A GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF URBAN LAND TRANSFORMATION IN CITY

THESIS

SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Doctor of Philosophy IN GEOGRAPHY

By ARSHAD AMIN

Under the supervision of

DR. SHAHAB FAZAL (Associate Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH, U.P. () 2012

Dedicated to my grandfather Late. Mr. Abdul Salam Dar

He would have loved to see this work

Certificate

This is to certify that Mr. Arshad Amin has completed Ph.D thesis entitled “A Geographical Analysis of Urban Land

Transformation in Srinagar City” under my supervision. In my opinion it is fit for submission and evaluation.

(Dr. Shahab Fazal) Acknowledgements

Proclaim! And thy lord is most bountiful He who taught the use of pen Taught man that which he knew not!

(Surah Alaq: 3-5, Al-Quran)

All praise is to Allah, the most merciful and beneficial who has enabled me to carry out this work. After Allah it was the encouragement, love and moral support of my caring Mom and Dad which helped me in bringing this work to its final stage. I will be forever grateful to my supervisor Dr. Shahab Fazal, Associate professor, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for his erudite, scholastic and constructive guidance, sincere criticism, precious suggestions, constant inspirations and encouragement throughout the course of this study. I have sincere thanks for Prof. Farasat Ali Siddiqui, Chairman Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University for his kind cooperation in this work. I am much obliged to all the teachers of my Alma matter Tyndale Biscoe School with whose best wishes this work was accomplished. I acknowledge Loan sir who helped me wholeheartedly during the field survey. My sincere gratitude goes to the Officers and Staffs of the different government departments of Srinagar city especially Mr. Iftikhar Ahmad, Chief Town Planner. I convey my thanks to Mr. Manzoor Ahmad, Chief Sanitation Officer. I would like to thank my loving and perpetual caring brothers and sisters Mr. Humayun Rashid, Mr. Arif Amin, Mr. Asif Amin, Dr. Bassit Matto, Dr. Tieka Rashid, Mr. Ghulam Jeelani, Mr. Imran Khan, Mr. Ehsan Mehboob, Mr. Faizan Amin, Mr. Yawar Amin, Mr. Tauqeer, Miss Sabha Mehboob, Miss Fouzia Zahoor, Miss Saima Majid who as good friends were always willing to help and give their best suggestions from time to time. Besides them it was the tender love and affection of my nephew Hadi Jaan which cuddled my times of excessive work load. I remain very grateful to my loving friends Mr. Abdul Ghaffar, Mr. Suhail Shafi, Mr. Shamim Ahmad, Dr. Bilal Ahmad, Mr. Imran Khan, Mr Shamshad, Mr. Javed Alam, Mr. Mohammad Ali, Dr. Hilal Wani, Dr. Mohammad Akhter Ali, Mr. Mudasir, Dr. Miss Saleha Jamal and Miss Shabnam Khan. They were always supporting and encouraging me with their best wishes and timely help.

Arshad Amin

CONTENTS

Page No.

List of Figures i List of Tables ii List of Photo plates iii-iv

INTRODUCTION 1-10 Overview Research Objectives. The Research Area and the Selected Case Study Sites. Data Sets and Methodology. Land Use/Land Cover and Land Transformation Mapping. Structure of the Thesis.

CHAPTER–I STUDY AREA 11-46 1. Introduction 1.1 Location of Srinagar City 1.1.1 Physical profile of Srinagar city (a) Physiography (b) Geology (c) Climate (d) Drainage (e) Soils (f) Flora (g) Fauna 1.2. History and Development of Srinagar city 1.2.1 Historical background 1.2.2 Origin and growth of the city 1.2.3 Administrative development 1.2.4 Infrastructural development 1.2.5 Basic amenities and facilities 1.2.6 Transportation 1.3. Demographic profile of Srinagar city 1.3.1 Population and growth 1.3.2 Population density 1.3.3 Sex ratio 1.3.4 Literacy rate

1.4 Cultural profile of Srinagar city 1.4.1 Historic and religious monuments (a) Shrine. (b) Khanqah- i-Mualla (Shah Hamadan Mosque). (c) Hari Parbat/Koh-i-Maran fort. (d) Shah Hamzah or Makhdoom Sahib Shrine. (e) Shankaracharya Temple. (f) Dastgeer Sahib Shrine. (g) Chatti Padshahi Gurudwara. (h) Jama Masjid. (i) Aali Masjid. (j) Khanqah-i-Bulbul Shah. (k) No Masjid or Pathar Masjid. (l) Shergarhi. 1.5 Natural profile of Srinagar city 1.5.1 Water bodies and parks (a) . (b) . (c) Khushalsar and Bab-i-demb water bodies. (d) . 1.5.2 Gardens (a) Garden. (b) Shalimar Garden. (c) Chashma Shahi and Pari Mahal. 1.6 Economic profile of Srinagar city 1.6.1 Participation ratio 1.6.2 Occupational Pattern 1.6.3 Industry (a) Handloom and handicraft industry (i) Silk industry. (ii) Carpet-Making and Woolen Textile. (iii) Metal works. (b) Forest-based industries (i) Papier Machie. (ii) Sports goods industries. (c) Agro-based industries (i) Horticulture. (ii) Floriculture. (d) Tourism industry CHAPTER–II 47-59 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Urbanization. 2.2 Land use/land cover: concepts and development. 2.3 Land use/land cover change studies. 2.4 Land use/land cover change studies using remote sensing and GIS techniques. 2.5 Impact of land use/land cover change on environment. 2.5.1 Impact of land use/land cover change on water bodies. 2.5.2 Impact of land use/land cover change on biodiversity.

CHAPTER–III 60-102 LAND USE/LAND COVER 3.1 Land 3.1.1 Basic functions of land. 3.1.2 Stress on land. 3.2 Urbanization in India. 3.3 Indian census definition of urban area. 3.4 Land Use and Land Cover. 3.5 Land Use/Land Cover change (LULCC) and definitions. 3.5.1 Residential. 3.5.2 Commercial. 3.5.3 Industrial. 3.5.4 Restricted Area. 3.5.5 Parks/Gardens & Playgrounds. 3.5.6 Vacant Land. 3.5.7 Agricultural Land 3.5.8 Plantation/Orchards. 3.5.9 Forest. 3.5.10 Barren. 3.5.11 Marshy Area. 3.5.12 Water body. 3.6 Data used. 3.7 Data Analysis. 3.7.1 Built-up classes (a) Residential (b) Scattered Settlements (c) Commercial (d) Industrial (e) Restricted area 3.7.2 Non built-up classes (a) Parks/gardens and Playgrounds (b) Vacant Land (c) Agricultural Land (d) Plantation/Orchards (e) Forest (f) Barren (g) Marshy Area. (h) Water body (i) Others (Educational, Governmental, Hospital, Religious) 3.7.3 Overview of land use/land cover of Srinagar city

CHAPTER –IV 103-135 LAND TRANSFORMATION 4.1 Concept, definition and approaches of land transformation. 4.2 Land transformation in Srinagar city. 4.2.1 Residential 4.2.2 Scattered Settlement 4.2.3 Commercial 4.2.4 Industrial 4.2.5 Parks/gardens and Playgrounds 4.2.6 Restricted Area 4.2.7 Vacant Land 4.2.8 Agricultural land 4.2.9 Plantation/orchards 4.2.10 Forest 4.2.11 Barren 4.2.12 Marshy Area 4.2.13 Water body 4.2.14 Others (Educational, governmental, hospital & religious) 4.3 Features of land transformation in Srinagar city.

CHAPTER–V 136-150 ACTORS OF LAND TRANSFORMATION 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Direct versus indirect causes of land transformation. 5.3 Role of actors and political ecology in land use issues. 5.4 Socio-political perspectives of land use. 5.5 Actors of land transformation operating in Srinagar city. 5.5.1 Institutional actors. (a) Government agencies and their activities in Srinagar city. (b) Government policies and their impact on land transformation in Srinagar city (c) Article 370 and its impact on the Land Transformation in Srinagar city. 5.5.2 Private actors. (a) Residents. (b) Farmers. (c) Boatman (Hanjis). (d) Entrepreneurs. (e) Property dealers. (f) Developers. 5.6 Evaluation of Actors of land transformation in Srinagar city. 5.6.1 Conflicts. 5.6.2 Alliances. 5.6.3 Strong actors. 5.6.4 Weak actors. 5.6.5 Beneficiaries. 5.6.6 Victims.

CHAPTER–VI 151-186 CASE STUDIES 6.1. Overview 6.2. Case study sites. 6.2.1 ward 6.2.2 Aalochi Bagh ward 6.2.3 ward 6.2.4 Soura ward 6.2.5 Chanpora ward 6.2.6 Hanji Localities

CONCLUSION 187-197

BIBLIOGRAPHY 198-210

LIST OF FIGURES Page No. Figure 1.1 Location Map of Srinagar City. 12 Figure 1.2 Physiographic Map of Srinagar City. 13 Figure 1.3 Geological Map of Srinagar City. 15 Figure 1.4 Drainage Map of Srinagar City. 18 Figure 1.5 Municipal Ward Map of Srinagar City. 27 Figure 1.6 Population of Srinagar City (1901-2011). 32 Figure 1.7 Population Growth Rate of Srinagar City, (1901-2011). 33 Figure 3.1 Man Land Relationship. 61 Figure 3.2 Land use/Land Cover of Srinagar City-1971. 72 Figure 3.3 Land use/Land Cover of Srinagar City-2008. 73 Figure 3.4 Bar Diagram Showing Land use/Land Cover of Srinagar City (1971 & 2008). 76 Figure 3.5 Pie Diagram Showing Land use/Land Cover of Srinagar City-1971. 76(a) Figure 3.6 Pie Diagram Showing Land use/Land Cover of Srinagar City-2008. 76(a) Figure 3.7 Built–up Land of Srinagar City-1971. 77 Figure 3.8 Built–up Land of Srinagar City-2008. 78 Figure 3.9 Residential Land use of Srinagar City-2008. 80 Figure 3.10 Land use/Land cover Classes of Srinagar City-2008. 84 Figure 3.11 Land use/Land cover Classes of Srinagar City-2008. 91 Figure 3.12 Agricultural Land use of Srinagar City-2008. 92 Figure 3.13 Plantation/Orchard Land use of Srinagar City-2008. 95 Figure 3.14 Water Bodies of Srinagar City-2008. 99 Figure 4.1 Land Transformation in Srinagar City (1971-2008). 106 Figure 4.2 Bar Diagram Showing land Transformation in Srinagar City. 107 Figure 4.3 Residential Land Transformations in Srinagar City (1971-2008). 110 Figure 4.4 Vacant Land Transformations in Srinagar City (1971-2008). 119 Figure 4.5 Agricultural Land Transformations in Srinagar City (1971-2008). 121 Figure 4.6 Plantation/Orchard Land Transformations in Srinagar City (1971-2008). 125 Figure 4.7 Marshy Land Transformations in Srinagar City (1971-2008). 129 Figure 5.1 Farmer’s Decisions that Affect Local Landscapes of Srinagar, City. 142 Figure 6.1 Location of Case Study Sites. 153 Figure 6.2 Location of Hanji Mohallas/Localities. 180

i LIST OF TABLES

Page No. Table 1.1 Existing Municipal Wards of Srinagar City. 26 Table 1.2 Population of Srinagar City (1901-2011). 32 Table 1.3 Components of Population Growth in Srinagar City. 33 Table 1.4 Srinagar City: Distribution of Workers (in percentage). 42 Table 3.1 Trend of Urbanization in India. 62 Table 3.2 Million-Plus Cities in India: 1951- 2001. 63 Table 3.3 Details of Satellite Data used in the Study. 70 Table 3.4 Land use/Land Cover of Srinagar city 1971 & 2008. 75 Table 4.1 Srinagar City: Land Transformation (1971 - 2008). 108 Table 6.1 Important Features of Lal Chowk Ward. 155 Table 6.2 Important Features of Aalochi Bagh Ward. 161 Table 6.3 Important Features of Bemina Ward. 165 Table 6.4 Important Features of Soura Ward. 171 Table 6.5 Important Features of Chanpora Ward. 176 Table 6.6 Important Features of Hanji Localities. 181

ii LIST OF PHOTO PLATES

Page No. Photo Plate 1: Town planning map of the Srinagar city. 71 Photo Plate 2: IRS-1D LISS III + PAN October 2008 merged satellite image of Srinagar city. 71 Photo Plate 3: Old City Residential Area. 81 Photo Plate 4: New Residential Area. 81 Photo Plate 5: Commercial Area. 85 Photo Plate 6: Industrial Area. 85 Photo Plate 7: Parks and Gardens. 89 Photo Plate 8: Vacant Land. 89 Photo Plate 9: Agricultural Land. 93 Photo Plate 10: Plantation/Orchards. 93 Photo Plate 11: Marshy Area. 97 Photo Plate 12: Water Body. 97 Photo Plate 13: Agriculture to Residential Land Transformation. 112 Photo Plate 14: Vacant to Residential Land Transformation. 112 Photo Plate 15: Plantation/Orchard to Residential Land Transformation. 113 Photo Plate 16: Marshy to Residential Land Transformation. 113 Photo Plate 17: Residential to Commercial Land Transformation. 114 Photo Plate 18: Agriculture to Vacant Land Transformation. 122 Photo Plate 19: Agriculture to Plantation/Orchard Transformation. 122 Photo Plate 20: Agricultural to Institutional Land Transformation. 123 Photo Plate 21: Plantation/Orchards to Parks and Gardens Transformation. 127 Photo Plate 22: Forest to Parks and Gardens Transformation. 127 Photo Plate 23: Marshy to Agricultural Land Transformation. 130 Photo Plate 24: Marshy to Plantation/Orchard Transformation. 130 Photo Plate 25: Water body to Agriculture Transformation. 131

iii Photo Plate 26: Water body to Marshy Transformation. 131 Photo Plate 27: Residential Congestion in Lal Chowk Ward. 159 Photo Plate 28: Traffic Congestion in Lal Chowk Ward. 159 Photo Plate 29: Residential Development in Bemina Ward. 169 Photo Plate 30: Relocated Hanji Settlements in Bemina Ward. 169 Photo Plate 31: Deteriorated View of Aanchar Lake. 174 Photo Plate 32: Aerial View of Soura Ward. 174 Photo Plate 33: in Dal Lake. 185 Photo Plate 34: Hanji Settlements in Dal Lake. 185 Photo Plate 35: Hanji Locality in Dal Lake. 186 Photo Plate 36: Floating Gardens (Radh) in Dal Lake 186

iv

ABSTRACT

Urbanization is one of the most evident global land use land cover change. During the last 200 years, while the world population has increased six times, urban populations have increased to over 100 times their original count. It has been observed that nearly 50% of the world’s population lives in urban areas. In the year 1951, 881 million i.e., 54.5% population lived in the urban areas in developed countries. It reached up to 1024 million i.e., 77.7% in 2011 and further is expected to be 1030 million i.e., 82.1% in 2030. Contrary to it there were 1072 million people i.e., 17.6% population living in the urban areas in the developing world in 1951, which increased to 5073 million i.e., 46.5% population in the year 2011. India, a developing country, has experienced rapid increase in urban population. In 1951 about 62.5 million people lived in urban areas of the country. By 2001, their number had gone up to over 285 million, an increase of over 350 percent in the last four decades. This figure has reached up to over 377 million by the year 2011. The state of and also followed the similar trend. It had 0.4 million people living urban areas in 1951, which increased to 3.4 million in the year 2011. Rapid urbanization promoted the economic and social development, which is the prominent feature of the industrial era. At the same time demographic growth stimulates structural change through multiplier effects and behavioral changes attract immigrants. Cities with rapid growth, mostly in developing countries, like India grow without planning and relationship between urban form (the built environment) and nature generates an unending source of physical and environmental degradation. Cities have become the centre of all the activities, they are expanding in size, land use is changing quickly, constantly intensifying urban lands and large-scale land transformation is taking place leading to the loss of natural vegetation, open spaces and wetlands due to substantial increases in urban land value and thus these areas have acquired centre stage. Although, the process of land transformation has an extensive history dating back to antiquity, but the rate of transformation was not the same as it is today. It got accelerated and diversified with the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the globalization of the world economy and technological advancement. Understanding the cause and effect relationship in urban systems and addressing questions regarding changes in the spatio-temporal patterns of urban form are of paramount importance in urban studies. Land use information can be

1 used to develop solutions for natural resource management issues. The remote sensing technique has emerged as efficient tool to map and monitor natural resources at a low cost, high degree of accuracy and within a comparatively short period of time. The efficiency of such remote sensing monitoring system increases manifold when the data is integrated with secondary database and analyzed in GIS domain which permits the synthesis, analysis and communication of virtually unlimited sources and types of bio-physical and socio-economic data. The present work gives the apt representation of this analysis where the socio-economic attributes are incorporated in GIS environment, enabling better understanding of the role played by different actors in land transformation process both at macro as well as micro level. The present study is for Srinagar city which is the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir State. It lies between 33o59'14'' N and 34o12'37'' N latitude and 74o41'06'' E and 74o57'27'' E longitude, located in the heart of the Valley on both banks of River Jhelum locally called Vyeth in Kashmir. The general relief of the study area is 1580 m above mean sea level. It has rich historical past with bountiful natural heritage. It is also the tourist destination centre of the State. The study further selected case study at six specific sites to study the micro level land transformations in the city, which include Lal Chowk ward, is the city centre and also acts as the CBD of the city; Aalochi Bagh ward, located to the west of Lal Chowk in the core area of the city; Bemina ward, located in the west of the city; Soura ward, located in the north of the city; Chanapora ward, located in the south of the city and Hanji localities, located in the western part of the Dal Lake. Over the last number of decades this capital city has recorded rapid urbanisation. It recorded 5 times increase in its urban population during the past 50 years i.e., from 0.24 million in the year 1951 to 1.5 million in the year 2011. The city has been ruled by different sects of people in the past. Besides physiographic influences, these rulers made the physical look of the city mixed with different groups shaping the city differently. Apart from this, the growing population growth played an important role. There has been rapid population growth since 1901-2001. The onset of urbanization took place from the year 1971, which marked the substantial increase in population growth of the city and the resultant areal expansion. Being state capital, the concentration of economic, political and socio-

2 cultural, administrative activities and infrastructural development has also accelerated the urbanization process. This has resulted into the unplanned expansion of the city. This process has made urban growth complex phenomenon and a challenging task for the planners of the city to ensure a reasonable quality of life and environment to the inhabitants. The study investigates the patterns of urban land use/land cover change and transformation in Srinagar city with the objectives to reveal the reveal the impact of urbanization on land use/land cover and issues related with it. The main objectives of this study are: 1. To analyze the changes in land use/land cover during the period of 37 years i.e., from the year 1971 to 2008. 2. To evaluate the process of land transformation and its pattern during the study period. 3. To identify the factors instigating the land transformation. 4. To study the impact of urbanization and issues of land transformations.

The study is based on both primary as well as secondary sources of data. The secondary sources of data used include, Town planning map of Srinagar city 1971 at 1:15000 scale procured from department of Town Planning J&K, was used for the preparation of pre-date land use/land cover map. Similarly, IRS-1D LISS III + PAN 2008 merged satellite imagery, obtained from National Remote Sensing Centre, was used to prepare the present date land use/land cover map. Both the data were processed in remote sensing using Earth Resource Data Analysis System (ERDAS) Imagine 9.0 software and then digitized in GIS environment using ArcGIS 9.3, ArcView 3.2a. Further for assistance in the process of interpretation SOI toposheet No-43J/16 at 1:50,000 scale of 1977 was also used. The images were digitized in the form of polygons representing different land use/land cover categories. The data was classified into 14 land use/land cover classes spread over a total area of 23446.5 hectares of the Srinagar city (which incidentally is also the Municipal limits). The trend and pattern of urban expansion was calculated and every polygon representing the particular class was quantified and displayed in respective maps. It was followed by the land use/land cover analysis. Further, the study carried out land

3 transformation analysis by superimposing these two time period land use/land cover maps through overlay operation in GIS. Census data figures that were used to supplement the demographic characteristics of the study area are mostly from 1951 to 2011. Various reports, journals and books were consulted for background information about the study area, which was procured from various government departments. The primary sources of data used include Global Positioning System (GPS), which was used for ground truth verification/ground validation. Socio-economic survey was also carried out to supplement the causes of land use/cover change and transformation. Total number of 421 stakeholders/actors were interviewed during fieldwork in the year 2009-10. The interview focused only on those activities of the actors which were understood to be bringing land transformation. The variables included Land use, Place of origin, Occupational characteristics etc. The key informants were Government agencies, Residents, Farmers, Boatmen (Hanjis), Entrepreneurs, Property dealers, Developers. The micro level interviews included total number of 380 respondents and random sampling technique of around 2 per cent of the households was applied. The interviews were held at six micro level case study sites (Lal Chowk ward, Aalochi Bagh ward, Bemina ward, Soura ward, Chanpora ward and the Hanji localities of Dal lake area). The aim of survey was to find out the specific socio-economic activities carried out by micro level stake holders/actors responsible for land transformations. Further the questionnaires included the queries of different features of land transformation and the related issues.

This research work is organized into six chapters. Introduction of the thesis work is followed by the Chapter 1, which deals with the regional and local setting and description of the study area. The physical, cultural, demographic, natural, economic profile along with the history and development of the city are discussed. Chapter 2 contains the review of related literature where urbanization, land use/land cover concept, definitions, land use/land cover dynamics and case studies using remote sensing and GIS techniques, the impact of land use/land cover change on environment are discussed.

4 Chapter 3 deals with the land use/cover changes in the study area involving data presentation and data analysis consisting of nature, extent and rate of land use/cover change maps and statistics, spatial analysis of change detection and patterns. Chapter 4 is devoted to the interchange of land between different land use/cover classes based on land transformation analysis carried out in the form of statistics and maps. It focuses on the pattern, locations of land transformations and their causes. Chapter 5 identifies the actors who play an important role in the process of land transformation. It studies the activities carried out by them. The role of each actor is evaluated on the basis of their social, economic and political extents. Chapter 6 deals with the micro level land transformations studies of six specific sites which reflect the major transformations of the city. These case studies focuses on the demography, land use/land cover and land transformation, role of different people and important objective for carrying these case studies is to highlight the features of land transformation and its related issues. Finally, the conclusion and suggestions are pointed out.

