, the pipeline options and the jetty, on local fauna.

1.3 Consultant

Prof. W.R. Branch (CV in Appendix 1) prepared the earlier faunal reports (Branch 2002, 2007) for the region and undertook the current overview and update.

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2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 Primary data

Additional field surveys to re-assess faunal diversity in the region subsequent to the last report (Branch 2007) were considered unnecessary by the client. Details of the original survey methodology and results can be found in Branch (2007).

Branch (2007) forms the primary data for this review. A previous review of the fauna of the Toliara Sands mining option (Branch 2002), undertaken during the Prefeasibility phase, extended from Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa, 60 km south of the mouth of the Onilahy River, to the Mangoky River in the north, and extending inland to the 44°E meridian (Branch 2002). The current review is similar to that of Branch (2007) and is mainly restricted to the area covered by the mine site and associated infrastructure for transportation of mine products. This footprint extends from the Marombe River in the north to the lower Onilahy River valley approximately 20km south of Toliara, and inland to the limestone escarpment. Discussion of the fauna in the wider ‘Spiny Forest’ ecoregion, however, is included where relevant to the conservation of affected taxa.

2.2 Secondary data

The findings of Branch (2007) were upgraded by reference to subsequent published literature and to online sources (documented in the following text and summarised in References). Particular focus is given to the recent IUCN conservation assessment of Madagascan reptiles and amphibians (individually cited), and detailed faunal surveys of the southern Mikea region (Frontier –Madagascar 2005), and relevant avifaunal (Kidney & Thomas 2006b; Gardner 2009), herpetofaunal (Mikea, Thomas & Kidney 2006b; Toliara, Gardner & Jasper 2009; lower Onilahy River valley, d’Cruze et al. 2009), and mammals (Thomas & Kidney 2006a), particularly lemur (Gardner & Jasper, 2009; Gardner et al. 2009) surveys in the region.

This review incorporates knowledge presented in Branch (2007), synthesized with new findings, to produce a stand-alone report.

2.3 Species of Special Concern

Species of Special Concern (SSC) may fall into different categories, including:

 Sensitive species - Taxa that are endemic to either the Deciduous Thicket and Forest or the study region will be potentially most affected by local developments. Other species may be considered important ‘keystone’ species for ecosystem functioning, whilst others may have cultural or economic significance  Threatened species - Numerous species are listed in the IUCN Red Lists (www.iucnredlist.org), with most faunal groups being the subject of recent re-assessment; amphibians, Andreone et al., 2008; reptiles 2010-11 (see individual citations); birds (Birdlife 2008), and lemurs 2012 (see individual citations).  Species in International Trade - CITES is the Convention for Trade in Endangered Species, of which Madagascar is a signatory (1975). Species may be listed on various appendices of CITES (http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html), which regulates their international trade. Appendix II species are considered the most endangered and are subject to stringent import and export controls. Although a number of Madagascan species are listed in CITES appendices, there remains controversy as to whether this offers adequate protection to threatened groups, e.g. chameleons (Carpenter, 2006).

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2.4 Assumptions and Limitations

This updated assessment is based only on published data. Potential threats, particularly those relating to ongoing habitat loss and degradation unrelated to the proposed mine development have not been directly validated in the field.

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3. FAUNAL DIVERSITY

3.1 National Biodiversity

Madagascar is one of the greatest tropical wildernesses left on Earth and home to some of its most spectacular wildlife. The island is home to 250,000 species, 5% of the world’s diversity, and more than 70% are endemic to Madagascar. The island is one of eight important global biodiversity hotspots owing to its unique biota and the high degree of threat to its natural habitats (Ganzhorn et al. 2001, Mittermeier et al. 2005, Tyson 2001).

Although Madagascar has been the centre of tremendous biological interest during the last quarter of the 20th Century, detailed knowledge of the faunal biodiversity in the region is still hampered by unresolved taxonomic problems and poor sampling in many areas. This is exemplified by the discovery of 615 new species on the island in the new millennium (1999-2010). The new finds comprise 385 plants, 42 invertebrates, 17 fish, 69 amphibians, 61 reptiles and 41 mammals (Thompson 2011). Moreover, the use of sophisticated molecular analysis and increased taxon sampling have all revealed high levels of cryptic diversity in groups such as amphibians (Vietes et al. 2009), reptiles (Nagy et al. 2012), ants (Smith et al. 2005), mouse lemurs (Yoder et al. 2000), and long-tailed tenrecs (Olsen et al. 2004). It is thus evident that the biodiversity of Madagascar is exceptional, and that knowledge of its full faunal diversity remains poorly documented, even in relatively well-known regions.

3.2 Regional Biodiversity

The Madagascar spiny thickets or spiny desert of southern Madagascar, also referred to as deciduous thicket, is a globally distinctive ecoregion with the highest proportion (95%) of plant endemism in Madagascar. Members of the endemic Didiereaceae family dominate the thicket, which have similar xeric adaptations to New World cacti. The ecoregion is home to six species of primates representing four of the five endemic Madagascar families, including the charismatic ring- tailed lemur or maki (Lemur catta), Verreaux’s sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi), and the regionally endemic Microcebus griseorufus. Several endemic animals are restricted to the dry south of Madagascar including the recently described Grandidier’s mongoose (Galidictis grandidieri) and the Madagascar radiated tortoise or sokake (Astrochelys radiata). The forests are rapidly disappearing and becoming fragmented by charcoal production, agricultural expansion (for maize and cattle grazing), and wildfires associated with the generation of new cattle pastureland.

Previously, few detailed regional faunal surveys had been published for the region, and much of that was reviewed in the inventory of the southern Mikea region (Frontier–Madagascar 2005) and in Branch (2007). Additional information is now available following recent avifaunal (Gardner 2009; Gardner et al. 2012), herpetofaunal (Toliara, Gardner & Jasper 2009; lower Onilahy River valley, d’Cruze et al. 2009), and lemur (Gardner & Jasper, 2009; Gardner et al. 2009) surveys in the region (see below).

3.3 Amphibians

3.3.1 National Diversity

A total of 238 amphibian species were known from Madagascar at the end of 2007 (Adreone et al. 2008). The use of sophisticated taxonomic analysis and wide-spread biodiversity sampling has resulted in an estimated 250% increase in Madagascan amphibian diversity since 1991. However, a subsequent review of the known amphibian diversity of Madagascar, using comprehensive genetic, morphological, and bioacoustic datasets, reported even higher numbers of undescribed amphibian species (Vietes et al. 2009), such that up to possibly 465 species may be present; an increase of 95% ! This diversity is unparalleled and would make Madagascar one of the top five most diverse countries on the planet for amphibians. The extent of our ignorance concerning the full amphibian fauna of Madagascar was highlighted in the recent report of Goncalo et al. (2012) on

Coastal & Environmental Services 5 Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013 surveys of the Betampona Nature Reserve (2,228 hectares) in eastern Madagascar, when 76 frog species were discovered, of which nearly half (36) were unknown to science.

3.3.2 Regional Surveys

The Spiny Forest ecosystem falls in a semi-arid region with consequent low amphibian diversity. Only six amphibian species were discovered during an intensive herpetological survey in the northern Mikea Forest, including Ptychadena mascareniensis, Laliostoma labrosum, Boophis tephraeomystax, Scaphiophryne brevis, S. calcarata, and Heterixalus luteostriatus (Raselimanana, 2004). All of these, except Heterixalus luteostriatus and Boophis albilabris occidentalis (Manombo), Mantella expectata and Mantidactylus curtus (Fiherenana), were recorded during the herpetofaunal survey of the Ranobe Forest region (Thomas and Kidney, 2005a). The richest local amphibian fauna (7 species) occurred in association with patches of riparian forest in the Fiherenana River, with only four species (Ptychadena mascareniensis, Laliostoma labrosum, Boophis tephraeomystax and Scaphiophryne brevis) recorded from the Ranobe Lake region. A detailed herpetofaunal survey of wetland habitats associated with the lower Onilahy River valley, D’Cruze et al. (2009) over five 10-week periods again recorded only six amphibians

3.3.3 Amphibians of the Project site

Only two common species (Laliostoma labrosum and Ptychadena mascareniensis) were encountered during the faunal survey (Branch 2007), as most summer breeding frogs had completed reproduction and already dispersed at the time. The Madagascan grass frog (Ptychadena mascareniensis) occurs throughout the region and is common in wetlands and lake margins at Ranobe and Belalanda. The relationships of populations from Madagascar to those from the African mainland remain confused and under investigation (Vences et al., 2004). The large burrowing ranid, Laliostoma (previously Tomopterna) labrosum is widely distributed in western Madagascar. It inhabits varied habitats and was found at Ifaty.

3.3.4 Threatened Amphibians

Most amphibians in the Mikea region are wide-ranging species, some adapting well to human disturbance. Of the eight species recorded in the study region none are strictly endemic, and only one is considered threatened.

Mantella expectata, Endangered B1ab(iii,v) ver 3.1 This species is endemic to a small region in south-western Madagascar, and known from many sites within the Isalo Massif, either within or outside the Parque Nacional de Isalo (at 700-1,000m asl). Recent surveys have shown it to be distributed more widely than was once thought. It ranges from Grotte des Portugais and Amparambatomavo, south in a thin band to Ambatovaky and Sakavato. It has been recorded from a number of localities in the Mikea region, i.e. Fiherenana on the Mikoboka Plataeu, and from Manombo on coastal sands (Thomas and Kidney 2005a). The species is sometimes locally abundant in suitable habitat, and where present it may occur in high densities. It is usually found around seasonal streams, and in wet canyons where it is usually associated with narrow gallery forest. Neither of these habitats occur in the area to be directly impacted by project developments. Trade in this species needs to be very carefully regulated, and the populations require close monitoring. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. (Andreone et al. 2012)

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3.4 Reptiles

3.4.1 National Diversity

As with other components of Madagascar's biota, there is a high level of endemism of reptiles. Approximately 92% of the non-marine species of Madagascan reptiles (i.e. excluding sea turtles and sea snakes) are endemic to the island, and many of them are furthermore micro-endemic to very small ranges (Vences et al. 2009). By 2007, around 370 nominal species of reptiles were known from Madagascar (Glaw & Vences 2007). Due to intensive and integrative taxonomic work in the last 20 years, this number is continuously growing, and since 2007 another 23 new species have been described, bringing the total number of nominal species of reptiles from Madagascar up to 393 at present (Nagy et al. 2012). Even this figure, however, is incomplete, as Nagy et al. (2012), using a DNA-barcoding methodology on Madagascan reptiles revealed 41–48 new candidate (undescribed) species.

3.4.2 Regional Surveys

Reptiles (tortoises, turtles, snakes, geckos, chameleons, skinks and other lizards) are an important component of the Deciduous Thicket and Forest fauna, as they are in many arid areas. Early studies on reptiles in the region were undertaken by Domergue (1983), who recorded 21 species of lizard, nine snakes, and three tortoises and turtles from the transect PK32 (Point Kilometrique 32, also called Baobab Road). A provisional survey of the reptile fauna of the Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa revealed 39 species (Goodman et al., 2002). Raxworthy (1995, in Seddon et al., 2000) recorded 49 species for the Mikea Forest. Only 44 species were recorded in the forest north of the Manombo River by Raselimanana (2004). This included 23 lizards, one tortoise and 20 snakes, the latter including a new species of Liophidium. A fuller survey in the Ranobe Forest on the southeastern shores of Lake Ranobe (D’Cruze and Sabel, 2005), based on long-term trapping over a two year period, increased the reptile diversity to 59 species (37 lizards, 19 snakes and three chelonians). This formed one of the sites inventoried during the Ranobe Forest biodiversity survey (Frontier-Madagascar, 2005).

The snake fauna of the Ranobe Forest is relatively well-known although the taxonomy, status and distribution of a number of small, nocturnal burrowing snakes needs further study. New taxa may still await discovery, e.g. a new Liophidium was collected during the survey of the northern Mikea Forest (Rasilimanana, 2004). Phylogeographic analysis of genetic structure within Madagascan boas revealed deep genetic divergence between eastern and western populations of the tree boa (Sanzinia madagascariensis). Western populations, including those in the Ranobe Forest, are referred to as a new subspecies, Sanzinia. m. volontany (Vences and Glaw, 2003). Other poorly- known species include the burrowing species Liophidium apperti, which was once feared extinct due to habitat destruction (Raxworthy, 2003), but has recently been rediscovered in both the northern Mikea (Raselimanana, 2004) and Ranobe Forest (Thomas and Kidney, 2005a). Snakes are specialist predators taking a diversity of prey types. Highest snake diversities occur in habitat mosaics with varied prey. In a detailed and prolonged reptile survey in the PK32 region, the Ranobe area was found to contain the highest reptile diversity in the region (Thomas and Kidney, 2005a).

3.4.3 Reptiles of the Project site

A brief field survey concentrated mainly in the proposed Mine Site area to the east of Lake Ranobe (Branch 2007) revealed 23 lizards, six snakes and a tortoise present, over 50% of the expected reptile fauna in the region. Two endangered tortoises reach their northern limit in the Toliara Region. The ‘sokatra’ or radiated tortoise (Astrochelys radiata) is a large, attractively patterned species that once occurred in high densities throughout the southern parts of South west Madagascar. The smaller spider tortoise (Pyxis arachnoides) occurs in lower densities and in disjunct populations throughout South west Madagascar (Bour, 1981).

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In the survey of the Lower Onilahy River Valley, D’Druze et al. (2009) recorded 55 reptile species, of which 10 were considered regional endemics, including Geckolepis cf petiti, Lygodactylus tuberosus, Paroedura androyensis, Phelsuma standingi, Tracheloptychus madagascariensis, Androngo trivittatus, Voeltzkowia fierinensis, Liophidium trilineatum, Madagascarophis ocellatus and Astrochelys radiata. Gardner & Jasper (2009) summarized the urban herpetofauna of Toliara, recording three amphibians and nine reptiles. Of the latter, three were chameleons and sex geckos, with only a single snake – the introduced, parthenogenetic blind snake Ramphotyphlops braminus, which has been recorded from numerous urban areas in tropical and semitropical regions.

3.4.4 Threatened Reptiles

The majority of reptiles in the region are endemic to Madagascar, and many are also rare and regional endemics. Threats to reptile diversity in the region arise mainly from habitat loss and fragmentation, but some groups are specifically targeted. Madagascar chameleons were once collected in large numbers for export to the international pet trade (Brady & Griffin 1999). However, this trade is now regulated and subject to export quotas. As a result of concerns over this trade CITES intervened in 1994 and official exports were capped at approximately 20,000 chameleons per annum. Carpenter et al. (2005) have discussed the history of CITES actions, and mixed success of the Experimental Management Programme (EMP) for chameleon trade. With the recent conservation assessment of Madagascan chameleons, the export quota for Furcifer antimena was reduced from 1174 specimens to zero (Darwin 2011).

The following reptiles in the region are listed as threatened in the IUCN Red List 2012 (summarized in Table 3.1):

 Furcifer belalandaensis. Critically Endangered (B1ab(iii,v) A small chameleon known only from two localities near sea level (18-20 m), Belalanda and Sakabera, both in spots of riparian forest on the northern banks of the middle reaches of the Fiherenana River (Raxworthy 1995; Tyson 2001). It is known only from an extremely small area (extent of occurrence likely to be within the region of 4 km²). The native habitat in this area has been largely converted, and the non-indigenous habitat in which the species occurs is being lost due to logging for charcoal (Adreone et al. 2011a)

 Furcifer labordi. Vulnerable B1ab(iii) This species is restricted to the west and south west of Madagascar, at low elevation sites (between 20 and 100 m above sea level) with remaining forest cover. It has been recorded from the Mikea forest in southwestern Madagascar (Karsten et al. 2008). It has an unusual life cycle, with the entire population in the southwest growing to sexual maturity in less than a year, dying soon after egg laying, and the next generation hatching from eggs after the austral winter (Karsten et al. 2008). The patchy distribution of, and the severe human pressures placed on, remaining suitable habitat within this species' range suggests the population is both declining and severely fragmented. It occurs within the boundary of the Réserve Spéciale d'Andranomena, Parc National Mikea and Parc National Kirindy Mitea in the west, as well as in the PK32-Ranobe Protected Area in the Atsimo Andrefana Region (Andreone et al. 2011c).

 Furcifer tuzetae. Data Defficient. This large chameleon is known only from a single specimen from Andrenalamivola, near Ambiky, in the Toliara Region (Glaw and Vences, 1994). Suitable habitat extends for several thousand square kilometres along the Mangoky River, and this area has not been the subject of sufficient survey work to reliably establish whether this chameleon persists in the area. It is noted that the species is in urgent need of further survey work to determine whether it still persists at the type locality or in nearby localities, and to establish whether it should be listed in a threatened category (Andreone et al. 2011).

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 Phelsuma standingi Vulnerable (B1ab(iii,v) This small gecko has experienced significant loss and degradation of its habitat due to human activities including land clearing for agricultural uses such as cattle grazing and slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming, logging and charcoal production (Seddon et al. 2000). It is also collected for the international pet trade. It inhabits dry forest and thornbush in southwestern Madagascar (Raxworthy & Vences, 2010).

 Phelsuma breviceps Vulnerable B1ab(iii) A small gecko that is endemic to southern Madagascar, where it is known from a few sites, including Toliara, Anakao, Antabore, Tongaenoro, Efoetse, Itampolo, Mikea, Tsimanampetsotsa and Vohombe. All known sites are between sea level and 120 m in elevation. The first record north of Toliara on the coast of the Mike forest was recorded by Gardner & Jasper (2010), indicating the species may have a wider distribution than previously known. It occurs in arid coastal scrub, often on Euphorbia stenoclada, but it also uses small trees and sisal (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is threatened from cattle grazing, charcoal production and land clearance for agriculture (Bora et al. 2011a).

 Paroedura maingoka Near Threatened This small gecko is endemic to Madagascar where it is known from a few localities in the southwest of the island: at Ampanihy, Itampolo, Tsimanampetsotsa (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 2000), Vohombe and Efoetse (Raselimanana et al. 2005). All known sites are between 20 and 160 m in elevation. It has a known extent of occurrence of 7,564 km². Surveys of nearby forests in western Madagascar have so far failed to detect this species. This species occurs in Tsimanampetsotsa National Park. More research is needed into the distribution of this species and its ability to survive in forests subjected to timber extraction for charcoal production (Bora el a. 2011b).

 Ebenavia maintimainty Endangered B1ab(iii) A small gecko considered threatened by its small extent of occurrence (2,604 km²) and continuing decline in the quality and extent of its habitat (Bora et al. 2011c). The gecko is endemic to Madagascar and known from several localities in the southwest, at Tsimanampetsotsa (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998), Efoetse (Raselimanana et al. 2005) and Itampolo (R. Nussbaum unpublished data) between sea level and 100 m asl. It is a rock specialist in dry limestone spiny bush (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998), where it is active at night on the ground and shelters under dead trees during the day (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998).

 Liophidium apperti. Data Deficient The taxonomic status of this small colubrid snake remains problematic, and it was once considered extinct (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1987). However, Raxworthy and Nussbaum (2000) report collecting similar snakes in southern Madagascar, and suggested that the species was neither extinct nor confined to Befandrina-sud. It was recently recorded in both the northern (Raselimanana 2004) and southern Mikea (Thomas & Kidney 2005a). Its conservation status remains unknown, pending a taxonomic revision.

 Astrochelys radiata Critically Endangered A4d Radiated Tortoises are found in the dry spiny forests of southern and southwestern Madagascar, from the area of Amboasary in the south across the Karimbola and Mahafaly plateaus north of Toliara (where the habitat is highly fragmented and tortoises may be close to extinction) to Morombe. They are usually found in a narrow band about 50 to 100 km from the coast (Glaw and Vences 1994, Leuteritz et al. 2005). The species' core range comprises about 10,000 square km, with the Menarandra and Manambovo rivers as major barriers to the dispersal for tortoises. Threats to the tortoise’s survival include habitat loss and collection. The latter occurs for the international wildlife trade and for utilization (mainly food) by local people, which is the greater concern. Although the Mahafaly and the Antandroy, whose land covers the range of the Radiated Tortoise, consider tortoise meat

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taboo ('fady'; Lingard et al. 2003), large quantities of tortoises are gathered by people from other areas of Madagascar who recently moved into this region. O’Brien et al. (2003) estimated that up to 45,000 adult Radiated Tortoises are harvested each year. The species is protected nationally under Malagasy law (Decree 60126; October, 1960) and is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Four protected areas and three additional sites (Lac Tsimanampetsotsa National Park 43,200 ha, Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve 67,568 ha, Cap Sainte Marie Special Reserve 1,750 ha, Andohahela National Park 76,020 ha, and Berenty Private Reserve 250 ha, Site of Biological Interest – (1) Hatokaliotsy 21,850 ha and (2) PK3 north of Tulear 12,500 ha) fall within the range of this species. A captive breeding centre (Village de Tortues de Mangily) was established in Ifaty. Due to the rapidly declining wild populations the species has recently been upgraded to Critically Endangered (Leuteriz & Rioux Paquette 2008).

 Pyxis arachnoides Critically Endangered A4cd The Spider Tortoise is found only in the arid region of the coastal areas of southwestern Madagascar, from the coast up to 10-50 kilometres inland going as far north as Morombe (Glaw and Vences 1994, Henkel and Schmidt 2000). It is found in a number of disjunct populations, and phylogeographic studies indicate genetic divergence between these populations. It has been recommended that these populations be managed as separate conservation entities (Chiari et al. 2005). Three subspecies are currently recognized, with the typical race (Pyxis arachnoides arachnoids) occurring in the region of the Onilahy River in southwestern Madagascar near Toliara, and the subspecies P. a. brygooi occurring in the southern Mikea region, with a range from Morombo to Toliara. It was observed in Spiny Forest (PK32) during the survey (Branch 2007). Although previously considered Endangered (IUCN 2001, Branch 2007), increasing and accelerating habitat loss (estimated to be of over 50% the next generation if current trends continue) has led to the species being placed in the highest threat category (Leuteriz & Walker 2008). Population modeling predicts the species' extinction in 60 to 80 years, with the northern subspecies (P. a. brygooi) subject to the most severe pressures and considered to require priority conservation action (Leuteriz & Walker 2008). This species is nationally protected under Malagasy law (Decree 60126; October, 1960), and listed in Appendix I of CITES. A captive breeding centre (Village de Tortues de Mangily) was established in Ifaty.

 Matoatoa brevipes Vulnerable B1ab(iii) A gecko known from various localities along the southwest Madagascar coast, including Ambolisaka near Morombe (Nussbaum et al. 1998), Tsivanoa near Belalanda (Nussbaum et al. 1998), Ranobe (Nussbaum et al. 1998), Mikea (Raselimanana 2008) and Tsimanampetsotsa (Nussbaum et al. 1998). It has also been reported from Cap St. Marie at the southern tip of the island (Raxworthy et al. pers. comm. January 2011). This species has a habitat extent of 16 833 km². The major threats identified for this species is slash and burn practises for the cultivation of maize. In addition to this, trees within the habitat extent, utilized as refuge, are used for the production of charcoal.