The results show that there have been large scale changes in land use/land cover of the study area. Increasing concentration of population in the city and socio- economic transformation has resulted in land transformations. The transformation is of great concern due to the location, natural setting and fragile hill ecosystem of the city. The economic development in the city led to the social transformation which in turn led to the land use/cover change. The study attempted to study this change through mapping of different land use/cover classes. Total number of 14 land use/land cover classes which include, Residential, Scattered settlement, Commercial, Industrial, Restricted, Parks/gardens & playgrounds, Vacant land, Agricultural land, Plantation/orchard, Forest, Barren, Marshy, Water bodies and others (Educational, Governmental, Religious and Hospital land use) covering total land area of 23446.5 hectares. The area under built-up land has increased by 3835 hectares during the study period of 37 years (1971-2008) because of the growing demand for land from increasing population due to natural increase and in-migration from the adjoining districts to the city, mostly from north and south and the development made in

5 secondary and tertiary sectors. This increase was at the cost of non built-up land use/cover classes which have not only significantly decreased during the study period, but also are in the deplorable state. The city has expanded along the roads which are in the radial pattern. The expansion is mostly haphazard and unplanned. Increasing population has widened the gap between the demand and supply of land has created shortage of land for various uses especially residential, commercial and industrial use. Core area became denser despite shifting of various government and private offices and institutions to the west of the city. The middle part has experienced the emergence of new built-up in western, northern and southern parts due to expanding core area where major increases were recorded mostly in residential and governmental land use. The peripheral areas mostly in north and south observed rapid increase in residential land use on fertile agricultural land due to both migrations from outside and within the city. Residential area has increased by 2776.5 hectares and is presently spread over 3851 hectares which is mostly unplanned. Land under commercial and industrial use has increased during the study period but is relatively low which is mostly because of political disturbance in the state. The unplanned expansion has led to the growth of few unauthorized commercial and industrial pockets in the city prominently in the west, north and south east. The existing land use is also comparatively low under administrative, hospital and educational buildings and allied institutions which is because of the weaknesses in local urban development authorities. City expansion has been shaped by its physiographical setting rather than commercial and industrial distribution of land use. The hills and water bodies have greatly influenced the expansion of city. There is significant area under water bodies, marshy areas and plantation/orchards. The city has less resemblance with the western cities where pattern of land use form concentric circles due to specialized economic activities. The overall land use is characterized by the inter-mix of spatial activities involving built-up and non built-up areas.

In addition to the land use change, there has been significant interchange of land between different land use/cover classes in Srinagar city during the study

6 period which is the outcome of social, economic, religious and cultural factors. The demand for land, functional convenience, functional magnetism and the land value of the particular area influenced the pace and direction of land transformation in the city. The increasing population led to the decrease in per capita land availability resulting into increasing land value and shortage of land. Therefore, the rate and direction of land transformation in Srinagar city is the outcome of the increasing land value which commands the demand and supply ends of the land market. The study found that the non built-up classes lost 3835 hectares of land area for the development of built-up area during the study period of 37 years (1971- 2008). Important land transformations witnessed were among residential, vacant, plantation/orchard, agriculture, marshy area and water bodies. Residential area has increased by 2776.5 hectares during the study period capturing land mainly from agriculture, vacant and plantation/orchards, mainly due to increasing family size, increasing trend of nuclear family system and the influx of migrant population. Similarly demand for commercial, industrial, religious and institutional land use also increased due to the increasing population. Agriculture land is the prime victim of the process of land transformation in the city which lost 3459 hectares during the study period. Farmers not only lost their fertile agricultural assets for city development but also lost their livelihood. There was also occupational shift as farmers switched from agricultural to horticultural activities only for economic gains which affected the total crop production of the city. Vacant land was primarily utilized for residential, commercial, educational, health and social well being infrastructure development. New areas were accessed in the west for residential and commercial development of the city. Marshy areas and water bodies were no exception to the land transformation process. They lost 1449 hectares of their area for agricultural (floating gardens Radh), residential and institutional development of the city. The ecology of the city was threatened by the transformation of water bodies and forest areas by converting them into built-up land use. The remaining water area has been severely polluted which are precious because they are not only tourist attractions but also act as lifeline to the city as they provide livelihood to large population.

7 The causal analysis through actor approach revealed that the grass root level actors acted directly and indirectly, leading to the process of land transformation. Land transformation is the outcome of the interaction of complementary and conflicting interests of different human and institutional actors. The study identified total number of seven actors which includes residents, farmers, boatmen (Hanjis), government agencies, entrepreneurs, property dealers and developers. These are characterized by great diversity and a complex mix of conflicting and complimentary interests. Government as an actor has the supreme authority in the transformation of Srinagar city and acts as the strong actor due to firstly because the urban development in India is under the control of state government and secondly, due to the special status of Article 370 of Indian Constitution which restricts ownership of land for outsiders. Various developmental activities carried out by the governmental agencies undermine the interests of local actors e.g., residents, farmers, boatmen, property dealers and developers etc., in many parts of the city resulting into conflicts. All the expansion took place on the fertile agricultural land due to which farmers are the main sufferers who not lost only their agricultural assets but also lost their livelihood. Besides it due to the growing demand for land, low agricultural productivity and the annual threat of floods in the low lying areas, farmers sold their fields to residents, property dealers, developers etc. There is greater demand for built-up land in the city and different interests of actors leads to conflicts and alliances. The land market in the city is characterized by multiple-ownership of land/property which is the main reason for legal conflict and uncertainty. This is the main hindrance before the government agencies for carrying out urban development in Srinagar city. Property dealers as an actor involves themselves in this transaction deal and hence break this deadlock. The land market is commanded by the speculative property dealers and the developers who dictate its price and create land banks thereby bring shortage in its supply. The study shows that beneficiaries and victims can be encountered in any group, depending on the local situation. The outcome is also greatly depended on the economic and political strength, the connections, and the alliances among the actors. The residents, land less farmers and boatmen were found to be weak actors and are

8 the prime victims of urbanization process which is because of their weak economic and political background.

The study further carried out micro level causes and consequences of land transformation in Lal Chowk, Aalochi Bagh, Bemina, Soura and Chanpora ward and also in Hanji localities located in and around the Dal Lake. Lal Chowk and Aalochi Bagh ward represents the land transformation scenario of the core area of the city, since they are located in the core area. Bemina, Soura and Chanpora represent the land transformation of outer area of the city, while, Hanji localities represent the land transformation in and around the water bodies of the city. The land use in these locations was dominated by mostly agricultural, vacant and marshy areas. Later these places witnessed large scale in-migration from the city core and the neighbouring rural areas leading to large scale land transformations. Bemina was primarily developed in a view to shift various government offices and institutions to this area so as to decongest the city core and also to fill the gap of residential backlog in the city. Soura and Chanpora emerged due to expanding population who demanded land for residential purposes. Land use/cover changes have brought various issues of land transformation and related problems and there are certain actors whose activities bring such changes. Due to high population in the core area (case study sites), there is high Residential Density, Population Concentration Index and Street Connectivity Index while, the case studies sites located away from the core area are having moderate to low population pressure and its related issues. There is low per head residential floor space in the core area whereas it was observed to be adequate in the newly developed areas of Bemina, Soura and Chanpora. The recent economic transformations in tourism industry have resulted into large scale transformation in economic activities of the residents of the core area. Not much scope was left in the core area for land transformation because of shortage of land and the resultant high land value. However, the demand for commercial land is increasing which led to the conversion of residential spaces into commercial places. The expansion of the core residential area led to the emergence of the new residential areas of Bemina, Soura and Chanpora localities. It was found that the areas within the municipal limits are

9 having the adequate basic amenities and facilities with some weaknesses in the interior areas. The issues of land transformation in Lal Chowk and Aalochi Bagh areas are reflected by residential and commercial land use and the intermixing of wholesale and retail trade activities leading to congestion. Also, there is no land left unattended which could be utilized for any built-up activity. This situation has motivated some of the economically well off people to shift to the outer areas of the city. Property dealers were found to be the prime beneficiaries in the core area who involve themselves in selling and purchasing of the property and especially break the deadlock of multiple-ownership of property and in turn charge huge sums of commission from both the seller and purchaser. However, the issues which aroused due to the land transformations in other sites in the outer area are reflected differently. There are problems of water logging, growth of slums and squatter settlements in Bemina ward; high land value and the degradation of the lake environs in Soura ward and lastly the weak social mobility and pressure over employment opportunities from excessive in-migration in Chanpora ward. The transformation of prominent marshy areas in the west, which used to act as the sponge during the rains and floods, results into the inundation of its residential area during the rains. Besides it the land transformation in Hanji localities has resulted into the encroachment of their habitation into the lake area. Their activities have resulted into the deterioration of the lake in terms of the areal extent and the quality of water. From the overall analysis it was concluded that over the period of time the gap between the planning outputs and the actual developments has further widened. Besides the existence and extension of this planning gap, the current planning procedures involve methods which are time and resource demanding, involving judicial involvement and often lagging behind the speed of development. The City Master Plan has not been evaluated to establish how much of the developments on the ground correspond to the plan. This is because development control has either failed to be implemented or been challenged by issues of precise information and location.

10

INTRODUCTION Overview Urbanization is an inevitable part of economic development. Urban areas are said to be progressive concentration of population in urban unit (Davis, 1965) or the switch from spread out pattern of human settlements to one of concentration in urban centers (Davis, 1962). Urbanization is the whole process of economic growth and social change. This social change and economic change leads to land use/land cover change and transformations. Urbanization process results into changes in the landscape, specifically the proliferation of concrete and impervious surfaces, and the displacement of agriculture and forestland. Cities are not merely an aggregate of economic functions. The city is an economic, social and spatial entity, conditioned by its role. The city has many facets like its economic base, trade access and market. The city as a physical entity i.e., the urban site is the type of physical and institutional processes. It also acts as the character of interdependence with other areas. Therefore, urban centres develop in a definite pattern in response to economic and social needs (Harris and Ullman, 1959). The degree of urbanization in this way reflects the physical, social and economic interdependence. Since, urban growth rates show no signs of slowing, especially at the global scale. Cities have changed from small, isolated population centers to large, interconnected economic, physical, and environmental features (USGS, 1999). The simultaneous rapid growth in both population and economic output per capita, and the consequent changes in land use pattern come at a cost to the natural environment (Cohen, 2004; Ifatimehin and Ufuah, 2006; Ifatimehin and Musa, 2008). Demographic growth stimulates structural change through multiplier effects and behavioral changes attract immigrants. Cities are man – made physical structure, placed in natural settings. If the cities are well placed, well planned, well built, they remain in aesthetic harmony with nature. But cities with rapid growth (mostly in developing countries) grow without planning and relationship between urban form (the built environment) and nature generates an unending source of physical and environmental degradation. The mega cities of India offer the adverse forms of visible poverty and environmental problems with their slums, squatter settlements, with poor living conditions, chronic storage of services, polluted air and water,

1 traffic congestion and lack of open space. At the same time they are the magnet for the growth of socio, economic and political development of the country. During the last 200 years world population has increased six times, whereas urban populations have increased to over 100 times their original count (Leao et al. 2004). It has been observed that nearly 50% of the world's population lives in urban areas (Stalker, 2001). In the year 1951, 881 million i.e., 54.5% population lived in the urban areas in developed countries. It reached up to 1024 million i.e., 77.7% in 2011 and further is expected to be 1030 million i.e., 82.1% in 2030 (United Nations, 2012). Contrary to it there were 1072 million people i.e., 17.6% population living in the urban areas in the developing world in 1951, which increased to 5073 million i.e., 46.5% population in the year 2011. It is estimated to reach up to 7030 million i.e., 55.8% in the year 2030. These are further forecasted to be 486 cities by the year 2025. Rapid urbanization has become characteristic feature of developing countries because of combination of push and pull factors. The enhanced health care facilities which act as the pull factor in cities in developing world have already been stressed (Phillips, 1990). In India also there has been rapid increase in urban population. In 1951 about 62.5 million people lived in urban areas of the country. By 2001, their number had gone up to over 285 million, an increase of over 350 percent in the last four decades (Muthuswamy and Ramalingam, 2003). This figure has reached up to over 377 million by the year 2011 (Census, 2011). The state of Jammu and Kashmir also followed the similar trend. It had 0.4 million people living urban areas in 1951, which increased to 3.4 million in the year 2011 (Census, 2011). Srinagar city, i.e., the present study area, is the summer capital and largest urban centre in the . It recorded 5 times increase in its urban population during the past 50 years i.e., from 0.24 million in the year 1951 to 1.5 million in the year 2011. The increasing levels of urbanisation and urban growth identified are the result of a combination of natural increase of the urban population and net in- migration to urban areas. These two major processes support each other, although their relative importance varies. Cities need more resources and thus constantly keep on expanding, from the urban core into suburbs in exurbs, separating people more and more distantly from natural landscape (Fazal and Amin, 2011). Therefore problems of urban expansion

2 and land transformation, results in to loss of natural vegetation and open space, and a general decline in the extent and connectivity of wetlands and other ecologically important land use features (UNEP, 2001). Although, the process of land transformation has an extensive history dating back to antiquity (Wolman and Fournier, 1987), but the rate of transformation was not the same as it is today. It got accelerated and diversified with the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the globalization of the world economy and technological advancement. The demand for the products of the land is likely to continue growing in the foreseeable future. Maintaining the capacity of the land to sustain that demand will remain of fundamental importance. The level of concern brought out by current trends reflects the possibility that much land transformation in some sense constitutes land degradation (Blaike and Brookfield, 1987). Settlement represents the most profound alteration of the natural environment by people, through the imposition of structures, buildings, paved surfaces, and compacted bare soils on the ground surface. Settlements also create demands that lead to other land-cover changes, such as the removal of vegetation and soil to extract sand, gravel, brick clays, and rock; the replacement of vegetation by planted cover in gardens, parks, sports grounds; the alienation of ground for landfill and waste treatment; wetlands and open space conversion for settlements and the use of land for transportation routes. Alteration in landscape is nearly inseparable from human occupation and use, and the goal is to encourage improvement and to counter forces that encourage degradation (Fazal, 2000). Among the most challenging problems in the study of urban ecosystem is understanding of how people define patterns of land and resource use, and how they act in response to various social and economic factors (Lee et al. 1992). The use of land for many different individuals, groups of people, and interest groups varies, leading to a high heterogeneity of land uses. For example, there are many more uses that could be more beneficial to the owner than agricultural use. Insights into human drivers of landscape change are needed to understand as to how and where human pressures are most likely to lead to detrimental effects on the structure and function of ecosystems. Understanding these interactions between human activities and their consequences in landscape, is especially important in areas of the world that are experiencing rapid change, where

3 the cumulative impacts of development may be realized too late to trigger mitigation measures. Understanding this cause and effect relationship in urban systems and addressing questions regarding changes in the spatio-temporal patterns of urban form are of paramount importance in urban studies. Land use information can be used to develop solutions for natural resource management issues. The remote sensing technique has emerged as efficient tool to map and monitor natural resources at a low cost, high degree of accuracy and within a comparatively short period of time. The technique is useful in view of repetitive coverage and high- resolution data provided by the remote sensing satellite system. The efficiency of such remote sensing monitoring system increases manifold when the data is integrated with secondary database and analyzed in GIS domain. The GIS environment permits the synthesis, analysis and communication of virtually unlimited sources and types of bio-physical and socio-economic data (Lillisand and Kiefer, 2004). The present work gives the apt representation of this analysis where the socio-economic attributes are incorporated in GIS environment, enabling better understanding of the role played by different actors in land transformation process both at macro as well as micro level.

Research Objectives: The objective of this research work is to reveal the impact of urbanization on land use/land cover and issues related with it. The main objectives of this study area: 1. To analyze the changes in land use/land cover during the period of 37 years i.e., from the year 1971 to 2008. 2. To evaluate the process of land transformation and its pattern during the study period. 3. To identify the factors instigating the land transformation. 4. To study the impact of urbanization and issues of land transformations. These main objectives can be expanded in the form of more specific research questions: 1. Land use/land cover analysis The trend/direction of urban expansion. How does urbanization lead to land use/cover change?

4 Determinants/causes of land use/cover change. 2. Land transformation analysis The pattern and magnitude of land transformation. The locations of significant land transformations. 3. Actors Key actors and their role in land transformation process. The strategies of the actors in land transformation. The interaction between actors defining the land transformation process. 4. Case studies/micro level land transformation analysis. Urbanization process leading to land use/land cover change and transformations at the micro level. The important features of the land transformation at micro level. The micro level issues related with land transformation.

The Research Area and the Selected Case Study Sites: The present study is for Srinagar city which is the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir State. The study area lies between 33o59'14'' N and 34o12'37'' N latitude and 74o41'06'' E and 74o57'27'' E longitude, located in the heart of the Valley on both banks of River Jhelum locally called Vyeth in Kashmir. The general relief of the study area is 1580 m above mean sea level. It has rich historical past with bountiful natural heritage. It is also the tourist destination centre of the State. The locational centrality has given it advantageous position in the settlement system. Its history testifies that the city has been in existence and functioning as a major trade and tourist centre since decades. Its connectivity through a well connected road network system has made it centre for administrative, trade and commerce, socio-cultural infrastructural facilities for whole of the Valley and hence gained supremacy. Presently, it is the summer capital of the state. The selected case study sites include: (i) Lal Chowk ward: Is the city centre, also acts as the CBD of the city. (ii) Aalochi Bagh ward: Located to the west of Lal Chowk in the core area of the city.

5 (iii) Bemina ward: Located in the west of the city. (iv) Soura ward: Located in the north of the city. (v) Chanapora ward: Located in the south of the city. (vi) Hanji localities: Located in the western part of the Dal Lake. The entire hill area is for the last many years in turmoil with political, economic and social conflicts. At the same time, the city is under the grip of urbanization process because of population increase during the past three decades. This has resulted into the unplanned expansion of the city. This process has made urban growth complex phenomenon and a challenging task for the planners of the city to ensure a reasonable quality of life and environment to the inhabitants. The city is characterized by number of problems including stress and burden on infrastructure, traffic and transportation, environment, housing, mushrooming of urban poor colonies and haphazard growth. The main determinants responsible for such situation in Srinagar city are growing drift of population from rural and small urban centres, natural increase of population, unplanned and fragmented development. Also lack of diffusion of benefits of development in the hinterland of the city is also responsible. The settlements and commercial areas which are properly planned and serviced and over the period of time the gap between the planning outputs and the actual developments has further widened. Besides the existence and extension of this planning gap, the current planning procedures involve methods which are time and resource demanding, involving judicial involvement and often lagging behind the speed of development of settlements. The City Master Plan has not been evaluated to establish how much of the developments on the ground correspond to the plan. This is because development control has either failed to be implemented or been challenged by issues of precise information and location.

Data Sets and Methodology: The study focuses on the process of urbanization and the changes brought in the landscape due to it. This research work has been carried out with the help of primary and secondary sources of data.

6  Secondary sources: 1. Town planning map of Srinagar city 1971 at 1:15000 scale: This map was procured from the department of Town Planning J&K, for the preparation of pre-date land use/land cover map. This map enabled to map the level-1 classification. 2. IRS-1D LISS III + PAN 2008 merged satellite imagery: This data was obtained from National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad, India. It includes two data sets i.e., IRS-1D LISS III satellite image of the year 2008 and IRS-1D PAN image of the similar date. 3. Survey of India toposheet: Toposheet No-43J/16 at 1:50,000 scale of 1977 was obtained from the Survey of India. 4. Census data: Census data was used for information at ward level especially about the demographic characteristics of the area. The study focuses on the urbanization trend during the last 37 years, the census figures that area used mostly are from 1951 to 2011. 5. Reports, journals and books: Various reports, journals and books were consulted for deriving the background information about the study area, local and regional settings along with the historical background. Information related to the existing land value, average area of residential building was also obtained from different official government reports like, J&K Govt. Gazette department, Srinagar Development Authority (SDA), Srinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC) etc.

Land Use/Land Cover and Land Transformation Mapping: The study is based on remote sensing and GIS techniques. These techniques enable to generate wide range of information necessary for urban planning and management. The predate land use land cover map of the study area was prepared using Town Planning map of Srinagar city 1971. Similarly, the land use land cover for the later date was carried out using IRS-1D LISS III + PAN October 2008 merged satellite imagery. Both the images were first geo-corrected and geo- referenced in Earth Resource Data Analysis System (ERDAS) Imagine 9.0 software, assigning Universal Transverse Mercator with World Geocoded system (UTM WGS 84) projection parameters. Further for assistance in the process of interpretation SOI

7 toposheet was also geo-referenced and was given similar projection and datum. The area of interest (Municipal limits of Srinagar city) was extracted by sub-setting of the town planning map. Satellite imagery was stacked into different bands to produce a false color composite; the area of interest was extracted by sub-setting of the image. Both the two time period data were digitized in GIS environment using ArcGIS 9.3 and ArcView 3.2a software in the form of polygons representing different land use/land cover categories. The data was classified into 14 land use/land cover classes spread over a total area of 23446 hectares of the Srinagar city (which incidentally is also the Municipal limits). The trend and pattern of urban expansion was calculated and every polygon representing the particular class was quantified and displayed in respective maps. It was followed by the land use/land cover analysis. Further, the study carried out land transformation analysis by superimposing these two time period land use/land cover maps through overlay operation in GIS.

 Primary sources: 1. Global Positioning System (GPS): This was used to determine the location of observations for ground truth verification/ground validation. 2. Socio-economic survey and sampling techniques: To supplement the causes of land use/cover change and transformation, total number of 421 stakeholders/actors were interviewed during fieldwork in the year 2009-10. The interview focused only on those activities of the actors which were understood to be bringing land transformation. The variables included were: . Land use . Place of origin . Occupational characteristics Key Informants: The key informants were: 1. Government agencies. 2. Residents. 3. Farmers. 4. Boatmen (Hanjis). 5. Entrepreneurs. 6. Property dealers 7. Developers.

8 3. Micro level socio-economic survey: The micro level interviews included total number of 380 respondents and random sampling technique was applied. A random sampling of around 2 per cent of the households was used. The interviews were held at six micro level case study sites (Lal Chowk ward, Aalochi Bagh ward, Bemina ward, Soura ward, Chanpora ward and the Hanji localities of Dal lake area). The aim of survey was to find out the specific socio- economic activities carried out by the different people responsible for land transformations. Further the questionnaires included the queries of different features of land transformation and the related issues.

Structure of the Thesis: This thesis is organized into six chapters, which reflects more or less the sequence of the research questions. Introduction of the thesis work is followed by the chapter 1, which deals with the regional and local setting and description of the study area. The physical, cultural, demographic, natural, economic profile along with the history and development of the city are discussed. Chapter 2 contains the review of related literature where urbanization, land use/land cover concept, definitions, land use/land cover dynamics and case studies using remote sensing and GIS techniques, the impact of land use/land cover change on environment are discussed. Chapter 3 deals with the land use/cover changes in the study area involving data presentation and data analysis consisting of nature, extent and rate of land use/cover change maps and statistics, spatial analysis of change detection and patterns. Chapter 4 is devoted to the interchange of land between different land use/cover classes based on land transformation analysis carried out in the form of statistics and maps. It focuses on the pattern, locations of land transformations and their causes. Chapter 5 identifies the actors who play an important role in the process of land transformation. It studies the activities carried out by them. The role of each actor is evaluated on the basis of their social, economic and political extents.

9 Chapter 6 deals with the micro level land transformations studies of six specific sites which reflect the major transformations of the city. These case studies focuses on the demography including the socio-economic characteristics, land use/land cover and land transformation, role of different people and important objective for carrying these case studies is to highlight the features of land transformation and its related issues. Finally, the conclusion and suggestions are pointed out.

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Chapter–I

STUDY AREA 1 Introduction: Srinagar city is the summer capital of the state of J&K. It is located in and is the northern most state of India. The State occupies a strategic location on the country‟s map with its border touching Pakistan, Tibet and China. The State has three distinct regions comprising Kashmir Valley, and Ladakh. Each region has a specific resource base. Except for Jammu and districts the entire State is a mountainous and the plateau of Ladakh, flanking the State on east is separated from rest of the State by high mountain ranges. The land of the State is fertile and water resources are also abundant. Srinagar city has grown over the past about 1100 years at an average elevation of about 1583 m above M.S.L on the banks of river Jhelum of Kashmir Valley. It is one of the beautiful cities in the world having numerous lakes, mountains, waterways and monumental architecture. Srinagar has been the capital of Kashmir for thousands of years and an important commercial town. It has also acted as a battle ground of great civilizations during all three major periods of history namely Buddhists, Hindu and Muslim.

1.1 Location of Srinagar City: 1.1.1 Physical Profile of Srinagar City Srinagar city lies between 33°59′14″ N to 34°12′37″ N latitude and 74°41′06″ E to 74°57′27″E longitude. It is spread over 234.46 Sq. Km (Municipal limit) area. It extends from Alestang in the north to Humhama in the south and Laway pora in the west to Khanmou in the southeast. The city is located on both sides of the river Jhelum (a tributary of river Indus) locally called Vyeth in Kashmir (Figure 1.1). City about midway from either end of the valley, to the west of a spur which protrudes down from the chain of mountains forms its northern boundary.

(a) Physiography The physiographic setting of Srinagar city is characterized with low lying agricultural fields in the flood plain of river Jhelum in south and west. It has steep hills in the east and north east and the famous Karewas hills (locally called as Wudars) in far southeast (Figure 1.2). Karewas are flat and fertile agricultural

11 74°41′06″ 74°57′27″ # 34°12′37″ 34°12′37″

INDIA

JAMMU AND KASHMIR 33°59′14″ 33°59′14″ 74°41′06″ SRINAGAR CITY 74°57′27″

Figure 1.1: LOCATION MAP OF SRINAGAR CITY (SOURCE: CENSUS 2001; IRS-ID LISS III+PAN 2008) 12 SRINAGAR MUNICIPAL BOUNDARY 870-1087 m 1088-1304 m 1305-1521 m 1522-1739 m 1740-1956 m 1957-2174 m 2175-2391 m 2392-2608 m 2609-2826 m 2827-3043 m 3044-3261 m 3262-3478 m 10 0 10 KILOMETERS 3479-3695 m 3696-3913 m

Figure 1.2: PHYSIOGRAPHICFigure 1.2: PHYSIOGRAPHIC MAP OF SRINAGAR MAP CITY OF SRINAGARAND ITS SURROUNDING CITY AND ITS ( SURRSource:OUNDING Generated from digitized contours of SOI toposheet, 1981) 13

mounds on the border of the Jhelum flood plain. These mounds flank the surrounding mountain precipice and are reminiscent of an earlier phase of intensive deposition. Their initial platforms have since been eroded and dissected into isolated uplands. They are believed to have been formed during the Miocene Orogeny (Pal and Srivastava, 1982) when this entire area was highly flooded with numerous anticlines and synclines. These lands are roughly over on area of 13 to 26 km in length, thus covering more than half the total area of the valley floor. The soils found here are best suited for the cultivation of saffron where best quality saffron is grown. Northern area of the study area is characterized with small hills. Similarly, in the east lies, Basiwan, Zabarwan and Dachigam hills along with the famous Dal Lake on the foot hills. Koh-i-Maran Hill (1700m) in the North and Koh-i-Sulaiman Hill (1820) to the South of Dal Lake in the core area are two prominent physiographic features, found in Srinagar city. These are roughly two miles apart from each other (Bates, 1980). Koh-i-Sulaiman Hill forms the end of a spur from the Zabarwan hill, but is separated from the main range by a depression. It is also known by the name Shankara Char, or Shankaratsari.

(b) Geology Srinagar city lies in the midst of the rock depression of valley of Kashmir, about 35 Km in breadth and 160 Km in length. Srinagar city is reportedly at the base of a dormant volcanic hillrock of Koh-i-Sulaiman. This volcanic hill was formed during the carboniferous and Permian times when the glaciers were crawling in some parts of North Kashmir (Chadda, 1991). Geology reveals the developments of the stratified records of all ages from Achaean and Pre-Cambrian onwards to Tertiary and Recent times (Figure1. 3). Geologists believe that Srinagar city was under the vast sea, namely Tethys sea locally called „Satisar Lake‟, in the post Tertiary period (225 million years ago). At the time of uplifting of the sediments from that sea, a huge amount of crystalline bluish limestone came up, which are found today on the outskirts of the city at number of places like, Zewan, Khrew, Khanmou etc., in the south east. Numerous fossils e.g., Gastropods, Corals, and Polyzoans etc, are found which act as the complete evidence of Kashmir once being under the sea (Rashid, 2004).

14 GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SRINAGAR CITY GEOLOGICAL MAP OF KASHMIR VALLEY

GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS Alluvium Permo-Carboniferous Muree Karewas Cambro- Silurian Triassia Limestone Salkhalas 5 0 5 10 Panjal Traps

Figure 1.3: GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SRINAGAR CITY Figure 1.3: GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SRINAGAR CITY (SOURCE: Rasa, M. 1978) 15

The present water bodies i.e., Dal, Nigeen, Manasbal and other wet lands are believed to be remnant of the „Satisar Lake‟. These water bodies have been segmented by the process of siltation and escaping of water. There are evidences of lacustrine and beds of lignite containing water chestnut in the Karewas in a stratified layer pattern. Moreover, one of the excavation sites in Srinagar is found on the west of Burzahom village known as ‘Burzahom excavations’ at the base of Mahadev hill in the north east. Excavations are being carried out since long and the remnants of various ages are excavated thereby explaining the ancient history. Geological history of the Srinagar also indicates the uplifting of the mountain ranges, of which Zabarwan mountain is a part, which acts as the major physical threshold for the expansion of the city in the east. It is characterized by abrupt changes in gradient, accompanied with fractal spurs which proves the recent mountain building process (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009).

(c) Climate Srinagar city has a sub-Mediterranean type of climate with warm summers from June to August and cold winters from December to February. The average temperature of the warmest month is 30°C in July whereas it is 3.5°C in the coldest month i.e., in January (State Meteorological Department, 1999). Winter is very cold and from last week of December to first week of March the temperature is often sub zero. During these months strong winds bring thick black clouds, snow and rain from the Mediterranean depressions. These come over from Iran and Afghanistan. It is followed by spring that begins mid March when rain falls heavily. Most of the times these rains cause landslides in hilly areas, but for sowing of crops this rain is useful. The average annual rainfall is around 660 mm per annum and significant amount of precipitation occurs in the form of snow. The city generally gets snowfall from December to February but it seldom accumulates for longer periods. Relative humidity is maximum in the month of January i.e., 85% and it is minimum in the month of June, about 57%. Almost 70% of the rainfall takes place in the month of July and August. The entire valley is covered with a haze that hides the surrounding mountains from view. Longest sunshine hours are in the month of September, October and November

16 (Raina, 2002). Common local practice in Kashmir is to recognize the six seasons (Husain, 2000), which are: a) Sonth (spring season) - March 15 to May 15. b) Grishm (summer season) - May 15 to July 15. c) Waharat (Rainy Season) - July 15 to Sept. 15. d) Harud (autumn) - Sept.15 to Nov. 15. e) Wand (winter) - Nov.15 to Jan 15. f) Sheshur (Ice Cold) - Jan. 15 to March 15.

(d) Drainage Srinagar city is drained by river Jhelum and its canals (locally called Khuls) (Figure 1.4). It is the main river of Srinagar city acting as the life line. It rises from a spring called in southeast of the Valley, situated at the foot of a spur of the . It flows to a distance of 25.6 Km to Khanabal (town in south Kashmir) like a rivulet (locally called Nallah). From there, number of tributaries join it and make it navigable from Khanabal to (Asia‟s largest fresh water lake in the northwest of Kashmir Valley). Its total length in the valley is 177 Km. It flows in loops through the valley till it enters the Wular Lake during which it drains the Srinagar city. Then it flows out from the other side of the lake towards in the west and finally enters Pakistan (Raina, 2002). The river makes one long bend through Srinagar city and in its passage has been narrowed to a width of not more than 80 yards. Its depth is varying, but the average depth during the season of floods is about 18 feet (Bates, 1980). The canals joining Jhelum during its course in the city are: (i) Kuth-i-kol: It joins the river on the left bank below the walls of the Shergarhi in the core area of the city, and flows in the north-west direction towards Tanki Bridge. (ii) Tsont-i-kol: This canal leaves the right bank of the Jhelum opposite of Shergarhi. At its lower end it is about 30 yards wide and varies in depth from 3-15 feet, according to the height of the river. The length of this canal from Jhelum to the Drogjan or Dal gate at the entrance of the Dal Lake is about 1.5 miles.

17 DRAINAGE BASINS OF KASHMIR VALLEY DRAINAGE MAP OF SRINAGAR CITY

DRAINAGR BASINS

1- SANDRAN RIVER 2- BRING RIVER 3- ARAPAT KOL RIVER 4- LIDDAR RIVER 5- ARAPAL RIVER 6- HARWAN RIVER River Jhelum 7- 8- ERIN RIVER 9- MADMATI RIVER 10- POHRU RIVER 11- VIJI-DAKIL RIVER 12- VISHAV RIVER 13- RAMBIARA RIVER BOUNDARY OF KASHMIR 14- ROMOSHI RIVER VALLEY 15- DUDHGANGA RIVER ---- DRAINAGE BASINS 16- (Figure indicate drainage density 5 0 5 10 Km 17- NINGAL RIVER per sq km. Basin wise)

Figure 1.4Figure: DRAINAGE 1.4: DRAINAGE MAP OF MSRINAGARAP OF SRINAGAR CITY (SOURCE: CITY Rasa, M. 1978)

18

The drainage water of the city including waste water is carried away by different canals/khuls which are connected with the Jhelum, Dal Lake, Nigeen Lake, and Khushalsar.

(e) Soils The soils of Srinagar city are fertile and rich in organic matter and other plant nutrients. These are also rich in calcium and magnesium. Their texture is variably from clayey-loam to loams. The important Karewa soil composed of silt is also found here, which is economically important. This soil support Saffron, Almond, Walnut, Apple and Peach cultivation. Generally four types of soils are found in Srinagar: (i) Clayey Soil (Gurti): This soil is found in the flood plains of Jhelum in the southern parts of Srinagar city and is subjected to annual fresh silt deposition. Gurti soil contains a large proportion of clay. Its water retaining capacity is high. At the time of scanty rainfall, it is considered to be good for cultivation of rice. But if rains are heavy, this soil gets compacted and achieves the shape of hard cakes, where ploughing becomes difficult labourious task. (ii) Loamy Soil (Bahil): This soil is found above the level of flood plain, on the right bank of Jhelum, is highly fertile and suitable for paddy cultivation. The humus content is high which enriches the soil fertility. It does not require heavy manuring but if over manured, the soil becomes too strong, in which the rice crop shows more vegetative growth. (iii) Sandy Loam (Sekil): It has usually been found to the in the north west of the city. In the Sekil soil, if field is artificially irrigated, good crops of rice are harvested in summer season. (iv) Sandy Silt (Dazanlad): This soil is the mixture of sand and clay. A peculiar characteristic of Dazanlad is that the field turns red in colour when irrigation water stands in the fields. This soil can result good productivity if controlled irrigation and High Yielding Variety seeds are applied. This soil is generally found in the low lying areas in the west of the city and also occurs at the hilly areas also in the north (Husain, 2000). The other types of soil found are: Vegetable soil Surh Zamin. Tract of land served by a natural spring. Lemb.

19 Floating garden soil Radh. Excessively irrigated land having lost fertility Zabal Zamin.

(f) Flora Srinagar is gifted with rich floral diversity. This is because of its rich diversity in its topography, altitude and climate. The present flora of Kashmir is Holarctic (habitats found throughout the northern continents of the world as a whole), being a mixture of floristic elements from many adjacent regions. Here cultivated plants along with aquatic formations are found. There are about 279 species, belonging to 205 genera and 65 families of Angiosperms and Gymnosperms in Srinagar city and its surroundings. Srinagar has Himalayan dry temperate forest with main broad leaved species for example, Chinar (Platenous orientalis); Silver oak (Grevellia robusta), Poplar (Poplus), found along the road and river‟s sides and along the agricultural fields. Willow (Salix) raised along the banks of Jhelum and wetland fringes; Kikar (Robenia pseudoacacia), Bren (Ulmus wallichiana) raised on the waste lands; Tang (Pyrus communis), Tsunun (Prunus persica), Dun (Juglans regia), Badam (Prunus amygadelus) in orchards, Bremij (Celtis australis): naturally grown in the grave yards. Trees found around the hills surrounding the city are; Kail (Pinus Excelsa); Kavur (Pinus wallichiana). At the higher altitudes mostly Deodar (Cedrus deodara) and Fir (Abes pindrow) are found. Moon flower (Datura anoxia), Worm wood (Artemisia), Burn weed (Uretica dioca) etc., are the other commonly found shrubs in the city. Schrenk and Mey (Ephedra intermedia) with its red fruits, is observed in the parts of Koh-i-Sulaiman hill (Dutt et al. 1963). The aquatic flora of the lakes and the wet-lands of the city includes; Nymphoides, Phragmites, Scripus, Spraganium, Nelumbium, Typha etc.

(g) Fauna Srinagar city is located adjacent to the forest area which is home to various species of birds and animals. There are over 150 species of birds and twenty mammal species which include Hangul, Himalayan brown bear, Himalayan black bear, Langur, Himalayan marmot, leopard etc. Hangul in Dachigam National Park is the

20 only red deer found in India. in the east is gifted with musk deer, pheasants, monkeys etc. The principal species are Monal, Koklas, Bearded Vulture, Griffon Vulture, Golden Eagle, Grey Heron, Starling, Golden Oriole, Paradise Flycatcher, Western Yellow-Billed Blue Magpie, Kestrel, Peregrine Falcon, Black Bulbul etc., (District Profile, 2009). Large number of migratory birds visit the lakes, wetlands and marshes within the city and its surroundings e.g., Indian large Cormorant, Mong (Phalacoccrax cabro), Dabchick, Pind (Podiceps ruficollis), Indian Cattle Egret (Bubuiucus ibis), Indian Pond Heron (Boroku Andea grayii), Mallard, Niluj/Thuj (Anas paltyrhynchos), Pintail (Gallinago Stenura), Sukh Pachan (Anas acuta), Garganey, Nour (Anas querquedula) etc. Physiography and the geology are the characteristic features which have paved the way to the growth and the development of Srinagar city. City which is pegged by the mountains all around has been a large lake and due to some geological changes an outlet caused the lake to dry up. Due to large scale fossilization and decaying sea creatures inside the lake, the soil of this part of the Indian Subcontinent is very fertile and fairly suitable for agricultural purposes. The main subtypes of the soils are clay, loam and sandy etc., which support paddy and other crops in the valley. The Karewa soil found here is suited for the cultivation of best quality saffron. Though the topography is undulating, hindering the developmental and planned expansion of the city peripheries but as an example itself the mountains are the important source of income of many people in the form of rock quarrying in the southeast of the city. These resources are utilized for the developmental works in the city through the construction of roads, buildings and houses; besides providing raw materials to the cement industry in the state. It is because of this rich geological structure that the city is not short of building materials. Another important feature is the flood plains and the river Jhelum which have remained a major attraction of transport and trade throughout the centuries. The river has witnessed a significant source of income from transportation of goods along the river. The course of the river Jhelum has almost divided the Srinagar city into almost two equal parts which are connected by nine bridges along the course. Trade along the river banks is also seen in the form of shops of all goods and

21 services along the river course, for example the vegetable sellers, Jewelers, cloth merchants etc. Similarly, climate of the valley has favoured crops on the plains and plateaus e.g., the best export quality Apples are grown here. Communities associated with this trade have brought lot of profit to the state exchequer till date.

1.2 History and Development of Srinagar City: 1.2.1 Historical Background According to historical records, the word Srinagar is composed of two Sanskrit words, namely, „Sri’ meaning abundance and wealth and „Nagar’ meaning city. This city was founded by the King Pravarasena II over 2,000 years ago. It came into existence at Purana Disthana, presently known as Panderthan. From the year 960 CE the site of the capital was marked as the present town of Srinagar. At that time it was a part of the Maurya Empire, one of the largest empires of the Indian Subcontinent. The Hindu and Buddhist‟s rule over Srinagar lasted until 14th century and thereafter Kashmir valley came under the control of several Muslim rulers, including the Mughals. Akbar established Mughal rule in Srinagar in the year 1586 when Yousuf Shah Chak his contemporary deceived him, as he failed to conquer Kashmir by force. Later ruled the city for several decades. In the year 1814 a major part of the Kashmir Valley was conquered by Raja Ranjit Singh, and it was annexed to his kingdom. After this, the city came under the influence of the Sikhs. In 1846, the treaty of Lahore was signed between the Sikh rulers and the British in Lahore. The treaty provided British de-facto rule over the Kashmir Valley and installed Ghulab Singh as an independent and sovereign ruler of the region. Till 1947, Srinagar remained the part of Ghulab Singh‟s kingdom as one of the several princely states of individual India. After independence, Srinagar city remained within the Indian Union with some limitations after but obtaining special status of accession as recognized in Article 370 of Indian Constitution (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009). Rule by different sects of people made heterogeneous culture of the city. These different cultures made the physical look of the city mixed with different groups shaping the city differently. The infrastructure or the constructional part was mostly dominated by Muslims. For example, at present there are number of

22 locations which mark the Mughal architecture. The city is densely populated by the Shrines of different saints designed in antique architectural patterns.

1.2.2 Origin and Growth of the City The origin of city dates back to the Neolithic period as deduced from the evidences excavated at Burzahom and Harwan sites situated in the northeast of the city. The genesis of Srinagar city has rich historical identification. It has evolved and grown to its present structure after being considerably shaped by political and urban forces operating from ancient to the present period. The city has grown as a combination of number of ancient sites which had served as capital cities from time to time for various rulers. Though the city has served as the capital of Kashmir throughout the ages but it could not experience any significant growth during the ancient and medieval period mainly because of the political instability, internal conflicts between rulers and frequent changes in capital sites. Mughals in the 15th and 16th century built several parks & gardens like , Shalimar Bagh, etc, which enhanced the economic growth and development of the city. The Dogra rule in Kashmir during C.E 1900 marked the real beginning of the growth and development in the city by establishing housing colonies in Wazir Bagh, Ram Munshi Bagh and . They also established Amar Singh Degree College, Shri Maharaja (SMHS) hospital, State library, Silk and Woolen mill etc., in the core area of the city. Dogra rule also established Srinagar Municipality, which was established under Municipal Act 1886. Various amenities and facilities like potable water supply, laying down of mettled roads, 196 km long Jhelum Valley cart road connecting Srinagar with rail head at Rawalpindi (now in Pakistan) etc, further put forward the process of development in Srinagar city (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009). After Independence under different Five year plans ensured significant growth and development; Srinagar became the summer capital of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. This status to the city changed the form, morphology and structure of the city. Educational, commercial and medical facilities came into existence in and around the core area of the city. Planned residential colonies like Jawahar Nagar, Gogji Bagh, Batamaloo, Nursing Ghar and construction of By-Pass road and construction of satellite townships at Zakura in the north in suburbs of the city etc,

23 came into existence. Industrial development took place in the form of establishment of Hindustan Machine Tools (HMT) factory at Zainakot in the northwest and State Industrial Complex at Zewan and Khanmou in southeast of the city. Tourism industry brought cultural and economic status to the city (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009). There was a harmonious relationship between the population and the available resources till the year 1961, but, thereafter an abrupt rise in the population took place. From 1961 to 1971 population got almost doubled from 0.286 million to 0.415 million respectively. This rise is attributed firstly to the increasing number of migrant population from the neighbouring rural districts and also because of the natural increase in population. This period is marked as the beginning of urbanization process in Srinagar city. Many a time, since 1886, limits of the Municipality were extended when number of villages were added to it. In the year 1971 Srinagar city‟s municipal limits comprised of 103 Sq. km. In the year 1971 the department of Town Planning carried out the Master Plan of the city with the proposals for the period of 1971- 1991. In the year 1981 the area under Municipal limits increased to 140 Sq. Km. In the year 2000, Municipality consisted of 17 wards with 592 Mohallas/localities covering an area of about 177 Sq. Km. In the same year further 126 villages were added to the city which increased the total area to 234.46 Sq. Km consisting of total 68 electoral wards for purpose of Master Plan and Planned development of the city for the next 21 years (2000-2021) (Srinagar Development Authority, 2000). In the year 2000, Srinagar Development Authority (SDA) took further steps in the preparation of the Second Master Plan with the help of satellite data for the period of year 2000-2021. The slow implementation of the proposals by the agencies made the proposals inefficient. This resulted into poor living conditions and has made a challenging task for the city planners to ensure a reasonable quality of life and environment to the inhabitants (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009). In spite of the physiographic limitations, the increasing population has led to the expansion of the city in unplanned manner resulting haphazard development of residential areas, congestion, irregular narrow lanes, problems of drainage and streets littered with filth and dirt. River Jhelum the main source of water and

24 communication channel is polluted due to sewage from houses draining directly into it. This resulted as a threat to the public health creating unhygienic conditions. The inefficiency of the government agencies have paved way for developers and property dealers who have created land banks leading to increase in land and property prices.

1.2.3 Administrative Development During the time of Pathans in mid 19th century, Srinagar city was divided into 16 Zillah or Parishes, each being under the care and management of a kotwal and other officials. In the late 19th century, these were reduced to 12 (Bates, 1980), each Zillah was again sub-divided into a number of Mohallas/locality. To each Zillah there was a Zilladhar and a Kotwal or police officer and similarly, the affairs of each Mohalla were administered through a Mahalladar. All those Zillahs along with their number of Mohallas are given below: 1. Drogjan included 23 Mohallas, and comprised the area to the west of the Koh-i- Sulaiman and south of Tsont-i-kol canal. 2. Ahlehmur included 8 Mohallas on the right bank of the River Jhelum & north of Tsont-i-kol canal. 3. Kaniyar included 15 Mohallas, in north-east of Brari Nambal, and the Mar canal. 4. Rainewor included 15 Mohallas located in the west of the Dal lake and south- east of the Koh-i-Maran hill. 5. Nawetter included 21 Mohallas between the Mar canal and the Koh-i-Maran hill. 6. Sangin Darwaza included 13 Mohallas in the north and northwest of Koh-i- Maran hill. 7. Zaina Kadal included 14 Mohallas located to the north of present Lal Chowk (CBD), on both sides of River Jhelum. 8. Buldimur included 27 Mohallas on the left bank of the River Jhelum, at the southwest end of the city. 9. Chutsabul included 10 Mohallas on the left bank of the Jhelum, in the southwest end of the city. 10. Tashwun included 9 Mohallas on the left bank of the Jhelum. 11. Nursingud included 5 Mohallas by the Kuth-i-kol canal, north of Shergarhi. 12. Sher Gud included 4 Mohallas in the vicinity of the palace.