 Trachylepis dumasi Vulnerable B1ab(iii) A lizard endemic to Madagascar known from few localities in the south of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007) and a number of locations in the west Bemaraha (Raselimanana 2008, Bora et al. 2010). This species has a habitat extent of 15,400 km² (based on the combined distributional extent of known subpopulations). The native habitat in this area has been largely converted, primarily for charcoal production and clearing for agriculture. The effect of these activities on this species is currently unknown.

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 Voeltzkowia petiti Near Threatened ver 3.1 A lizard known from only a few localities (<10), with an extent of occurrence less than 1 449 km2. There is currently no evidence that the extent and quality of this lizard’s habitat, its distributional extent, the number of locations or mature individuals are declining. However, there is a possible future risk from mining activities (especially if mining expands into the lizard’s habitat range) that may warrant listing this species in a threatened category under Criterion B1ab(iii).

 Tracheloptychus petersi Vulnerable B1ab(iii) A lizard endemic to Madagascar known from few localities in the southwest of the island (Glaw and Vences 2007). Reported sites for this species include Itampolo, Tranomaro, Behara, Ifotaka, and Beheloka, between 15 and 225 m elevation (Raselimanana et al. 2005), and at Mikea between 50 to 70 m (Raselimanana 2008), as well as at Ankatrakatra Forest near Tampolo West (H. Rakotondravony pers. comm January 2011). This species has a habitat extent of 7 345 km². The native habitat in this area is being cleared for agriculture (rice and maize), charcoal production, and heavy mineral mining.

 Zonosaurus quadrilineatus Vulnerable B1ab(iii) ver 3.1 A lizard endemic to the southwest region of Madagascar known from only few localities (5- 10). This species has a habitat extent of 3 300 km² and even though its elevational range is uncertain, it is known to occur close to sea level.

 Furcifer antimena Vulnerable B1ab(iii) ver 3.1 A chameleon endemic to the southwest region of Madagascar. This species has a habitat extent of 6 310 km² which has experienced very high rates of forest loss, and as a result the population is severely fragmented.

 Lycodryas inornatus Vulnerable B1ab(iii) ver 3.1 A snake endemic to several sites in the southwest region of Madagascar. This species has a near-coastal habitat extent of approximately 16 300 km².

Table 3.1: Project area Reptiles of Conservation Concern (IUCN Red List 2012) Furcifer belalandaensis Critically Endangered Furcifer labordi Vulnerable Furcifer tuzetae Data Deficient Phelsuma standingi Vulnerable Phelsuma breviceps Vulnerable Paroedura maingoka Near Threatened Ebenavia maintimainty Endangered Liophidium apperti Data Deficient Astrochelys radiata Critically Endangered Pyxis arachnoides Critically Endangered

The threatened status of two endemic boas, the Madagascan tree boa (Sanzinia madagascariensis) and Dumeril’s ground boa (Acantrophis dumerili), both found during the Lake Ranobe survey (D’Cruze and Sabel, 2005), has been downgraded, Both were previously listed as Vulnerable (IUCN Red List 2006, Branch 2007), and are subject to international trade and listed on Appendix I of CITES. Re-assessment of their conservation status has led to both being considered of Least Concern (Ramanamanjato et al. 2012; Rafanomezantsoa et al. 2012), although more information on their ecology in the wild is needed. Moreover, further studies on populations of both species are required to assess their taxonomic status, particularly that of the race Sanzinia. m. volontany, which may represent a full species subject to any presently unknown threats (Rafanomezantsoa et al.2012).

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3.5 Birds

3.5.1 National Diversity

The avifauna of Madagascar is relatively depauperate and although 283 birds are recorded from the island, only 209 are breeding residents (Langrand, 1990; Sinclair & Langrand, 2003; Schlenberg, 2003; Goodman & Benstead 2005). It has been estimated that the island has 150-200 (40-50%) fewer bird species than would be predicted for its land area, but the reasons for this discrepancy are obscure and there is debate as to whether the apparent mass-extinction of birds in Madagascar was induced by human impact or climate change (Goodman & Benstead 2005). Although the elephant birds became extinct, there is little subfossil bird material to support a similar mass-extinction in the avifauna to that in other groups, e.g. lemurs.

Although bird species diversity may be low in Madagascar, the avifauna comprises an exceptional number of endemic genera, as well as five endemic bird families and two endemic subfamilies. Over 50% of breeding birds are endemic. Of the 30 endemic genera of passerines currently recognized on Madagascar, up to 18 are monotypic and 7 more contain only two species (Schulenberg, 2003). The endemic Madagascan bird fauna, including non-passerines, shows a similar general pattern of predominantly very small genera, a scarcity of speciose ones, and a low level of congeneric sympatry. Simply stated, the terrestrial avifauna comprises an unusual mixture of small endemic radiations (e.g. vanga, mesites, etc.), and single representatives of common African genera (e.g. coucal, cisticola, wagtail, etc.). This suggests that the Malagasy avifauna retains the imprint of very ancient radiations, but does not explain why more of these African lineages have not speciated. Either there was only a low rate of speciation following the ancient radiations that followed early colonizing events, or the pattern indicates a high rate of recent extinctions on Madagascar (Schulenberg, 2003).

3.5.2 Regional Surveys

The coastal areas, and wetlands and lakes in the Toliara Region contain important habitats for flamingos, waterfowl and waders, including winter feeding grounds for large numbers of Palaearctic waders (Goodman et al., 2002). Kidney & Thomas (2005a), in a year-long survey in the region, recorded 124 birds during the Southern Mikea survey, of which 99 were recorded from the Ranobe region, including both the subdesert mesite (Monias benschi) and long-tailed ground roller (Uratelornis chimaera), but not red-shouldered vanga (Calicalicus rufocarpalis). Their species accumulation curves, particularly for the Fiheranana River, show discrete steps that reflect marked seasonal differences between species diversity at the sites (Kidney & Thomas 2005a). A survey of the Ambondrolava mangrove complex north of Toliara (Gardner et al. 2012) recorded 69 bird species, of which 14 were endemic to Madagascar and a further 13 endemic to the Madagascar region. One species, Nesillas lantzii was endemic to the South Malagasy spiny forest ecoregion, and two were globally Vulnerable (Birdlife 2011, the Madagascan Plover (Charadrius thoracicus) and Madagascan Harrier (Circus macrosceles).

3.5.3 Birds of the Project site

Nearly 80 species of bird were observed in the Toliara Region during the prefeasibilty survey (Branch 2002) and more than half were endemic to Madagascar (45) and nine endemic to the Deciduous Forest and Thicket ecoregion. In a subsequent survey (Branch 2007), 87 bird species were recorded, which compared favorably with 93 species (45 breeding, 40 endemic) recorded for the northern Mikea Forest (Seddon et al., 2000) and 74 species (48 endemic) in the Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa (Goodman et al., 2002), especially as the survey was undertaken during a single season. During the project surveys (Branch 2002, 2007), no birds were found out of their known ranges (Sinclair & Langrand 2003), although Kidney & Thomas (2005a) recorded three extralimital species in the Southern Mikea region, i.e. Madagascar blue pigeon (Alectroenas madagascariensis), blue vanga (Cyanolanius madagascariensis) and rufous vanga (Schetba rufa). It is unknown whether these represent vagrants or constitute permanent range extensions for the species.

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In a multi-seasonal, four site, detailed survey of the PK32-Ranobe proposed protected area, Gardner et al (2009) recorded the presence of 124 bird species, including 56 Malagasy endemics and 8 species endemic to the southern ecoregion. Bird diversity at each site ranged from 53 to 99, with differences mainly explained by wetland bird diversity. The survey of the Ambondrolava mangrove complex north of Toliara (Gardner et al. 2012), which recorded a total of 69 bird species, included 32 birds not recorded during the project surveys, including:

Darter (Anhinga melanogaster) Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minutes) Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) Striated Heron (Butorides striatus) Black egret (Egretta ardesiaca) Dimorphic egret (Egretta dimorpha) Great egret (Ardea alba) Grey heron (Ardea cinerea) Hammerkop (Scopus umbretta) Greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) White-faced whistling duck (Dendrocygna viduata) Hottentot teal (Anas hottentota) Madagascar harrier (Circus macrosceles) Sooty falcon (Falco concolor) Madagascar buttonquail (Turnix nigricollis) White-throated rail (Dryolimnas cuvieri) Allen’s gallinule (Porphyrula alleni) Grey plover (Pluvialis squatarola) Greater painted snipe (Rostratula benghalensis) Ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula) Madagascar plover (Charadrius thoracicus) Ruddy turnstone (Arenaria interpres) White-fronted plover (Charadrius marginatus) Common sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos) Greater sand plover (Charadrius leschenaultia) Curlew sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea) Wimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) Namaqua dove (Oena capensis) Alpine swift (Apus melba) Madagascar lark (Mirafra hova) Madagascar manikin (Lonchura nana) Madagascar nightjar (Caprimulgus madagascariensis)

Together these surveys document nearly 130 bird species recorded in the project area.

3.5.4 Threatened Birds

The Deciduous Thicket and Forest of SW Madagascar hosts only about 40 endemic Madagascan birds, but eight are endemic to the ecoregion and another two live only in the drier habitats of the island (Nicoll and Langrand 1989, Stattersfield et al. 1998). The latter include the Madagascar plover (Charadrius thoracicus) that is near-endemic to the Deciduous Thicket and Forest, but is also found along the west coast into other ecoregions. Birds endemic to the Deciduous Thicket and Forest include Verreaux's coua (Coua verreauxi), running coua (Coua cursor), Lafresnaye’s vanga (Xenopirostris xenopirostris), red-shouldered vanga (Calicalicus rufocarpalis), Archibold’s newtonia (Newtonia archiboldi), and littoral rock-thrush (Monticola imerinus). Most of these endemics have quite restricted geographical ranges, and the recently described red-shouldered vanga, is known only from the Toliara region (Goodman et al. 1997, Hawkins et al. 1998).

 Madagascar Grebe (Tachybaptus pelzelnii) Vulnerable The species was not recorded in the project area (Branch 2007, Gardner et al. 2009, 2012). Gardner et al. (2009) consider that this “…may be indicative of a worrying national population trend.” And that the endemic species’ distribution may have contracted and the population decreased due to competition with the Dabchick (Tachybaptus ruficollis).

 Long-tailed ground roller (Uratelornis chimaera) Vulnerable This ground bird is endemic to the dry spiny forest and restricted to a narrow coastal strip (originally 30-60 km wide and 200 km long) in south-western Madagascar. The species' population is suspected to have declined at a moderate rate, in line with the loss of habitat (BirdLife International 2012). The species has been recorded from the project area (Branch 2007, Gardner et al. 2009).

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 Subdesert mesite (Monias benschi Vulnerable This small bird is restricted to the same region as the previous species. It is suspected that due to habitat loss a population decline of over 30% is possible over the next three generations. Predation by dogs and trappers occurs, and introduced rats Rattus may pose a threat, at least locally (BirdLife International 2012). The species has been recorded from the project area (Gardner et al. 2009).

 Madagascar crested ibis (Lophotibis cristata) Near Threatened Considered to be locally common by Sinclair & Langrand (2003) but not encountered during the project survey (Branch 2007), rarely encountered during the Southern Mikea survey (Kidney & Thomas 2005a), and only observed at Monombo in the PK32-Ranobe extensive avifaunal survey. (Gardner et al. 2009). It is known to be under pressure from local hunting (Kidney et al. 2005).

A number of wetland birds are of conservation concern (BirdLife International 2012), including:  Humboldt’s heron (Ardea humbolti, Endangered), locally recorded only in the Fiherenana River (Kidney & Thamas 2005a, Gardner et al. 2009).  Madagascar plover (Charadrius thoracisus, Vulnerable), recorded at Ifaty during the project survey (2007), at Belalanda and Ranobe lakes (Kidney & Thomas 2005a, Gardner et al. 2009), and Ambondrolava mangrove complex (Gardner et al. 2012).

Many birds listed as threatened in the Red List 2006 are not included in CITES appendices, including Madagascar grebe (Tachybaptus pelzelnii), Humboldt’s heron (Ardea humboldti), Madagascar pond heron (Ardea idae), Red-shouldered vanga (Calicalicus rufocarpalis), Long- tailed ground roller (Uratelornis chimaera), and Subdesert mesite (Monias benschi). All three aquatic birds (grebe and herons) are rare in the southwest, and only Humboldt’s heron has been observed (Fiherenana) recently in the southern Mikea region (Kidney & Thomas 2005a). Conversely three parrot species, i.e. Greater Vasa parrot (Coracopis vasa), Lesser Vasa parrot (Coracopis nigra) and Grey-headed lovebird (Agapornis cana) are included on CITES appendix II to regulate their trade, but are widespread in Madagascar (all observed during the present survey and by Kidney & Thomas 2005a) and not considered threatened.

3.6 Mammals

3.6.1 National Diversity

Despite its large size, Madagascar has very reduced mammal diversity as the original mammal fauna was greatly impacted by high extinction rates during the last 2000 years. Numerous large to medium-sized mammals have become extinct, including about half of known lemur species. Mittermeier et al. (1997) listed only 112 mammal species in Madagascar, however subsequent studies have increased this number. Goodman & Beanstead (2005) recorded 101 non-volant mammals and 30 bats, whilst a total of 204 (including introduced species) have been recorded, now including 46 bats of which 35 are endemic (Mammals_of_Madagascar, 2012). Between 1999 and 2010 a total of 41 mammals were described, including lemurs (Craul et al. 2007, Tattersall 2007, Lei et al. 2008, Mittermeier et al. 2008), bats (e.g. Bates et al, 2006; Goodman et al. 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012), and even carnivores (Durbin et al. 2010). Lemurs comprise the most speciose group of the mammal fauna of Madagascar, making it the only ‘continental’ mammal fauna to be dominated by primates. The larger, diurnal and colourful species have become ‘flagships’ for conservation in Madagascar.

3.6.2 Regional Surveys

During a comprehensive mammal survey, involving trapping, line transects and mist netting in the Southern Mikea region (Thomas & Kidney 2005b), 32 mammal species were recorded, including the introduced rodents Rattus rattus and Mus musculus, feral cats (Felis silvestris), and bush pig

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(Potamochoerus larvatus). With the exception of the larger lemurs, the surviving mammal fauna in the Mikea region is mainly small, cryptic and nocturnal.

Only two large true lemurs (Lemuridae, i.e. Lemur catta and Eulemur rufifrons) occur in the Toliara Region, and nowhere are they now abundant. In addition to this, the Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) and Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) are recorded from the Mikea forest (Seddon et al., 2000) and Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa (Goodman et al., 2002), but in neither locality were they common. Domergue (1983) noted the presence of the Ring-tailed lemur in the PK32 region, but this species is now mostly extirpated in the region and none were seen during the project survey (Branch 2007). Workers at the Pilot Plant site recorded that distant calls of lemurs were occasionally heard, but that they were now very shy due to continued hunting pressure. During the Southern Mikea survey (Thomas & Kidney 2005b) the larger lemurs were only observed in isolated riparian forest patches along the Manombo and Fiherenana rivers, and were absent from the Ranobe region. Gardner et al. (2009) conducted the first comprehensive lemur survey of the Fiherenana - Manombo Complex (Atsimo - Andrefana Region), site of PK32-Ranobe Protected Area. The survey revealed the presence of eight lemur species (seven genera and four families), of which three were diurnal and five nocturnal. Six species were only recorded in the riparian and transitional forests of the Fiherenana and Manombo river valleys, while the spiny thicket at Ranobe contained only two mouse lemur (Microcebus species). All larger species had been extirpated by hunting in recent years, and the rarity and probable loss of Ring-tailed lemurs in the region was noted. Two records, Mirza coquereli and Cheirogaleus sp., represent new range extensions.

Rasoloarison et al. (2000) reviewed the systematics of mouse lemurs (Microcebus) in western Madagascar and demonstrated at least seven species in the region, whereas previously only two had been recognized. On the basis of specimens with locality data, Rasoloarison et al. (2000) concluded that Microcebus griseorufus occurs in a broad region of south-western Madagascar from at least Lamboharana, south to the Toliara region, and southeast to Beza Mahafaly. Thomas & Kidney (2005b) recorded two mouse lemur species (M. griseorufus and M. murinus) from Ranobe during the Southern Mikea survey. Population densities in spiny forest around Ranobe were markedly higher (up to 1078 individuals/km2) than in riparian forest habitats (Thomas & Kidney 2005b).

The smaller, nocturnal weasel or sportive lemurs (Lepilemur sp,) have been recorded from the Toliara Region. The White-footed sportive lemur (Lepilemur leucopus) is restricted to the southern part of the Deciduous Thicket and Forest. It was not recorded from Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa (Goodman et al., 2002), and therefore is unlikely to reach the Toliara Region. Seddon et al. (2000) referred observations of a Lepilemur sp. in the northern Mikea Forest to this species, but recent surveys record only the red-tailed sportive lemur (Lepilemur ruficaudatus) in the forest (Ganzhorn & Randriamanalina 2004).

Bats are the poorest known of Madagascan mammals (Goodman et al. 2005). A number of bat species have been described from limestone caves in the Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa (Goodman, 2002), including Triaenops furculus, T. rufus, Hipposideros commersoni, Miniopterus manavi and Tadarida jugularis. Ten bat species (two mega chiropterans and 8 microchiropterans) were recorded in the region during the Southern Mikea survey, with five occurring around Ranobe (Thomas & Kidney 2005b). No bat roost sites were recorded along the limestone escarpment edge near Ranobe, although similar caves along the Fiheranana River are known to shelter bats (Thomas & Kidney 2005b), and Emmett et al. (2003) record a roost in the Toliara region.

The taxonomic diversity of Madagascar’s indigenous rodents is concentrated in the eastern regions, and only eight species in four genera were recorded in the western part of the country (Carleton, et al., 2001). The low rodent diversity in the region seems real, and not a consequence of poor sampling. Goodman et al. (2002) recorded only one indigenous rodent (Macrotarsomys bastardi) in Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa, as well as two introduced species. Recent studies in the northern Mikea Forest have confirmed this low rodent diversity (Soarimalala & Goodman 2004), although a new species of Macrotarsomys was discovered (Goodman &

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Soarimalala 2005). No new species were discovered during the small mammal survey of the Southern Mikea (Thomas & Kidney 2005b).

Carnivores in Madagascar are represented by only eight species of viverids (genets, mongoose, etc.), placed in four endemic genera. The largest endemic carnivore is the cat-sized Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), a solitary, nocturnal hunter, widely distributed on the island but that has been affected by both habitat destruction and persecution. It is recorded from Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa (Goodman et al., 2002), northern Mikea Forest (Seddon et al., 2000; Soarimalala & Goodman 2004), and Southern Mikea (Thomas & Kidney 2005b).

3.6.3 Mammals of the Project site

Very few mammals were observed during the project survey, and these included the common tenrec (Tenrec ecaudatus, observed at both PK32 and Toliara) and the Long-eared dwarf tenrec (Geogale aurita), observed at PK32 and Ranobe forest.

3.6.4 Threatened Mammals

Lemurs, a group of primates that is endemic to the island of Madagascar, are threatened by habitat destruction and poaching for the bushmeat trade. The most recent IUCN workshop to assess the conservation status of the lemurs of Madagascar (Conservation International 2012) found alarming population declines and increasing threats to this charismatic group. Of the 103 different species of lemur, 23 (on 10 in 2005) were now considered ‘Critically Endangered’, 52 were ‘Endangered (21 in 2005), 19 were ‘Vulnerable (17 in 2005)’ and two were ‘Near Threatened’. Just three of 103 lemur species were listed as ‘Least Concern’! The reassessment found that 91% of all lemurs were now threatened, with nearly 1 in 4 being Critically Endangered. All primates are included on CITES Appendix I. During the lemur survey of the PK32-Ranobe Protected Area, Gardner et al. (2009) recorded eight species, including four Vulnerable species (Mirza coquereli, Propithecus verreauxi, Lemur catta and Lepilemur sp.) and one Data Deficient (Cheirogaleus sp.) species.

Bats are eaten by people throughout Madagascar and although the larger species like Pteropus rufus, Eidolon dupreanum, Rousettus madagascariensis and Hipposideros commersoni are preferred, small insectivorous bats are also eaten. As Jenkins & Racey (2008) have noted, bat bushmeat may be an important source of protein for Malagasy people during periods of food shortage but in general there is little data on the socio-economic and cultural importance of bats or on their sustainable exploitation. The issue is further complicated by the threat of pathogen transfer from bats to people, which is of growing concern as more bat species are identified as vectors of emergent viral diseases (Jenkins & Racey 2008). The Trident-nosed bat (Triaenops furculus) roosts in caves in Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa (Goodman et al., 2002) and is listed as Vulnerable but not included in CITES appendices, presumably because of the lack of international trade in bats. It was not recorded during the project survey (Branch 2007), or that of the Southern Mikea (Thomas & Kidney 2005b). Two fruit bats (Eodolon dupreanum and Pteropus rufus) are widespread in Madagascar, with the former rarer in the humid east. Both are extensively hunted by local people and the latter is listed in CITES (Appendix II) to regulate its international trade.

 Grandidier’s mongoose (Galidictis grandidieri) Endangered B1ab(i,ii,iii,v); C2a(ii) Athough not described until 1986 (Wozencraft, 1986), the first two specimens had been collected much earlier (the second in 1925). At the time of its description the species was feared extinct. However, studies in Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa in 1989 revealed the mongoose to be very common (Wozencraft, 1990). It has not been observed in the northern Mikea Forest (Seddon et al., 2000; Soarimalala & Goodman 2004), Southern Mikea (Thomas & Kidney 2005b), or elsewhere in the Toliara Region. Subfossils have been identified from a cave near Itampolo, south of Lake Tsimanampetsotsa (Goodman 1996). As the species has a small range (less than 500 km²), and there is a continuing decline in its range and density due to habitat degradation compounded by predation by non-native predators, it is listed as Endangered. The total population is estimated at 2500-3500

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individuals, with all individuals confined to the area around Lac Tsimanampetsotsa. It is found in dry spiny tropical forest from the edge of the Mahafaly Plateau north and further south to near the Linta River.