25 Table 1.1: Existing Municipal Wards of Srinagar City.

Division Administrative Zone Administrative Ward Electoral Ward Electoral Ward Name No 1 1 Harwan 2 Nishat 2 3 Dalgate 4 Lal Chowk 3 58 Bud Dal 59 Lokut Dal 4 40 Jogi Lankar Right 41 Zindshah Sahib River East (Zone) 5 30 Ganpatyar Division 32 Barbar Shah 6 31 Bana Mohalla 33 Chinkral Mohalla 34 S.R. Gunj 7 35 Aqil Mir 36 Khuja Bazar 8 42 Hassnabad 44 Makhdoom Sahib 9 39 Tarabal 43 Jama Masjid 45 Kawdara 10 46 Zadibal 47 Maiden Sahib 11 50 North (Zone) 51 Omer Colony 12 56 Hazratbal 57 Tailbal 13 60 New Theed 61 Alestang 14 55 Zakura 15 54 Ahmad Nagar 16 52 Soura 53 17 48 Nowshera 49 Zoonimar 18 37 Safakadal` 38 Eidgah 19 62 Palpora 20 27 Nawab Bazar 29 Ali Kadal 21 26 Syed Ali Akbar 28 Yarbal West (Zone) 22 23 Shaheed Gung 24 Karan Nagar 23 18 Qamerwari 25 Chattabal 24 21 Bemina East 22 Bemina West 25 19 Parimpora 20 Zainakot

26 63 Malura

64 Laway pora

27 65 Bemina Khumani Chowk Left River South (Zone) 28 13 S.D. Colony Division 14 Batamaloo 17 Nundreshi Colony 29 15 Aalochi Bagh 16 Magarmal Bagh 30 5 6 Jawahar Nagar 7 Wazirbagh 31 8 Mehjoor Nagar 9 Natipora 10 Chanapora 32 11 Baghat Barzulla 12 Rawalpora 33 66 Humhama 34 67 Pantha Chowk 69 Khanmou Source: Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009.

26

A. Electoral A.W E. W Electoral Ward Name E. W W Ward Name 1 Harwan 21 Bemina East 1 24 2 Nishat 22 Bemina West 3 Dalgate 19 Parimpora 2 25 4 Lal Chowk 20 Zainakot 58 Bud Dal 63 Malura 3 26 59 Lokut Dal 64 Laway pora 40 Jogi Lankar Bemina Khumani 4 27 65 41 Zindshah Sahib Chowk 13 S.D. Colony 30 Ganpatyar 5 28 14 Batamaloo 32 Barbar Shah 17 Nundreshi Co 31 Bana M 15 Aalochi Bagh 6 33 Chinkral M 29 16 Magarmal Bagh 34 S.R. Gunj 5 Rajbagh 35 Aqil Mir Khanyar 7 30 6 Jawahar Nagar 36 Khuja Bazar 7 Wazirbagh 8 Mehjoor Nagar 42 Hassnabad 8 31 9 Natipora 44 Makhdoom Sahib 10 Chanapora 39 Tarabal 11 Baghat Barzulla 9 43 Jama Masjid 32 12 Rawalpora 45 Kawdara 46 Zadibal 10 33 66 Humhama 47 Maiden Sahib 50 Lal Bazar 67 Pantha Chowk 11 34 51 Omer Colony 68 Khanmou 56 Hazratbal 12 57 Tailbal 60 New Theed 13 61 Alestang 14 55 Zakura 15 54 Ahmad Nagar 52 Soura 16 53 Buchpora 48 Nowshera 17 49 Zoonimar 37 Safakadal` 18 38 Eidgah 19 62 Palpora 27 Nawab Bazar 20 29 Ali Kadal 26 Syed Ali Akbar 21 28 Islam Yarbal 23 Shaheed Gung 22 24 Karan Nagar 18 Qamerwari 23 25 Chattabal

Figure 1.5: MUNICIPAL WARD MAP OF SRINAGAR CITY (Source: Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2008) 27

Presently, Srinagar city has been divided into two Divisions based on the two divisions formed due to the diagonal intersection by River Jhelum, four administrative zones, 34 administrative wards and 68 electoral wards (Figure 1.5 and table 1.1). The numbers of Municipal Administrative Wards have been increased from 23 to 34 for efficient and proper administration. Similarly the Electoral Wards consists of 68 Municipal Constituencies/Electoral Wards as against 33 that existed before its up gradation in the year 2003 (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009).

1.2.4 Infrastructural Development Mughals were the pioneer of Infrastructural development in Kashmir in 14th century. Mughal/Indo Islamic architecture of Srinagar is characterized by its wood work mostly by Deodar pine. Wood played an important role in the architectural development of Srinagar city because of its availability in abundance and climatic suitability. The beautiful gardens, museums, mosques and shrines every construction reveals the Mughal architecture. Single tree trunks were generally employed as piers for the support of the big structures. The examples of wooden architecture of Srinagar are the wooden bridges (locally called Kadals) and the wooden shrines (locally called Ziarats). Later, in 16th to 17th century Mughals revived the stone building art of the Valley and the examples are Khan Kah-i-Mualla/Shah Hamdan Mosque & Jama Masjid etc., located in the core area of the city. Later when the availability of wood decreased; bricks and wood was used in the architectural works. The housing of the poor people in the city used unburnt bricks, built up in frames of wood and the walls were not mere than the thickness of a brick. The roofs were formed of layers of birch-bark covered with a coating of earth, grasses and flowers. The houses of the riches were commonly detached and surrounded by a wall and gardens, which were connected with a canal. The condition of the gardens was pathetic. The general character of the city was like the confused mass of ill-favoured buildings, intersected with canals in every direction. During the Maharaja rule in Kashmir several market places and bazaars in the city came into existence. Numerous gardens were constructed in the core and outskirts of the city, especially on the banks of river Jhelum. Dilawar Khan Bagh is

28 one such example, located near Brari Nambal in the core area of the city (Bates, 1980). In contrast to the infrastructure of early 20th century; 21st century brought planned residential colonies came into existence for example Jawahar Nagar, Rajbagh, Wazir Bagh; on the south of Lal Chowk (CBD), Rawalpora, Sanath Nagar in south, Nundreshi colony, Bemina in the west of the city etc. The houses are built up of concrete with modern architectural designs. Some of the residential places in the old city like Naupora, Kohn Khan, Brari Nambal etc, are getting rapidly transformed into the commercial zones. Similarly, residential colonies at Soura and Buchpora, in the northern end of the city further added to the infrastructural development of the city. Lal Chowk (CBD) area thrive in trade and commerce with all type of availability of goods and services, e.g., jewelry, silversmiths, electronics, book shops, readymade garments, motor vehicle showrooms, shopping complexes. Various government offices are located here like State Road Transport Corporation (SRTC), Government Press, District and High court, General Post Office (GPO), Telephone Exchange, Jammu and Kashmir Public Service Commission (JKPSC) office, Private hospitals, Animal Husbandry Department; Schools and colleges e.g., Tyndale Biscoe and Mallinson School, Government College for Women and Government College of Education etc. Parks and Play grounds such as Polo ground, Golf course, Sher-i-Kashmir Park etc. Moreover the religious places and forts are also found in good number, which reflect the cultural and economic base of the city. This infrastructural development is spreading towards the other parts of the city with the growing demands from the rapidly increasing population. Further, because of the congestion in the core area, the decentralizing of various government and private institutions has already started, thereby leading to the expansion of infrastructural base towards the city outskirts.

1.2.5 Basic Amenities and Facilities The basic amenities and facilities in the city are regulated by Srinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC). The uninterrupted and accelerated growth of population of Srinagar city from 0.24 million in the year 1951 to 1.5 million in the year 2011 has put pressure on the city in terms of basic amenities and infrastructural facilities

29 including health and hygiene. As per 2001 census the city had 124253 households. Besides natural growth, the increase is attributed to the migration of people from the villages of the neighbouring districts (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2010). Some of the available basic amenities and facilities enumerated by census (Census, 2001a) are listed below:- Health services: Srinagar city has 11 hospitals with 2966 bed capacity, 13 dispensaries, 12 health centers, and 10 nursing homes with 447 bed capacity. Educational services: The city has 2 universities, 2 medical colleges, 1 engineering college, 5 polytechnic colleges, 2 vetenerary institutes, 16 senior secondary schools, 119 middle schools, 152 primary schools. Entertainment and Recreational services: There are various entertainment and recreational places i.e., 3 sports stadiums, 1 cinema, and 19 auditoriums and number of parks and gardens. Water availability: Water supply in Srinagar city is from the perennial sources. Dachigam Nallah is tapped at Harwan in the northeast; Sindh Extension Canal at Rangil; Alestang water plant in the northwest and Doodganga Nallah in the south. These supply about 50 million gallons per day to the city.

1.2.6 Transportation Srinagar city is well connected with the intra and the inter city roads and highways. The internal city transport depends upon State Road Transport Corporation, privately owned minibuses, auto-rickshaws. Main Bus stand is located at Lal Chowk (CBD). The city lacks railway connectivity with the rest of country. However, the inter district railway line connects some of the districts. The present system of transportation is grossly inadequate with the area under transportation use being only about 3% as against the national average of 10- 14% for Metro Cities. This deficiency is attributed to the inability of the government agencies to assure adequate transportation to the rapidly growing number of people. Also there is no significant expansion and extension of the existing roads which has lead to the problem of traffic jams. Another problem in transportation in Srinagar city is the concentration of activities in the Central Business District (CBD). All major Government, Commercial and Transport terminals are located in this area. Some road junctions in the core area of the city have heavy peak hour traffic ranging

30 from 1900 to more than 2000 Passengers Car Units (P.C.U‟s). However, Master Plan has firm plans for the betterment of transportation in the city (Srinagar Development Authority, 2000). The nearest railway station connecting Srinagar city with the rest of the country is which is about 230 Km away. Srinagar International Airport is at the distance of only 15 Km from the core area of the city.

1.3 Demographic Profile of Srinagar City: 1.3.1 Population and Growth In the year 1901, the total population of Srinagar city was 122,618. With the growth rate of +3.04 between the year 1901-1921 population grew up to 141,735. During 1941-1961 population growth rate declined due to widespread epidemics, political unrest due to partition of sub-continent in 1947 which led to large scale out- migration of people. However, after independence, in 1951 it reached up to 246,522 at the growth rate of 18.64%. In the year 1981 population was 617672 with the growth rate of +40.13 between the year 1971 and 1981. The 1991, census operation was not done in J&K state. In 2001 the total population of Srinagar city was 952324, and census 2011 revealed 1192792 population (provisional); with the growth rate of +51.06 between the years 2001-2011 (Table 1.2 and figure 1.6 & 1.7). Srinagar city had total 124253 number of households in 2001. The city had total number of 1637 Scheduled Cast and Scheduled Tribe population, which included 1226 males and 411 females (Census, 2001b). Generally, population growth is measured with respect to natural increase and net migration. In addition to the natural increase in case of fast expanding cities like Srinagar, which has recorded widespread urban sprawl, another important dimension i.e. territorial annexation also contributes to its urban growth. Urbanization pattern of Srinagar city, has combinedly taken place due to auto- urbanization, in-migration and territorial annexation (Zutshi, 2005; Town Planning, 2005) (Table 1.3). Centripetal forces are operating from the city, restricting the growth and development of other towns.

31 Table 1.2: Population of Srinagar City (1901-2011) Population of Srinagar City

YEAR POPULATION Decadal Growth rate - 1901 122,618 1911 126,344 3.04 1921 141,735 12.18 1931 173,573 22.46 1941 207,787 19.71 1951 246,522 18.64 1961 285,257 15.71 1971 415,271 34.31 1981 617672 40.13 1991 ------2001 952324 44.62 2011* 1192792 51.06 Source: * Census of India 2011, Projected population totals. 1. Census of India 2001, Decadal reports. 2. Primary Census Abstract, 1981, District Srinagar and Jammu.

Figure 1.6: Poulation of Srinagar city (1901-2011)

1400000

1200000

1000000

80000 0 60000 0 40000 0

P O P U L A T I T A L U P O P N O 20000 0

1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Y E A R No Census Operation

32 Figure 1.7: Population Growth Rate of Srinagar city (1901-2011).

6060

5050

4040

3030

2020 P R E C N E A T G E

1010

0 0 19011901-1911-11 19111911-1921-21 19211921-1931-31 19311931-1941-41 19411941-1951-51 19511951-1961-61 19611961-1971-71 19711971-1981-81 19811981-1991-91 19911991-2001-01 20012001-2011-11 2001-11

Y E A R No Census Operation

Table 1.3 clearly shows that auto-urbanisation significantly contributed to the population growth of the city. However, there has been remarkable increase in urban growth of the city especially after independence when city expanded rapidly. Migration has also consistently contributed to the population growth, mainly because of concentration of economic, political, administrative and socio-cultural activities in the city which pull people from various parts of the State. Table 1.3: Components of Population Growth in Srinagar City Year Total Growth Auto- Net Migration Territorial Urbanization Annexation 1921- 31 31,836 6050 (19 %) 19864 (62.39%) 5927 (18.60%) 1951- 61 38,735 18889 (48.76%) 17700 (45.69%) 1044 (2.70%) 1961- 71 1,21,595 47295 (38.36%) 19438 (15.98%) 54862 (45.11%) 1971- 81 1,82,749 79720 (43.62%) 37378 (20.45%) 65615 (35.90%) 1981- 91 2,57,119 87401 (33.99%) 75617 (29.41%) 94203 (36.63%) Source: 1. Birth and Death Files (1954-81) Registrar, Birth and Deaths, Srinagar Municipality. 2. Economic Digest 1983-84 (Vital Statistics).

33 Out of the total migrants to the city about 81.86 per cent are from within the Valley, 10.21 per cent outside the Valley but within the State and 7.94 per cent are from outside the state. About 24.26 per cent people migrate to Srinagar city for education, 30.82 per cent for recreation, 44 per cent for economic activities and 0.92 per cent for political reasons (Town Planning, 2005).

1.3.2 Population density The city had the population density of 180 person/Sq Km in the year 1971 which increased to 559 person/Sq Km by the year 2011 (Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2007; Census, 2011). This density decreases from the core to the periphery of the city, indicating influence of physical and environmental constraints. Similarly, the social, economic and technological development is in its early stage. The uneven distribution of population is attributed to the small-scale manufacturing activities, concentration of service activities in few pockets of the city and weak agricultural land capability (only single growing season, weak and uneven irrigational facilities).

1.3.3 Sex ratio The sex ratio in Srinagar city has decreased from 846 to 842 females per thousand males during the year 1951 to 2001 respectively. In 2011 it increased to 859 (Census, 2011), which is still below the national average of 933. About 8.98% population is below 6 years of age, including 44589 males and 40968 females. Sex ratio in the city is low because of male sex selective in-migration for seeking economic avenues; therefore male population dominates. This has led to the higher mortality rates for females in the places of out-migration in the neighbouring districts due to social under development. Moreover liking towards the male child and family planning practices also lead to low sex ratio.

1.3.4 Literacy rate The literacy rate in Srinagar city has increased from 19% in the year 1951 to 58% in the year 2001 (Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2007). In 2011, it increased up to 68.74% which is still below the national average of 74.04%. This percentage includes 78% male literates and the remaining 22% of female literates. The gender

34 gap in literacy rate is mainly because of poor social awareness for female education in the city and existence of traditional beliefs. Also the ongoing political disturbance in the state has restricted the movement of people in general and women in particular. This lower social development contributes to low level of technological skills leading to under utilization of resources.

1.4 Cultural Profile of Srinagar City: 1.4.1 Historic and Religious Monuments: Cultural possessions of Srinagar city can be explained by its existing historic and religious monuments. The important ones are:- (a) : Situated on the left bank of the Dal Lake, is considered to be Kashmir's holiest Muslim shrine. Its name has been derived from the Arabic word Hazrat, meaning holy or majestic, and the local Kashmiri word bal, meaning place. The Moi-e-Muqqadas (the sacred hair) of Mohammed (saw) is believed to be preserved here. The shrine is known by many other names like Hazratbal, Assar- e-Sharief, Madinat-us-Sani, or simply Dargah Hazratbal Shrine Sharif. Sadiq Khan (a high rank army man of Emperor Shah Jahan) laid out a garden here and constructed a splendid building, Ishrat mahal or Pleasure House, in 1623. The construction of the present marble structure was started by the Muslim Aquaf Trust headed by Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah in 1968 and completed in 1979 (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009). (b) Khanqah- i –Mualla (Shah Hamadan Mosque): Is situated on the right bank of the River Jhelum, below the Fateh Kadal, in the core area. This mosque was built by the ruler Sultan Sikander in 15th century C.E., built up of the wood of the Deodar Pine. It was built in the memory of a Sufi saint Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani (RA). He came to India in 1379 C.E during the Reign of Sultan Qutbuddin, from southern part of Baghlan province in the northeastern Afghanistan for the spread of Islam. (c) Hari Parbat/Koh-i-Maran fort: Located in the north of city, it derives its name from the Hindu god „Hari‟ or „Vishnu‟, whose rock-cut sculpture is on one side of the slope. The first fortifications on the site were constructed by the Mughal

35 emperor Akbar in 1590. The present fort was built in 1808 under the reign of Shuja Shah Durrani. The hill is surrounded by a stone wall, which was built by Akbar and enclosed the royal city of Nagar Nagar. Its length is about 3 miles; it is 28 feet high and 13 inches thick (Bates, 1980).

Khanqah- i –Mualla Shrine Hari Parbat (d) Shah Hamzah or Makhdoom Sahib Shrine: Makhdoom Sahib Shrine is located on the south of Koh-i-Maran hill. It is also known by, Mehboob-ul-Alam, Sultan-Ul-Arifeen and also called as Hazrat Sultan after the name of a Sufi saint. This shrine is visited throughout the year by Muslims and the people of all faiths (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009). (e) Shankaracharya Temple: Is located at the top of the Shankaracharya hill/Koh-i- Sulaiman hill/Takht-i-Sulaiman (Throne of Solomon) in the core area of the city. Raja Gopadatya got the temple constructed in 370 BC. The great philosopher Shankaracharya is said to have stayed here when he visited Kashmir to revive Sanatan Dharma. Made up of rock, it is about 25 feet tall and 100 feet in its circumference (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009)

Shah Hamzah Shrine Shankaracharya Temple Dastgeer Sahib Shrine (f) Dastgeer Sahib Shrine: Is located in the core area of the city. It does not hold any tomb or mausoleum inside but a mosque having holy relic of Pir Dastgeer sahib (RA) a Sufi saint. It was built during Afghan rule of Noor-u-Din Khan Bamzai by Khawaja Sakhi Shah Sahib who came to Kashmir from Bagdad

36 Chatti Padshahi Gurudwara Jama Masjid (g) Chatti Padshahi Gurudwara: It is situated outside the southern gate of Hari Parbat forte i.e., Kathi Darwaza. It is one of the important Sikh Shrine in Kashmir. It is believed that the sixth guru of traveled through Kashmir, stopping to preach occasionally and stayed for few days (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009). (h) Jama Masjid: Situated in the heart of the city, it is one of the oldest and the spacious mosques in Kashmir. This mosque was built by Sultan Sikander in 1398 C.E. The area of the mosque is 384feetX381feet (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2009). (i) Aali Masjid: Is located in the north at Eidgah, on the bank of Mar canal (presently a concrete road). Aali Masjid was built during the time of Sultan Hassaiu Badshah, by Kaji Husti, Sonar, about C.E. 1471 (Bates, 1980). (j) Khanqah-i-Bulbul Shah: Located on the right bank of Jhelum, it is said to be the first mosque of Kashmir. It is the small decayed wooden building. Bulbul Shah was the Sufi saint who is buried there (Bates, 1980). (k) No Masjid or Pathar Masjid: Is located on the left bank of the river Jhelum opposite to Shah Hamadan Mosque in the core area of the city. It was built by famous queen Nur Jahan (the light of the world). It is three storied building and about 180 feet long (Bates, 1980). (l) Shergarhi: Is a fort, situated in the core area of the city on the left bank of river Jhelum. It was the royal palace and the city residence of Maharaja and of the Wazir Pannu who was the governor of Kashmir (Bates, 1980).

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1.5 Natural Profile of Srinagar City 1.5.1 Water Bodies and Parks: Srinagar city is garlanded with numerous lakes and wet lands, which are ecologically important and also social, economic and cultural existence of the city depends on them. Some of them are given below:- (a) Dal Lake: Located on the right bank of river Jhelum between 34°04′ to 34°11′ N latitude and 74°48′ to 74°53′ E longitude. The word “Dal” in signifies “a lake”. It is also a Tibetan word which means “still”. It was a vast meadow called Dal Lake “Vitalamarg”. Later due to massive earthquake, water gushed into the meadow and took the shape of a lake. This lake is one of the important tourist destinations of the city. It attracts people from all over the world. The total area of the lake was about 25 Sq Km, which has now reduced to 13 Sq Km. The decrease is attributed to the urbanization, siltation, illegal encroachment, degradation of its catchment as well as the eutrophication. The lake is fed by the river flowing from north through a dark and deep channel called Tailbal or river of oil. Dal Lake is governed by nodal agency; J&K Lakes and Waterways Development Authority (LAWDA). Dal Lake has been divided into three parts (a) Gagribal (b) Lokut Dal (c) Bud Dal. The lake has an average depth of 7-10 feet. Within the lake are two islands, i.e., Sona Lanka (Gold Island) and Rupa Lanka (Silver Island) which are decorated with four (4) Chinar (Platenous orientalis) trees, and hence are also known as Char Chinar (Bates, 1980). One of the important features of Dal Lake is floating gardens (locally called as Radh). These gardens yield tomatoes, cucumbers, musk and various other vegetables. (b) Nigeen Lake: Nigeen Lake is located on the north-western corner of the Dal Lake. It is only 1 Sq Km in its area. The Lake is also connected with Dal Lake by Ashai Bagh Bridge. This is the only lake which has suffered less in the process of urban expansion in Srinagar city.