 Narrow-striped Mongoose (Mungotictus decemlineata) Vulnerable B1ab(ii,iii,v) This species is endemic to the dry decidous forests of the central and southern Menabe regions of western Madagascar from sea level to about 125 m asl. It is found between the Tsiribihina River in the north to south of the Manombo River (Razafimanantsoa 2003; Goodman et al. 2005). The precise southern limits of the range of the nominate subspecies remain unclear (Woolaver et al. 2006), but it does not extend south of the large Mangoky river, a significant biogeographical boundary. The status of the southern race (Mungotictus decemlineata lineata) requires urgent attention (Hawkins 2012b). Only the second recorded specimen was recently collected (November 2004) in a forest patch on the Manombo River as it passes through the limestone escarpment to the north of the Mine site (22˚48.352’S, 043˚44.912’E) (Goodman et al. 2005). It was not recorded during the project survey, or from additional sites in the Southern Mikea (Thomas & Kidney 2005b), although forest on the limestone escarpment was poorly sampled during both surveys. Further surveys for, and studies on, this very rare carnivore are considered essential (Frontier-Madagascar 2005).

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4. SENSITIVE HABITATS

4.1 National and Regional context

The Spiny Forest Ecoregion in southwestern Madagascar, one of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) priority ecoregions, includes some of the biologically richest drylands on Earth. The dominant landform features of the Ranobe Forest region are the bands of different habitats that lie roughly parallel between the coastline in the west and the calcareous plateau in the east. A dry deciduous forest, dominated by tall Adansonia za, lies on this escarpment, with Spiny forest occurring on the sandy plains towards the coast. There is also a rich variety of wetland habitats, and narrow strips of riparian forest along both the Manombo and Fiherenana rivers. These are considered areas of high biodiversity and function as important wildlife corridors.

4.1.1 Forested Habitats

Forested habitats, i.e. dry deciduous forest, riparian forest, and Spiny forest, contain the greatest faunal diversity in all vertebrate groups, but particularly birds, mammals and reptiles. For all faunal groups riparian forests contained the most species (see Table 3.2, Branch 2007), and a number of locally and regionally endemic reptile taxa occur in these forests (Raxworthy 1995, Thomas et al. 2005). The conservation of forested habitats is a priority as it is these habitats that are subject to most environmental threats (slash-burn agriculture and charcoal production).

In one of the few studies on Malagasy rainforest carnivores, the Fossa appears to be particularly sensitive to forest disturbance, and it was absent from fragmented rainforests (Gerber et al 2012), and is unlikely to survive in Madagascar’s open, human-dominated landscapes (Kotschwar, 2010). Gerber et al. (2012) identified only two protected areas in Madagascar that may maintain >300 adult Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), the minimum requirement for long-term survival of a population. Neither was in the project region. The presence of the broad-striped mongoose (Galidictis fasciata) was positively related to fragment size, whereas that of ring-tailed mongoose (Galidia elegans elegans) was negatively associated with increasing exotic wild cat (Felis spp.) activity. They (Gerber et al 2012) concluded that degraded and fragmented rainforests will not sustain viable populations of Malagasy carnivores, and that there is an urgent need to consolidate and reconnect forest tracts.

4.1.2 Bat roosts

Bat diversity in Madagascar is high and new species continue to be discovered (e.g. Goodman et al. 2012). Bat roosts are often vulnerable sites for bat conservation, as they are used regularly for shelter as well as breeding. They may use a variety of roosting sites in western Madagascar, including caves (Kofosky et al., 2006) and tree cavities (Andriafidison et al. 2006).

Emmett et al. (2003) record a roost in the Toliara region, in an area locally known as the Sept Lacs. It occurs in a pothole on the limestone plateau in an area of dry spiny forest (23°30’29.1”S, 44°09’46.3”E, 150 m. a.s.l), and was inhabited by three hipposiderine bat species (Old World leaf- nosed bats) including the restricted range species Triaenops rufus and Triaenops furculus, as well as the more widespread Hipposideros commersoni (the latter may only be a vagrant or a seasonal visitor). Although the IUCN (2002) Red List included T. furculus as Vulnerable due to predicted population decline through habitat loss, the species has recently been downgraded to Least Concern (Andrisfidison et al. 2011). Triaenops rufus is Data Deficient.

Registers of cave roosts are an important step towards developing national management plans for bat conservation (Mickleburgh, Hutson & Racey, 2002), and the Sept Lacs site should be registered and protected from development. Oolson et al. (2006) noted that local people capture bats from the roost to eat, whilst tourist also occasional visit the site. The potential impacts of these actions should be monitored.

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5. PROTECTED AREA NETWORK

5.1 National

Madagascar had 46 legally protected areas in 2002 that comprised approximately 17 000km2 or 3% of the island’s land area (Randrianandianina et al., 2003). In 2003, the fifth World’s Park Congress was held in Durban, South Africa. During the meeting, Madagascar’s then president, Marc Ravalomanana, recognized the value of protecting the country’s unique natural heritage and stated his commitment to a national conservation plan that would triple the amount of protected area coverage (the ‘Durban Vision’). This resulted in the creation of four new categories of protected area: Natural Parks (IUCN category II), Natural Monuments (IUCN category III), Protected Landscapes (IUCN category V), and Natural Resource Reserves (IUCN category VI). Currently, under the Madagascar National Parks management (MNP formerly known as ANGAP = Association Nationale pour la Gestion des Aires Protégées), there are over 50 protected areas in Madagascar divided into Strict Nature Reserves (IUCN category I), National Parks (IUCN category II) and Special Reserves (IUCN category IV) (Mittermeier et al. 2005).

5.2 Regional

Regional initiatives to offer protection to various sites within the PK32 region are summarized in Frontier-Madagascar (2005). These sites include:

 Complex Manombo-Fiherenana-PK32, Plan Ala Maiky (WWF 2002, 2003)  Manombo-Fiherenana riparian forest systems (WWF 2002)  Mikea-Fiheranana Forest Complex (Conservation International 1994, in Frontier- Madagascar 2005)

Additional private conservation initiatives in the region include:

 SOPTOM Tortoise Village (Village du Tortue, Daniel Ramamphiherika (contact via [email protected]) – inaugurated 16 April 2005 outside the village of Mangily-Ifaty)  Renalia Private Game Reserve, Ifaty, Toliara District, Madagascar (23˚07’22.5”S, 43˚37’13.8”E; 40masl). This small patch of Spiny forest is privately protected opened in 2000 and is an ecotourism venture directed principally at bird tours to view the local endemics, particularly the long-tailed ground roller (Uratelornis chimaera) and subdesert mesite (Monias benschi). The reserve staff report approximately 20 bird tourists per day during the best period (September-October). The reserve staff reported that the NPNR protected approximately 16 long-tailed ground rollers and “many” subdesert mesite. The reserve is unfenced and subject to resource harvesting of plants and wood.

A number of Important Bird Areas occur in South west Madagascar, although none fall in the PK32 region; they include:

 MG064 - Mikea Forest (22°18'S 43°28'E)  MG065 - Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park (22°37'S 44°49'E)  MG066 - Analavelona Forest (22°39'S 44°10'E)  MG067 - Saint Augustin Forest (23°34'S 43°48'E)  MG068 - Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve (23°41'S 44°35'E)

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5.3 The Fiherenana - Manombo Complex

This complex comprises the Southern Mikea / Mikea Sud, Toliara forest and PK32 - Ranobe, and has long been recognised as a conservation priority area (Domergue 1983, Nicoll and Langrand 1989, Ganzhorn et al. 1997, ZICOMA 1999, Seddon et al. 2000). Forming part of the South Mangoky centre of micro - endemism (Wilmé et al. 2006), the area lies to the north of the regional capital of Toliara (Atsimo Andrefana Region) on Madagascar’s southwest coast, stretching between the Fiherenana River to the south and the Manombo River to the north. It is bordered to the west by the Mozambique Channel, and extends to the eastern edge of the Tertiary limestone Mikoboka Plateau (Figure 5.1).

Gardner et al. (2009) note:

“Since 2005 the site has been the focus of a WWF – promoted initiative to establish an IUCN Category V protected area within the Système des Aires Protégées de Madagascar (SAPM, Madagascar Protected Area System). A co–management model was proposed for the future Protected Area (PA), and the inter-communal association MITOIMAFI created to regroup the eight rural communes that would be implicated in the proposed PA into a community co-management structure. A Demande de Protection Temporaire (request for temporary protection) for a protected area of 287,350 ha was submitted by WWF in 2007, but due to conflicts with three mining concessions or exploration areas, an Arrêté de Protection Temporaire (n° 21482-2008 / MEFT / MAEP / MEM / MRFDAT) was not granted until 2 December 2008. This decree granted temporary protected status to an area of 77,851 ha centred on the Mikoboka Plateau, composed almost entirely of spiny thicket on limestone habitat. As of January 2009 WWF are seeking to extend the limits of this protected area to include additional habitats not included within the Arrêté de Protection Temporaire(Anitry N. Ratsifandrihamanana, pers. com.).

The vegetation of the reserve is broadly classified as ‘southwestern dry spiny forest-thicket’ (Moat and Smith 2007), and distinct sub-types can be recognised growing on coastal dunes, rufous sands and limestone (Figure 5.1). There is also a transitional forest between the southwestern dry spiny forest-thicket and the western dry forest that lies to the east of Ranobe (P. J. Rakotomalaza, pers. com., in Gardner et al. 2009). Riparian forests occur in the Fiherenana and Manombo river valleys, and wetland complexes exist at Ranobe (freshwater) and Belalanda (brackish), adding to the habitat diversity that the proposed reserve would protect.

The new protected area of PK32 – Ranobe, covered by the Arrêté de Protection Temporaire (n° 21482-2008 / MEFT / MAEP / MEM / MRFDAT, Gardner et al. 2009) does not protect the full habitat diversity of the Fiherenana-Manombo Complex, as it does not include spiny thicket formations on red and white sand, and transitional forests, riparian forests and wetland habitats are not represented (see Figure 5.1). The spiny thicket on red sand in particular is considered very important for biodiversity (Domergue 1983, Nicoll and Langrand 1989, ZICOMA 1999, Seddon et al. 2000), and is the only habitat of two locally endemic, monotypic bird genera, the Subdesert mesite (Monias benschi) and Long-tailed ground roller (Uratelornis chimaera). Both are classified as Vulnerable (Birdlife 2012) and representatives of endemic bird families (Seddon et al. 2000).

The protected area of Pk32–Ranobe, within the Fiherananana-Manombo landscape, has exceptionally high levels of floral and faunal diversity as a result of the heterogeneous habitats. Gardner et al. (2009) highlighted the importance of the Fiherenana - Manombo Complex for conserving the lemur diversity of southwest Madagascar. They noted, however, that the limited size of the newly proclaimed PK32 – Ranobe Protected Area failed to conserve important elements of the lemur diversity in the region. The riparian forests of the Fiherenana and Manombo rivers were not included in the protected area, although the contained high lemur diversity (six and seven species, respectively). Sadly, this protected area is also the most threatened protected area of Madagascar, losing 5% of its forest cover annually.

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Figure 5.1: The Fiherenana-Manombo Complex showing vegetation cover and underlying geology, as well as the study locations and the proposed limits of PK32 - Ranobe as of February 2009 (from Gardner et al. 2009)

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6. IMPACT ASSESSMENT

6.1 Introduction

As required in the TOR, impacts resulting from the revised project and new infrastructure such as the haul road options, the pipeline options and the jetty, on the local terrestrial vertebrate fauna were specifically assessed. Impacts associated with existing land use (up to 2006) were reviewed earlier (Branch 2007), and are included below. As no fieldwork was undertaken for this assessment the current status of impacts associated with land use subsequent to 2006 could not be assessed. It has therefore been assumed that the current land use impacts are the same as they were in 2007, but in reality impacts have become more significant, as revealed from the vegetation surveys (see the Vegetation Specialist Study). Faunal impacts associated with the Mining Option reviewed earlier (Branch 2007) are summarised below.

6.2 Impacts Associated with Current Land Use

Current land use in the region comprises mainly of subsistence agriculture and natural resource harvesting, particularly of forest products such as wood (for construction and charcoal production), fruits and roots, and bushmeat. These land use practices are not conducted in a sustainable manner and have negative consequences for ecosystem functioning and biodiversity in the region. Current and previous agricultural practices have caused extensive loss and fragmentation of habitats and much of the proposed mining area is already severely impacted by long-term land use practices.

Kidney et al. (2005) noted that biological resources within the Ranobe Forest region were subject to severe pressures from multiple sources, including slash-and-burn agriculture, the harvesting of mature and semi-mature trees for use in charcoal production and extensive overgrazing by domestic cattle. These pressures, in combination with the poor fertility of the region’s soils, severely limit the potential for re-growth of cleared forest. The unsustainable extraction of resources is exacerbated by the close proximity of Toliara to the Ranobe forests. The large urban population of Toliara is dependent upon this resource extraction, particularly charcoal. This demand can be expected to increase as upgraded infrastructure associated with the mine development improves access between the areas. In addition to the existing pressure from rural communities, enormous additional demands on the area’s resources will arise from the economic incentive for increased levels of timber and charcoal extraction.

The existing impacts resulting from the current land use are discussed below. The mitigation and management of these impacts is beyond the scope of this review as their resolution is mainly dependent on socio-economic upliftment of local communities.

6.2.1 Key Issue 1: Loss of Biodiversity

A loss of faunal diversity in the region has already occurred. This is attributed to poor socio- economic development in the region, with a consequence that many people view wildlife as a traditionally exploitable resource. In addition, large-scale habitat destruction has resulted from a long tradition of rural farming. This is exacerbated by a need for wood for fuel and housing construction. Fiscal constraints on government infrastructure mean that the implementation of conservation or land use legislation in the area is ineffective. These factors have impacted on the vertebrate groups differently and the mitigation of many impacts can only be achieved by socio- economic development of the local populace in order to reduce its dependence upon environmental resources.

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Impact 1 – Loss of Amphibian Diversity

Cause and comment:

Current land use practices have had a relatively low impact on amphibians in the region because they are not greatly exploited. In addition amphibian diversity is low due to the region’s semi-arid nature. No amphibians in the region are known to have become extinct. Because of the general lack of water pollution or current levels of water abstraction, amphibian populations are unlikely to be significantly depressed relative to those in pristine conditions.

Significance statement:

Current land use has probably resulted in a low negative impact in the Study Area on amphibian diversity. However, without socio-economic development and with increasing human population this impact can be expected to deteriorate into the medium and long-term. Mitigation, via socio- economic upliftment, will probably maintain this as a low negative impact, although this is dependent upon the maintenance of water quality and availability. The long-term environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would rise to MODERATE due to increased desertification consequent on habitat loss.

Impact 1: Loss of Amphibian Diversity Spatial Scale Temporal Scale Certainty Severity Significance

Study Area Medium to Long Term Probable Moderate MODERATE-

Impact 2 – Loss of Reptile Diversity

Cause and comment:

Rural landscapes usually retain a modest diversity of reptiles, particularly lizards. However, due to the extensive human population in the region various pressures are leading to a decline in reptiles. These include the local relaxation of cultural fady against eating reptiles (with a consequence that tortoises are increasingly viewed as edible); the collection of many reptiles (particularly boas, geckos and chameleons) for the international pet trade; the killing of crocodiles, which are perceived as a danger to humans and livestock; and the increasing loss of habitat due to subsistence farming. Tortoise and crocodile populations in the region are known to have declined (Kuchling et al., 2003), and some species (radiated tortoise and Nile crocodile) are almost extinct in the region. The level of exploitation of reptiles, for food, commerce, or as perceived threat, in the region is unknown. Two shot crocodiles (1.22 and 1.56 m respectively) were found skinned and hanging from a fence next to a small lake near Belalanda, presumably killed by local people (B. Colloty pers. comm., Sept. 2006). The crocodiles appear to originate from the Fiherenana River.

Significance statement:

The loss of reptile diversity due to current land use has definitely resulted in a low negative impact in the Study Area. Populations of crocodiles and tortoises will only recover slowly and only with national protection. Sustainable exploitation of target species, such as certain chameleons and geckos is possible but requires active monitoring. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact will increase to MODERATE.

Impact 2: Loss of Reptile Diversity Spatial Scale Temporal Scale Certainty Severity Significance

Study Area Medium to Long Term Definite Moderate MODERATE-

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Impact 3 – Loss of Bird Diversity

Cause and comment:

Many groups of birds (e.g. ducks, ibis, couas, etc) are subject to increasing hunting pressures in the region. Kidney et al. (2005) noted that several species of forest bird were hunted by villagers at Ranobe, including coua (Coua spp.), crested guineafowl (Numida meleagris), and buttonquail (Turnix nigricollis). Even endangered species, such as Madagascar crested ibis (Lophotibis cristata), subdesert mesite (Monias benschi) and long-tailed ground roller (Uratelornis chimaera), were collected. Hunting of most species took place on a weekly basis (although couas may be hunted daily) using various methods (guns, rope/string traps and slingshots). Up to 20 individuals may be captured per day, although a usual catch is around ten individuals. Local hunters interviewed in the Ranobe region (Kidney et al., 2005) stated that numbers of the endangered subdesert mesite and long-tailed ground roller were much lower than in the past and that they would soon disappear. In addition, several villagers stated that Madagascar sand grouse (Pterocles personatus) and giant coua (Coua gigas) were previously common in the area but were now very rare. Neither species was recorded during the detailed survey of avifauna in the Ranobe PK32 region (Kidney and Thomas, 2005). At Manombo on average four guinea fowl or ten coua were caught each hunting trip. Hunters also tried to catch Madagascar crested ibis (Lophotibis cristata), but noted that this species was not as abundant as 30 years ago, citing hunting (in part) as the reason for its decline (Kidney et al., 2005).

Waterfowl on the freshwater lakes are hunted extensively. Three teams of duck hunters, supplied with shotguns and shells by the local hotels, were employed fulltime and averaged five to ten ducks per day on the lakes near Belalanda (B. Colloty, pers. comm. Sept 2006). On Ranobe Lake birds hunted included purple swamphen (P. poryphyrio), red-knobbed coot (Fulica cristata), common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), whitefaced whistling duck (Dendrocygna viduata) and red- billed teal (Anas erythroryncha) (Figure 4-1). Birds were hunted almost daily, with estimates of catch size ranging from five to six birds in a day, to between one to four birds per week (Kidney et al., 2005).

In addition to direct hunting, the on going habitat loss associated with rural settlement in the region has also had a significant impact on forest birds, particularly species such as vangas and parrots that are dependent on fruiting trees for food resources and on hollow logs for nest holes.

Significance statement:

The loss of bird diversity due to current land use has definitely resulted in a moderate negative impact in the Study Area. Although many bird populations can naturally recover if suitable habitats and habitat connectivity are present, even if mitigation via socio-economic upliftment occurs this will probably continue as a MODERATE negative impact and could increase to HIGH negative impact in the near future without mitigation.

Impact 3: Loss of Bird Diversity Spatial Scale Temporal Scale Certainty Severity Significance

Study Area Medium to Long Definite Moderate MODERATE- Term

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Impact 4 – Loss of Mammal Diversity

Cause and comment:

Many mammals have historically become extinct in Madagascar (25 species, Goodman et al., 2003) most probably due to early unsustainable hunting and habitat loss (Dewar, 1997; Yoder and Flynn, 2003). Only the smallest and most secretive species (e.g. tenrec, mouse lemur, etc) survive as small populations in the thicker patches of vegetation. The extensive clearing of savannah and forest habitats has resulted in a direct loss of food reserves for large mammals and increased vulnerability to predation in clearings and at the forest edge.

The extent of hunting in the Ranobe PK32 region, and its impact on mammal diversity has been assessed by Kidney et al. (2005). Hunting is generally undertaken by young men (15-35 years old) and usually takes place daily. The targeted species at Ranobe included wild pig, tenrec, mouse lemur, bats and fossa (Kidney et al., 2005). During the rainy season, wild pig and hedgehog tenrec were hunted about once a week, with around 20 individuals of the latter being caught on a good day. Mouse lemurs were caught in the dry/cold season, whilst large species of bat were caught as they migrated through the area. Fossa were only hunted when they were considered a threat to livestock (Kidney et al., 2005). Some mammal groups, which are now absent or rare in the region, were previously more common, including wild pig, fossa, and three types of lemur (i.e. Verreaux’s sifaka, Propithecus verreauxi; ring-tailed, Lemur catta; and sportive lemur, Lepilemur sp.) Hunting was blamed for the decline and disappearance of these animals (Kidney et al., 2005).

In the Manombo region common tenrec (Tenrec ecaudatus) were only hunted during the wet season as they aestivated during the dry months. They were hunted every few weeks using dogs, with upwards of 20 being caught on a good hunt. The introduced bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus) was a favourite food source, being hunted weekly with guns, spears and with the aid of dogs. Up to four were caught per trip. Two roosts of fruit bat (Pteropus rufus) within the Manombo River valley were also hunted during the dry season and up to 50 bats being caught. Threatened Red-fronted brown lemurs (Eulemur fulvus rufus) and Verreaux’s sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) were hunted extensively during the dry season with traps, particularly in the Ranoteraky forest region. A good hunt yielded up to ten lemurs, including young (Kidney et al., 2005).

Significance statement:

The loss of mammal diversity due to current land use has definitely resulted in a very severe impact in the Study Area. As large mammal populations can only recover with enforced national protection and the presence of large reserves of natural habitat, mitigation via socio-economic upliftment will be limited and the impact will probably continue as a very severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be VERY HIGH.

Impact 4: Loss of Mammal Diversity Spatial Scale Temporal Scale Certainty Severity Significance

Study Area Medium to Long Definite Very Severe VERY HIGH- Term

6.2.2 Key Issue 2: Habitat Impacts

Current and previous agricultural practices have caused extensive loss and fragmentation of habitats in the study region. Vertebrates differ in their dependence on specific habitats and thus their adaptability to habitat loss and fragmentation. Forest and wetland habitats are generally naturally fragmented and many species inhabiting them have natural dispersal behaviours. Due to differences in their life history strategies and mobility, vertebrates also differ in their ability to re- colonise rehabilitated habitats. Faunal re-colonisation is dependent upon the existence of corridors

Coastal & Environmental Services 25 Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013 of suitable habitat along which animals can migrate and also on the existence of viable reservoir populations in adjacent regions.

Impact 5 – Habitat Loss

Cause and comment:

Much natural habitat has been lost in the Ranobe Forest region and that much of the remaining area has suffered relatively high levels of degradation. Using satellite imagery the extent and rate of deforestation in the northern Mikea region was assessed (Seddon et al., 2000; Blanc-Parmad et al., 2005). Deforestation rates of the Mikea Forest from slash-and-burn cultivation of maize (locally called hatsaky) in the north and charcoal production at its southern fringe has recently quadrupled, with 289.5 km2 of forest lost between 1986-2001 (Blanc-Pamard et al., 2005).

Large numbers of people utilize the Ranobe Forest region for food collection, livestock grazing and charcoal production (Figure 4-2). The latter is particularly destructive and it is estimated (B. Colloty pers. comm., Sept. 2006) that no less than 30 tons of charcoal, produced by the destruction of selected indigenous hardwoods in the study region, are transported each day to Toliara. Satellite images show that large areas of habitat have also been lost in the Will’s Road region (Figure 4-3) and along the limestone escarpment (Figure 4-4) since 2002. Mangrove habitats are also extensively cleared (Figure 4-5). Efforts to mitigate the impact of tavy (shifting cultivation) have been proposed (Erdmann, 2003).

The rapid lost of habitats, particularly forests (riparian, dry deciduous and Spiny), have important direct consequences of the fauna. It is these habitats that shelter the richest faunal diversity and which also contain the most specialised and thus threatened species. The groups most threatened are birds and mammals, with many reptiles also affected. Goodman et al. (2005b) noted that for bats occurring in the dry regions of Madagascar were largely independent of forests and that for many species both disturbance at their cave roosts and hunting presented a greater threat than forest loss.

Significance statement:

The loss of habitat associated with current land use has definitely resulted in a very severe impact in the Study Area and also a severe impact at the Regional scale as many of the habitat types (e.g. Spiny Forest) are restricted to South west Madagascar. Unless alternative sources of fuel, building material and food become available, habitat loss will continue at an increasing rate. Protection of the more sensitive habitats (i.e. forests and wetlands) would place increasing pressure on other habitats. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be VERY HIGH.

Impact 5: Habitat Loss Spatial Scale Temporal Scale Certainty Severity Significance

Regional and Study Medium to Long Definite Very Severe VERY HIGH - Area Term

Impact 6 – Habitat Fragmentation

Cause and comment:

Concomitant with habitat loss due to the history of extensive subsistence agriculture in the region, the remaining habitats survive as a mosaic of isolated pockets in an increasingly degraded landscape. These fragments are usually highly degraded and their suitability as refugia for the remaining fauna and their ability to function in ecological processes that maintain ecosystems is compromised. Many are becoming of insufficient size to maintain genetic diversity, especially for

Coastal & Environmental Services 26 Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013 the fragmented populations of medium-sized mammals, such as lemurs. This impact is often exacerbated by the introduction of aliens such as Rattus rattus which out-compete and often eat indigenous small mammals (Ganzhorn et al., 2003).

Fragmentation of habitats can lead to the loss of viable populations, especially in animals requiring large home ranges. The disruption to gene flow between isolated populations reduces biological fitness in the long-term, compromising the ability of populations to adapt to future environmental perturbations. Species that are sensitive to habitat fragmentation are characteristically resident, habitat-specialists with low fecundity.

Habitat fragmentation leads to increased edge effects, with exposed forest edges experiencing significantly higher temperatures, greater wind speed and lower relative humidity (Lehtinen et al., 2003). These effects, which are usually more pronounced in the dry season, may be detected up to 30m in from the forest edge. Many amphibians and reptiles are affected by altered microclimates near forest edges and Lehtinen et al. (2003) demonstrated that edge-avoiding species in southeastern Madagascar (many frogs and geckos) tended to be more extinction-prone than non- edge-avoiding species. Microclimate changes associated with edges may be beneficial for some groups and the densities of some Madagascan chameleons increased along the edges of paths and tracks (Jenkins et al., 1999; Metcalf et al., 2005). This may mirror natural increases in reptile communities in association with natural forest canopy gaps (Greenberg, 2001). Roads (Rich and Dobkin, 1994) and even paths (Jenkins et al., 1999; Metcalf et al., 2005) in large forest blocks may create edge effects on populations. Habitat specialists were particularly prone to local extinction and species loss rates were high in southeastern Madagascar where small fragments (<10-25 ha) lost up to 64% of reptile and 88% of amphibian species (Lehtinen and Ramanamanjato, 2006).

Due to their increased mobility birds can be expected to be more tolerant of habitat fragmentation than, say, frogs or rodents. However, local extinction of fragmented populations can result from reduced gene flow and population recruitment in the isolates making them less adaptable to future change and increased extinction potential (Gerlach and Musolf, 2000). Forest-dependent bird diversity shows a roughly linear relationship between forest size and the numbers of birds (Dickinson et al., 1995). However, forests below 10km2 in area tend to support a poor assemblage of forest bird species with no threatened species, suggesting that forest patches below this size are unable to maintain diverse bird communities and therefore have lower conservation importance.

The current impact can only be mitigated by the maintenance and/or rehabilitation of a network of habitat corridors, particularly along drainage lines and ecotones, that will maintain faunal connectivity and ecosystem functioning.

Significance statement:

Habitat fragmentation associated with current land use has definitely resulted in a very severe impact in the Study Area, and also a severe impact at the Regional scale as many of the habitat types (e.g. Spiny Forest) are restricted to South west Madagascar. More sensitive habitats (i.e. riparian forest and wetlands) must be avoided. Protection of these and other habitat corridors would probably reduce further habitat fragmentation, but in the absence of the rehabilitation of a corridor network a VERY HIGH negative impact will remain. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be VERY HIGH.

Impact 6: Habitat Fragmentation Spatial Scale Temporal Scale Certainty Severity Significance

Study Area and Medium to Long Definite Very Severe VERY HIGH - Regional Term

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Impact 7 – Introduction of Alien Fauna

Cause and comment:

Madagascar, including the study region, is already impacted by the introduction of alien fauna. Alien birds, such as the common myna have already actively expanded their range into the study region, although they are generally restricted to disturbed areas around villages and towns. Urban rodent pests such as the house mouse (Mus musculus) and house rat (Rattus rattus) are also found throughout most disturbed areas in Madagascar, and have even been encountered in relatively pristine forest patches (Goodman et al., 2003). Rats can serve as carriers of transmissible diseases to humans, such as plague, and have also been implicated in the transfer of alien ectoparasites to indigenous small mammals, with conservation consequences (Duplantier and Duchemin, 2003). Introduced alien predators include the domestic dog (Canus lupus) and cat (Felis silvestric) and the Indian civet (Viverricula indica), whilst many other mammals introduced as food have become feral, e.g. domestic pig (Sus scrofa), bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus) and two naturalised deer (Cervus timorensis and Dama dama). There is debate (Vences et al., 2004a, b) as to whether a number of amphibians and reptiles found both in Madagascar and Africa represent introductions or natural colonisation via rafting events from the mainland or elsewhere, e.g. Ptychadena mascareniensis, Pelomedua subrufa, Pelusios castanoides, Hemidactylus mercatorus, H. platycephalus, H. frenatus. This debate, however, is of little environmental importance as none of these species have been shown to negatively impact indigenous fauna or to be responsible for introduced diseases.

Negative impacts due to the introduction of alien fauna, particularly mammals, in the region are already evident (Duplantier and Duchemin, 2003) and that they will continue to increase is highly probable. Although many populations are currently localised they can be expected to spread over the long-term. The significance will generally increase with time and with the increasing degradation of natural habitats.

Mitigation and management:

Mitigation usually involves active culling programs of problem animals undertaken by conservation authorities and the prohibition of the introduction of alien aquatic and terrestrial species unless a full environmental assessment is undertaken and control methods for escapees detailed.

Significance statement:

The current impact of introduced alien animals, particularly mammals, has definitely resulted in a moderately severe impact and this will probably continue in the medium to long-term in the Study Area. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE.

Impact 7: Alien Fauna Spatial Scale Temporal Scale Certainty Severity Significance

Study Area Medium to Long Definite Moderate MODERATE- Term

6.3 Direct Impacts Associated with Mining

This section reviews the issues that may impact terrestrial faunal systems arising from the construction and operation of the mine, including its associated infrastructure such as accommodation (which is minimal during normal operations) and mineral concentration plant. The impacts associated with the haul road are dealt with in section 6.4.

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6.3.1 Key Issue 1: Loss of Biodiversity

Impact 1 - Loss of Faunal Diversity

Cause and comment:

Impacts of the proposed developments on the surviving fauna will vary for the different groups. Amphibian diversity may be impacted by possible small scale, localized changes in water flow dynamics in the region of the mine pit, particularly where it crosses drainage lines and wetlands. However, most frogs in the region are widespread and have rapid colonizing abilities. The reptile fauna comprises some species relatively tolerant of agricultural development and some will increase in numbers in disturbed situations and along forest edges and ecotones (e.g. Furcifer verrucosus and Chalarodon madagascariensis). Birds are by far the most speciose vertebrate component in the region. Most are non-migratory and include many forest specialists. Summer migrant waders and waterfowls utilizing seasonal wetlands may transit the region, but are tolerant of low to medium disturbance. The remaining mammal diversity in the region is already severely impacted and the lack of forest refugia means that most mammals, particularly lemurs and carnivores, have already been eradicated as a consequence of habitat loss and hunting pressures. With the exception of introduced rodents and bats, most mammals in the region are poor colonizers and require protected habitats to maintain viable population levels. Due to disturbance resulting from habitat loss there will also be an increase in animal mortality as animals move away from the region.

Mitigation and management:

Mitigation of the impact entails protection and where necessary, rehabilitation of adjacent habitats as an environmental offset, particularly wetland and forest habitats. However, in the short term, the inevitable fragmentation of the landscape cannot be mitigated.

Significance statement:

The loss of faunal species diversity due to construction and operation of the Mine and associated infrastructure will definitely result in a decrease in vertebrate biodiversity in the region and this will have a moderately severe impact in the short to medium-term in the Study Area and a slight negative impact at the Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact is difficult and the environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE.

Impact 1: Loss of faunal diversity Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Regional and Short to Definite Moderate MODERATE- Moderate MODERATE- Study Area Medium term

Impact 2 – Loss of Species of Special Concern

Cause and comment:

A number of birds, reptiles and mammal species are endemic to the Mikea/Ranobe region and will be impacted by the proposed development. Some species are also rare and many are of conservation concern. Most amphibians in the region are relatively widely distributed and only one amphibian is potentially a threatened species. Trade in a large number of reptile species in the region is regulated by listing on CITES Appendix II (two snakes, two tortoises, six chameleons and two geckos Phelsuma sp.), but many are wide-ranging species found extensively in western Madagascar. Four reptiles are listed as Vulnerable (IUCN Red List, 2006). A number of birds are

Coastal & Environmental Services 29 Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013 listed in IUCN threatened categories (one Endangered, four Vulnerable and three Near Threatened), whilst others are included in CITES appendices (parrots, falcons, etc). Among mammals, the species of conservation concern (larger lemurs and carnivores) are basically extirpated due to habitat loss and hunting pressures in the Mine Site region and the areas affected by infrastructure. Populations in the adjacent limestone escarpment region and in riparian forest patches in the Marombo and Fiherenana rivers are threatened, but could be protected as an environmental offset.

The distribution of threatened species in the proposed mining area is not uniform and there is a concentration of threatened species in forest habitats. Impacts during construction (habitat loss and fragmentation) and operation of the mine (disturbance, risk of pollution, etc) will all pose a threat to the survival of populations of threatened species. All impacts will be negative. The significance of the impact will depend on the success of mitigation of primary impacts (habitat loss and fragmentation), via protection and possible environmental offsets. It is highly probable that secondary impacts during the operation of the mine will cause local mortalities over the long-term. The cumulative effect will certainly have local significance. The impacts may have Regional and National significance for the conservation of species of special concern.

Mitigation and management:

Mitigation of this impact entails the protection and/or full rehabilitation of sensitive habitats, particularly forest habitats which are home to most of the threatened species.

Significance statement:

The loss of Species of Special Concern due to construction and operation of the mine will definitely result in a decrease in these species in the region and this will have a high negative impact in the short to medium-term in the Study Area and moderate negative at the Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact depends on adequate protection of the species and their habitats and will probably result in a MODERATE negative impact. The environmental significance of this mitigated impact would be MODERATE.

Impact 2: Loss of Species of Special Concern Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Regional and Short to Definite Moderate MODERATE- Moderate MODERATE- Study Area Medium term

Impact 3 – Introduction of Alien Fauna

Cause and comment:

Developments such as mines and their associated roads create suitable corridors for the introduction of alien species. Alien birds, such as the common myna have already actively expanded their range into the study region, although they are generally restricted to the areas around villages and towns. Urban rodent pests such as the house mouse (Mus musculus) and house rat (Rattus rattus) are also found throughout most disturbed areas in Madagascar, and have even been encountered in relatively pristine forest patches (Goodman et al., 2003). Rats can serve as carriers of transmissible diseases to humans, such as plague. Rats have also been implicated in the transfer of alien ectoparasites to indigenous small mammals, with conservation consequences (Duplantier and Duchemin 2003). Introduced alien predators include the domestic dog (Canus lupus) and cat (Felis silvestris), and the Indian civet (Viverricula indica), whilst many other mammals introduced as food have become feral, e.g. domestic pig (Sus scrofa), bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus) and two naturalised deer (Cervus timorensis and Dama dama). Negative impacts due to the introduction of alien fauna to the region are highly probable. They will initially be

Coastal & Environmental Services 30 Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013 localised but will spread and occur over the long-term. The significance will generally increase with time and with the increasing degradation of natural habitats. All the introduced aliens discussed above already form a severe existing impact that the mine development will partially exacerbate.

Mitigation and management:

Mitigation usually involves active culling programs of problem animals undertaken by conservation authorities and the prohibition of the introduction of alien aquatic and terrestrial species unless a full environmental assessment is undertaken and control methods for escapees detailed.

Significance statement:

The introduction of additional alien animals and their increased mobility in the landscape following construction and operation of the Mine will probably result in a moderate negative impact in the medium to long-term in the Study Area. Mitigation of this impact is difficult and a MODERATE negative impact will probably remain.

Impact 3: Introduction of Alien fauna Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Study Area Medium to Probable Slight MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Long term

6.3.2 Key Issue 2: Habitat Impacts

The various components of the development all cause the loss, directly or indirectly and fragmentation of viable habitats for the various faunal groups. This is usually a loss of vegetation (plant communities) that supply food or shelter, but may include abiotic features such as the loss of temporary wetlands, caves or rock outcrops. Habitat loss is not simply total loss due to clearance of cover (e.g. agriculture and afforestation) as habitats may also deteriorate due to the loss of certain key components. The selective loss in a forest of old dead trees for firewood or hardwood species for charcoal production, may reduce nesting or roosting sites. The habitat may become unsuitable for vangas, parrots, mouse lemur, bats, snakes and geckos even though most trees remain. Impacts such as tracks and bush-encroachment present positive and negative facets, representing habitat loss for some species and habitat gain for others.

Impact 4 – Habitat Loss

Cause and comment:

The current landscape is now much degraded from its natural condition with an impoverished fauna. The distribution of biodiversity within the region is not uniform and is highest in the habitat mosaics, particularly around wetlands (Ranobe) and forest patches (Fiherenana). By their nature, mature forests are rarely confluent over large areas. Moreover, in areas with a long history of human dependence upon natural resources wooded habitats may only remain as a fragmented archipelago of closed habitats, restricted to relatively inaccessible areas or to cultural protected sites such as grave groves.

Impacts to sensitive forests and wetlands are highly probable and will be local and negative in nature, and occur over the long-term. The significance of these impacts may vary from low to high depending upon the local importance of the habitat and the particular fauna that it harbours. Where there is a mosaic of open, often secondary habitats and forest patches, the latter may serve as shelter for small animals. These species forage in the surrounding grasslands at night, utilising the bush clumps and adjacent forests for shelter.

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Wetlands also form fragmented and specialised habitats. They are essential breeding grounds for many frogs; serve as feeding grounds for threatened water birds, otters and numerous frog-eating snakes. They are easily impacted by water abstraction, siltation from overgrazing, pollution from urban sewage and industrial waste, insecticide and herbicide run-off from agricultural lands and petroleum spillage on roads. The wetlands and drainage lines of the project area remain relatively pristine and still harbour a diverse fauna, particularly of aquatic birds and amphibians.

From the perspective of associated faunal diversity and threatened animals the most sensitive habitats include:

 The riparian forest patches along the Manombo and Fiherenana Rivers;  The Ranobe and Belalanda lakes and the other wetlands in the region;  The Ranobe Forest region.

Mitigation and management:

Future design must avoid the Ranobe Lake and associated wetlands, providing a wide buffer zone around the lake and drainage lines leading into it. All specific project actions associated with construction, access roads, borrow pits and cut-and-fill construction must avoid sensitive habitats. Natural drainage should be maintained and the silt loads into rivers, streams and wetlands must stay within normal limits.

Although the existing landscape is highly impacted by ongoing human impacts, particularly agriculture, the additional impacts of the proposed mining venture will exacerbate an already-highly impacted system. To off-set the negative impact of habitat loss associated with the development of the mine, economic growth in the region can be used positively to mobilize protection of the remaining sensitive habitats. Suitable sites for such an environmental off-set should be identified. Economic development in the region can also be used to reduce dependence of local communities on the severely-depleted natural resources.

Significance statement:

The loss of habitat associated with the Mine and degradation of adjacent habitats during the full operational phase will definitely result in a severe impact in the medium to long-term in the Study Area and a moderate negative impact on a Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact is difficult, but if sensitive habitats (i.e. forest patches and wetlands) are avoided and their condition are monitored during the operational phase a MODERATE negative impact will probably occur. At a Regional level this impact can be mitigated via the environmental off-set of protection of adjacent or similar habitats. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to MODERATE.

Impact 4: Habitat Loss Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Study Area Medium to Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE- and regional Long term

Impact 5 – Habitat Fragmentation

Cause and comment:

Habitat fragmentation can have diverse consequences for ecosystems and their fauna and flora (Saunders, et al., 1991). Habitat loss is rarely uniform and usually occurs piecemeal, leaving a mosaic of habitat fragments that may serve as refugia for the surviving fauna. Intervening unsuitable habitat, however, creates artificial barriers to normal migration and prevents or inhibits

Coastal & Environmental Services 32 Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013 genetic interchange between the isolated populations. Tolerance of habitat fragmentation depends on numerous factors and will thus affect different faunal groups differently.

Fragmentation of primary habitat is increasingly widespread and edge effects may reduce the effectiveness of conserved areas (see expanded discussion in Impact 6, Current Land Use). The proposed mine path, transport linkages and associated infrastructure will all cause habitat fragmentation.

Mitigation and management:

Where possible the planning of the mine path, roads and the location of buildings should ensure minimal fragmentation of sensitive habitats. Road designs should incorporate, where possible, underpasses and culverts that allow the movement of animals. This is of particular importance along drainage lines, which form natural corridors for faunal movements.

Significance statement:

Habitat fragmentation associated with the construction and operation of the Mine will definitely result in a moderate to high negative impact in the medium to long-term in the Study Area. Mitigation of this impact is difficult, but sensitive habitats (i.e. the bush clumps, riparian vegetation and wetlands) must be avoided, in which case a MODERATE negative impact will probably occur. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE.

Impact 5: Habitat Fragmentation Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Study Area Medium to Definite Moderate MODERATE- Moderate MODERATE- Long term

6.3.3 Key Issue 3: Operational Impacts

A variety of impacts are likely to result from the operation of the various components of Heavy Mineral Mining, both during the construction and operational phases. Operation of the various facilities, including operation of dry mining, transport of mineral products and general associated operations (e.g. transport, fuel dumps, housing and administration facilities, etc) may cause chemical pollution, raise dust levels, increase noise and light levels and lead to changes in water hydrodynamics and fire regimes. A significant and widespread impact results from increased transport in the region. Roads are known to alter at least eight physical characteristics of the environment, such as: soil density, temperature, soil water content, light penetration, dust production, surface water flow, run-off pattern and sedimentation. Via their impacts on these parameters roads affect ecosystems, biological communities and species in numerous and different ways. The significance of these effects is determined largely by the location, density, and distribution of roads across the landscape (Hourdequin, 2000). Generally roads have negative effects on the biotic integrity in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and these effects can be classified under various categories (Trombulak and Frissell, 2000): increased mortality from road construction and vehicle collisions; modification of animal behaviour, particularly movement patterns; alteration of the physical environment; alteration of the chemical environment; spread of exotic species; and increased alteration and use of the habitats by humans.

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Impact 6 – Increased Dust Levels

Cause and comment:

Increased dust levels are common during construction and bush clearance and are also a major consequence of vehicular traffic, even on paved surfaces. Dust settling on adjacent vegetation can block plant photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration, in addition to causing physical injuries of plants (Farmer, 1993). Its presence may also make plants unpalatable, thus acting as a possible deterrent to grazing (Trombulak and Frissel, 2000). Dust from road surfaces can also transport chemical pollutants to adjacent regions, thus affecting riparian ecosystems via impacts on water quality.

Mitigation and management:

The haul road should be hard paved or constructed from limestone and wet to inhibit dust production1. Road speeds in sensitive regions e.g. near wetlands, across drainage lines, through thick forest patches and during extreme dry climatic conditions, should be limited to curtail dust generation. During the construction phase speed limits on unpaved roads should be reduced, and in areas of high dust production road surfaces should be dampened.

Significance statement:

Dust levels will be raised during the construction and operation of the Mine and will definitely result in a moderate negative impact in the medium-term in the Study Area. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to LOW negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, but with mitigation would reduce to LOW.

Impact 6: Increased dust levels Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Study Area Medium Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight LOW-

Impact 7 – Increased Fire Risk

Cause and comment:

Fire in many ecosystems is a natural phenomenon and prevents thicket and forest development. Fire in wooded habitats is naturally infrequent. However, changes in water flow dynamics following road construction and via abstraction for irrigation or mining requirements may reduce the water table locally, drying vegetation to unnatural levels and making it more susceptible to fire. Construction and planning of roads should anticipate an increased fire risk. Increased human population growth in the area may also occur as a consequence of increased accessibility resulting from the development. This will also lead to an increase in accidental fires. Although fires are localised, they will occur over the long-term and can affect local conditions. The severity and hence significance, of any fire will depend on aspects such as the local topography, habitat type and fauna present.

1 Editors response: Paving the haul road is economically not viable and will not be done. The road will instead be constructed of limestone and wet to control for dust.

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Mitigation and management:

The regular maintenance of roads as they run adjacent to forests or wetlands should ensure that vegetation remains short so that it serves as an effective firebreak. Similar firebreaks should surround storage depots of flammable materials, which should be situated away from sensitive habitats and equipped with adequate fire control facilities.

Significance statement:

Increased fire frequency associated with the Mine may occur and will result in a moderate negative impact in the medium-term in the Study Area. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a LOW negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, but with mitigation would reduce to LOW.

Impact 7: Increased fire risk Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Study Area Medium May occur Moderate MODERATE- Slight LOW-

Impact 8 – Chemical Pollution

Cause and comment:

Many faunal groups are sensitive to pollutants. Lead concentrations are higher in small terrestrial mammals collected alongside roads than in bats caught in the same areas (Clark, 1979). Frog diversity in ponds affected by pollution from road run-off is depressed (Hecnar and Mcloskey, 1996) and the accumulation of herbicides and their residues in adjacent wetlands can lead to developmental abnormalities in tadpoles and metamorphosing froglets (Osano et al., 2002) and also masculinization of female frogs (Dalton, 2002).