38 (c) Khushalsar and Bab-i-demb water bodies: Khushalsar is located to the west of Nigeen Lake. Earlier it was a fresh water lake which has become victim of anthropogenic pressure. Lot of sewage and garbage is being dumped into it and presently is in the dying stage. Bab-i-demb is a small water body located in the west of Dal Lake, in the core area of the city. (d) Dachigam National Park: Dachigam National Park is located to the east of Dal Lake, about 20 Km away from Lal Chowk (CBD). It covers total area of 141 Sq Km. Various animal species are found here e.g., Hangul, Monkey, Leopard, Common Quill, Monkey, Black Bear, Jungle Fowl, Chakore, Langur (District profile, 2009). However, it is famous for Hangul. Hangul is endangered red deer specie of India, which is only found in this park. The park also has a Trout fish farm. The dense forests of Dachigam propose a picturesque view along with a Glacier fed rivulet flowing through its middle.

1.5.2 Gardens: During Mughal rule in Kashmir, Srinagar was decorated with number of parks and gardens which form the important part of the cultural assets of the city. Some of the important ones are as follows: (a) Nishat Garden: It is situated on the banks of the Dal Lake, at the foot of Zabarwan hills, about 11 Km from the city center. It was built by Emperor Jehangir in the year 1633 C.E. after his first visit to Kashmir. It is 600 yards long and 350 yards wide. This garden is celebrated for its Chinar (Platenous orientalis) trees, brought by Mughals from Persia. The garden has been arranged into 10 terraces (Bates, 1980). (b) Shalimar Garden: Shalimar Garden is located in the north east at a distance of about 15 Km from the city center. It was built by Emperor Jehangir for his wife Nur Jahan in 1616 C.E. The garden is 600 yards long and 200 yards wide, surrounded by brick and stone wall of about 10 feet height, and is arranged in four terraces of nearly equal dimension (Bates, 1980).

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Nishat Garden Shalimar Garden (c) Chashma Shahi and Pari Mahal: Chashma Shahi is located on the slopes of the Zabarwan mountain. It is about a mile away from the southeast margin of the Dal Lake. It was built by Shah Jahan in 1632 C.E, who named it after the mountain spring that waters it. The gardens include three terraces, an aqueduct, waterfalls and fountains. Further two kilometers uphill from Cheshma Shahi is Pari Mahal. It was a school of astrology founded by Prince Dara Shikoh, Emperor Shah Jahan's eldest son. Presently it is a heritage structure where tourists visit in large numbers (District Profile, 2009).

1.6 Economic Profile of Srinagar City Srinagar city is the centre of the economy of the Kashmir Valley. At the same time it faces many problems e.g., isolation, backward and inaccessible areas, lack of an industrial base and employment opportunities. However, the state is gifted with a substantial water resource, mineral base, and is famous for its handicrafts, handloom products, tourism, horticulture produce and cottage industry. The economic structure of the last three decades shows the diversification of economic activities in the city with insignificant changes in overall structure.

1.6.1 Participation Ratio: In the year 1961, the participation ratio of the city population in all types of economic activities was 28% as workers and 72% as non-workers cum marginal workers. However, 2001 census shows about 31% population as workers and the remaining 69% as marginal and non-workers. Marginal workers were 3.20% and non-workers were 68.1%. The cottage industry in Srinagar engages full time workers as well as part time workers. Therefore the higher percentages under non- workers cum marginal workers add significantly to the total participation ratio in the city. This industry is therefore income generating, nuisance free and compatible with

40 the healthy environment. Besides having the potential of absorbing the population at lower educational levels it provides jobs to women folk in good proportion within their houses. It engages qualified youth in documentation, marketing and management (Srinagar Development Authority, 2000).

1.6.2 Occupational Pattern: The comparative analysis of sectoral distribution of workers in Srinagar city shows (Table 1.4) that majority of the active workers have been engaged in tertiary sector including trade and commerce, transportation and service activities. It constituted about 86.3 per cent of workers in 1951, 78.68 per cent in 1981 and 81.09 per cent in 2001. Secondary sector which includes industrial and construction activities, constituted only 6.2 per cent in 1951, 14.97 per cent in 1981 and 13.19 per cent in 2001 (Town Planning, 2005). This decrease is attributed, firstly to the political disturbance in the state; secondly, the less number of medium scale industries in the city and most of which have grown sick over the period of time, particularly due to non-availability of raw materials, transport costs and competition with similar products manufactured outside the state. As many as 7266 public and private units have turned sick in Srinagar city (Srinagar Development Authority, 2000). The primary sector which includes agriculture, mining, quarrying, live stock, forestry and allied occupations constituted 7.5 per cent workers in 1951, 6.36 per cent in 1981 and 5.14 per cent in 2001. The increase in tertiary sector in 2000 is attributed to the closure of industrial units and low inflow of tourists due to political unrest in the valley. The employment in tertiary activities has shown variance from 86.3 per cent in 1961 to 84.04 per cent in 1951 and 78.68 per cent in 1981 to 81.91 in the year 2000. The decreasing trend in this sector is attributed to sharp decline in the Tourist trade from the year 1989 onwards. Tourist flow to the Valley decreased from 7,22,035 in 1989 to 2,17,292 in 1999. However, service sector is important contributor towards the employment generation and income multiplier in the city‟s economy. Since, Srinagar city is the center of administration and the capital; therefore, service sector is likely to expand with the size of the city. It has to play a key role in the economy of the city in absence of strong industrial base especially the basic industries (Srinagar Development Authority, 2000).

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Table 1.4: Srinagar City: Distribution of Workers (in percentage). 1951 1961 1971 1981 2001 Primary Sector 7.5 4.39 4.49 6.36 5.14 Cultivators --- 1.89 2.31 3.34 --- Agricultural labourers --- 1.05 0.94 1.07 --- Live Stock, Fishing, --- 0.98 1.01 1.31 --- Hunting, Plantation, Forestry etc. Mining and Quarrying --- 0.47 0.49 0.81 --- Secondary Sector 6.2 11.0 10.79 14.97 13.19 Manufacturing and --- 8.36 7.37 10.81 --- Household industry Construction --- 2.43 3.42 4.16 --- Tertiary Sector 86.3 86.01 84.04 78.68 81.91 Trade and Commerce --- 9.8 9.71 7.21 --- Transport- Storage and --- 12.90 12.73 11.91 --- Communication Other Services --- 61.31 61.96 59.56 --- Source: Town Planning, 2005.

Although, Srinagar is predominantly a service city but it has low absorption capacity and potentials in employment sector because of its growing population. Therefore, in the absence of diversified employment opportunities to the growing population, certain informal economic activities have come up in the city which has been overlooked in the earlier plans. They do not fall in the category of organized or well defined sectors of economy. This has resulted in additional pressure on existing infrastructure services and encroachment of public land. It has not only deteriorated the basic infrastructure but also generated problems in planned physical development of the city. These activities range from production of toys, household goods, retail and wholesale trading activities, servicing of various equipments, domestic services. Their concentration is observed near major work centers, bus terminals, important road intersections and in unattended public vacant land in the city (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2010).

1.6.3 Industry 1.6.3(a) Handloom and Handicraft Industries: Kashmiri people are known for manufacturing of carpets, shawls, silk textiles, raffle, woodwork and handicraft commodities. The art manufacturing of Srinagar is having

42 demand throughout the world. Some of the handicraft industries of Srinagar city are as follows: (i) Silk Industry: It is one of the ancient industries of Srinagar city which is known for its colour, shades and quality. The silk products of this industry are of export quality, mostly exported to Middle East and Western countries. Moreover this industry provides raw material for shawl making, carpet, Gabba (local name for good quality of woolen carpet), Namda (local name for low quality of woolen carpet) and hosiery etc. The silk factory of Srinagar is located at Rambagh. It was established in May 1897 by Raja Ranbir Singh. The factory produces about 50 thousand kg of raw silk annually. The influx of cheap synthetic fiber into the market and the Free Trade Policy of Govt. of India posed serious threats to this industry. (ii) Carpet-Making and Woolen Textile: Carpet-making is one of the oldest industries of Kashmir. Srinagar city, the capital city is having a good number of small scale carpet making factories. Some of the important carpet making factories in Srinagar City are, the Cottage Industry Exposition, C.A.E Carpet Factory, the Kashmiri carpet Factory, the East-Indian carpet factory, the Oriental Carpet Factory and the John Carpet Factory. The workforce involved in this industry also includes children and teenagers from poor financial background. This industry is the leading industries of Srinagar city fetching foreign exchange. Woolen carpets include Namda and Gabba. The average size of Namda is 1m x 1.5 m. Gabba is relatively larger in size than Namda. Gabba is made up made up of coarser wool. There are two woolen textile factories in Srinagar city, one is located at Karan Nagar and another at Bemina. (iii) Metal works: Srinagar City is also the production center of copper utensils, pottery and basket making. Copper is still the popular metal for household use in Kashmir. Plain, beaten, embossed or engraved, copper is used to make a variety of utensils both for daily and festive occasions. Various types of domestic vessels used for cooking and serving food are made from brass, copper and bronze. Besides cooking vessels, samovars (local copper kettle), tumblers, bowls, cups, plates and trays are also made. These are often embroidered with motif like Almond (Badam), Arch (Mehrab) and chinar leaf. In addition to it lignite briquetting plant at Shalteng in west, glass-making and electric goods manufacturing units are also found.

43 (b) Forest-based Industries: The forest based industries in Srinagar include paper, pulp, match, delicate boxes, sports goods (Cricket bats), furniture, joinery, toys, artifacts and decoration items. The skilled carpenters in and around the city prepare ceilings with perfect and attractive designs. This type of ceiling is known as Khatamband. The boat industry is also well developed and existing since long. Famous Deodar pine wood is used for the construction of boats. Usually boatmen (locally called as Hanjis) are involved in this industry. The important forest based industries in Srinagar city are: (i) Papier Machie: It is the product made from pulp of paper. It is an important industry of Srinagar. Designs of lacquer are applied on the wood works which is generally made up of smooth wood. Various products are made with the intricate designs like pen-boxes, tables, trays, jewelry boxes, flower vase etc. (ii) Sports goods industries: The woods are useful for Match and Sports goods industries etc. Wood from Kashmir is used to make export quality cricket bats, popularly known as Kashmir Willow.

(c) Agro-based Industries: Srinagar city produces large quantities of rice. There are numerous rice-husking factories in the city. Barbarshah rice mill in the core area of the city is one such example. Paddy as a Kharif crop is the major crop of the city plain areas. At few places some area is under oilseeds and wheat which is a winter Rabi crop. Maize is the second widely grown cereal crop in the city and is predominantly grown on slopes of foothills. Agriculture of Srinagar city is characterized by the predominance of single crop paddy cultivation. Apart from the soil and slope, climatic factors determine the agricultural characteristics of the city. Agriculture is still traditional to the large extent. The paddy is largely cultivated by transplantation method. Use of manures and fertilizers is common. Due to low level of technological development, very little farm machinery is available to the farmer. Most of the agricultural practices are manual or with the help of farm animals. The agricultural practices of a farmer in Srinagar need a selective change to adjust it with the modern developments in farm technology. Horticulture and floriculture which is the branch of horticulture are the important agro-based industries in Srinagar city.

44 (i) Horticulture: Srinagar has a long traditional of fruit cultivation which has also shaped its landscape. Significant area of Srinagar is coved by fruit orchards. It is the land of fauna, flora and fruits, with rich history of fruit cultivation. The fruits grown under this culture are Apple, Pear, Cherry, Almond, Walnut, Peaches, Saffron, Apricot, Strawberry, Plums, etc. (ii) Floriculture: Floriculture, an important branch of horticulture involves the cultivation of flowers and it includes ornamental gardening and landscaping. Srinagar city has a tradition of gardening for aesthetic purposes, thereby supporting its economy also. Srinagar city have ideal climatic conditions for floriculture on commercial scale for National and International markets. Its marketing is carried out in the Middle East and European countries where demand of Lily, Rose, Tata Rose, Gladilieus cut flower and other varieties is quite high.

(d) Tourism Industry: Tourism is an important economic sector of Jammu and Kashmir. Tourism industry promotes the economy of the state. It also acts as a force for the conservation of its cultural heritage, and provides significant job opportunities for women and young people. About 40% of the people of the city were involved directly or indirectly in tourism industry from time to time e.g. hotelier, owners, taxi drivers, handicrafts, tourist guides, transporters, etc (Srinagar Municipal Corporation, 2010). It offers educational training and skills development and rejuvenates traditional arts and crafts. Srinagar is one of the beautiful tourist destinations of the world. Tourism in Kashmir has a long history. Large number of people of Srinagar city are associated with this industry. Srinagar city is rich in physical as well as cultural assets which attract people from other states and nations. It‟s beautiful lakes like Dal, Nigeen etc., its springs, snow clad peaks, perennial rivers, Mughal gardens, floating gardens, Apple-Almond orchards, saffron fields are the major attractions. Houseboats are important attraction for tourists in Srinagar. There are about 1200 houseboats in Dal Lake. Huge amount of money are invested by the Boatmen (Hanjis) for the construction and designing of these houseboats. However, because of the ongoing political disturbance in the state since 1990s, tourism industry faced a setback.

45 With abundant natural resources like lime, forests, water; Srinagar is self sufficient for the developmental works at its own. Srinagar Municipal Corporation and Srinagar Development Authority work all together in ensuring the better standard of living to its residents. The growing population is getting aware of the importance of literacy and modernity so, education is given importance. One of the leading industries being the Tourism industry has a potential for promoting the economy. Dal Lake and the adjoining Mughal gardens from time to time has remained the focus of foreign and national tourists thereby boosts the economy.

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Chapter–II LITERATURE REVIEW Reviewing chronological background and concepts of related work is necessary for analyzing the dynamics of the urbanization process. This chapter highlights review of related literature focusing on concepts of urbanization trends, spatio-temporal land use/land cover change studies and application of GIS and remote sensing in its study.

2.1 Urbanization: Urbanization process is one of the important global land use/land cover change. Rapid urbanization promoted the economic and social development, which is the prominent feature of the industrial era. Urban population is increasing steadily during the last 200 years; world population has increased six times (Leao et al. 2004). In the last century world urban population has increased from 14% to nearly 50%. Asian countries are also observing rapid urbanization. Between 1950 and 2003, the percentage of the population living in Asian urban centers has increased from 16.6% to 38.8% (UNDP, 2004). Asia accommodates nearly 3.5 billion people out of the world population of more than 6 billion. World’s two most populous countries (China and India), each with more than 1 billion people are found within its boundaries (Hillstrom and Hillstrom, 2003). Among 19 world mega cities with more than 10 million inhabitants in 2000, 11 are found in Asia (UNFPA, 2001). It is projected that most of the urban demographic transformation in the coming decades will occur in Asia and Africa. In 2050, one third of all urban dwellers will be concentrated in Asia (Montgomery, 2008). Urban growth is a global phenomena and one of the important reforming processes affecting both natural and human environment through many ecological and socio-economic processes (Mandelas et al. 2007). Urbanization is a major driving force altering and influencing local and regional environments. In the last 300 years the impacts of land use change have increasingly assumed from significant to threatening proportions. Human population growth represents the primary driving force in land use change (Vitousek et al. 1997). The simultaneous rapid growth in both population and economic output per capita and the consequent changes in land use pattern comes at a cost to the natural environment (Cohen, 2004; Tang et al. 2005; Ifatimehin and Ufuah, 2006; Ifatimehin and Musa, 2008). A recent study has suggested that urban land expansion

47 of the 145 cities in China between 1990 and 2000 mainly occurred on arable land (Tan et al. 2005). Presently India is in a transition period of both rural and urban development. It is facing the transformation of a traditional agricultural society into a modern industrial and urban society. Its economy is changing from a traditional planned economy to a modern market system. Indian urban land expanded by about 1.5 million ha from 1955 to 1985, primarily through encroachment on agricultural land, and its urban growth is continuing. Besides it, the loss of agricultural land in India due to urbanization may cause concerns over their food security in the future (Cohen, 2004). For example, the rapid urban expansion in Saharanpur City between 1988 and 1998 came at the cost of the loss of fertile agricultural land (Fazal, 2000). Urbanization exerts a substantial effect on housing condition in India. Rapid urban expansion in national capital Delhi, India, has led to the deteriorating conditions of urban crowding, housing shortages and lack of infrastructure, as well as increasing urban expansion on fertile lands. Therefore highlights much attention for sustainable and effective management and planning of urban areas. However, recently, innovative approaches to urban land use planning and management such as sustainable development and smart growth has been proposed (Kaiser et al. 1995). Therefore, the role of urbanization and its ecological consequences have become a critical issue in India. Similarly, with high inflow of population from the local or distant places and dynamic urban changes processes in their morphology, expansion of impervious surface and conversion of productive lands in and around urbanized area, affect natural and human systems at all geographic scales (Yesserie, 2009). Besides influencing the land use pattern, urbanization places a heavy burden on the urban atmosphere and water quality. Asian mega-cities contributed approximately 16% of the total anthropogenic sulfur emissions in Asia (Guttikunda et al. 2003). The rivers in Nepal, India and Bangladesh have been severely polluted as a result of pollution discharge from urban activities (Karn and Harada, 2001).

2.2 Land Use/Land Cover: Concepts and Development: Land is the stage on which all human activity is being conducted and the source of the materials needed for this conduct. Human use of land resources gives rise to

48 "land use" which varies with the purposes it serves, whether they be food production, provision of shelter, recreation, extraction and processing of materials, and the bio-physical characteristics of land itself. Hence, land use is being shaped under the influence of two broad sets of forces – human needs and environmental features and processes. The terms land use and land cover are not synonymous and the literature draws attention to their differences so that they are used properly in studies of land use and land cover change. Land cover is the biophysical state of the earth’s surface and immediate subsurface (Turner et al. 1995). It describes the physical state of the land surface; e.g., cropland, mountains or forests (Meyer, 1995 in Moser, 1996). Land cover deals with, for example, the quantity and type of surface vegetation, water, and earth materials (Meyer and Turner, 1994). The term land cover originally referred to the type of vegetation that covered the land surface, but has broadened subsequently to include other aspects of the physical environment also, such as soils, biodiversity and surfaces and groundwater (Moser, 1996). Land use concerns the function or purpose for which the land is used by the local human population and can be defined as the human activities which are directly related to land, making use of its resources or having an impact on them (FAO, 1995). It involves both the order in which the biophysical attributes of the land are manipulated and the purpose for which the land is used (Turner et al. 1995). It is the way in which and the purpose for which human beings use the land and its resources (Meyer, 1995). In short land use is the human employment of a land cover (Skole, 1994). The understanding of land-use/land cover change has moved from simplicity to realism and complexity over the last decades. In the beginning, land use/land cover studies were mostly concerned with the physical aspect of the change. Later in the research agenda on global environmental change; scientists realized that land surface processes influence climate because of the land use/cover change. In mid 1970s, it was recognized that land cover change modifies surface albedo and thus surface atmosphere energy exchanges, which have an impact on regional climate (Otterman, 1974; Charney and Stone, 1975; Sagan et al. 1979). Much broader range of impacts of land-use/cover change on ecosystem, goods and services were further identified. Of primary concern are impacts on biotic diversity worldwide (Sala et al.

49 2000), soil degradation (Trimble and Crosson, 2000), and the ability of biological systems to support human needs (Vitousek, 1997). Over the last few decades, numerous researchers have improved measurements of land cover changes. The understanding of the causes and predictive models of land use/cover change were improved under the Land Use and Land Cover Change (LUCC) project of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP) (Turner et al. 1995; Lambin et al. 1995). Recent research has largely rejected these simplifications and replaced them by a representation of much more complex and intricate processes of land use/cover change. In the year 1991, a new and expanded approach to the study of Global change was attempted where global change scientists were joined by social scientists to examine both the human causes and global consequences of altered land use/land cover patterns on the planet (Meyer and Turner II, 1994). Historically humans have been modifying land to obtain the essentials for their survival, but the rate of exploitation was not the same as it is today. Recent rapid rate of exploitation has brought unprecedented changes in ecosystems and environmental processes at local, regional and global scales. Presently, land use/land cover changes encompass the environmental concerns of human population including climate change, biodiversity depletion and pollution of water, soil and air. Today, the monitoring and mediating the adverse consequences of land use/land cover change while sustaining the production of essential resources has become a major priority of researchers and policy makers around the world (Erle and Pontius, 2007).

2.3 Land Use/Land Cover Change Studies: Human populations and their use of land have transformed most of the terrestrial biosphere into anthropogenic biomes (anthromes). Such transformation has caused a variety of new ecological patterns and processes to emerge and has been significant for more than 8000 years (Ellis, 2011). Recently, issues related to LULC change have gained interest among a wide variety of researchers, ranging from those who favor modeling spatio-temporal patterns of land conversion to those who try to understand the causes, impacts and consequences (Verburg et al. 1999; Brown et al.

50 2000; Theobald, 2001). Land use affects land cover and changes in land cover affect land use. A change in either however is not necessarily the result of the other. Changes in land cover by land use do not necessarily imply degradation of the land. However, many shifting land use patterns driven by a variety of social causes, result in land cover changes. These changes affects biodiversity, water and radiation budgets and other processes that come together to affect climate and biosphere (Riebsame et al. 1994). Human activities which are mainly driven by socio-economic factors bring out changes in non built-up and built-up land despite restrictions by physical conditions (Long et al. 2007). Land use change, including land transformation from one type to another and land cover modification through land use management, has altered a large proportion of the earth’s land surface. The aim is to satisfy mankind’s immediate demands from natural resources (Meyer and Turner, 1992; Vitousek et al. 1997). The worldwide changes to forests, farmlands, waterways and air are being driven by the need to provide food, fiber, water, and shelter to more than six billion people. Global croplands, pastures, plantations and urban areas have expanded in recent decades. This expansion is accompanied by large increases in energy, water, and fertilizer consumption, along with considerable losses of biodiversity (Foley et al. 2005). Land cover can be altered by forces other than anthropogenic. Natural events such as weather, flooding, fire, climate fluctuations and ecosystem changes may also initiate modifications upon land cover. There are also incidental impacts on land cover from other human activities such as forest and lakes damaged by acid rain from fossil fuel combustion and crops near cities damaged by tropospheric ozone resulting from automobile exhaust (Meyer, 1995). Kuemmerle (2009) observed the conversion of cropland to grassland in Arges¸ County in Romania which he related to the rapid changes in socio-economic, demographic and institutional conditions after 1989. Similarly, Brown (1995) states that more recent changes in land use have been dominated by losses of agricultural land. In particular, in eastern China there has been an unprecedented conversion of arable land into built-up uses following rapid industrialization. While Kebrom Tekle and Hedlund (2000) reported increases in the size of open areas and settlements at the expense of shrub lands and forests in twenty eight years (between 1958 and

51 1986) in Kalu District, Southern Wello, Ethiopia. Similarly, Woien (1995) reported increase of homestead in studies made in the central highlands, during 1957 and 1986 attributing it to increase in population density. Mark and Kudakwashe (2010) in a study in Shurugwi district in Midlands Province of Zimbabwe observed the increase in cropland. He attributed this increase to the Land Reform and Resettlement Program. Large areas of forests were cleared for different farm related activities like opening new farming plots, wood for fuel, poles for building both homes and cattle pens, among other activities. The built-up area around the water bodies in Davangere city, Karnataka, India has almost doubled between 1970 and 2005, at the cost of the agriculture land and scrub land (Begum et al. 2010). Prakasam (2010) studied land use/land cover change over a period of 40 years in Kodaikanal taluk, Tamil Nadu. In this study major changes has been observed like area under built-up land and harvested land has increased whereas the area under forest and water body has decreased. Javed and Khan (2012) studied land use land cover change during due to mining activities from 2001 to 2010. The study revealed that significant decrease has been observed in dense forest area, cultivated land and water body, however settlement, wasteland land and uncultivated land has increased mainly due to anthropogenic activities. Bisht and Kothyari (2001) have carried out land cover change analysis of Gurur Ganga watershed in Uttaranchal. The study from 1963 to 1996 and 1986 to 1996 revealed that the area under agriculture and settlement has increased whereas the forest and barren land show decline in area. Dhinwa et al. (1992) studied land use change of Bharatpur district, the analysis in the study reveal that forest cover has been depleted whereas wasteland undulating terrain with or without scrub and rock out crops has been increased during 1986 to 1989. Different land use changes may affect one another. Most of the ecological consequences of land use change reflect interactive effects under different land use changes. For example, deforestation has led to the degradation of freshwater habitat through due to the siltation of rivers. Similarly, the role of the Asian forest as a carbon sink and source varies from year to year or from place to place as a result of interactive effects between deforestation, afforestation and reforestation. Therefore, the interactions of different land uses along their change trajectories represent a

52 challenge for a better understanding of the land use change issue. Changes in land and ecosystems and their implications for global environmental change and sustainability are a research challenge for the human environmental sciences (Omenn, 2006; Turner et al. 2007).