Pollution may result from periodic accidents, or from a slow, ongoing contamination. Operation of the Mine particularly in relation to the use of inflammable liquids such as diesel will probably result in periodic accidents. Heavy vehicle traffic is also associated with increased local pollution resulting from exhaust fumes, oil spillage and accumulation of rubber compounds from tyre wear. These pollutants can cause localised impacts. Sensitive wetlands or patches of threatened vegetation may need protection from road surface water run-off containing such pollutants and the application of herbicides to control plant growth alongside roads and around buildings should be monitored. Mosquitoes are common in the region and their control using prohibited substances such as DDT should be banned. DDT is non-specific and leads to the depression of all insect populations in areas in which it is used.

Mitigation and management:

Storage facilities for chemicals, particularly diesel, should not be situated in regions subject to regular flooding. They should also be situated such that in the event of spillage their contents run immediately into large catchments for decontamination. The use of insecticides and herbicides should be closely monitored. Chemical control of mosquito should be selective and only government approved insecticides should be used.

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Significance statement:

Chemical pollution resulting from the operation of the Mine and its associated vehicular traffic will definitely result in a moderate negative impact in the medium-term in the Study Area. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a LOW negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, but with mitigation would reduce to LOW.

Impact 8: Chemical pollution Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Study Area Medium Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight LOW-

Impact 9 – Noise Pollution

Cause and comment:

Mining activities, associated housing developments and greater vehicle traffic will increase noise levels in the study area. This will reduce the abundance of sensitive bird species, particularly forest birds and lemurs. Increased noise and motor vibrations in the vicinity of wetlands will also impact amphibian breeding choruses, but these will be localised and many amphibian species are surprisingly tolerant of urban noise.

Mitigation and management:

Mitigation of this impact is difficult and unlikely to be effected, but could involve noise reduction measures in sensitive areas (e.g. adjacent to wetlands) at sensitive times (e.g. at night).

Significance statement:

Increased noise and vibration levels in the mining area and housing complexes will be elevated locally and will definitely result in a moderate negative impact in the medium to long-term in the Study Area. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a LOW negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, but with mitigation would reduce to LOW.

Impact 9: Noise pollution Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Study Area Medium Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight LOW-

6.4 Impacts from Product Transport and MSP location

6.4.1 Haul Road

A new haul road will need to be built with sufficient capacity to carry the heavy mineral concentrate (HMC) from the PCP to the MSP, and waste products back to the mine site, should the MSP 2 location be selected. Should MSP 1 be selected, the road will be used to transport final product to the port. In both cases the road will be used to bring supplies to the mine.

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Figure 6.1: Haul Road routes from the mine to MSP

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Three alternative routes are being considered for this road (see Fig. 6.1):  Haul Road Option 1 (red): the old Toliara track, which is an existing route that follows a network of existing tracks and will require substantial upgrading;  Haul Road Option 2 (purple): an alternative route very similar to road option 1 but which takes a more direct route to the Fiherenana River; and  Haul Road Option 3 (green): a more coastal route that lies adjacent to settlements and associated fields.

The road will be constructed using limestone from nearby limestone quarries. Operation of the road will take into consideration interaction with local traffic movement, and this will be managed in conjunction with local communities. As noted in the Draft Scoping Report (CES 2012) a consideration for Option 1 is that this will limit the amount of disturbance to the coastal forest since the Toliara track already exists and is already a barrier to migration for animals. Options 1 and 2 both traverse significant regions of spiny forest, albeit that areas are already degraded. They would allow greater access to the forest for local people to continue the existing unsustainable natural resource extraction (see discussion of existing impacts, Branch 2007). Option 3 passes adjacent to existing settlements and degraded habitats.

6.4.2 Mineral Separation Plant (MSP)

At the MSP incoming HMC will be processed via a series of magnetic and electrostatic separators to produce two final ilmenite products, as well as a rutile / zircon-rich concentrate suitable for sale. The location of the MSP is influenced by a number of factors, including logistics, economics, engineering, social and environmental.

Two alternative locations are being considered, as follows:

MSP 1: At the mine site. MSP 2: At the Port of Toliara quay.

For MSP 1 the dry mineral products will be trucked from the MSP at the mine to a storage shed at the new jetty on the sand spit north of the existing Port of Toliara, where it will be loaded directly into Handymax or Supermax-size vessels. The rutile/zircon concentrate will be loaded into containers at the storage facility and trucked to the existing port quay near Toliara. In this option products are transported completely by truck. A new jetty and transport linkages will need to be constructed through the extensive sand dune habitat to the north of the bay (see Fig. 6.2)

For MSP 2 the HMC from the PCP will be trucked to a transfer station near Belalanda, pumped via a high pressure slurry line across the Fiherenana River, and then onto the MSP at the Port of Toliara. From the MSP the rutile/zircon concentrate will be loaded into containers and trucked a short distance to the existing quay at the Port of Toliara. The ilmenite will be transported by truck or conveyor to a ship loader at the existing quay at the Port of Toliara, where it will be loaded into barges for transhipment to large vessels anchored in the lagoon.

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Figure 6.2: Infrastructure for MSP 1

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6.4.3 Pipeline options

Two pipelines will be required, one for pumping HMC to the MSP, while the other will be used for returning transport water and MSP tailings to the transfer station. At the transfer station MSP tailings will be separated from the water, which will be recycled, while waste material will be back- hauled by trucks to the mine for burial with sand tailings.

For the MSP 1 option final products will be trucked down the haul road and across the river via a purpose built causeway to the new storage facility with jetty and ship loader constructed into the channel. Rutile / zircon product will be containerised at the storage facility and trucked to the existing quay at the Port of Toliara.

For the MSP 2 option HMC from the mine will be stockpiled at the transfer station to the north of the Fiherenana River and pumped via high pressure slurry line to the MSP located adjacent the existing port quay. Power for the positive displacement slurry pumps will be self-generated by diesel generators at the transfer station. The HMC transport pipeline will be suspended from the existing bridge structure for the river crossing, or from a new structure if suspending from the existing bridge proves impracticable, and then buried for the remainder of the route to the plant. Two wholly-overland routes for the buried pipeline have been proposed, but access to these routes is still being negotiated. An alternative route for the pipeline, the latter part of which traverses the lagoon, making a more direct route to the quay is also being considered. These three pipeline routes are shown in Figure 6.3, on which:

1. White - this is the route around Toliara town, approximately 14km long. 2. Light blue - shorter, but passes through an area with saline groundwater conditions. 3. Purple line - a more direct route to the port, passes across the lagoon.

Both options 2-3 would require additional sophisticated corrosion control measures.

Figure 6.3: Alternative pipeline routes

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6.4.4 Issues and Impacts associated with various Project options

The various project options summarized above can be divided into three separate components for assessment of their associated impacts:

 System 1: Haul Road This project action is required for both subsequent components, and has three alternative routes. The faunal Issues for all three of these routes are similar and will be grouped and contrasted in discussion of the various impacts.  System 2: MSP Options Location of the MSP at the mine site requires the construction of ancillary infrastructure, including the Storage facility and Jetty.  System 3: Pipeline Routes Location of the MSP at the Port requires the construction of a pipeline which may take various routes.

For each three systems the various components of the project can be expected to impact the fauna in different ways and/or with differing intensities. In general, the various components are discussed below under the same impact, although specific mitigation may be recommended for the various project components and even separate significance ratings may be given where necessary. For comparison with the earlier assessment (Branch 2007), the impacts are reviewed under three Key Issues, including: Loss of Biodiversity, Habitat Impacts and Operational Impacts. Each Impact within these Key Issues starts with a generalized ‘Cause and Comment’ discussion. ‘Mitigation Measures’ and ‘Impact Statements’ are presented for each of options for each of the three Systems.

6.4.5 Key Issue 1: Loss of Biodiversity

Impact 1 – Loss of general biodiversity

All faunal groups will suffer a general loss of biodiversity due to varied impacts, such as increased mortality from vehicle movements, loss and fragmentation of suitable habitat due to the footprint of project structures, and various forms of pollution associated with traffic and development. This will be greatest for small, slow-moving species, e.g. amphibians, tortoises and snakes and terrestrial species will suffer higher mortalities than arboreal or burrowing species. Volant species (birds and bats) will suffer less mortality, except where important breeding or roosting sites are lost. For all groups increased mortality will be significant.

Option Assessment System 1 - Haul Road

Cause and comment:

All three proposed routes will carry similar amounts of traffic but will differ in faunal impact in relation to the quality of the habitats they pass through, the amount of original vegetation that will be cleared, as well as to their subsequent accessibility to local people and resource extraction. The effects of the proposed haul road routes on the surviving fauna will vary for the different groups. This relates to varied intensities of an impact on different faunal groups due to their differing behaviour, activities, patterns, etc. These effects relate to increased mortality, habitat loss and fragmentation, disturbance to animal movements, disturbance from noise, light, chemical and dust pollution due to vehicle movements, introduction of alien species, increased access to humans for resource extraction, etc. Mortality will be highest on road sections passing through sensitive and pristine habitats, e.g. alongside wetlands, drainage lines, or relatively pristine vegetation.

Three alternative routes are being considered for this road (see Fig. 6.1):

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 Haul Road Option 1 (red): the old Toliara track, which is an existing route that follows a network of existing tracks and will require substantial upgrading;  Haul Road Option 2 (purple): an alternative route very similar to road option 1 but which takes a more direct route to the Fiherenana River; and  Haul Road Option 3 (green): a more coastal route that lies adjacent to settlements and associated fields.

The major consideration for Option 3 is that this will limit the amount disturbance to the spiny forest since it pass adjacent to settlements and degraded habitats. Options 1 and 2 use (in part) existing tracks that already form a barrier to animal migration. However, upgrading of these tracks would create a more significant barrier through the middle of the spiny forest, with significant loss and increased fragmentation of habitat. It would also allow the possibility of greater access to the forest for local people that would likely lead to greater natural resource extraction. Although these changes reduce impacts on vegetation, they will not reduce impacts on fauna, as many of these relate to habitat fragmentation, barriers to movement and road kills.

Mitigation and management:

Mitigation of the impact entails route selection, controls on vehicle speed and movements, and product containment.

 Where possible road traffic should be prohibited after dark, as much of the surviving fauna is nocturnal, e.g. bats, most snakes, small rodents, amphibians, etc.  Vehicle speed should be limited to the lowest possible, and should not exceed 50km hour.  The impact of night traffic should be considered, especially in the wet season, and since night driving is necessary dipped headlights to reduce light pollution into adjacent habitat are required, and lower speeds must be enforced. These recommendations will help reduce night driving impacts, although the most effective option would be to prohibit driving at night.  Small, elevated (30cm) permanent fences alongside road sections passing through or adjacent to sensitive habitats (e.g. wetlands or pristine forest) will reduce movement on to the road of small vertebrates and help reduce mortality.  Drivers should be educated regarding their role in impacting on animals and the need to minimize collisions with animals at all times. All Ilmenite and other products should be transported in covered trucks or containers to avoid contamination to the surrounding area.

As all vertebrate groups will be affected and the project area partially falls in a region proposed and partially promulgated for protection (see above) it is essential that discussion between the mining proponents, Madagascan conservation authorities and relevant NGOs involved in identifying components of the protected area network, discuss potential environmental offsets to mitigate general biodiversity loss and threats to species of conservation concern.

Significance statement:

Haul road option 1 and 2: Loss of biodiversity will definitely result in a very severe impact in the long-term at the Local and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be VERY HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to HIGH.

Haul road option 3: Loss of biodiversity will definitely result in a severe impact in the long-term in at the Local and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce the severity of the impact to moderately severe. Therefore, the environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, and will remain HIGH after mitigation.

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Impact statement Impact 1: Loss of general biodiversity System 1 – Haul Road Options 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local and Long term Definite Very VERY HIGH- Severe HIGH- Regional Severe System 1 – Haul Road Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local and Long term Definite Very VERY HIGH- Severe HIGH- Regional Severe System 1 – Haul Road Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local and Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate HIGH- Regional

Option Assessment System 2 – MSP Options

Cause and comment:

The two MSP options differ considerably in their infrastructure, sites and therefore impacts. In the first option the MSP is located at the mine site and all products are transported completely by truck. A new jetty and transport linkages will need to be constructed through the extensive sand dune habitat to the north of the bay (see Fig. 6.2). This will mean that all aspects of minerals processing will be located at the mine, and only dry products will be transported to ships for export. Siting the MSP near the Port of Toliara, Option MSP 2, will involve the transport of heavy mineral concentrate (HMC) from the mine site to a transfer station on the northern bank of the Fiheranana River near Belalanda. Neither the existing road bridge across the Fiheranana River, nor the roads through the town to the Port of Toliara, are considered suitable for road transport in heavy trucks of upwards of 600 000 tpa of HMC. Therefore in Option MSP 2 the wet mine product will be stockpiled at the transfer station and pumped via a high pressure slurry pipeline approximately 14 kilometres to the MSP situated in the Port of Tuliara. The alternate routes for this pipeline are considered in System 3.

Siting of the MSP at the mine site (Option MSP 1) will require additional loss of sensitive habitat in the project area, but product beneficiation at the mine site should result in less vehicle traffic along the haul road. However, the construction of additional infrastructure (e.g. the new jetty and transport linkages constructed within and through the extensive sand dune habitat adjacent to Toliara Lagoon) associated with this option will also impact sensitive coastal habitats (E.g. direct impacts on the sand dunes and indirect impacts such as sedimentation on the nearby mangroves). These sites have limited significance for the terrestrial fauna, but noise, light and other forms of pollution and disturbance are likely to affect coastal birds.

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Mitigation and management:

All Ilmenite handling for the transfer across the Fiherenana River and to the new jetty must be in closed containers to avoid contamination to the surrounding area.

Option MSP 2 entails increased road traffic, and mitigation of this option therefore requires emphasis on traffic measures detailed above (Haul road options).

Significance statement:

MSP 1: Loss of biodiversity will definitely result in a very severe impact in the long-term at the Local and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be VERY HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to HIGH.

MSP 2: Loss of biodiversity will definitely result in a severe impact in the long-term at the Local and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a moderately severe negative impact. Therefore, the environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, and will remain HIGH after mitigation.

Impact statement Impact 1: Loss of general biodiversity MSP 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local and Long term Definite Very VERY HIGH- Severe HIGH- Regional severe MSP 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local and Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate HIGH- Regional

Option Assessment System 3 – Pipeline Routes

Cause and comment:

For the MSP 2 option HMC from the mine will be stockpiled at the transfer station to the north of the Fiherenana River and pumped via high pressure slurry line to the MSP. Power for the positive displacement slurry pumps will be self-generated by diesel generators at the transfer station. The HMC transport pipeline will be suspended from the existing bridge structure for the river crossing, or from a new structure if suspending from the existing bridge proves impracticable, and then buried for the remainder of the route to the plant. Two wholly-overland routes for the buried pipeline have been proposed, but access to these routes is still being negotiated. An alternative route for the pipeline, the latter part of which traverses the lagoon, making a more direct route to the quay is also being considered. These three pipeline routes are shown in Figure 6.3, on which:

1. White - this is the route around Toliara town, approximately 14km long. 2. Light blue - shorter, but passes through an area with saline groundwater conditions. 3. Purple line - a more direct route to the port, passes across the lagoon.

As the pipeline is either buried or passes underwater across the lagoon it will have little effect on the terrestrial fauna in the operational phase. Impacts relating to the construction phase will occur

Coastal & Environmental Services 44 Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013 mainly in existing badly degraded areas and will have little additional negative impact on the depauperate faunal diversity remaining in the area.

Mitigation and management:

The main impact during the construction phase relates to the digging of open trenches for the buried pipeline which will act as pitfall traps in which small vertebrate may fall and be unable to escape.  The pipeline should not be left opened for long periods, as it will result in the death of any species that fall in  The ends of trenches should be gently sloped to allow trapped animals to escape

Significance statement:

Pipeline routes 1-3: Loss of biodiversity will definitely result in a moderately severe impact in the long-term in at the Local and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a slightly severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to MODERATE.

Impact statement Impact 1: Loss of general biodiversity Pipeline Route Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local and Long term Definite Moderate HIGH- Slight MODERATE- Regional Pipeline Route Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local and Long term Definite Moderate HIGH- Slight MODERATE- Regional Pipeline Route Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local and Long term Definite Moderate HIGH- Slight MODERATE- Regional

Impact 2 – Loss of Species of Special Concern

Cause and comment:

Numerous birds, reptiles and mammal species are either endemic to the Mikea/Ranobe region or are of conservation concern. Most amphibians in the region are wide-ranging species, some adapting well to human disturbance. Of the eight species recorded in the study region none are strictly endemic, and only one is considered threatened (Mantella expectata, Endangered). It is usually found around seasonal streams, and in wet canyons where it is associated with narrow gallery forest. These habitats will not be directly impacted by project actions.

Ten reptiles are either Data Deficient (2) or of conservation concern, including Critically Endangered (3), Endangered (1), Vulnerable (3) and Near Threatened (1) species (IUCN Red List 2012). Only two threatened birds (both Vulnerable), and a number of threatened mammals are also found. Among mammals of conservation concern, the larger lemurs and carnivores are basically

Coastal & Environmental Services 45 Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013 regionally extirpated due to habitat loss and hunting pressures. However, two Vulnerable lemur species remain in the area (see section 3.6.4).

Mitigation and management:

 Mitigation of the impact is similar to that documented in 6.3.1.1, and entails route selection, controls on vehicle speed and movements, and protection of environmentally sensitive areas (see above).  Many threatened species are already in the highest conservation categories and populations of these species should be identified.  Populations in danger of extirpation by project actions should be captured and relocated to safe regions.  Protocols for the humane capture, captive treatment, pathogen control, etc., of populations/individuals to be trans-located should be developed in the Environmental Management Plan.  It is likely that impacts on some threatened species cannot be mitigated in situ, and their loss may need to be addressed via associated environmental offsets.  Although not within the project mining site, consideration should be given to registering and protecting the bat roost Sept Lacs, near Toliara (23°30’29.1”S, 44°09’46.3”E, 150 m. a.s.l) from development, as part of a biodiversity offset program.

Significance statement:

Option Assessment System 1 - Haul Road

Haul road option 1 and 2: Loss of species of special concern will definitely result in a very severe impact in the long-term at the National and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be VERY HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to HIGH.

Haul road option 3: Loss of species of special concern will definitely result in a severe impact in the long-term in at the National and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a moderately severe negative impact. Therefore, the environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, and will remain HIGH after mitigation.

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Impact statement Impact 2: Loss of species of special concern Haul Road Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Very VERY HIGH- Severe HIGH- Regional Severe Haul Road Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Very VERY HIGH- Severe HIGH- Regional Severe Haul Road Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate HIGH- Regional

Option Assessment System 2 - MSP

MSP 1 and 2: Loss of species of special concern will definitely result in a severe impact in the long-term at the National and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a moderately severe negative impact. Therefore, the environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, and will remain HIGH after mitigation.

Impact statement Impact 2: Loss of species of special concern MSP 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate HIGH- Regional MSP 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate HIGH- Regional

Option Assessment System 3 – Pipeline Routes

Pipeline routes 1-3: Loss of species of special concern will definitely result in a moderate impact in the long-term in at the National and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to MODERATE.

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Impact statement Impact 2: Loss of species of special concern Pipeline Route Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Moderate HIGH- Slight MODERATE- Regional Pipeline Route Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local and Long term Definite Moderate HIGH- Slight MODERATE - Regional Pipeline Route Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local and Long term Definite Moderate HIGH- Slight MODERATE- Regional

Impact 3 – Threats to Animal Movements

Cause and comment:

Linear developments, such as haul roads and above-surface pipelines, disrupt the movement of species within their normal home ranges or the seasonal movements of migratory species. Habitat fragmentation may require species to make long movements between patches of suitable habitat in search of mates, breeding sites or food. At such times they may suffer increased mortality, either directly by road vehicles, or from their natural predators due to increased exposure.

Reptiles and amphibians do not undertake long distance migrations, but both groups may undertake short seasonal movements. Many snakes undertake movements between winter hibernation sites and their summer foraging areas. Amphibians are known to experience the highest levels of mortalities associated with the presence of roads among vertebrates (Glinta et al. 2007). This is mainly attributed to en masse seasonal migrations to and from their breeding sites. Some amphibians, particularly toads, are explosive breeders, and move en masse to the breeding ponds. At such times they may suffer heavy casualties whilst crossing roads.

Impacts on animal movements will be greatest in regions with high habitat fragmentation or where linear developments transect migratory paths. Large lemurs that utilized forest habitats are locally extinct throughout much of the road routes. Reptiles and amphibians do not undertake long distance migrations, but both groups may undertake short seasonal movements between feeding and over-wintering sites.

Impacts on animal movements will be significant for all faunal groups in regions with high habitat fragmentation. For amphibians this impact will be greatest where the road runs adjacent to wetlands suitable for breeding. It is an impact of high probability that will be negative due to increased mortality. It will be localised and occur over the long-term.

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Mitigation and management:

 Mitigation depends firstly on ongoing assessment of the significance of animal road mortalities, levels of which should be monitored during the construction and operational phases.  The design of project structures and transport linkages should avoid where possible sensitive habitat corridors, e.g. drainage lines and wetlands.  Tracks and roads should be not pass through or within 50m of large forest blocks to avoid edge effects.  Road widths should be the minimum to maintain safety, and verges should be kept free of rank vegetation to avoid fire risks.  Interlocking canopies of large trees should be maintained to provide aerial ‘pathways’ for arboreal species (birds, lizards, lemurs, etc).  Road designs should incorporate, where possible, underpasses and culverts that allow the movement of animals. This is of particular importance along drainage lines, which form natural corridors for faunal movements.

Significance statement:

Option Assessment System 1 - Haul Road

Haul road option 1 and 2: Threats to animal movements will definitely result in a very severe impact in the long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be VERY HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to HIGH.

Haul road option 3: Threats to animal movements will definitely result in a severe impact in the long-term in at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a moderately severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to MODERATE.

Due to its linear nature the development of Haul roads between the mine site and the Fiherenana River will have a significant impact on faunal movements. The construction of a new road on the existing Toliara track (options 1 and 2) will have a greater impact on the sensitive spiny forest.

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Impact statement Impact 3: Threats to animal movements Haul Road Options 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local Long term Definite Very Severe VERY HIGH- Severe HIGH- Haul Road Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local Long term Definite Very Severe VERY HIGH- Severe HIGH- Haul Road Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE-

Option Assessment System 2 – MSP Options

MSP 1 and 2: Threats to animal movements will definitely result in a severe impact in the long- term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a moderately severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to MODERATE.

Option MSP 2 involves the transport of wet mine products which will result in greater vehicle traffic, and will also involve the construction of pipelines not required in Option MSP 1. It will therefore have a greater impact on faunal movements.

Impact statement Impact 3: Threats to animal movements MSP 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE- MSP 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Very VERY HIGH- Severe HIGH- Severe

Option Assessment System 3 – Pipeline Routes

Pipeline routes 1: Threats to animal movements will definitely result in a moderate impact in the long-term in at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce the severity to a slightly severe negative impact. Therefore, the environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and will remain MODERATE after mitigation. Pipeline routes 2 - 3: Threats to animal movements will definitely result in a slight impact in the long-term in at the Local scale. After mitigation, this impact would probably remain at a slight negative impact. Therefore, the environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and will remain MODERATE after mitigation.

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Option 1 involves the longest route (14km) around Toliara town and will have the greatest impact on faunal movements. However, most of its route passes through greatly degraded habitats with reduced faunal diversity.

Impact statement Impact 3: Threats to animal movements Pipeline Route Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Pipeline Route Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Slight MODERATE - Slight MODERATE - Pipeline Routes Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Slight MODERATE - Slight MODERATE -

Impact 4 – Introduction of Alien Fauna

Cause and comment:

Developments such as mines and their associated roads create suitable corridors for the introduction of alien species. Alien birds, such as the Indian mynah (Acridotheres tristis) have already actively expanded their range into the study region, although they are generally restricted to the areas around villages and towns. Urban rodent pests such as the house mouse (Mus musculus) and house rat (Rattus rattus) are also found throughout most disturbed areas in Madagascar, and have even been encountered in relatively pristine forest patches (Goodman et al., 2003). Rats can serve as carriers of transmissible diseases to humans, such as plague. Rats have also been implicated in the transfer of alien ectoparasites to indigenous small mammals, with conservation consequences (Duplantier and Duchemin 2003). Gardner & Jasper (2009) noted the high density of introduced predators in Toliara including the black rat (Rattus rattus), the domestic cat (Felis catus), domestic fowl (Gallus g. domesticus) and the introduced Indian mynah. They observed both domestic fowl and Indian myna attempting to hunt small terrestrial geckos (Lygodactylus sp.). The introduced, parthenogenetic blind snake Ramphotyphlops braminus, was also recorded, but this snake has been recorded from numerous urban areas in tropical and semitropical regions of the world and is not known to pose a threat to native species.

Introduced alien predators recorded in the area include the domestic dog (Canus lupus) and the Indian civet (Viverricula indica). Many other mammals have been introduced into Madagascar as food and have become feral, e.g. domestic pig (Sus scrofa), bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus) and two naturalised deer (Cervus timorensis and Dama dama), but have not been recorded in the area. Negative impacts due to the introduction of alien fauna to the region are highly probable. They will initially be localised but will spread and occur over the long-term. The significance will generally increase with time and with the increasing degradation of natural habitats.

All the introduced aliens discussed above already form a severe existing impact that the mine development will partially exacerbate. All of the options in all three systems will cause a similar low negative impact. As many of the common problematic alien invaders, e.g. house rats and mice, as well as feral domestic pets, have already become established in the region, all the different systems and options will have a low negative impact that cannot now be feasibly mitigated.

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Mitigation and management:

 The deliberate introduction of alien species should be prohibited, unless a full environmental assessment is undertaken and control methods for escapees detailed.  Active culling programs of problem animals should be undertaken in consultation with conservation authorities

Significance statement:

Option Assessment System 1 - Haul Road

Haul road option 1-3: Introduction of alien species will definitely result in a slight impact in the medium to long-term at the Local scale. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and with mitigation would remain MODERATE.

Impact statement Impact 4: Introduction of Alien species Haul Road Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local Medium to Definite Slight MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Long term Haul Road Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local Medium to Definite Slight MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Long term Haul Road Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Local Medium to Definite Slight MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Long term

Option Assessment System 2 – MSP Options

MSP 1 and 2: Introduction of alien species will definitely result in a slight impact in the medium to long-term at the Local scale. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and with mitigation would remain MODERATE.

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Impact statement Impact 4: Introduction of Alien species MSP 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium to Definite Slight MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Long term MSP 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium to Definite Slight MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Long term

Option Assessment System 3 – Pipeline Routes

Pipelines 1 Introduction of alien species will definitely result in a moderate impact in the medium to long-term at the Local scale. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and with mitigation would remain MODERATE.

Pipelines 2 and 3: Introduction of alien species will definitely result in a slight impact in the medium to long-term at the Local scale. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and with mitigation would remain MODERATE.

Impact statement Impact 4: Introduction of Alien species Pipeline Route Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Pipeline Route Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Slight MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Pipeline Route Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Slight MODERATE- Slight MODERATE-

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6.4.6 Key Issue 2: Habitat loss and fragmentation

Impact 5 – Biodiversity loss due to Habitat Fragmentation and Habitat Loss

Cause and comment:

The habitats of Madagascar continue to face ever-growing threats, including unsustainable resource extraction including small-scale, and widespread clearance of habitats, primarily for firewood and charcoal production. Secondary threats are caused by subsistence agriculture, livestock grazing, and invasive species. Analysis of aerial photographs indicates that forest cover decreased by almost 40% from the 1950s to c. 2000, with a reduction in ‘core forest’ of almost 80%. Harper et al. (2007) consider that Madagascar has already lost 90 per cent of its original forest cover. The Spiny Forest Ecoregion in southwestern Madagascar, one of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) priority ecoregions, includes some of the biologically richest drylands on Earth. The Project is sited within this ecoregion.

The various components of the development all cause the loss, directly or indirectly and fragmentation of viable habitats for the various faunal groups. This is usually a loss of vegetation (plant communities) that supply food or shelter, but may include abiotic features such as the loss of temporary wetlands, caves or rock outcrops. Habitat loss is not simply total loss due to clearance of cover (e.g. agriculture and afforestation) as habitats may also deteriorate due to the loss of certain key components. The selective loss in a forest of old dead trees for firewood or hardwood species for charcoal production, may reduce nesting or roosting sites. The habitat may become unsuitable for vangas, parrots, mouse lemur, bats, snakes and geckos even though most trees remain. Impacts such as tracks and bush-encroachment present positive and negative facets, representing habitat loss for some species and habitat gain for others.

The current landscape is now much degraded from its natural condition with an impoverished fauna. The distribution of biodiversity within the region is not uniform and is highest in the habitat mosaics, particularly around wetlands (Ranobe) and forest patches (Fiherenana). By their nature, mature forests are rarely confluent over large areas. Moreover, in areas with a long history of human dependence upon natural resources wooded habitats may only remain as a fragmented archipelago of closed habitats, restricted to relatively inaccessible areas or to culturally protected sites such as grave sites. Impacts to sensitive forests and wetlands are highly probable and will be local and negative in nature, and occur over the long-term. The significance of these impacts may vary from low to high depending upon the local importance of the habitat and the particular fauna that it harbours. Where there is a mosaic of open, often secondary habitats and forest patches, the latter may serve as shelter for small animals. These species forage in the surrounding grasslands at night, utilising the bush clumps and adjacent forests for shelter.

Habitat fragmentation can have diverse consequences for ecosystems and their fauna and flora (Saunders, et al., 1991). Habitat loss is rarely uniform and usually occurs piecemeal, leaving a mosaic of habitat fragments that may serve as refugia for the surviving fauna. Intervening unsuitable habitat, however, creates artificial barriers to normal migration and prevents or inhibits genetic interchange between the isolated populations. Tolerance of habitat fragmentation depends on numerous factors and will thus affect different faunal groups differently. Fragmentation of primary habitat is increasingly widespread and edge effects may reduce the effectiveness of conserved areas. The proposed transport linkages and associated infrastructure will all cause additional habitat loss and fragmentation.

Wetlands also form fragmented and specialised habitats. They are essential breeding grounds for many frogs; serve as feeding grounds for threatened water birds, otters and numerous frog-eating snakes. They are easily impacted by water abstraction, siltation from overgrazing, pollution from urban sewage and industrial waste, insecticide and herbicide run-off from agricultural lands and petroleum spillage on roads. The wetlands and drainage lines of the project area remain relatively pristine and still harbour a diverse fauna, particularly of aquatic birds and amphibians.

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The greatest impact on habitat loss and fragmentation will be associated with the proposed Haul Road (System 1, all options, particularly 1 and 2), and less with the proposed Pipelines (System 3, all options). The location of the proposed infrastructure for MSP 1 (see Fig. 6.2) lies in a region of sparsely vegetated dunes adjacent to an extensive area of mangrove habitat. Although few terrestrial vertebrates are associated with this habitat, mangroves are threatened habitats and the proposed transport linkages and development of the jetty may negatively impact this area.

Although the existing landscape is highly impacted by ongoing human impacts, particularly agriculture, the additional impacts of the proposed mining venture will exacerbate an already-highly impacted system.

Mitigation and management:

 The route of the proposed new Haul road in Option 3 (if adopted) must avoid the Ranobe Lake and associated wetlands, providing a wide buffer zone around the lake and drainage lines leading to it.  All specific project actions associated with construction, access roads, borrow pits and cut- and-fill construction must avoid sensitive habitats.  Natural drainage should be maintained and the silt loads into rivers, streams and wetlands must stay within normal limits.  The negative impact of habitat loss associated with the development of the mine cannot be fully mitigated. The economic growth in the region resulting for the mine must be used positively to mobilize protection of the remaining sensitive habitats, especially in relation to the proposed protected area, the Fiherenana - Manombo Complex (PK32 – Ranobe).

Significance statement:

Option Assessment System 1 - Haul Road

Haul road option 1 and 2: Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss will definitely result in a very severe impact in the long-term at the National and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be VERY HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to HIGH.

Haul road option 3: Threats to animal movements will definitely result in a severe impact in the long-term in at the National and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a moderately severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, and with mitigation would remain HIGH.

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Impact statement Impact 5: Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss Haul Road Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Very VERY HIGH- Severe HIGH- Regional Severe Haul Road Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Very VERY HIGH- Severe HIGH- Regional Severe Haul Road Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate HIGH- Regional

Option Assessment System 2 – MSP Options

MSP 1: Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss will definitely result in a severe impact in the long-term at the National and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a slightly severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to MODERATE.

MSP 2: Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss will definitely result in a moderate impact in the long-term at the National and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to MODERATE.

Impact statement Impact 5: Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss MSP 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Slight MODERATE- Regional MSP 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Moderate HIGH- Slight MODERATE - Regional

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Option Assessment System 3 – Pipeline Routes

Pipeline routes 1: Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss will definitely result in a moderate impact in the long-term in at the National and Regional scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to MODERATE.

Pipeline routes 2 - 3: Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss movements will definitely result in a slight impact in the long-term in at the National and Regional scale. The environmental significance of this mitigated and unmitigated impact would be MODERATE and would remain MODERATE for the mitigate impact.

Impact statement Impact 5: Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss Pipeline Route Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Moderate HIGH- Slight MODERATE- Regional Pipeline Route Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Slight MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Regional Pipeline Route Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Scale Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale National and Long term Definite Slight MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Regional

6.4.7 Key Issue 3: Operational Impacts

A variety of impacts are likely to result from the operation of the various components of Heavy Mineral Mining, both during the construction and operational phases. Operation of the various facilities, including transport of heavy mineral concentrates and general associated operations (e.g. transport, fuel dumps, housing and administration facilities, etc) may cause chemical pollution, raise dust levels, increase noise and light levels and lead to changes in fire regimes. A significant and widespread impact results from increased transport in the region. Roads are known to alter at least eight physical characteristics of the environment, such as: soil density, temperature, soil water content, light penetration, dust production, surface water flow, run-off pattern and sedimentation. Via their impacts on these parameters roads affect ecosystems, biological communities and species in numerous and different ways. The significance of these effects is determined largely by the location, density, and distribution of roads across the landscape (Hourdequin, 2000). Generally roads have negative effects on the biotic integrity in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and these effects can be classified under various categories (Trombulak and Frissell, 2000): increased mortality from road construction and vehicle collisions; modification of animal behaviour, particularly movement patterns; alteration of the physical environment; alteration of the chemical environment; spread of exotic species; and increased alteration and use of the habitats by humans.

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Impact 6 – Ecological Impacts from Dust

Cause and comment:

Increased dust levels are common during construction and bush clearance and are also a major consequence of vehicular traffic, even on paved surfaces. Dust settling on adjacent vegetation can block plant photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration, in addition to causing physical injuries of plants (Farmer, 1993). Its presence may also make plants unpalatable, thus acting as a possible deterrent to grazing (Trombulak and Frissel, 2000). Dust from road surfaces can also transport chemical pollutants to adjacent regions, thus affecting riparian ecosystems via impacts on water quality.

Short-term increased dust levels will accompany all land preparation associated with construction of mine infrastructure. In the medium to long-term it will also be associated with vehicle movements, particularly along the haul road. Conveyor belts and mineral storage areas may also generate dust unless protected from wind.

Mitigation and management:

 The impact will be most effectively mitigated by hard paving the haul road, but it is unlikely that the road will be paved.  Road speeds in sensitive regions e.g. near wetlands, across drainage lines, through thick forest patches, and during extreme dry climatic conditions, should be limited to curtail dust production.  During the construction phase speed limits on unpaved roads should be reduced, and in areas of high dust production road surfaces should be dampened.  Mineral storage areas associated with option MSP 1 must be adequately protected from wind dispersal into adjacent habitats.

Significance statement:

Option Assessment System 1 - Haul Road

Haul road option 1 and 2: Increased dust levels will definitely result in a severe impact in the medium to long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact is very difficult and will would probably remain as a severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, and with mitigation would remain to HIGH.

Haul road option 3: Increased dust levels will definitely result in a severe impact in the long-term in at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a moderately severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to MODERATE.

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Impact statement Impact 6: Increased dust levels Haul Road Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Severe HIGH- Severe HIGH- Long term Haul Road Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Severe HIGH- Severe HIGH- Long term Haul Road Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE- Long term

Option Assessment System 2 – MSP 1 Options

MSP 1: Increased dust levels will definitely result in a severe impact in the long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a slightly severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, but with mitigation would reduce to MODERATE.

MSP 2: Increased dust levels will definitely result in a moderate impact in the long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and with mitigation would remain to MODERATE.

Impact statement Impact 6: Increased dust levels MSP 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Severe HIGH- Slight MODERATE- Long term MSP 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Long term

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Option Assessment System 3 – Pipeline Routes

Pipeline routes 1 - 3: Increased dust levels will definitely result in a moderate impact in the short- term in at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact would probably reduce this to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, but with mitigation would reduce to LOW.

Impact statement Impact 6: Increased dust levels Pipeline Route Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Short term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight LOW- Pipeline Route Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Short term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight LOW- Pipeline Route Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Short term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight LOW-

Impact 7 – Ecological Impacts from Unnatural Fires

Cause and comment:

Fire in many ecosystems is a natural phenomenon and prevents thicket and forest development. Fire in wooded habitats is naturally infrequent. However, changes in water flow dynamics following road construction and via abstraction for mining requirements may reduce the water table locally, drying vegetation to unnatural levels and making it more susceptible to fire.

Construction and planning of roads should anticipate an increased fire risk. Increased human population growth in the area may also occur as a consequence of increased accessibility resulting from the development. This will also lead to an increase in accidental fires. Although fires are localised, they will occur over the long-term and can affect local conditions. The severity and hence significance, of any fire will depend on aspects such as the local topography, habitat type and fauna present.

A high risk of fires is associated with discarded cigarettes and may therefore occur due to the development of the Haul road. And other transport links.

Mitigation and management:

 The regular maintenance of roads as they run adjacent to forests or wetlands should ensure that vegetation remains short so that it serves as an effective firebreak.  Similar firebreaks should surround storage depots of flammable materials, which should be situated away from sensitive habitats and equipped with adequate fire control facilities.  Due to the sensitivity of Spiny Thicket to fire and the high risk of fires associated with discarded cigarettes, all drivers and passengers on haul roads should be banned from smoking on duty.

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Significance statement:

Option Assessment System 1 - Haul Road

Haul road option 1 - 3: Increased fire risk will definitely result in a severe impact in the medium to long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact is will probably reduce this impact to a moderate negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, and with mitigation would be MODERATE.

Impact statement Impact 7: Increased Fire Risk Haul Road Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE- Long term Haul Road Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE- Long term Haul Road Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE- Long term

Option Assessment System 2 – MSP 1 Options

MSP 1: Increased fire risk will definitely result in a severe impact in the medium to long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact is will probably reduce this impact to a slightly severe negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, and with mitigation would be MODERATE.

MSP 2: Increased fire risk will definitely result in a moderate impact in the medium to long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact is will probably reduce this impact to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and with mitigation would remain MODERATE.

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Impact statement Impact 7: Increased Fire Risk MSP 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE- Long term MSP 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Long term

Option Assessment System 3 – Pipeline Routes

Pipeline routes 1 - 3: Increased fire risk will definitely result in a moderate impact in the medium term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact is will probably reduce this impact to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and with mitigation would remain MODERATE.

Impact statement Impact 7: Increased Fire Risk Pipeline Route Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE - term Pipeline route Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE - term Pipeline route Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Medium Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE - term

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Impact 8 – Disruption to ecosystem processes due to pollution

Cause and comment:

Many faunal groups are sensitive to pollutants. Lead concentrations are higher in small terrestrial mammals collected alongside roads than in bats caught in the same areas (Clark, 1979). Frog diversity in ponds affected by pollution from road run-off is depressed (Hecnar and Mcloskey, 1996) and the accumulation of herbicides and their residues in adjacent wetlands can lead to developmental abnormalities in tadpoles and metamorphosing froglets (Osano et al., 2002) and also masculinization of female frogs (Dalton, 2002).

Pollution may result from periodic accidents, or from a slow, ongoing contamination. Operation of the Mine particularly in relation to the use of inflammable liquids such as diesel will probably result in periodic accidents. Heavy vehicle traffic is also associated with increased local pollution resulting from exhaust fumes, oil spillage and accumulation of rubber compounds from tyre wear. These pollutants can cause localised impacts. Sensitive wetlands or patches of threatened vegetation may need protection from road surface water run-off containing such pollutants and the application of herbicides to control plant growth alongside roads and around buildings should be monitored. Mosquitoes are common in the region and their control using prohibited substances such as DDT should be banned. DDT is non-specific and leads to the depression of all insect populations in areas in which it is used. Chemical control of mosquito should be selective and only government approved insecticides should be used

Mitigation and management:

 Storage facilities for chemicals, particularly diesel, should not be situated in regions subject to regular flooding.  They should be bunded so that in the event of spillage their contents run immediately into large catchments for decontamination.  The use of insecticides and herbicides should be closely monitored and dosages and application detailed in the EMP.  Chemical control of mosquito should be selective and only government approved insecticides should be used.

Significance statement:

Option Assessment System 1 - Haul Road

Haul road option 1 - 3: Chemical Pollution will definitely result in a moderate impact in the long- term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact is will probably reduce this impact to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and with mitigation would remain MODERATE.

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Impact statement Impact 8: Chemical Pollution Haul Road Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Haul Road Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Haul Road Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE-

Option Assessment System 2 – MSP Options

MSP 1 and 2: Chemical Pollution will definitely result in a moderate impact in the long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact is will probably reduce this impact to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and with mitigation would remain MODERATE.

Impact statement Impact 8: Chemical Pollution MSP 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- MSP 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE-

Option Assessment System 3 – Pipeline Routes

Pipeline routes 1 - 3: Chemical Pollution will definitely result in a moderate impact in the long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact is will probably reduce this impact to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and with mitigation would remain MODERATE.

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Impact statement Impact 8: Chemical Pollution Pipeline Route Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Pipeline Route Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Pipeline Route Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE-

Impact 9 – Disruption to Fauna from increased Noise Levels

Cause and comment:

Mining operations and associated vehicle traffic will create noise pollution that can depress local populations of sensitive faunal groups. Animals differ in the degree to which they tolerate such disturbance, and can be expected to have potentially negative and positive impacts on various faunal groups. Large breeding birds do not usually tolerate continuous disturbance. Increased noise and motor vibrations in wetlands may also impact amphibian breeding choruses, but these impacts will be localised and many amphibian species are surprisingly tolerant of vehicle noise. Noise pollution will occur during all phases (construction, operational, and de- commissioning/closure), but will be most significant during the construction phase. Little mitigation is possible.

Mitigation and management:

 Mitigation of this impact is difficult, but noise reduction measures should be implemented in all sensitive areas (e.g. adjacent to wetlands) at sensitive times (e.g. at night).  A reduction of mining activities and mineral transport after dark would reduce the noise impacts. However, this mitigation measure is economically unfeasible and therefore it is unlikely to be implemented and hence the impact after mitigation remains of moderate significance.

Option Assessment System 1 - Haul Road

Haul road option 1 - 3: Noise Pollution will definitely result in a severe impact in the long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact is will probably reduce this impact to a moderate negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, and with mitigation would be MODERATE.

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Impact statement Impact 9: Noise Pollution Haul Road Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE- Haul Road Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE- Haul Road Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE-

Option Assessment System 2 – MSP Options

MSP 1 and 2: Noise Pollution will definitely result in a severe impact in the long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact is will probably reduce this impact to a moderate negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be HIGH, and with mitigation would be MODERATE.

Impact statement Impact 9: Noise Pollution MSP 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE- MSP 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Severe HIGH- Moderate MODERATE-

Option Assessment System 3 – Pipeline Routes

Pipeline routes 1 - 3: Noise Pollution will definitely result in a moderate impact in the long-term at the Local scale. Mitigation of this impact is will probably reduce this impact to a slight negative impact. The environmental significance of this unmitigated impact would be MODERATE, and with mitigation would remain MODERATE.

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Impact statement Impact 9: Noise Pollution Pipeline Route Option 1 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Pipeline Route Option 2 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE- Pipeline Route Option 3 Without mitigation With mitigation Spatial Temporal Certainty Severity Significance Severity Significance Scale Scale Local Long term Definite Moderate MODERATE- Slight MODERATE-

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7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Current Land Use

It is evident that current land use has had a significant impact on faunal biodiversity and ecological functioning in the area (Table 7.1). Although amphibian and reptile diversity remains relatively unaffected by the extensive habitat destruction, significant effects on birds and mammals already exist. Impacts on birds and mammal diversity already range from moderate to high. In the absence of rapid socio-economic upliftment of human communities in the region, these impacts will continue to grow. This will lead to further faunal loss and extensive ecological disruption that will not be easily repairable in the long-term.

Table 7.1: Impacts associated with the Current Land Use Impact

Loss of Amphibian Diversity Moderate Loss of Reptile Diversity Moderate Loss of Bird Diversity Moderate Loss of Mammal Diversity Very High Habitat Loss Very High Habitat Fragmentation Very High Introduction of Alien Fauna Moderate

7.2 Mining Activities

The project actions resulting from the proposed Mine may have low to high environmental impacts on faunal biodiversity and ecological functioning in the area (Table 7.2). Only amphibian and reptile diversity remains relatively unaffected by the extensive habitat destruction. Existing impacts on birds and mammal diversity already range from moderate to very high, and will continue to rise. The Mine actions will involve further faunal losses and ecological disruptions that will range from LOW to MODERATE, many of which with suitable mitigation can be reduced to LOW significance.