2.4 Land Use/Land Cover Studies Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques: In order to use land optimally, it is necessary to have the information on existing land use land cover. It is also important to have capability of monitoring the dynamics of land use resulting out of both changing demands of increasing population and forces of nature acting to shape the landscape. Land is in a continuous state of transformation as a result of various natural and man-made processes. The study of spatio-temporal patterns of intra and inter urban form and understanding of the evolution of urban systems are still primary objectives in urban research. Therefore, the information about change is necessary for updating land cover maps and the management of natural resources (Xiaomei and Rong Qing, 1999). Land use/land cover change detection process of identifies the differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by observing it at different times (Singh, 1989). Change detection is an important process in monitoring and managing natural resources and urban development because it provides quantitative analysis of the spatial distribution of the population of interest. Macleod and Congation (1998) list four aspects of change detection which are important when monitoring natural resources. They include; firstly, detecting the changes that have occurred; secondly, identifying the nature of the change; thirdly, measuring the area extent of the change and lastly, assessing the spatial pattern of the change. The basis of using remote sensing data for change detection is that changes in land cover result in changes in radiance values which can be remotely sensed. Techniques to perform change detection with satellite imagery have become numerous as a result of increasing versatility in manipulating digital data and increasing computer power. Conventional ground methods of land use mapping are labor intensive, time consuming and are done infrequently. These maps soon become outdated with the passage of time in a rapid changing environment. In recent years, satellite remote sensing techniques have been developed, which have proved to be of immense value

53 for preparing accurate land use/land cover maps and monitoring changes at regular intervals of time. Despite spatial and spectral heterogeneity challenges of urban environments, remote sensing seems to be a suitable source of reliable information about the multiple facets of urban environment (Jensen and Cowen, 1999; Herlod et al. 2003). So, the analysis of dramatic changes of land use/land cover at global, continental and local levels and further to explore the extent of future changes, the current geospatial information on patterns and trends in land use/land cover are playing an important role. Remotely sensed imageries provide an efficient means of obtaining information on temporal trends and spatial distribution of urban areas needed for understanding, modeling and projecting land changes (Elvidge et al. 2004). In case of inaccessible regions, this technique is perhaps the only method of obtaining the required data on a cost and time effective basis (Olorunfemi, 1983). Satellite imagery is able to provide more frequent data collection on a regular basis unlike aerial photographs. Although aerial photographs may provide more geometrically accurate maps but is limited in respect to its extent of coverage and expenses. The importance of remote sensing technique was realized by Olorunfemi in 1983 while using traditional method of surveying i.e., aerial photographic approach to monitor urban land use in developing countries with Ilorin in Nigeria as the case study. A remote sensing device records response which is based on many characteristics of the land surface, including natural and artificial cover. An interpreter uses the element of tone, texture, pattern, shape, size, shadow, site and association to derive information about land cover. The generation of remotely sensed data/images by various types of sensor flown aboard different platforms at varying heights above the terrain and at different times of the day and the year does not lead to a simple classification system. It is often believed that no single classification could be used with all types of imagery and all scales. The successful attempt in developing a general purpose classification scheme compatible with remote sensing data has been carried out by Anderson in 1976, which is also referred to as United States Geological Survey (USGS) classification scheme. Ever since the launch of the first remote sensing satellite (Landsat-1) in 1972, land use/land cover studies were carried out on different scales for different users. For instance, waste land mapping of India was carried out on 1:1 million

54 scales by NRSA using 1980-82 Landsat multi spectral scanner data. About 16.2% of waste lands were estimated based on the study. It has been noted over time through series of studies that Landsat Thematic Mapper is adequate for general extensive synoptic coverage of large areas. As a result, this reduces the need for expensive and time consuming ground surveys conducted for validation of data. The State of Maryland Health Resources Planning Commission used Landsat TM data to create a land cover data set for inclusion in their Maryland Geographic Information (MAGI) database. In 1985, the U.S Geological Survey also carried out a research program to produce 1:250,000 scale land cover maps for Alaska using Landsat MSS data (Fitzpatrick et al. 1987). All seven TM bands were used to produce a 21-class land cover map (EOSAT, 1992). Georgia Department of Natural Resources in 1992 used Landsat Thematic Mapper data completed mapping the entire State of Georgia to identify and quantify wetlands and other land cover types (ERDAS, 1992). Similarly, The State of southern Carolina Lands Resources Conservation Commission carried out a detailed land cover map composed of 19 classes from TM multi-temporal and multi-spectral data (EOSAT, 1994). In Indonesia combination of MSS Landsat and land use map was carried out for land use/land cover pattern analysis (Dimyati, 1995) using remote sensing techniques to calculate the index of changes. This was done by the superimposition of land use/land cover images of 1972, 1984 and land use maps of 1990. Adeniyi and Omojola (1999) in their land use land cover change evaluation in Sokoto –Rima Basin of North–Western Nigeria used remote sensing and GIS techniques to study changes in the two dams (Sokoto and Guronyo) between 1962 and 1986. The work revealed that land use/land cover classes changed but with settlement still remaining the largest. In India, National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) of Department of Space under National Urban Information System (NUIS) scheme used Cartosat-1, Resourcesat-1 and LISS-VI+PAN merged satellite data to carry out national level urban land use thematic mapping at 1:10,000 scale of 564 cities/towns including State capitals and Union Territories; 23 cities with Million plus population; NCR towns; and one town from each class (from Class I to Class VI) from each State and Union Territories (NRSA, 2008).

55 For this urban land use mapping a classification standard was designed with classes hierarchically arranged with increasing information content as the levels increases from Level I to Level V. The classification also consists of certain land cover classes up to Level II designed to accommodate the rural classes noticed within the urban administrative limits. At Level-I land use includes Built-up, Agriculture, Forest, Grazing land/Wastelands, Wetlands, Water bodies, Others. At Level-II Built-up has been classified into Built-up Urban and Rural and at the same level Agriculture, Forest, Grazing land/Wastelands, Wetlands, Water bodies and Others have been classified into 3, 4, 5, 3, 7, 3 sub classes respectively. At Level-III Built-up has been classified in to Residential, Industrial, Mixed Built-up area, Recreational, Public and Semi public area, Communications, Public Utilities & Facilities, Commercial, Transportation, Reclaimed/vacant land, Vegetated Area/Trees. Similarly, at Level- IV Residential class of Built-up (urban) has been classified in to High, Medium and Low density residential and at the same level Industrial, Recreational and Public and Semipublic, Communications, Public Utilities & Facilities, Commercial, Transportation, Reclaimed land/Vacant land classes have been classified into 6, 10, 15, 4, 6, 8, 9, 1 classes respectively. In the present study land use/land cover mapping of Srinagar city, India, has carried out applying the above land use classification standards designed by NRSA.

2.5 Impact of Land use/Land Cover Change on Environment: Man’s activities have completely dominated the environmental change and which are now exceeding the limits of variability. Today the changes in the environment are because of the changes brought in land use by the man. Therefore, land use change leads to environmental change and which in turn affects the land use practices (Shaw et al. 2002; Wardle et al. 2003). Similarly, Pandey and Nathawat (2006) carried out a study on land use land cover mapping of Panchkula, Ambala and Yamuna Nagar districts, in the state of Haryana in India. It was observed that the heterogeneous climate and physiographic conditions in these districts has resulted in the development of different land use/land cover in these districts. It was inferred that land use/land cover pattern in

56 the area are generally controlled by agro-climatic conditions, ground water potential and a host of other physiographic factors. Ishaya et al. (2008) in a study entitled Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Urban Expansion and Loss of Vegetation Cover in Kaduna Town, Northern Nigeria states that built-up area expanded annually whereas vegetation cover declined at a faster rate from year 1990-2000. Also it was observed that bare land has increased. The unplanned growth led to environmental and ecological problems like flooding, urban heat island situation. Bane and Rawal, in 2003 carried out a study entitled as, “GIS for Land Use Patterns and Land Transformation - A Case Study of Anand City”. The Land use pattern for a period of three decades and the Land transformation map revealed that major change in land use has taken place by transforming rich agricultural land to residential, industrial and commercial uses from 1971 to 1991. Jayakumar and Arockiasamy (2003) carried out change detection study of Kolli Hill (Eastern Ghats) Tamil Nadu for the year 1990 and 1999 using Landsat TM and IRS-1C LISS III data. It was observed that more than 50% area was under forest cover and rest of the non-forest area is under other land uses. The significant area was observed under wasteland category. Increase in the single crop category and reduction in the land in other classes was also observed. Palaniyandi and Nagarathinam in 1997 made detailed land use/land cover study of Thiruvallur area of Chengai MGR district of Tamil Nadu (India) using LANDSAT TM FCC for 1986 and IRS IA LISSII images for 1990. Interpretation in GIS environment revealed that built-up area and agricultural land use showed an increasing trend whereas forest and wet land showed declining trend owing it to increase in population and related trends in other parameters. Tang et al. 2008 carried out analysis on urban landscape dynamics using multi-temporal satellite images in Houston and Heilong Jiang province of USA and China respectively. It was observed with the help of remote sensing technology that both the cities are expanding rapidly especially during the last 50 years but under different socio economic contexts. A general trend of landscape change was revealed in these two cities: natural landscape such as grassland and wetland were degraded or fragmented into a more heterogeneous pattern, while the built-up classes have replaced the non built-up classes.

57 2.5.1 Impact of Land Use/Land Cover Change on Water Bodies: Land use practices are assumed to have important impacts on both the quality and the cycle of water resources (Huisman et al. 2004). High levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in watercourses leads to eutrophication and biological degradation of water bodies, which results in phytoplankton blooms causing problems such as blocking water filters, giving unpleasant tastes and odor to the water (Kvarnstrom et al. 2004). Hillstrom and Hillstrom (2003) notes that it is well known that Asia houses many of the world’s large rivers, including the Ganges, Yangtze, Yellow and Mekong, to name a few, as well as major freshwater lakes. Zhao et al. (2005) notes that these rivers and lakes are notable not only for their size and volume, but also for providing habitats for aquatic fauna and flora, especially for a number of endemic species. Unfortunately, these bodies of water have been greatly affected by human- induced land use changes. The degradation of these lakes is largely attributed to extensive agricultural reclamation, resulting in negative ecological consequences, such as frequent flooding, a decline in biodiversity and the extinction of a number of endemic species. Karn and Harada (2001); Bouman et al. (2002); Liu and Diamond (2005) adds that the water quality in most Asian rivers, lakes, streams and wetlands has been heavily degraded, mainly due to agricultural runoff of pesticides and fertilizers, and industrial and municipal wastewater discharges, all of which cause widespread eutrophication. Less than 50% of the domestic wastewater in Asia is treated, compared with 80% in the developed world. In major metropolitan areas, more than 95% of wastewater from Asian cities is discharged directly into rivers, lakes and streams without any treatment at all. Consequently, the bacterial level resulting from human waste found Asian rivers is threefold higher than the world average and 50- fold higher than World Health Organization guidelines (UNEP, 1999). The rapid construction of dams in Asia has caused widespread loss and fragmentation of freshwater habitats, especially those of riparian floodplains and wetlands, although dams have played a critical role in water supply, flood control, irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Park et al. 2003; Wu et al. 2004). Similar such cases have taken place in India also, where in, besides the effect on the natural environment, people in thousands of number had to be relocated because of

58 the submergence of the adjoining dam area for example Tehri dam in Uttarakhand state.

2.5.2 Impact of Land Use/Land Cover Change on Biodiversity: Conversion, degradation and fragmentation threaten the integrity of ecosystems worldwide. Nowadays, biological species live in increasingly fragmented habitat islands embedded in a matrix of human civilization. At present, loss of biodiversity, inducing high rates of extinction and a worldwide depletion of biological diversity at genetic, species and ecosystem levels, can be linked to the destruction of natural habitats as a result of land use change at different scales (e.g., farmland expansion, deforestation, urbanization, etc.) and is presently considered one of the most urgent environmental problems (Jenkins, 2003).

59

Chapter–III LAND USE/LAND

COVER 3.1 Land: Land is the basic natural resource that provides habitat and sustenance for living organisms, as well as being a major focus of economic activities (UNEP, 2001a). Land and land resources refers to a delineable area of earth’s terrestrial surface, encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below the surface, including those of the near-surface climate, the soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology (including shallow lakes, rivers, marshes and swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers and associated groundwater and geohydrological reserve, the plant and animal populations, the human settlement patterns and physical results of past and present human activity (terracing, water storage or drainage structures, roads, buildings, etc) (FAO/UNEP, 1997).

3.1.1 Basic Functions of Land: The basic functions of land in supporting human and other terrestrial ecosystems can be summarized as follows:

a store of wealth for individuals, groups, or a community production of food, fiber, fuel or other biotic materials for human use provision of biological habitats for plants, animals and micro-organisms co-determinant in the global energy balance and the global hydrological cycle, which provides both a source and a sink for greenhouse gases regulation of storage and flow of surface water and ground water storehouse of minerals and raw materials for human use a buffer, filter or modifier for chemical pollutants provision of physical space for settlements, industry and recreation storage and protection of evidence from the historical or pre-historical record (fossils, evidence of past climates, archaeological remains, etc.) enabling or hampering movement of animals, plants and people between one area and another. Every person is shaped in many ways by the landscape in which they live, and the products and resources produced on the land. The way land is used has a central role in defining the identity of an area and its community. Land and its uses are particularly important for rural communities, where many people are directly

60 dependent on land for their livelihood. Changes in land use can have a profound impact on the social, economic and cultural lives of people.

3.1.2 Stress on Land: Increasing population pressures and demands of society on scarce land, water and biological resources and the increasing degradation of these resources is affecting the stability and resistance of our ecosystems and the environment as a whole (Fazal and Amin, 2012) (Figure 3.1). Globally the expansion of human settlements and infrastructure, intensification of agriculture, expansion of agriculture into marginal areas and fragile ecosystems emphasizes the need for integrated planning and management of land resources. Figure 3.1: Man Land Relationship

Man’s ActivitiesMan Pressure on Land resources

Food shortage Desertification Fuel wood shortage Loss of soil fertility Land conflicts Loss of vegetation Water shortages Stalinization Poverty Soil erosion Social break off Pollution Risk of natural disasters

Consequences

Increasing competition for land Increased degradation Declining crop production

61 In India, land is generally inherited in the family, which is divided among son and daughters in different proportion. However, variations are found in different religion, caste and regional traditions. The division of land is mostly not properly documented and which many times leads to conflict among family members. The division of land has also resulted in shrinking of land holding. In the year 1901 the per capita availability of land in India was 1.37 hectares, which decreased to 0.33 hectares in 2000 (Ministry of Rural Development, 2003). This led to transformation of land holdings into uneconomic land holding within a period of few generations. Moreover, due to prevalence of law of inheritance, reduction in the size of operational land has adversely affected agricultural activity.

3.2 Urbanization in India: India has a long tradition of urbanisation which started from Indus Valley civilization dates back to 3000 BC. The post Vedic period, the Maurya period and the Mughal period are considered as water mark in urban growth. Although few urban centres such as hill stations, port cities etc., emerged during British period. However, this period is considered as period of urban stagnation due to exploitative economic policy of British rulers (Ramachandran, 1998). Table 3.1: Trend of Urbanization in India Census Number of Urban Percent Annual Years Towns Population (in Urban Growth Rate millions) (in percent) 1901 1961 25.9 10.8 -- 1911 1908 25.9 10.3 0.03 1921 2048 28.1 11.2 0.79 1931 2220 33.5 12.0 1.75 1941 2422 44.2 13.8 2.77 1951 3060 62.4 17.3 3.47 1961 2700 78.9 18.0 2.34 1971 3126 109.1 19.9 2.24 1981 4029 159.5 23.3 3.79 1991 4689 217.6 25.7 3.09 2001 5161 284.5 27.8 2.73 2007* --- 341.2 29.2 --- 2011 --- 377 31.1 --- Source: * United Nations Report, 2007. Census of India, 2011, Provisional population totals.

62 India’s total population in 1901 was about 238.4 million. This increased to 1210 million in the year 2011. Thereby it increased by more than four times during the period of 110 years. Since the beginning of the last century, urban population in India showed a steady increase. After independence India’s urban population has increased more than four times from 62.5 million in 1951, 284.5 million in 2001 and 377 million in 2011 (Table 3.1).

Table 3.2: Million-Plus cities in India: 1951- 2001 Rank City Population (in million) 1951 1971 1991 2001 1 Bombay(Mumbai) 2.97 5.97 12.57 16.37 2 Calcutta 4.67 7.42 10.92 13.22 3 Delhi 1.44 3.65 8.38 12.79 4 Madras(Chennai) 1.54 3.17 5.36 6.42 5 Hyderabad 1.13 1.80 4.28 5.53 6 Bangalore 0.79 1.66 4.09 5.69 7 Ahmadabad 0.88 1.75 3.30 4.52 8 Pune 0.61 1.14 2.49 3.75 9 Kanpur 0.71 1.28 2.11 2.69 10 Nagpur 0.48 0.93 1.66 2.12 11 Lucknow 0.50 0.81 1.64 2.27 12 Surat 0.24 0.49 1.52 2.81 13 Jaipur 0.30 0.64 1.52 2.32 14 Kochi 0.18 0.51 1.14 1.35 15 Coimbatore 0.29 0.74 1.14 1.45 16 Vadodara 0.21 0.47 1.12 1.49 17 Indore 0.31 0.56 1.10 1.64 18 Patna 0.32 0.56 1.10 1.71 19 Madurai 0.37 0.71 1.09 1.19 20 Bhopal 0.10 0.38 1.06 1.45 21 Vishakhapatnam 0.11 0.36 1.05 1.33 22 Varanasi 0.37 0.64 1.03 1.21 23 Ludhiana 0.15 0.40 1.01 1.40 24 Srinagar 0.24 0.41 ----- 0.95 Source: Census of India, 2001, Decadal census reports.

The number of urban centres has increased from 3060 to 5161 from 1951 to 2001. Still the level of urbanization is very low. Only 29.2% of its population is living in urban areas (United Nations, 2007). The pattern of urbanization in India is characterized by continuous concentration of population and activities in big cities where urban poverty and poverty exists side by side (Dubey, 2010).

63 The growth in urban population can be attributed to (i) natural increase, (ii) rural to urban migration, (iii) reclassification of settlements and (iv) inclusion of villages in urban areas. The contribution of natural increase has been dominant followed by rural to urban migration and reclassification (Pathak and Mehata, 1995; Visaria, 1997). The number of million plus cities in India has increased from 5 in 1951, 23 in 1991 to 35 in 2001 (Table 3.2). About 37% of the total urban population lives in these million plus cities. As per 2001 census 12 million plus cities have been newly added and they are; Agra, Meerut, Nashik, Jabalpur, Jamshedpur, Asansol, Dhanbad, Faridabad, Allahabad, Amritsar, Vijayawada, Rajkot.

3.3 Indian Census Definition of Urban Area: In Census of India 2001, two types of town were identified: a) Statutory towns: All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc. declared by state law. b) Census towns: Places which satisfy following criteria:- i) A minimum population of 5000;

ii) At least 75% of male working population engaged in non agricultural pursuits;

iii) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq km.

The present study is based on Srinagar city which is located in the northern most state of India i.e., Jammu and Kashmir. It is also the summer capital of the State. The city was founded about 2000 years ago. Presently Srinagar is an important urban centre with the total population of 1192792 people according to 2011 census. It has also acted as the primate city in the past. The present study is focused to analyse spatial and temporal information of land use and land cover patterns.

3.4 Land Use and Land Cover: Natural scientists define land use as human activities such as agriculture, forestry and building construction that alter land surface processes including biogeochemistry, hydrology and biodiversity. Social scientists and land managers define land use more broadly to include the social and economic processes. They

64 define land in contexts within which lands are managed or left unmanaged, such as subsistence versus commercial agriculture, rented versus owned, or private versus public land. The observations of land use and its changes generally require the integration of natural and social scientific methods e.g., expert knowledge, interviews with land managers etc., to determine which human activities are occurring in different parts of the landscape. Land cover refers to the physical and biological cover over the surface of land, including water, vegetation and bare soil. Land cover may be observed directly in the field or by remote sensing. Land cover is defined as ‘the vegetation and artificial constructions covering the land surface’ (Burley 1961). Land use and land cover are always used in association. This partly reflects the collection of data by satellite imagery from which it is difficult to distinguish many activities. Besides, it also reflects the internally inter-dependent nature of activity and reveals an unclear distinction between them (Anderson et al. 1976). However, considerable field work is necessary to convert formally classified land use data taken from air photographs into functional or activity-based data. Therefore land cover will be used in the sense defined by Burley (1961) and Land use will be used when activity- based data alone is under discussion. The fundamental base of any survey of land use is whether the information recorded relates to some activity carried on at different places, or whether it relates to inherent physical characteristics of those places. In urban areas, such distinction is usually simple.