Table 7.2: Impacts associated with Mining Impact After mitigation

Loss of Faunal Diversity Moderate Loss of Species of Special Concern Moderate Introduction of Alien Fauna Moderate Habitat Loss Moderate Habitat Fragmentation Moderate Dust Levels Low Fire Risk Low Chemical Pollution Low Noise Pollution Low

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7.3 Product Transport and MSP locations

7.3.1 Haul Road options

The impacts of greatest significance are associated with the Haul Road options, particularly Options 1 and 2 (Table 7.3). This is due to the extensive habitat loss and fragmentation associated with the construction phase and the building of a new haul road through the Ranobe Spiny Forest region. This will directly result in the loss of general biodiversity and Species of Special Concern, and indirectly from the disruption to faunal movements, loss of fauna (road kills) and the increased likelihood of introduced alien fauna. During the operational phase of the mine the heavy road traffic will result in ongoing mortality to general biodiversity and Species of Special Concern. The traffic will also result in increased pollution (dust, chemical and noise) as well as an increased fire risk. Most of these impacts can be only partially mitigated.

Table 7.3: Impacts associated with the Haul Road options Impact After mitigation Option1 Option 3 and 2 Loss of general biodiversity High High Loss of Species of Special Concern High High Threats to Animal Movements High Moderate Introduction of Alien fauna Moderate Moderate Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss High High Increased dust levels High Moderate Increased Fire Risk Moderate Moderate Chemical Pollution Moderate Moderate Noise Pollution Moderate Moderate

The major consideration for Option 3 is that this will limit the amount of disturbance to the spiny forest as it occurs adjacent to settlements ad degraded habitats. Options 1 and 2 involve the substantial upgrade of the Toliara track. Although this is already a barrier to migration for animals, its upgrade would create a more substantial barrier through the middle of the spiny forest, with significant loss and increased fragmentation of habitat in a proposed protected area. It would also allow the possibility of greater access to the forest for local people therefore increasing the risk of greater unsustainable resource extraction, particularly the loss of habitat associated with charcoal production. Limiting access along this private road will help to mitigate the impact, but a concerted effort to regulate and prohibit access will be required.

Based on the findings of this report for the haul road, Option 3 is preferred, particularly as it would have the least impact on habitat fragmentation. A possibility to further reduce the impacts of the haul road would be to monitor or prohibit access to the protected habitat in the central degraded area (where haul roads 1 and 2 are proposed) and consider rehabilitating this area as part of a biodiversity offset strategy. However, it should be noted that the surrounding communities are heavily reliant on the resources in this area and it may therefore be difficult to implement this over a large area.

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7.3.2 Mineral Separation Plant options

Location of MSP1 at the mine means less road transport is required to move the export products from the HMC. However, the additional infrastructure associated with this option (see Fig. 6.2) lies in a region of sparsely vegetated dunes adjacent to an extensive area of mangrove habitat to the north of Toliara. Although few terrestrial vertebrates are associated with this habitat, mangroves are threatened habitats and the proposed transport linkages and development of the jetty may negatively impact this area. Both options are associated with significant impacts (Table 7.4)

In Option MSP 2 HMC is transported to the Port of Toliara. This results in less associated infrastructure, and in addition the various pipeline options are all laid in disturbed habitats in the Toliara region. However, this option requires greater volumes of road traffic to transport HMC to the transfer station at the Fiherenana River, and to return waste products to the mine site. There are also risks associated with the pipelines which traverse mangrove and underwater habitats.

Table 7.4: Impacts associated with the Mineral Separation Plant options Impact After Mitigation MSP1 MSP2 Loss of general biodiversity High High Loss of Species of Special Concern High High Threats to Animal Movements Moderate High Introduction of Alien fauna Moderate Moderate Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss Moderate Moderate Increased dust levels Moderate Moderate Increased Fire Risk Moderate Moderate Chemical Pollution Moderate Moderate Noise Pollution Moderate Moderate

Although increased faunal mortality will occur during the operational phase in option MSP2, this is countered by the greater construction and operational impacts associated with the additional infrastructure of option MSP1.

Based on the findings of this study, Mineral Separation Plant Option MSP2 is preferred.

7.3.3 Pipeline options

In all pipeline options the line is buried, except for the final section of option 3 which lies underwater. In options 2 and 3 the pipeline traverses highly corrosive environments. In all options the pressurised slurry first crosses the Fiherenana River, with potential impacts on aquatic fauna in the event of the accidental discharge of slurry. In all options the greatest faunal impacts will occur during the construction phase. All impacts during the construction phase can be partially mitigated, and as all pipeline routes traverse regions that are already degraded and have a depauperate fauna, the impacts are of only Moderate or Low significance (Table 7.5). These impacts, although moderate to low, do compound the other impacts associated with option MSP2.

For the Pipeline Options 2 and 3 are equally preferred.

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Table 7.5: Impacts associated with the Pipeline options Impact After mitigation 1 2 3 Loss of general biodiversity Moderate Moderate Moderate Loss of Species of Special Concern Moderate Moderate Moderate Threats to Animal Movements Moderate Moderate Moderate Introduction of Alien fauna Moderate Moderate Moderate Biodiversity loss due to Habitat fragmentation and loss Moderate Moderate Moderate Increased dust levels Low Low Low Increased Fire Risk Moderate Moderate Moderate Chemical Pollution Moderate Moderate Moderate Noise Pollution Moderate Moderate Moderate

7.4 Recommendations

All recommendations made in the sections on ‘Mitigation and management’ in the individual impact assessments should be implemented and incorporated into the Environmental Management Plan.

It is also recommended that:

 To prevent cumulative environmental impacts, particularly in sensitive habitats, it is preferable that the present project be integrated into regional planning with surrounding projects in association with Madagascan conservation authorities.  Damage to sensitive habitats during ongoing and future survey work and site development be avoided as far as possible. This is particularly important where new roads are developed as they rapidly lead to strip development and increased resource extraction (e.g. charcoal production).  Fire breaks be developed around all project infra-structure.  Short, fire-resistant vegetation cover should be established to avoid erosion and siltation into drainage lines.  The chemical control of unwanted vegetation with herbicides, and pest animals with insecticides should be fully controlled and be in accordance with national controls of banned substances.  Access to all mine areas should be controlled, and all resource extraction controlled and documented, and remain in accordance with sustainable off-take.  The sale and use of unsustainable extracted resources (e.g. charcoal) in all mine facilities should be prohibited.  Environmental education of local communities should highlight the negative and unsustainable impacts resulting from large-scale bush clearance, excessive removal of hardwoods for charcoal production and timber, and un-necessary use of fire in the dry season to generate livestock grazing.

As the project area already falls in the Fiherenana - Manombo Complex (PK32 – Ranobe), a region proposed and partially promulgated for protection (Arrêté de Protection Temporaire (n° 21482- 2008 / MEFT / MAEP / MEM / MRFDAT, 2 December 2008; see above), it is essential that all mine planning and development should be discussed with the Madagascan conservation authorities and the relevant NGOs (e.g. WWF) currently involved in identifying components of the expanded protected area network in the region.

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 Lei, R., Engberg, S. E., Andriantompohavana, R., McGuire, S. M., Mittermeier, R. A., Zaonarivelo, J. R., Brenneman, R. A. and Louis Jr., E. E. 2008. Nocturnal lemur diversity at Masoala National Park. Special Publications of the Museum of Texas Tech University 53: 1-41.

 Leuteritz, T. & Rioux Paquette, S. (Madagascar Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Red List Workshop) 2008. Astrochelys radiata. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. . Downloaded on 14 August 2012.

 Leuteritz, T. & Walker, R. (Madagascar Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Red List Workshop) 2008. Pyxis arachnoides. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. . Downloaded on 14 August 2012.

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 Mammals of Madagascar 2012. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mammals_of_Madagascar; accessed 6 September 2012)

 Mickleburgh, S.P., Hutson, A.M. & Racey, P.A. 2002. A review of the global conservation status of bats. Oryx 36, 18–34.

 Mittermeier R.A, et al. 2005. Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. (Conservation International, Arlington, VA).

 Mittermeier, R. A., Ganzhorn, J. U., Konstant, W. R., Glander, K., Tattersall, I., Groves, C. P., Rylands, A. B., Hapke, A., Ratsimbazafy, J., Mayor, M. I., Louis Jr., E. E., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C. and Rasoloarison, R. M. 2008. Lemur diversity in Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology 29, 6: 1607-1616. (doi:10.1007/s10764-008-9317-y)

 Nagy, Z, T., Sonet, G., Glaw, F. & Vences, M. 2012. First Large-Scale DNA Barcoding Assessment of Reptiles in the Biodiversity Hotspot of Madagascar, Based on Newly Designed COI Primers. PLoS One 7(3): 1-11.

 Olson L.E., Goodman S.M. & Yoder A.D. 2004. Illumination of cryptic species boundaries in long-tailed shrew tenrecs (Mammalia: Tenrecidae; Microgale) provides insights into geographic variation and distributional constraints. Biol J Linn Soc 83:1–22.

 Olsson, A., Emmett, D., Henson, D. & Fanning, E. 2006. Activity patterns and abundance of microchiropteran bats at a cave roost in south-west Madagascar. Afr. J. Ecol. 44(3): 401-403.

 Osano, O., Otieno, D. and Admiraal, W., 2002: Developmental disorders in embryos of the frog Xenopus laevis induced by chloroacetanilide herbicides and their degredation products, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 21, 375-379.

 Ramanamanjato, J.-B., Randriamahazo, H. & Raxworthy, C.J. 2011. Acrantophis dumerili. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. . Downloaded on 14 August 2012.

 Rafanomezantsoa, J., Rakotondravony, H., Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M. 2011. Sanzinia madagascariensis. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. . Downloaded on 14 August 2012.

 Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M. 2010. Liophidium apperti. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. . Downloaded on 14 August 2012.

 Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M. 2010. Phelsuma standingi. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. . Downloaded on 14 August 2012.

 Saunders, D.A., Hobbs, R.J. and Margules, C.R., 1991: Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: a review, Conservation Biology, 5 (1), 18-32.

 Sébastien Rioux Paquette1, Barry H. Ferguson2, François-Joseph Lapointe3, and Edward E. Louis Jr., 2009. Conservation Genetics of the Radiated Tortoise (Astrochelys radiata) Population from Andohahela National Park, Southeast Madagascar, with a Discussion on the Conservation of This Declining Species. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 8(3): 84- 93.

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 Smith M.A., Fisher B.L. & Hebert P.D.N. 2005. DNA barcoding for effective biodiversity assessment of a hyperdiverse arthropod group: The ants of Madagascar. Philos Trans R Soc London Ser B 360:1825–1834.

 Tattersall, I. 2007. Madagascar’s lemurs: Cryptic diversity or taxonomic inflation? Evolutionary Anthropology 16: 12-23. (doi:10.1002/evan.20126).

 Thomas, H. and Kidney, D. 2006a. Mammals. In: Frontier-Madagascar. 2005. Thomas, H., Kidney, D., Rubio, P. and Fanning, E. (eds.). The Southern Mikea: A Biodiversity Survey. Frontier-Madagascar Environmental Research Report 12.. Society for Environmental Exploration, UK and Institut Halieutique et des Sciences Marines, Toliara. ISSN 1479 120X.

 Thomas, H. and Kidney, D. 2006b. Herpetofauna. In: Frontier-Madagascar. 2005. Thomas, H., Kidney, D., Rubio, P. and Fanning, E. (eds.). The Southern Mikea: A Biodiversity Survey. Frontier-Madagascar Environmental Research Report 12. Society for Environmental Exploration, UK and Institut Halieutique et des Sciences Marines, Toliara. ISSN 1479 120X.

 Trombulak, S.C. and Frissell, C.A., 2000: Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities, Conservation Biology, 14, 18-30.

 Thompson, C. (ed.) 2011. Treasure Island: New biodiversity on Madagascar (1999-2010). Report, WWF Madagascar & West Indian Ocean Programme Office.

 Tyson, P., 2001: The Eighth Continent. Life, death and discovery in the Lost World of Madagascar, Perrenial, Harpers Collins Publishers, New York.

 Vences, M., Kosuch, J., Rödel, M-O, Lötters, S., Channing, A., Glaw, F and Böhme, W., 2004. Phylogeography of Ptychadena mascareniensis suggests transoceanic dispersal in a widespread African-Malagasy frog lineage, Journal of Biogeography, 31, 593–601.

 Vences M, Wollenberg KC, Vieites DR, Lees DC 2009. Madagascar as a model region of species diversification. Trends Ecol Evol 24: 456–465.

 Vieites DR, Wollenberg KC, Andreone F, Ko¨hler J, Glaw F, et al. (2009) Vast underestimation of Madagascar’s biodiversity evidenced by an integrative amphibian inventory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106: 8267–8272.

 Vieites, DR. Ratsoavina, F. Randrianiaina, RD. Nagy, ZT. Glaw, F. & Vences, M. 2010. A rhapsody of colours from Madagascar: discovery of a remarkable new snake of the genus Liophidium and its phylogenetic relationships. Salamandra 46: 1-10.

 Yoder A.D., et al. 2000. Remarkable species diversity in Malagasy mouse lemurs (Primates, Microcebus) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:11325–11330.

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9. APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Professional Curriulum Vitae – William R. Branch, 2012

Personal details: Surname Branch Christian names William Roy Date of Birth 12 May 1946 Place of Birth London, United Kingdom Nationality British

Research experience: Scientist; Life Sciences Division, Atomic Energy Board, Pretoria, South Africa; January 1972. Involved in research on AFP synthesis in humans and its relationship to pregnancy and liver pathologies, including liver cancer. Additional personal research included the reproductive biology of reptiles and the composition and toxicity of certain snake venoms. Post-Doctoral Research Fellow; Department of Biology, University of Southampton, United Kingdom; January 1976. Involved in studies on the synthesis of AFP, albumin and transferrin in the liver of the foetal rabbit. During this period a grant was awarded from the Royal Society (London) for subsidiary studies on cytosystematics of African reptiles. Curator of Herpetology; Port Elizabeth Museum, South Africa; February 1979 - 2011. Involved in diverse herpetological studies.

Interests Photography. Work has appeared in numerous magazines and books; e.g. The Naturalist (1981-2, 1984-5, 1988), African Wildlife (1984-5, 1989, 1999), Custos (1986, 1989, 1991), Africa Geographica (1994-9), Africa Birds and Birding (1997-8, 2003), Reptiles (1996), Reptilian, UK (1996), Travel Africa (2004), National Geographic (2002), American Scientist (2005), Fauna & Flora (2009).

Expedition Leader For a number of years I have accompanied numerous National Geographic tours to Southern and Eastern Africa as the ‘Accompanying Expert’, including: Southern Africa 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005 (2), 2006 (2), 2007 (4), 2008 (4), 2009 (2), 2010 (4), 2011 (7); Tanzania 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 (2); and ‘Ultimate Africa’ (2008). The southern African tours have concentrated on game lodges in the Sabi Sands and Tuli Block conservancies, Moremi Game Reserve, Botswana (Okavango Delta and Chobe River), and Victoria Falls, whilst the Tanzanian/Rwanda tours include the Serengeti, Zanzibar and Virunga Mountains (for mountain gorillas).

Lectures and courses From 2002-9 I presented an annual short (3-4 day) course to trainee CCAfrica (now ‘&Beyond’) rangers at their home reserve at Phinda Private Game Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal. This course was also presented to the CCAfrica training facility at Klein’s Camp, Tanzania (2006).

Appointments, Awards and Memberships: Member IUCN SSC Tortoise and Freshwater turtle Group, February 1981 - ongoing IUCN SSC Snake group, January 1982-1988 (group disbanded) IUCN SSC Lizard group, November 1987 – 1993 (group disbanded) IUCN SSC African Reptile and Amphibian Group, 1990 – 2003 (currently inactive) IUCN SSC Captive Breeding Specialist Group (Herpetology), 1990 - 1996 Board of Directors IUCN SSC Declining Amphibian Population Task Group, 1991 - 1994 Chair IUCN SSC African Reptile and Amphibian Group; invited and ratified 1997-2000 Chair IUCN SSC African Reptile Group, 2001-2003 Advisor Snake Taxon Advisory Group, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums; African Advisor, 1991 – 2001 Chelonian Taxon Advisory Group, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, African Advisor, 1991 - 2011

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Lizard Taxon Advisory Group, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, African Advisor, 1991 - 2001 Frog Taxon Advisory Group, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, African Advisor, 1991 - 2001 Secretary Herpetological Association of Africa, June 1982-1984. Member International Union of Biological Sciences, Section on Herpetology, 1995-1997. Accredited Lecturer Zoology Department, University Port Elizabeth, 1990 – 2005 Head of Research Port Elizabeth Museum, 1991-1993 (rotating position) Special Award Recipient FRD 1995 Special Award to Museum Scientists Distinguished Invited plenary lecture to combined Herpetologist League and Society for the Study Herpetologist Lecture of Amphibians and Reptiles 44th annual meeting, Indiana University, 26 July 2001. 2001 Herpetological ‘Exceptional Contribution to Herpetology’ awarded at 7th HAA conference, Port Association of Africa Elizabeth 6-9th Oct 2004. Awarded life membership of HAA Honorary Professor Invited to serve as an Honorary Professor – Research, Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand 2007-2010. Research Associate Appointed as a Research Associate, Department of Zoology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, 2010-2012. Curator Emeritus Appointed as a Research Associate and Curator Emeritus, Bayworld (Port Elizabeth Museum), 2011- ongoing. NRF Evaluation Period 2004-2007-2010-2012 Level B2 SACNSP Registered as a Professional Natural Scientist (No 400493/11), South African Council for Natural Scientific Professionals, 2011.

PUBLICATIONS: (full details can be supplied on request)

Major scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals 152 Scientific notes in peer-reviewed journals 136 Popular articles 76 Book Reviews 81 Books and book chapters 22 Television: SABC TV 50/50 Environmental Programmes 10 BBC (2009), MWeb, Carte Blanche (2010) 3 Radio programmes on wildlife, conservation, etc. 29 Environmental impact assessment reports 50+

Recent Books and chapters SPAWLS, S. and W. R. BRANCH, 1995. Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Blandford Press, London, 192p. (released in southern Africa under Southern Book Publ, and in USA by Ralph Curtis Books.)

BRANCH, W. R., 1998. Field Guide to the Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa. rev. ed. Struiks Publ., Cape Town, 399 pp, 112 col. pls. (first edition 1988)

BRANCH, W. R. 2005. A Photoguide to the Snakes and other reptiles and amphibians of East Africa, Struik Publishers, Cape Town, 144 pp. ISBN 1-77007-150-4

BRANCH, B. 2008. Tortoises, Terrapins and Turtles of Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, 128 pp. ISBN 978 1 77007 463 7.

Recent major scientific papers (2010-onwards) VIDAL, N., MARIN, J., MORINI, M., DONNELLAN, S., BRANCH,W.R., THOMAS, R., VENCES, M., WYNN, A., CRUAUD, C., & HEDGES, S.B., 2010. Blindsnake evolutionary tree reveals long history on Gondwana, Biology Letters, Royal Society, London, 6(4): 558-561.

VARGAS-RAMÍREZ, M., VENCES, M., BRANCH, W.R., DANIELS, S.R., GLAW, F., HOFMEYR, M.D., KUCHLING, G., MARAN, J., PAPENFUSS, T.J., ŠIROKÝ, P., VIEITES, D.R. & FRITZ, U. 2010. Deep genealogical lineages in the widely distributed African helmeted terrapin: evidence from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA (Testudines: Pelomedusidae: Pelomedusa subrufa). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 56:428-440.

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SINERVO, B., MENDEZ-DE LA CRUZ, F., MILES, D.B., HEULIN, B., BASTIAANS, E., VILLAGRAN-SANTA CRUZ, M., LARA-RESENDIZ, R., MARTÍNEZ-MÉNDEZ,N., CALDERON-ESPINOSA,M.L., MESA-L ZARO, R.N., GADSDEN, H., AVILA, L.J., MORANDO,M., DE LA RIVA,I.J., SEPULVEDA, P.V., ROCHA, C.F.D., IBARG ENGO T A,N., PUNTRIANO, C.C., MASSOT, M., LEPETZ,V., OKSANEN,T., CHAPPLE,D., BAUER, A., BRANCH, W., CLOBERT, J., SITES, JR.,J.W. 2010. Erosion of lizard diversity by climate change and altered thermal niches. Science. 328: 894-899.

BRANCH, W.R., EGAN, D. & EDMONDS, J. (eds.) 2010. Proceedings of the 9th Conservation Workshop for the Fauna of Arabia, 3-5 February 2008. Conservation Status of the Terrestrial Snakes of the Arabian Peninsula. Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. 209p.

BRANCH, W.R. & K. A. TOLLEY 2010. A new chameleon (Sauria: Chamaeleonidae: Nadzikambia) from Mount Mabu, Northern Mozambique. Afr. J. Herpetol. 59(2): 157-172. (Nadzikambia baylissi – named in honour of Julian Bayliss)

VAN DER MEER, M.H., WHITING, M.J. & BRANCH, W.R. 2010. Ecology of southern African sandveld lizards (Lacertidae: Nucras). Copeia 2010(4): 568-577.

STANLEY, E.L., BAUER, A.M., JACKMAN, T.R.; BRANCH, W.R. & MOUTON, P.LEF.N, 2011. Between a rock and a hard polytomy: Rapid radiation in the rupicolous Girdled Lizards (Squamata: Cordylidae). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 58(1): 53-70.

KELLY, C. M. R., BRANCH, W.R., BROADLEY, D.G., BARKER, N.P.& VILLET, M.H. 2011. Molecular systematics of the African snake family Lamprophiidae Fitzinger, 1843 (Serpentes: Elapoidea), with particular focus on the genera Lamprophis Fitzinger 1843 and Mehelya Csiki 1903. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 58: 415-426.

FRITZ, U., BRANCH, W.R., HOFME R, M., MARAN, J. PROKOP, H., SCHLEICHER, A., ŠIROKÝ, P., STUCKAS, H., VARGAS-RAMIREZ, M., VENCES, M. & HUNDSDÖRFER, A. 2011. Molecular phylogeny of African hinged and helmeted terrapins (Testudines: Pelomedusidae: Pelusios and Pelomedusa). Zoologica Scripta. 40(2): 115-125.

TOLLEY, K.A., TILBURY, C.T., MEASEY, G.J., MENEGON, M., BRANCH, W.R. & MATTHEE, C.A. 2011. Ancient forest fragmentation or recent radiation? Testing refugial speciation models in an African biodiversity hotspot. J. Biogeography 38(9): 1748-1760.