3.5 Land Use/Land Cover Change (LULCC) and Definitions: Land use/Land cover change, also known as land change, is a general term for the human modification of earth's terrestrial surface. Though humans have been modifying land to obtain food and other essentials for thousands of years but the present rates, are far greater than ever in history. This initially occurred with the burning of areas to enhance the availability of food by early man. It accelerated with the birth of agriculture, resulting in the extensive clearing i.e., deforestation and management of earth’s terrestrial surface that continues today. More recently, industrialization has encouraged the concentration of human populations within urban areas and the depopulation of rural areas. This change is accompanied by the

65 intensification of agriculture in the most productive lands and the abandonment of marginal lands. Changes in land use and land cover reveal direct and indirect consequence of human actions to secure essential resources. These modifications are driving unprecedented changes in ecosystem and environmental processes at local, regional and global scales. Such changes encompass the environmental concerns of human populations today, including climate change and biodiversity loss and the pollution of water, soils and air (Ellis, 2010). Without the actual knowledge about the existing use of land in a region, it is not possible to formulate a detailed scheme of land development and rational land use policy. To generate land use information there is need of land use surveys. The aim of such survey is to record the existing land use on the map. In addition to land use data these surveys provide sound information about the physical conditions of a region i.e., relief, drainage, climate, and soils and their impact on the nature. Further, the comparative study of these physical conditions and their possible effects on type of land use may ascertain the quality and the character of the present utilization of land. Land use/land cover includes both built-up and non built-up classes characterized by rural or urban areas. In the present study a total of 14 land use/land cover classes were mapped in Srinagar city which includes both built-up and non built-up classes, they are; Residential, Scattered settlement, Commercial, Industrial, Parks/Gardens & Playgrounds, Restricted area, Vacant Land, Agricultural Land, Plantation/Orchards, Forest, Barren, Marshy, Water body and Others (Educational, Governmental, Hospital, Religious).

Built-up is composed of area of intensive use with much of the land covered by structures. Included in this category are the cities; towns; villages; strip developments; along highways; transportation, power, and communication facilities; and areas such as those occupied by mills, shopping centers, industrial and commercial complexes, and institutions that may, in some instances, be isolated from urban areas (Lillisand and Kiefer, 2000). In the present study the built-up classes include residential, scattered settlement, commercial, industrial, parks/gardens & playgrounds and restricted area. The meaning and definition of all these classes is given below:

66 3.5.1 Residential: Residential land uses include high density settlement, represented by the multiples of structures of urban cores. Linear residential developments along transportation routes extending outward from urban areas are included as residential branches to urban centers. The residential strips generally have a uniform size and spacing of structures, linear driveways, and lawn areas. Scattered settlement is also the part of residential land use. However, it is the area of sparse or low density residential found in the scattered form, where houses are on lots of more than an acre, on the periphery of urban expansion. These settlements are adjoined by open or agricultural fields. 3.5.2 Commercial: Commercial areas are those areas which are used predominantly for the sale of products and services. They are often adjoined by residential, agricultural, or other contrasting uses. Components of the commercial and services category are urban central business districts; shopping centers, usually in suburban and outlying areas; commercial strip developments along major highways and access routes to cities; resorts. The main buildings, secondary structures, and areas supporting the basic use are all included e.g., office buildings, warehouses, driveways, sheds, parking lots, landscaped areas, and waste disposal areas. 3.5.3 Industrial: Industrial areas include a wide range of land uses from light manufacturing to heavy manufacturing plants. It includes those industries which are focused on design, assembly, finishing, processing, and packaging of products often based on the type of building, parking arrangements. Light industrial areas may be, but are not necessarily, directly in contact with urban areas. 3.5.4 Restricted Area: A Restricted area is an area in which certain restrictive measures employed to prevent or minimize interference from city residents. It can be an area under military jurisdiction in which special security measures are employed to prevent unauthorized entry. 3.5.5 Parks/Gardens & Playgrounds: Park is a land that is reserved for pleasure, recreation or for the protection of wildlife or natural habitats. It may consist of rocks, soil, water, flora and fauna and grass areas. Parks commonly resemble open woodlands, the type of landscape that human beings find most relaxing. Garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the display, cultivation, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The garden can

67 comprise both natural and man-made materials. The most common form is known as a residential garden. A playground or play area is a place with a specific design for children to play. It may be indoors but is usually outdoors. Playgrounds often have facilities for playing informal games of sports, such as a Cricket, Foot ball, Hockey, Tennis, Golf, basketball court etc.

3.5.6 Vacant Land: Vacant land is all unused land with no clear designation, though often it is in the middle of a process of conversion. This land may be covered with bushes and grass; it might also be completely barren. Many plots of vacant land are kept for speculative purposes and are therefore left vacant for extensive periods. Rising land prices induce some of the land owners to discontinue agriculture, construct a boundary wall, and leave the plot temporarily unused. In particular, it may be found near roads and adjacent to villages, where the land values are rising steeply. 3.5.7 Agricultural Land: Agricultural land may be broadly defined as land used primarily for the production of food and fiber. The category includes: cropland and pastures, orchards, groves and vineyards, nurseries and horticultural areas, and confined feeding operations. If wetlands are drained for agricultural purposes, they are included in the agricultural land category. 3.5.8 Plantation/Orchards: Plantation is a large farm or estate, where crops are grown for sale. Crop grown on plantations include, Coffee etc. It also includes the planting of trees for lumber. A plantation is always a monoculture over a large area and does not include extensive naturally occurring stands of plants that have economic value. Orchard on the other hand is an intentional planting of trees or shrubs maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit or nut-producing trees grown for commercial production like, Almonds, Apricot, Apple, Pears, Cherry, Plum, Grapes, Peach, and Walnut etc. Orchards are also sometimes a feature of large gardens, where they serve as an aesthetic as well as productive purpose. 3.5.9 Forest: Forest is an area with a high density of trees. Forest land represents an area that has a ‘tree crown areal density’ of 10 percent or more, comprising of trees capable of producing timber or other wood products, experiencing an influence on

68 climate and hydrosphere. Some of the important trees grown are Willow, Pine, Fir, Kail, Partel etc. Forest areas that have wetland characteristics are placed in the wetland class. 3.5.10 Barren: Barren land is the land of limited ability to support life and in which less than one-third of the area has vegetation or other cover. The category includes areas such as dry salt flats, degraded land due to human activities, bare exposed rock, strip mines, quarries and gravel pits. Wet non-vegetated barren lands are included in the wet land category (Lillisand and Kiefer, 2000). 3.5.11 Marshy Area: Marshy area is included in the wetlands category of land use/cover classification. These are those areas where the water table is at, near, or above the land surface for most part of the year. The hydrologic regime is such that aquatic vegetation is usually observed. Wetlands frequently are associated with topographic depressions, even in mountainous regions. The similar land feature may include mudflats, and swamps situated on the shallow margins of lakes, ponds and streams. 3.5.12 Water Body: The water body category of land use/land cover includes streams, canals, lakes and ponds.

Urbanization led to the rapid increase in population due to modernization and rapid economic growth. The acceleration of economic growth in urban areas, leads to multiplier effects on many aspects of development. Economic growth creates opportunities leading to the overall infrastructural development which is called as pull factor (Amin et al. 2012). This factor attracts people from rural areas to the urban centres. The rural condition linked to high population and population pressures to environment, lack of agricultural land and resources, lack of employment opportunities and poverty problems is called as push factor. In the present study, emphasis is on the opportunities which led to the infrastructural development in Srinagar city. The multiplier effects of economic growth resulted into the expansion of the city built-up classes of land use. This work analyses the changes in various land use/cover classes due to urbanization. The core stress is upon the built-up land use classes i.e., residential, scattered settlement, commercial, industrial, educational, governmental, hospital, religious classes because they plays an important role city’s expansion.

69 3.6 Data used: The study is based on the secondary sources of data which includes maps and satellite data. (a) Satellite data and its significance: Town planning map of the Srinagar city at the scale of 1:15000 was procured from the department of Town planning, Kashmir. Similarly, for the year 2008 IRS-1D LISS III + PAN October 2008 merged satellite image was used (Table 3.3).

Table 3.3: Details of Satellite Data used in the Study S. No. Data used Path/Row Date of Wave length Spatial Swath Pass width in resolution (km) µm/Band (in meter) 1 IRS-1D 92/46 10-10-2008 0.52-0.59 23.5 142 LISS- 0.62-0.68 0.77-0.86 1.55-1.70 2 IRS-1D 92/46 10-10-2008 0.5-0.75 5.8 70 PAN Source: NRSA, 2008.

The merged data gives accurate description of shapes, features and structures in an urban area. Such description makes the task of interpretation easier and helps in accurate land use/land cover classification system. (b) Topographic sheets: The survey of India topographic sheet on a scale of 1:50,000, No-43J/16 was used in the study. The guide map of the city on a scale of 1:20,000 was also used.

3.7 Data Analysis: The analysis of these two date data enabled to map a total of 14 land use land cover classes spread over 23446.5 hectares of Srinagar city (which incidentally is also the Municipal limit). These classes include, Residential, Scattered settlement, Commercial, Industrial, Parks/Gardens & Playgrounds, Restricted area, Vacant Land, Agricultural Land, Plantation/Orchards, Forest, Barren, Marshy, Water body and Others (Edu, Govt, Hosp, Relig) (Figure 3.2 & 3.3). Despite rapid urbanization in the

70

Photo Plate 1: Town planning map of the Srinagar city, 1971(Source: Town Planning, 1971)

Photo Plate 2: IRS-1D LISS III + PAN October 2008 merged satellite image of Srinagar city (Source: NRSA, 2008)

71 LAND USE/LAND COVER OF SRINAGAR CITY - 1971

74o 41 '06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' o N 34o 12 ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' ROAD TO GA ND ER BA L W E

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Main Roads ROA D TO Residential DAC HIGAM Scattered settlement Commercial Industrial Restricted Parks/Gardens & P.G Vacant Agriculture Plantation/Orchards Forest Barren Marshy Waterbody CITY BY PA SS ROA D Others 0 10 Km

ROAD TO P AMP ORE ROAD TO P UL W A MA o SOU RC E: Based on Tow n Planning 33o 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' 74o 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' Map of Srinagar C ity (1971) Figure 3.2 72 LAND USE/LAND COVER OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008

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Main Roads ROA D TO Residential DAC HIGAM Scattered settlement Commercial Industrial Restricted Parks/Gardens & P.G Vacant Agriculture Plantation/Orchards Forest Barren Marshy

CITY Waterbody BY PA SS ROA D Others

0 10 Km

ROAD TO P AMP ORE ROAD TO P UL W A MA o o 33 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' SOU RC E: Based on IR S-ID LISS III+PAN o 41 ' 06 74o 57 '27 '' 74 '' (2008) Merged Satellite Im agery

Figure 3.3 73 city, agriculture class is still dominating because Jammu and Kashmir is predominantly an agricultural state (Figure 3.4, 3.5, 3.6). Agriculture in its broad sense is the important activity of the state. Even those engaged in other sectors dependence on agriculture for food and raw materials are crucial. The statistics derived of different land use/cover classes is given in Table 3.4. The different land use/land cover classes are explained below:

3.7.1 Built-up classes: In the present study, built-up classes include residential, scattered settlement, commercial, industrial, restricted and others (Educational, governmental, hospital and religious classes). Analysis shows that the built-up land has increased from 2416.5 hectares in 1971 to 6251.5 hectares (increase of 158 percent) in 2008 (Figure 3.7 & 3.8). This increase in built-up area is because of increase in population due to natural increase of population and in-migration from the neighbouring rural areas and towns to the city. Also the developments in secondary and tertiary sectors have resulted in increases to built-up land. The increase has taken place at the cost of non built-up land which has shrunk from 21030 hectares to 17195 hectares (decrease of 18.23 percent) during the study period. The general pattern of expansion is along the roads which are in the radial pattern. Since, government agencies are weak in maintaining the balance between the population increase and the developmental activities, resulting into expansion of the city in an unplanned manner. During the study period the older central part of the city has become congested with hardly any open spaces. New built-up area came up in western, northern and southern parts of the city in the form of residential, commercial and governmental infrastructural development. The city expansion has been challenged by its surrounding physiographic features. Eastern region of the city is dominated by the hilly terrain and the far western part is marshy and water area. Therefore the expansion of the city has been limited to the other directions only. Moreover the state of Jammu and Kashmir lies in the active seismic zone, which somewhat restrict the vertical expansion of the city.

74 Table 3.4: Land use/Land cover of Srinagar city, 1971 & 2008 Land use/Land cover 1971 2008 Change (in % age hectares) Change 1074.5 3851 2776.5 258.3 1. Residential (4.58%) (16.42%) 146 399 253 173.2 2. Scattered settlement (0.62%) (1.7%) 143.5 268.5 125 87.1 3. Commercial (0.61%) (1.14%) 90.5 226.5 136 150.2 4. Industrial (0.39%) (0.97%) 446 715 269 60.3 5. Restricted Area (1.9%) (3.04%) 140 372 232 165.7 6. Parks/Gardens & Playground (0.59%) (1.59%) 517 255 -262 -50.6 7. Vacant Land (2.2%) (1.08%) 14408 10949 -3459 -24 8. Agricultural Land (61.45%) (46.7%) 1266.5 2622 1355.5 107 9. Plantation/Orchards (5.40%) (11.18%) 346.5 153.5 -193 -55 10. Forest (1.47%) (0.65%) 539.5 480 -59.5 -11 11. Barren (2.3%) (2.05%) 1667 468.5 -1198.5 -71.8 12. Marshy (7.1%) (2%) 2145.5 1895 -250.5 -11.6 13. Water body (9.15%) (8.08%) 516 791.5 275 53 14.Others(Edu, Govt, Hosp, Relig) (2.2%) (3.37%) TOTAL 23446.5 23446.5 ------Total Built-Up 2416.5 6251.5 3835 158 Total Non Built Up 21030 17195 -3835 -18.23 Note: Area in hectares. Source: Based on Town planning map of Srinagar city 1971 on 1:15000 scale and IRS-1D LISSIII+PAN 2008 merged satellite imagery of Srinagar city.

75 Land Use/Land Cover of Srinagar City 1971 & 2008 16000

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Figure 3.4 76

LAND USE/LAND COVER OF SRINAGAR CITY - 1971

LEGEND

Figure 3.5:

LAND USE/LAND COVER OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008

LEGEND

Figure 3.6:

76(a)77 BUILT UP LAND USE OF SRINAGAR CITY - 1971

74o 41 '06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' o 34o 12 ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' ROAD TO GA ND ER BA L N

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Main Roads River Srinagar Municipal Boundary Built up Area

CITY BY PA SS ROA D 0 10 Km

ROAD TO P AMP ORE ROAD TO P UL W A MA o SOU RC E: Based on Tow n Planning 33o 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' 74o 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' Map of Srinagar C ity (1971) Figure 3.7 77 BUILT UP LAND USE OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008

74o 41 '06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' o 34o 12 ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' ROAD TO GA ND ER BA L N

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Main Roads River Srinagar Municipal Boundary Built up Area

CITY BY PA SS ROA D 0 10 Km

ROAD TO P AMP ORE ROAD TO P UL W A MA o SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN 33o 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' 74o 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' (2008) Merged Satellite Im agery Figure 3.8 78 The details of different built-up classes is as follows:-

(a) Residential: The residential land use class includes both planned as well as unplanned residentials/houses. Planned settlements are areas consisting of dwelling units built according to a planned layout proposed by government agencies and societies, e.g., Srinagar Development Authority (SDA), Srinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC), and J&K Housing Board etc. Whereas unplanned residentials are areas consisting of houses built individually without any plan or layout. These include both the residential forming the core area with less or devoid of green and open spaces. In the year 1971 total area under this category was 1074.5 hectares (i.e., 4.58% of the total study area) which increased to 3851 hectares (16.42 % of the total study area) in 2008. This class has recorded an increase of 2276.5 hectares (Figure 3.9) of land area (i.e., 258.3 percent increase) during the study period. Unplanned residential area in the year 1971 was confined to the core area only. It was observed on east and west bank of river Jhelum. The general trend of settlement distribution was observed in north and south direction only because the area lying to its east is occupied by water body and western part was mostly marshy area. The important places where unplanned residential land use was observed includes Bar Bar shah, Ganpatyar, Bana Mohalla, Rainawari, Khanqah Mualla, Khoja Bazar, Khanyar, Jogilankar, Saidakdal, , SR Gunj, Safakadal, Ali Kadal, Kawdara, Chattabal, Habba Kadal, Shaheed Gunj, Karan Nagar, Batamaloo, . All these areas are lying in the older central part of the city. Also some sparse patches were mapped in the outskirts of the city at Hazratbal, Tail Bal, Harwan, Zoonimar in north and Bhagat, Rawalpora and Natipora in the south. These areas are characterized with narrow lanes without proper drainage and street lighting. However, the houses are good, built in concrete but old fashioned and generally two storied. Some are very old mud houses, about 80 to 100 years old. People belonging to these areas are mostly from poor economic strata. Also a good number among them are government employes. About 98% people residing in Zoonimar and Eidgah in the north are running small scale Kashmir Handloom Industry (locally called as Kashmir Arts).

79 RESIDENTIAL LAND USE OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008

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Main Roads River Srinagar Municipal Boundary Residential Area

CITY BY PA SS ROA D 0 10 Km

ROAD TO P AMP ORE ROAD TO P UL W A MA o SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN 33o 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' 74o 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' (2008) Merged Satellite Im agery Figure 3.9 80

Photo Plate 3: Old City Residential Area

Photo Plate 4: New Residential Area

81 New unplanned residentials came up in the outer areas of the city. These places include Zainakot, Malura, Parimpora and Bemina in west, Soura and Ahmad Nagar in the northern end, Magarmal Bagh in south west of the city etc. Houses observed are old fashioned, mostly two storied resembling village like infrastructure. People in these localities are mostly engaged in agricultural activities. Some slums and squatter settlements have been observed at Bemina in the west. In addition to it, numerous sparsely distributed unplanned residential land use were mapped in the outskirts of the city. Planned residential area in the year 1971 was observed at Karan Nagar, Jawahar Nagar, Wazir Bagh, and Rajh Bagh; lying in the core area. These were the residential areas of the royal Dogra people during Dogra rule in Kashmir and these residential areas have shown significant increase during the study period (1971- 2008). Newly planned residentials came into existence at Lal bazar in the north and Chanapora, Natipora, Bhagat Barzulla, Rawalpora in south and Bemina in the west. Housing condition is very good in these areas; designed with modern architecture and are having adequate amenities and facilities. These houses include two to three storied bungalow type houses, built with concrete. These are well organized and planned colonies, with mettled roads. Generally people of higher economic and social strata are found here.

(b) Scattered settlement: Scattered settlement includes the settlements including small hamlets/houses in the periphery of the city. In the year 1971 the total area under this category was 146 hectares (0.62% of the total study area) which increased to 399 hectares (1.7% of the total study area) in 2008. Some of these important settlements mapped were Nishat, Ishbar, Brain, Shalimar and Harwan etc., in the east, on the foothills of Zabarwan and Basiwan mountain peaks. People belonging to these settlements were mainly engaged in agricultural activities i.e., cultivation of paddy, various other food crops and cattle rearing etc. Later, they changed occupations to work in various secondary and tertiary activities.

82 (c) Commercial: Commercial area includes those places of the city where trade and commerce is carried out. The total area under this category in the year 1971 was 143.5 hectares (0.61% of the total study area), which increased to 268.5 hectares (1.14% of the total study area) in 2008 (an increase of 125 hectares) (Figure 3.10). The places where commercial land use was observed includes Boulevard, Karan Nagar, Habba Kadal, Residency Road, Polo View, Court Road, Kokar Bazar, Maisuma, Wazir Bagh, Shaheed Gunj and Dalgate. All these area are located in and around the city centre i.e., Lal Chowk (CBD). Also, Hazratbal area adjoining to Dal Lake in the north, Fruit Mandi area at Parimpora in the west are some other commercial areas which are away from the city centre. Boulevard area along the banks of Dal lake is another important commercial area. This area is an important tourist spot where various hotels and handicraft shops are observed. Lal Chowk is another important commercial area which includes Polo view, Residency road, Kokar bazar, Maisuma. These are the busiest and crowded places of the Srinagar city. People from all over India as well as Kashmir flock this area for buying and selling of goods and services. Polo-view and Residency road markets deals with the trade of retail readymade garment, banks, electronic gadgets, automobile show rooms, dry fruit and also the Kashmir Handloom Industry goods (Kashmir Arts). Court road, Kokar bazar, Wazir Bagh deals in both retail as well as wholesale trade of cloth, electronic gadgets, cosmetics, and various daily use goods. Maisuma market deals in automobile spare parts and accessories, and various building hardware goods etc. Habba Kadal is an old market with dilapidated and congested lanes where various traditional eatables, embroidery, and other daily need goods are sold. Karan Nagar and Shaheed Gunj commercial areas located on west of river Jhelum, in core area of the city, is a recent commercial development where handicrafts specializing in carpet goods are sold. In this area, people have rented their houses for commercial purposes. Similarly, Hazratbal commercial area deals in daily need goods. This area got developed because of religious and educational attraction by the Hazratbal Shrine and Kashmir University respectively. Lastly, the Fruit Mandi at Parimpora deals with the wholesale trade of fresh fruits.