BRANCH, W.R., BAUER, A.M., JACKMAN, T.R. & HEINICKE, M. 2011. A new species of the Pachydactylus weberi complex (Reptilia: Squamata: Gekkonidae) from the Namib-Rand Reserve, southern Namibia. Brevoria 524: 1-15.

GREENBAUM, E., VILLANUEVA, C.O., KUSAMBA, C., ARISTOTE, M.M. & BRANCH, W.R. 2011. A molecular phylogeny of Equatorial African Lacertidae, with the description of a new genus and species from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Zool. J Linnaean Soc. 163: 913-942.

BAUER, A.M., HEINICKE, M., JACKMAN, T.R. & BRANCH, W.R., 2011. Systematics of the Pachydactylus mariquensis group of geckos (Reptilia: Squamata: Gekkonidae): status of P. mariquensis latirostris, P. m. macrolepis and P. amoneus. Navorsinge van die Nationale Museum Bloemfontein 27(4): 85-108.

KINDLER, C., BRANCH, W.R., HOFME R, M.F., MARAN5, J., ŠIROKÝ, P., VENCES, M., HARVE , J., HAUSWALD, S., SCHLEICHER, A., STUCKAS, H. & FRITZ, U. 2012. Molecular phylogeny of African hinge- back tortoises (Kinixys Bell, 1827): implications for phylogeography and taxonomy (Testudines: Testudinidae). Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 50(3): 192–201.

HERRMANN, H-W. & BRANCH, W.R. 2012. Fifty years of herpetological research in the Namib Desert and Namibia with an updated and annotated species checklist. J. Arid Environ. (invited review – in press).

CONRADIE, W., BRANCH, W.R., MEASEY, G.J. & TOLLEY, K.A. 2012. A new species of Hyperolius Rapp, 1842 (Anura: Hyperoliidae) from the Serra da Chela mountains, south-western Angola. Zootaxa 3269: 1–17.

BARTS, M., SCHNEIDER, C., BOONE, J., MARAIS, J., BRANCH, W.R. & HAACKE, W.D. 2012. Lamprophis fiskii Boulenger, 1887 (Ophidia, Colubroidea, Lamprophiidae: Lamprophiinae), eine selten gefundene Hausschlange aus Südafrika. Sauria 34 (2): 41–51.

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CONRADIE, W., BRANCH, W.R., MEASEY, G.J. & TOLLEY, K.A 2012. Revised phylogeny of Sand lizards (Pedioplanis) and the description of two new species from south-western Angola. African Journal of Herpetology – electronic preprint available.

Faunal Survey Reports (recent) 1. Herpetofauna survey of the Zambezi Delta, Zambezi Basin Wetlands Biodiversity Project, Biodiversity Foundation of Africa, 24 July - 10 August 1999 2. Rapid Assessment Program. Herpetofaunal survey of Haute Dodo and Cavalley Forest Reserves, Cote d’Ivoire. Conservation International, March 2002. 3. Herpetofauna survey of the Gamba Complex, Ogooué-Maritime Province, southwestern Gabon, May-June 2002, Smithsonian Institution Monitoring and Assessment of Biodiversity (SI/MAB) Program. 4. Herpetofauna survey of the Loango National Park, Ogooué-Maritime Province, southwestern Gabon, Sept.-Nov. 2002, Smithsonian Institution Monitoring and Assessment of Biodiversity (SI/MAB) Program. 5. Herpetological survey of the Niassa Game Reserve, Northern Mozambique, Sociedade para a Gestão e Desenvolvimento da Reserva do Niassa, March 2004. 6. Herpetological survey Mount Mulanje, Malawi, Mount Mulanje Conservation Trust, May 2005. 7. Herpetological survey of the Huila and Namibé Districts, SW Angola, SANBI/ISCED/UAN Angolan Biodiversity Assessment and Capacity Building Project, January 2009. 8. Biodiversity Rapid Assessment of the Lagoa Carumbo area, Lunda Norte District, NE Angola, ISCED/UAN/NG Angolan Biodiversity Assessment and Capacity Building Project, May 2011.

Consultancy (2005-Part) 1 Bohlweki Environmental Ltd./Coastal and Environmental Services, June-July 2005. Coega Development Corporation. Proposed Waste Disposal Facility, Addo region. Environmental Impact Assessment: Terrestrial Vertebrates and Ecological synthesis: Specialist Report. 2 Arcus-Gibb, East London, March 2005. Amatole Integrated Coastal Management Plan, Terrestrial Fauna: Specialist Report. 3 Coastal and Environmental Services, May 2005; Faunal input to Ecological synthesis, Tiomin Resettlement, Kenya. 4 Coastal and Environmental Services, March 2005; Strategic Environmental Assessment, Northern Transkei, Terrestrial Fauna: Specialist Report. 5 Coastal and Environmental Services, November 2005; Madiba Bay Leisure Park EIA, Terrestrial Fauna: Specialist Report 6 Chand Environmental Services, Cape Town, December 2005. Carpe Diem Project, Fish Point, Terrestrial Fauna: Specialist Report. 7 Bohlweki Environmental Ltd, December 2005. Coega River Canalisation EIA, Coega Development Corporation, Terrestrial Fauna: Specialist Report. 8 Coastal and Environmental Services, December 2005. Scoping and EIA Peaking Power Plant, Coega IDZ, Terrestrial Fauna: Specialist Report. 9 Coastal and Environmental Services, March 2006. Environmental Impact Assessment: Terrestrial Fauna, Tulear Sands Mine, South-western Madagascar; Specialist Report. 10 Coastal & Environmental Services and Davies Lynn & Partners, 2007. Rio Tinto Mineral Sand Deposits Exploration at Chilubane and Mutamba in Mozambique: Phase I Order of Magnitude Study, CES - Grahamstown and DLP – Durban. Specialist Study: Fauna. 11 CCA Environmental (Pty) Ltd, Caledon Square. Specialist study, Potential impact of the proposed N2 wild coast toll highway on fauna, 2008 12 Envirolution Consulting (Pty), Sunninghill. Proposed Kalukundi mine (Democratic Republic of the Congo): Terrestrial fauna report, 2008. 13 Conradie, W., & Branch, W.R. Assessment of the vulnerability of the Sand Lizard Pedioplanis in Mining License Area 140, and sites of the 2009 Environmental Impact Assessment of Langer Heinrich Uranium Mine. Specialist report to Langer Heinrich Mine, Swakopmund, Namibia, 17 pp. 2009. 14 Coastal & Environmental Services, July 2010, Kalumbila Deposit, Northern Zambia. Terrestrial Fauna Report. 15 Coastal & Environmental Services, December 2010, Trident Project, Northern Zambia. Terrestrial Fauna Report. 16 Scott Wilson Ltd (Basingstoke, UK), March 2011, Phase 1 DSO Mining Project, Nimba County, Liberia. Reptile Survey Report – Baseline Data, with additional observations on the Amphibian fauna.

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17 Coastal & Environmental Services, March 2012, Niassa Green Resources Plantation Project, Northern Mozambique. Terrestrial Fauna Report.

Field Work in African countries Faunal surveys, impact assessments or workshops have been undertaken in the following countries (excluding the subcontinent): Angola (1998, 2009, 2011), Malawi (2002, 2005), Mozambique (1997-98, 2001-5, 2007, 2012), Zambia (2010-11), DRC (2008), Madagascar (2002, 2006), Tanzania 2008, 2009), Kenya (2005), Ethiopía (1994), Gabon (2002), Ivory Coast

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Appendix 2.1. Herpetofauna observed during field survey (26 Feb-7 March 2006) and Pre-feasibility field work (2002): Coastal Region

Common Name Scientific Name Status Habitat Ifaty Reniala Belalanda Andrevo Fiherenana PGR Lake Village River Amphibians Ptychadena Abundant W * Y Y madagascariensis Laliostoma labrosa Endemic, common RF, O Y Reptiles Lizards Geckos Phelsuma mutablis Endemic, Common RF, SF Y Skinks Trachylepis gravenhorstii Endemic, Infrequent G, DD Y Pygomeles branconnieri Endemic SW, Common SF, RF Y Plates Lizards Tracheloptychus petersi Endemic SW, Infrequent SF, ST Y Iguanines Oplurus cyclurus Endemic, Infrequent SF, DD Y Y Chalarodon madagascariensis Endemic, Abundant SF, O, RF Y Y Y Chameleons Furcifer verrucosus Endemic, Abundant RF, DD, ST Y Furcifer antimena Endemic SW, Rare ST Y Snakes Bernier’s Snake Dromicodryas bernieri Endemic, Common RF, SF, O, W, Y Y Y G Madagascan mole snake Leioheterodon geayi Endemic, Infrequent RF, SF, ST, G Y Madagascan Bark Snake Mimophis mahfalensis Endemic, Common RF, SF, ST, G, Y Y Y O Chelonians Spider tortoise Pyxis arachnoidea Endemic, Rare, SF, ST Y Vulnerable

 Habitat associations (W - Wetland, RF – Riparian Forest, O – Open, SF – Spiny Forest, ST – Spiny Thicket, G – Grassland, DD – Dry Deciduous Forest, C – Coastal) are based on a compilation of findings by Frontier-Madagascar (2005) and the present survey

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Appendix 2.2. Birds observed during the field survey (26 Feb-7 March 2006) and Pre-feasibility field work (2002): Coastal Region

Common Name Scientific Name Status Habitats Ifaty Reniala Songariteli Belalanda Andrevo Morombe Fiherenana PGR a Village Lake Village River Mt River Madagascar Little Grebe Tachybaptus pelezelnii Endemic, Common W ? Common Dabchick Tracybaptus ruficollis Common W Y Green-backed Heron Butorides striatus Common W Y Y Great White Egret Casmerodius albus Common W Y Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Common W, G, O Y Dimorphic Egret Egretta dimorpha Common W Y Y Y Grey Heron Ardea cinerea Common W Y Red-billed Teal Anas erthrorhyncha Common W Y White-faced Duck Dendrocygna viduata Common W Y Madagascar Harrier Polyboroides radiatus Endemic, Common RF, DD Y Hawk Yellow-billed Kite Milvus aegyptius Common O, G, DD, RF Y Y Y Sooty Falcon Falco concolor Common visitor O Y Y Madagascar Accipiter Endemic, uncommon RF Y sparrowhawk madagascariensis Madagascar Kestral Falco newtoni Endemic, Common RF, DD, SF, O, G Y Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus Common W Y Y Y Madagascar Plover Charadrius thoracicus Endemic to SW W Y Three-banded Plover Charadrius tricollaris Common W Y Kitlitz's Plover Charadrius pecuarius Common W Y Y Y Whimbrel Numenius phaeropus Common visitor C Y Y Grey Plover Pluvalis squatarola Common visitor C Y Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres Common visitor C Y Greenshank Tringa nebularia Common visitor W Y Y Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos Common visitor W Y Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus Common visitor C Y Swift Tern Sterna bergii Common C Y Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis Common C Y Y Common Tern Sterna hirundo Common C Y Feral Pigeon Columba livida Introduced, Local O, G Y Namaqua Dove Oena capensis Common O, G Y Y Madagascar Turtle Dove Streptopelia pictutara Endemic, Common RF, SF, DD Y Grey-headed Lovebird Agapornis cana Endemic, Common RF, DD, O Y Y Y Y Greater Vasa Parrot Coracopsis vasa Endemic, Common All Y Lesser Vasa Parrot Coracopsis nigra Endemic, Common All Y Y Madagascar Coucal Centropus toulou Endemic, Common All Y Y Y Y Madagascar Lesser Cuculus rochii Breeding endemic RF, SF, DD Y Cuckoo

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Appendix 2.2. Birds observed during the field survey (26 Feb-7 March 2006) and Pre-feasibility field work (2002): Coastal Region (cont.)

Common Name Scientific Name Status Habitat Ifaty Reniala Songariteli Belalanda Andrevo Morombe Fiherenana PGR a Village Lake Village River Mt River Crested Coua Coua cristata Endemic, Common SF Y Madagascar Nightjar Caprimulgus Endemic, Common RF, O Y Y madagascariensis Madagascar Spinetail Zoonavena grandidieri Endemic, Common O, G Y African Palm Swift Cypsiurus parvus Common O Y Mascarene Martin Phedina borbonica Endemic, Common O Y Barn Swallow Hirudina Common Migrant O, G Y Y Madagascar Kingfisher Corythornis vintsioides Endemic, Common W Madagascar Bee-eater Merops superciliosus Breeding endemic O, G Y Y Y Broad-billed Roller Eurysomus glaucurus Breeding visitor RF, DD Y Long-tailed Ground Roller Uratelornis chimaera Rare Endemic SW SF Y Subdesert Mesite Monias benschi Rare, Endemic SW SF Y A Madagascar Bulbul Hypsipetes Endemic, Common All Y Y madagascariensis Madagascar Magpie Robin Copsychus albospecularis Endemic, Common All Y Y Madagascar Hoopoe Upupa marginata Endemic, Common RF, DD, O Y Y Madagascar Paradise Terpsiphone mutata Endemic, Common RF, DD Y Y Flycatcher Common Newtonia Newtonia brunneicauda Endemic, Common All Y Madagascar Cisticola Cisticola cherina Endemic, Common O, G Y Y Y Y Madagascar Lark Mirafra hova Endemic, Common O Y Y Y Subdesrt Brush Warbler Nesillas lantzii Endemic SW Y Common Jery Neomixis tenella Endemic, Common All Y Y Stripe-Throated Jery Neomixis striatigula Endemic, Common RF, ST Y Y Madagascar Green Sunbird Nectarinia notata Endemic, Common RF, O Y Y Souimanga Sunbird Nectarinia souimanga Endemic, Common All Y Hook-billed Vanga Vanga curvirostris Endemic, Rare RF, DD A White-headed Vanga Leptopterus viridis Endemic, Common RF, SF, DD A Red-shouldered Vanga Calicalicus rufocarpalis Endemic, Rare SF A Chabert's Vanga Leptopterus chabaert Endemic, Common RF, SF, DD Y Sickle-billed Vanga Falculea palliata Endemic, W RF, SF Y Common Mynah Acridotheres tristis Introduced, Local O, G Y Y Creasted Drongo Dicrurus forficatus Endemic, Common All Y Pied Crow Corvus alba Common O Y Madagascar Fody Foudia madagascariensis Endemic, Common All Y Y Y Y Y Sakalava Weaver Ploceus sakalava Endemic, W All Y Y Y Madagascar Mannikin Lonchura nana Endemic, Common O, G Y

Coastal & Environmental Services 85 Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013

Appendix 2.3. Herpetofauna observed during the field survey (26 Feb-7 March 2006) and Pre-feasibility field work (2002): Mine Site

Common Name Scientific Name Status Habitat PK32 Ranobe Ranobe Central Baobab Pilot Limestone Will’s Lake Forest track Valley Plant at Pilot Road Plant Amphibians Ptychadena mascareniensis Abundant W Y Reptiles Lizards Geckos Geckolepis typica Endemic, Infrequent RF, SF, DD, G Y Y Y Blaesodactylus sakalava Endemic, Infrequent RF, DD Y Y Phelsuma standingi Endemic SW, Rare, SF Y Vulnerable Phelsuma mutablis Endemic, Rare RF, SF Y Y Hemidactylus frenatus Introduced, Rare O Y Hemidactylus mercatorius Abundant RF, O Y Y Y Y Lygodactylus verticillatus Endemic SW, Rare RF, SF, DD Y Y Y Paraedura picta Endemic, Rare SF, RF, DD, G Y Skinks Trachylepis elegans Endemic, Infequent RF, SF, G, DD Y Y Y Y Trachylepis aureopunctata Endemic, Rare RF, SF Y Y Trachylepis gravenhorstii Endemic, Infrequent RF, DD Y Y Pygomeles branconnieri Endemic SW, Common SF, RG, O Y Y Voeltzkowia petiti Endemic, Rare RF, SF Y Voeltzkowia rubrocaudata Endemic, Common DD Y Amphiglossus ornaticeps Endemic, Common RF, SF Y Plated lizards Zonosaurus quadrolineatus Endemic SW, Abundant RF Y Y Zonosaurus laticaudatus Endemic, E, Common RF Y Y Y Zonosaurus karsteni Endemic, Common RF, DD Y Tracheloptychus Endemic, Common SF, ST, RF Y Y madagascariensis

Coastal & Environmental Services 86 Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013

Appendix 2.3. Herpetofauna observed during field survey (26 Feb-7 March 2006) and Pre-feasibility field work (2002): Mine Site (cont.)

Common Name Scientific Name Status Habitat PK32 Ranobe Ranobe Central Baobab Pilot Limestone Will’s Road Lake Forest track Valley Plant at Pilot Plant Igunines Oplurus cyclurus Endemic, Infrequent RF, SF Y Y Chalarodon Endemic, Abundant SF, ST, RF Y Y Y Y Y Y Y madagascariensis Chameleons Furcifer verrucosus Endemic, Common RF, ST, G, DD Y Y Furcifer antimena Endemic SW, Rare ST, SF Y Snakes Sand Blind Snake Typhlops arenarius Endemic, Rare DD, ST, RF, SF, G Y Bernier’s Snake Dromicodryas bernieri Endemic, Common RF, SF, O, W, G Y Y Madagascan tiger Madagascarophis colubrinus Endemic, Infrequent RF. SF, G, Y snake Madagascan Bark Mimophis mahfalensis Endemic, Common RF, SF, ST, G, O Y Y Snake Ithycyphus oursi Endemic, Infrequent RF, SF Y

Chelonians Spider tortoise Pyxis arachnoidea Endemic, Rare, SF, ST Y Vulnerable

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Appendix 2.4. Birds observed during the field survey (26 Feb-7 March 2006) and Pre-feasibility field work (2002): Mine Site.

Common Name Scientific Name Status Habitat PK32 Ranobe Ranobe Central Baobab Pilot Limestone at Will’s Lake Forest track Valley Plant Pilot Plant Road Common Dabchick Tracybaptus ruficollis Common W Y Common Squacco Heron Ardeeola ralloides Common W Y Madagascar Squacco Ardeeola idea Endemic, common W Y Heron Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Common W, G, O Y Purple Heron Ardea purpurea Common W Y Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus Rare in south W Y Red-billed Teal Anas erthrorhyncha Common W Y Madagascar Harrier Polyboroides radiatus Endemic, Common RF, DD Y Y Hawk Madagascar Buzzard Buteo brachypterus Endemic, Common RF, DD, O Y Y Y Y Yellow-billed Kite Milvus aegyptius Common O. G, DD, RF Y Madagascar Kestral Falco newtoni Endemic, Common All Y Y Y Y Y Common Quail Coturnic coturnix Common visitor RF, DD Y Madagascar Partridge Margaroperdix Endemic, Common RF, DD, O Y Y madagascariensis Helmeted Guinea Fowl Numida meleagris Introduced, O Y Uncommon Purple Gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio Locally common W Y Moorhen Gallinula chloropus Common W Y Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus Common W Y Three-banded Plover Charadrius tricollaris Common W Y Kitlitz's Plover Charadrius pecuarius Common W Y Greenshank Tringa nebularia Common visitor W Y Madagascar Turtle Dove Streptopelia pictutara Endemic, Common RF, SF, DD Y Y Y Y Grey-headed Lovebird Agapornis cana Endemic, Common RF, DD, O Y Y Greater Vasa Parrot Coracopsis vasa Endemic, Common All Y Y Y Y Lesser Vasa Parrot Coracopsis nigra Endemic, Common All Y Y Madagascar Coucal Centropus toulou Endemic, Common All Y Y Y Y Madagascar Lesser Cuculus rochii Breeding endemic RF, SF, DD Y Y Y Cuckoo Green-capped Coua Coua olivaceiceps Endemic SW RF, DD, SF Y Y Giant Coua Coua gigas Endemic W RF, DD Y Crested Coua Coua cristata Endemic, Common RF, DD, SF Y Y Y Barn Owl Tyto alba Common DD, O Y Madagascar Black Swift Apus balstoni Endemic, Common O Y Y Madagascar Spinetail Zoonavena grandidieri Endemic, Common O Y African Palm Swift Cypsiurus parvus Common O Y Mascarene Martin Phedina borbonica Endemic, Common O Y

Coastal & Environmental Services 88 Ranobe Mine Project Faunal Baseline Assessment – January 2013

Appendix 2.4. Birds observed during the field survey (26 Feb-7 March 2006) and Pre-feasibility field work (2002): Mine Site (cont.)

Common Name Scientific Name Status Habitat PK32 Ranobe Ranobe Central Baobab Pilot Limestone at Will’s Lake Forest Valley Valley Plant Pilot Plant Road Madagascar Kingfisher Corythornis vintsioides Endemic, Common W Y Madagascar Bee-eater Merops superciliosus Breeding endemic O Y Y Broad-billed Roller Eurysomus glaucurus Breeding visitor RF, DD Y Y Y Y Subdesert Mesite Monias benschi Rare, Endemic SW SF Y Madagascar Bulbul Hypsipetes Endemic, Common All Y Y Y madagascariensis Madagascar Magpie Robin Copsychus albospecularis Endemic, Common All Y Y Y Y Madagascar Hoopoe Upupa marginata Endemic, Common RF, DD, O Y Y Y Madagascar Paradise Terpsiphone mutata Endemic, Common RF, DD Y Y Y Flycatcher Common Newtonia Newtonia brunneicauda Endemic, Common All Y Y Y Y Archbold's Newtonia Newtonia archboldi Endemic SW RF, SF, DD Y Madagascar Cisticola Cisticola cherina Endemic, Common O Y Madagascar Swamp Warbler Acrocephalus newtoni Endemic, Common W Y Subdesrt Brush Warbler Nesillas lantzii Endemic SW RF, SF Common Jery Neomixis tenella Endemic, Common All Y Y Stripe-Throated Jery Neomixis striatigula Endemic, Common RF, ST Y Madagascar Green Sunbird Nectarinia notata Endemic, Common RF, O Y Y Souimanga Sunbird Nectarinia souimanga Endemic, Common All Y Y White-headed Vanga Leptopterus viridis Endemic, Common RF, SF, DD Y Y Y Chabert's Vanga Leptopterus chabaert Endemic, Common RF, SF, DD Y Sickle-billed Vanga Falculea palliata Endemic W RF, SF Y Y Y Y Y Lafresnaye's Vanga Xenopirostris xenopirostris Endemic, SW RF, SF, DD Y Common Mynah Acridotheres tristis Introduced, Local O Y Creasted Drongo Dicrurus forficatus Endemic, Common All Y Y Y Y Y Y Pied Crow Corvus alba Common O Y Madagascar Fody Foudia madagascariensis Endemic, Common All Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Sakalava Weaver Ploceus sakalava Endemic, W All Y Y Y Y Y Y

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