83 LAND USE/COVER CLASSES OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008 LAND USE/COVER CLASSES OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008 o o 74 41 ' 06 '' 74 57 '27 '' oo41 06 o 57 27 '' 7744 41 '' 06'' 74 o ' o o o o 12 ' 37 '' 74 57 '27 '' 74 41 ' 06 '' 74 57 '27 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' 34 '' o 34oo12 ' 37 '' 34o12 '' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' o '' 34 o12 ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 ''

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o LAND USE/COoVER CLASSES OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008 33 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' LAND USE/COVER CLASSES OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008 oo oo 33o59 ' 14 33oo59 '14 '' 7744 4411 ''0066'''' 7744 5577'2'277'''' 33 59 ' 14 ''o'' 41 06 o 5373 2579 '''14 '' 7o4o ' '' o7o4 ' oo 7744 4411' 0' 606'' '' 7744 5577'2'277'''' o o o o 34oo12 ' 37 3344 1122' '3377'''' o o o 33 597'4144'1' ' 06 '' 74 57 '3237 '5' 9 '14 '' 34 12 ' 37 '''' 3o4 o1724' 3471''' 06 '' 74 57 '2o3o74'' 12 ' 37 '' 3344o1122 ''3377 '' 3344 1122''3377''' o o o o '' o 12 37 34 o12 '7347 '4' 1 ' 06 '' 74 5734'2712'' ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' 34 ' '' o 34 o12 ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' LEGENN D N Mun icipa l B ou nd ary LEGEND W E W E Com me rcia l Mun icipa l B ou nd ary S Indu stria l CoSm me rcia l Restricted Indu stria l 0 Pa rks/Ga rden s a1n0Kdm P.G 0 Restricted 10Km Pa rks/Ga rden s an d P.G

SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN (2008) Merged Satellite Im agery SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN

o o Merged Satellite Im agery 33 o59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' 33 59 ' 14 o 59 14 '' o o '' 33 ' 33o o59 ' 14 '' 33o 5o9 '14 '' 74 o41 ' 06 74o 57 '27 '' 33335959' 1'414'' '' 3335395'194'1'' 4 '' 74 41 ' 06 '' o 57 27 '' o o 74 ' oo4o1410606 oo57o 27 '' 33 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' o o 12 37 33o59 7'714474441 '' 0'6 ''' '' 774474575' '727'o25'7'9''14 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' 34 ' '' '' 33 o ' o o o o oo12 37 3o412123'737 '' 33 597'4144'1' ' 06 '' 74 57 '3237 '5' 9 '14 '' 3344 127'43'o74'1' ''' 06 o 34 ' '' o '' 74 57 '27 '' o o o 34 12 ' 37 '' Figure 3.10 34 12 '7347 '4' 1 ' 06 '' 74 57 '27 '' LEGEND LEGEND Mun icipa l B ou nd ary 84 Mun icipa l B ou nd ary Com me rcia l Com me rcia l Indu stria l Indu stria l Restricted Restricted Pa rks/Ga rden s an d P.G Pa rks/Ga rden s an d P.G

SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN Merged Satellite Im agery SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN Merged Satellite Im agery

o 33 59 ' 14 '' 33o 59 '14 '' oo o o 333 5599' 1' 414'' '' 333o3595'914'1'4' '' 74 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' o59 14 o 74oo41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' 33 ' '' 33 59 '14 '' 74 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' 74 o41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 ''

Photo Plate 5: Commercial Area

Photo Plate 6: Industrial Area

85 (d) Industrial: The industrial land use in the study area includes textile weaving, refining, construction, manufacturing and household industries. In the year 1971, the total area under this class was 90.5 hectares (0.39 % of the total study area), which has increased to 226.5 hectares (0.97% of the total study area) in 2008 (Figure 3.10). Although there is an increase of 136 hectares, but while comparing this share with the total land use of the study area, this percentage is insignificant. The places of industrial land use include; H.M.T watch factory at Zainakot in northwest of the city. Bagh-I-Ali Mardan Khan light industrial area involves processing of raw materials e.g., spices, copper and steel wiring, ceramic and concrete tiles, wool products etc. Khrew and Khanmou industrial area in the southeast of the city carries out large scale cement manufacturing. Wineer industrial area at Parimpora in the southwest of the city is the old industrial area and contributes significant area to industrial land use. Here, timber is processed into various finished goods like wooden box for fruit packing, plywood manufacturing etc. Jammu and Kashmir has good potential for industry and investment, but it could not flourish because of number of reasons. Firstly, the bar under Article 370 on absolute ownership of land for outsiders is the main obstacle. Similarly, the geographical accessibility to Srinagar city from the rest of India is weak, which hinders the transportation of raw materials and the finished goods. Moreover, the city lacks in basic raw materials and the ongoing political instability since 1980s, all have restricted the industrial development. Industry in Srinagar city is promoted by the Department of Industries and other Public sector organizations, namely SIDCO, SICOP and JK Industries. These are the subsidiary public sector organizations of the government. There are incentives of power, land, raw material, transport of raw material and finished goods to and from the rail head Jammu. In spite of all these incentives not much change has occurred.

(e) Restricted Area: Restricted area includes the area which is under military jurisdiction, i.e., cantonments, military barracks, military camps etc. In the year 1971 the total area

86 under this land use category was 446 hectares (1.9% of the total study area) which increased to 715 hectares in 2008 (3.04% of the total study area) (Figure 3.10), thereby experienced an increase of 269 hectares during the period of 37 years. The places where restricted area was observed includes cantonment area located to the northeast of Lal Chowk (CBD), on east bank of river Jhelum. Tattoo ground military camp; located in the west of city centre, Srinagar Airport area (Army base) at Humhama in south of the city. Police colony at Khumani Chowk in south west, Raj Bhavan; governor’s residence at Chashma Shahi in East (at the foothill of Zabarwan mountain). Sharifabad cantonment area; is the army base camp of Indo-Pak border in northwest of the city outskirts. It is also one of the oldest and largest cantonment areas of Srinagar.

3.7.2 Non built-up classes: Non built-up classes include parks/gardens & playgrounds, vacant land, agricultural land, plantation/orchards, forest, barren, marshy area and water bodies. In the year 1971, the total area under these classes was 21030 hectares which decreased to 17195 hectares in 2008. The decrease is attributed to the increasing anthropogenic pressure on the available land resources. As the population grew in the city, the demand for more and more land increased which led to the conversion of ecologically important non built-up land use/cover classes into built-up classes. Presently the non built-up area is distributed all over the study area. Agriculture is found in the dispersed patches, mostly in the periphery of the city. Similarly, vacant land and plantation/orchards are also found in the scattered patches, in the city outskirts. Barren, i.e., the rocky land is found around Koh-i- Maran and Koh-i-Sulaiman hill in the core of the city. Marshy areas are confined close to the water bodies. The important water bodies are; the Dal Lake in the east, Nigeen Lake in the northwest of Dal Lake and Brari Nambal located in the core area, river Jhelum running through the city from southeast to northwest direction. Following is the detailed explanation of these non built-up land use/land cover classes of Srinagar city:-

87 (a) Parks/Gardens & Play grounds: This category includes various parks/gardens and playgrounds where people carry out recreational activities and these form an important part of city’s culture. In the year 1971 total land area under this class was 140 hectares (0.59% of the total study area) which increased to 372 hectares (1.59% of the total study area) in 2008 (Figure 3.10). Despite urban expansion, the total area under this class increased by 232 hectares. At the same time its proportion to the total study area is still low as compared to the developed world. The parks are important attraction of Srinagar city. Initially developed by Mughal rulers but some more parks and gardens have been added in the recent past. Similarly the city also has many playgrounds to cater the requirements of city and state sportsmen. The presence of army persons are also helped in the development of sports facilities to the city. The Parks/Gardens & Play grounds observed are mostly the famous Mughal gardens and others like Shalimar Bagh, Harwan garden, Nishat Bagh, Botanical garden, Tulip garden, Zabarwan Park, Golf course, Polo ground, Nehru Park, Cricket pavilion, Sher-i-Kashmir Park and Iqbal Park etc. Nishat Bagh is located in the east at the foothills of Zabarwan mountain. It is about 11 Km from the city center. It was built by Emperor Jehangir in 1633 A.D. after his first visit to Kashmir. This garden is 600 yards long and 350 yards wide. Shalimar Bagh was built by Emperor Jehangir for his wife Nur Jahan in 1616 A.D. It is located in the northeast of the city and is about 15 km away from the city center. It is about 600 yards long and 200 yards wide. It is surrounded by brick and stone wall of about 10 feet height, and is arranged in four terraces of nearly equal dimension. Harwan garden is located to the northeast of Shalimar Bagh at Harwan. It is adjacent to the water reservoir at the foothills of Zabarwan mountain which feeds most parts of the Srinagar city. Tulip garden, Botanical garden and Zabarwan Park, are the recently constructed parks and gardens in the city. Tulip garden is the biggest and one of the beautiful tulip gardens of Asia. Nehru Park is an island park which adds to the beauty of the Dal Lake. Every year millions of tourists from outside the state and other countries visit these parks and gardens. About 80% of the income generated in tourism industry of Jammu and Kashmir is from these parks and gardens.

88

Photo Plate 7: Parks and Gardens

Photo Plate 8: Vacant Land

89 Golf course, Polo ground, and Sher-i-Kashmir Park at the city center, Cricket pavilion at Sonawar (north of Koh-i-Sulaiman hill), Bakshi stadium and Indoor Stadium at Wazir Bagh (south west of Lal Chowk) are the important play grounds in the study area.

(b) Vacant Land: Vacant land includes the land belonging to locals who left crop cultivation, most of which is speculative land holding. This class also includes the abandoned government land. Increasing demand from growing population leading to rapidly increasing land prices has resulted into the decrease in area under vacant land. In the year 1971, the total land area under this category was 517 hectares (2.2% of the total study area), which decreased to 255 hectares (1.08% of the total study area) in 2008 (i.e., decreased by 262 hectares) (Figure 3.11). The existing vacant land was observed at Zakura & Tailbal in the northern end of the city which is about 10-12 km away from city centre. Also good proportion of vacant land was observed in the west and some patches at Ahmad Nagar in the northwest of the city. Although, vacant land was observed away from the city center, but at the same time these areas are well connected with the roads and possess all the basic amenities and facilities. Most of these vacant lands are speculative land holdings and in the recent past, very rapidly it is being converted as built-up land.

(c) Agricultural Land: In the present study Agricultural class includes mostly Paddy land, Floating/vegetable gardens (locally called as Radh) and Saffron Karewa fields. In the year 1971 the total area under agricultural land use was 14408 hectares (61.45% of the total study area) which decreased to 10949 hectares (46.7% of the total study area) in 2008 (Figure 3.12). Thereby 3459 hectares of agricultural land has been lost during the period of 37 years in Srinagar. Paddy is the dominant crop in agricultural land use. The places where the Paddy land still dominates include; Alestang, Ahmad Nagar, Buchpora and Zakura in the north; Palapora, Malura, Laway pora, Zainakot

90 LAND USE/COVER CLASSES OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008 LAND USE/COVER CLASSES OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008 o 74 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' o o 74 o41 ' 06 '' 74 57 '27 '' o 74 41 ' 06 o o o 34o12 ' 37 34 12 ' 37 '' '' 74 57 '2o7 '' 74 41 ' 06 '' 74 57 '27 '' '' 34 o12 ' 37 '' 34 o12 ' 37 '' 34o12 ' 37 34 12 ' 37 '' o '' 34 o12 ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 ''

N N

W E W E

S S

0 10Km 0 10Km

o o 33 59 ' 14 '' LAND USE/C3O3 V59E'1R4 ' ' CLASSES OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008 o o 33 59 ' 14 LAND USE/COoV59ER ''CLASSES OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008 o o 33o59 ' 14 '' 333359 '1'144'' 74 o41 ' 06 '' 74 o57 '27 '' '' 74 41 ' 06 '' 74 57 '27 '' ooo oo o o59 14 o 7744o441411'00'6066 '' 747o54577527'27'72''7'' '' 33 ' '' 33 59 '14 '' o 34oo12 ' 37 7744 41' ' 06'''' 7744 57' '27 '' o o 34o1122 '3377 '' 34 12 ' 37''' o o 74o4411 '0066 '' 74o 5577 2'277'''' 34 ' '' oo1o212 3737 33443o141221' 32' 37'73''7 '' 74 ' '' 74 ' 3343441122 ''33'77 ''''' '' 34 12 ' 37 '''' o oo 3344o1122 ''3377 ''' 33441122' '3377''''

LEGEND LEGENND Mun icipa l B ou nd ary W E Mun icipa l B ou nd ary W E Va ca nt Com me rcia l ForeSst IndSu stria l Ba rre n Restricted 0 Marshy 10Km 0 Pa rks/Ga rden s1 a0Knmd P.G

SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN (2008) Merged Satellite Im agery Merged Satellite Im agery

o o 33 o59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' 33 59 ' 14 o 59 14 '' o o '' 33 ' 33oo5o9 ' 14 '' 33o 5o9 '14 '' 74 oo41 ' 06 74o 57 '27 '' 33333559599''11'4144'''''' 333335o35995'19'14'41''4'' '' 74 41 ' 06 '' o oo oo '' 74 57 '27 '' ooo oo o 3333 5599 ''1144 '' 33335599'1'144'''' o o 12 37 774744441411'''000'66066'''' '' 77447o545757'27'27'72''7'' '' '' 34 12 ' 37 '' 34 ' '' '' 74 57 '27 o'' oo oo o 3o4 12 ' 37 7744 4411 ''0066 ''' 77445577'2'277'''' 34o 12 ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' '' 34 12 ' 37 '' o 34o 12 ' 37 Figure 3.11 34 12 ' 37 '' '' LEGEND LEGEND Mu91n ic ipa l B ou nd ary Mun icipa l B ou nd ary Com me rcia l Va ca nt Indu stria l Forest Restricted Pa rks/Ga rden s an d P.G Ba rre n Marshy

SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN Merged Satellite Im agery SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN Merged Satellite Im agery

33o59 ' 14 o 59 14 '' '' 33 ' o o o 33 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' 74 41 ' 06 '' o 33o59 ' 14 o 59 14 '' 74 57 '27 '' o'' o 33 ' o o 74o 41 ' 06 '' 74 57 '27 '' 33 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' 74 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' 74 o41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' AGRICULTURE LAND USE OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008

74o 41 '06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' o 34o 12 ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' ROAD TO GA ND ER BA L N

W E

S ROAD TO B A RA MUL LA

ROA D TO DAC HIGAM

LEGEND

Main Roads River Srinagar Municipal Boundary Agriculture Area

CITY BY PA SS ROA D 0 10 Km

ROAD TO P AMP ORE ROAD TO P UL W A MA o SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN 33o 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' 74o 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' (2008) Merged Satellite Im agery Figure 3.12

92

Photo Plate 9: Agricultural Land

Photo Plate 10: Plantation/Orchards

93 and Khumani Chowk in the west; Humhama in the south. These places are plain areas of Srinagar and are lying about 10–12 km away from the city centre. Similarly, New Theed, Harwan & some parts of Nishat in northeast are the hilly areas where terrace farming is practiced and lastly, Khanmou in the southeast also has some patches of paddy land. Floating garden is the peculiar characteristic feature of the valley of Kashmir. These are found generally in and around the water bodies and the wet lands of the Srinagar city. Most of them are observed in the western part of Dal Lake and Khushalsar wet land in the north. These gardens are owned by the boatmen (locally called as Hanjis) who cultivate vegetables on these movable lands on water surfaces. Saffron cultivation is practiced on the famous Karewas in the southeast of Srinagar. It is an important land use feature of Kashmir, where world’s best Saffron is grown. The agricultural land in the study area is mostly single cropped area where paddy is grown. Some of these agricultural lands especially at hill slopes have terrace farming.

(d) Plantation/Orchards: Srinagar city was known for its orchards and the present orchards are the remains of those ones. These orchards have now been converted into urban usages. These places still bear the names of those orchards e.g., Raj Bagh, Ghulab Bagh, Wazir Bagh, Mander Bagh and so on. “Bagh” in local Kashmiri language means an Orchard. Orchards of Srinagar city have the plants of Cherry, Apple, Almond, Pear, Walnut, Apricot and also willow plantation. In the year 1971 the total area under this class was 1266.5 hectares (5.40% of the total study area) which increased to 2622 hectares (11.18% of the total study area) in 2008 (Figure 3.13). This class has increased by 1355.5 hectares during the study period. Significant proportion of land under Orchards was found in north at Zakura, Alasteng, area in the north at Tail Bal, some patches at Omer colony in the north. Apple orchards are located in the Khumani Chowk and Humhama in southwest and southern end of the city respectively.

94 PLANTATION/ORCHARD LAND USE OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008

74o 41 '06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' o 34o 12 ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' ROAD TO GA ND ER BA L N

W E

S ROAD TO B A RA MUL LA

ROA D TO DAC HIGAM

LEGEND

Main Roads River Srinagar Municipal Boundary Plantation/Orchard Area

CITY BY PA SS ROA D 0 10 Km

ROAD TO P AMP ORE ROAD TO P UL W A MA o SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN 33o 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' 74o 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' (2008) Merged Satellite Im agery Figure 3.13 95 Similarly, Willow plantation was found in small patches spread all over the study area. Significant area under Willow plantation was found along the banks of river Jhelum at Palapora, Malura and Zainakot in the west. Some Willow plantation was also observed at Nishat and Harwan in the east along the foothills of Zabarwan. Plantation area was also observed in Lokut Dal area.

(e) Forest: Forest class includes the dense vegetation cover observed in the hilly areas of the city. In the year 1971, the total area under this class was 346.5 hectares (1.47% of the total study area) which decreased to 153.5 hectares (0.65% of the total study area) in 2008, recording decrease of 193 hectares (Figure 3.11). Presently, it was observed in the hilly areas of the city i.e., Koh-i-Maran and Koh-i-Sulaiman, and in southeast at Zabarwan foothills.

(f) Barren: Barren class includes the bare exposed rocks, along with some quarrying. These are the areas of less vegetation and have limited ability to support life. In the year 1971 the total area under this class was 539.5 hectares (2.3% of the total study area) which decreased to 480 hectares (2.05% of the total study area), thereby losing 59.5 hectares (Figure 3.11). This class was observed in the rocky areas of the city. Barren lands include the bare rock surfaces of Koh-i-Maran and Koh-i-Sulaiman hills. These areas are located in the north at a distance of about 8 km and in the southeast at a distance of about 2 km from the city center respectively. Similarly, some patches at Sharifabad in the northwest, Khanmou quarrying site in the southeast. Also some patches were observed in the north at Alestang and New Theed hilly areas.

(g) Marshy Area: The marshy area includes the wet lands found in and around the water bodies of the city. In these areas water table is at, near, or above the land surface for a significant part of the year. Srinagar city had substantial area coverage under this type of land use class. Prominent among them are Bemina Nambal or Rakh-i-Gandakshah marsh,

96

Photo Plate 11: Marshy Area

Photo Plate 12: Water Body

97 Batamaloo, Littorals of Dal and Nigeen Lake, Khushalsar, Gillsar, Brari nambal, Mar Canal etc. In the year 1971 the total area under this category was 1667 hectares (7.1% of the total study area) which decreased to 468.5 hectares (2% of the total study area) in 2008 (Figure 3.11). The marshy area was also not spared by the urbanization process in the study area. It lost 1198.5 hectares during the period of 37 years. Presently, it exists in the eastern part of Dal Lake, Khushalsar marsh in the north, Brari Nambal located at a distance of 2 km north from city centre, small patches at Bemina and Parimpora in the west etc. These areas are owned by boatman (Hanjis) who derive out their sustenance from these marshes by cultivating fruits and vegetable which require water throughout their growth period. In recent years, government has demarcated these marshy areas as the green belt zone to restrict their conversion.

(h) Water Body: In the present study water body includes the rivers, lakes and water reservoirs of the city. In the year 1971, the total area mapped under this category was 2145.5 hectares (9.15% of the total study area) which decreased to 1895 hectares (8.08% of the total study area) in 2008 (Figure 3.14). The anthropogenic pressure has resulted in the shrinking of water bodies in the study area. Srinagar city is endowed with numerous water bodies. The existing water bodies of the city includes; the Dal Lake, Nigeen Lake, River Jhelum, Brari nambal, Tailbal Nallah and Harwan water reservoir. The lakes are the centres of tourist attraction, but at the same time, these water bodies are getting deteriorated both in area as well as in their quality of water. River Jhelum is another important water body of Srinagar city, which originates in the south east of Kashmir at a spring (Verinag). During its course, it dissects Srinagar city diagonally in southeast to northwest direction. Also, various other small tributaries join it during its course. Northern area of Brari nambal in the core area, Tailbal Nallah located to the northeast of Dal Lake which also feeds the Lake. Harwan water reservoir at Harwan in the northeast of city, supplies water to most parts of the city.

98 WATER BODIES OF SRINAGAR CITY - 2008

74o 41 '06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' o 34o 12 ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' ROAD TO GA ND ER BA L N

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ROA D TO DAC HIGAM

LEGEND

Main Roads River Srinagar Municipal Boundary Water Body

CITY BY PA SS ROA D 0 10 Km

ROAD TO P AMP ORE ROAD TO P UL W A MA o SOU RC E: Based IR S-1D LISS III+PAN 33o 59 ' 14 '' 33 59 '14 '' 74o 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' (2008) Merged Satellite Im agery Figure 3.14

99 (i) Others (Educational, Governmental, Hospital, and Religious): In this class, four built-up classes have been grouped together because their individual proportion to the total land use of the study area was not significant. Educational class contributes only 1% to the total study area, governmental (1.47%), Hospital (0.47%) and religious (0.43%). However, during the study period, all these classes have gained significant area. Educational class includes government and private Schools, Colleges, Universities. Governmental class includes government offices, residentials and quarters. Hospital land use includes government and private hospitals and health centers. Religious land use includes graveyards, cremation grounds, and religious places. In the present study, the total area under this class in the year 1971 was 516 hectares (2.2% of the total study area) which increased to 719.5 hectares (3.37 % of the study area) in 2008, ( i.e., increased by 275.5 hectares). The educational land use observed includes Sher-i-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology at Shalimar located in northeast, about 12 km away of the city centre. and National Institute of Technology located at Hazratbal about 9 km north of city centre. Sri Pratap Singh College and Higher Secondary school, Government College for Women’s, Government college of Education, Kothi Bagh girl’s higher secondary school, Tyndale Biscoe and Mallinson convent School, Presentation convent school for girls, Burn hall convent school, Amar Singh college and Government Polytechnic all are located in and around the city centre i.e., Lal Chowk area. Government degree college Bemina and, Iqbal Memorial school located about 6 km west of Lal Chowk, Islamia college at Maideen sahib in the north about 8 km from the city centre. The government offices and residentials mapped are Department of Animal Husbandry, Department of Information, Directorate of Education, Public Health Engineering (P.H.E), Manager BSNL, Directorate of Tourism. All are located at Lal Chowk (CBD). Department of Revenue, Board of School Education, Government Garages, Directorate of Environment and Remote Sensing, Srinagar Development Authority are located at Bemina in the west. Similarly, Department of Agriculture, Chief Executive Engineer’s office, District Police Lines, Deputy Commissioner’ office (D.C’s office) and Civil Secretariat, located in and around Lal Chowk.

100 Hospital land use has significantly increased during the study period. In the year 1971 there were few hospitals namely Jawahar Lal Nehru Hospital, Shri Maharaja Hari Singh Hospital (SMHS), Lala Ded Maternity Hospital and Children’s Hospital. These are located in and around the core area of the city. After 1971, number of hospitals were built for example, Sher-i-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences (SKIMS) and Jhelum Valley College in the north and west of the city respectively. Religious land use includes grave yards, mosques and temples of the city e.g., Malakah, Buchwara, and Kawdara in the north. Only one cremation ground was observed in the core area. Srinagar city is the Muslim dominated state, therefore, numerous Muslim religious places are found. Apart from this, few Hindu religious places are also found there because in past, the state of Jammu and Kashmir was ruled by Hindu rulers for a long period of time. Some of the important religious places are Jama Masjid which is the biggest mosque of the city, Shankaracharya Temple on top of Koh-i-Sulaiman hill, Dargah Hazratbal on the west bank of the Dal Lake and Eidgah in the north.

3.7.3 Overview of Land Use/Land Cover of Srinagar City: Located on the banks of River Jhelum, Srinagar city has peculiar pattern of land use/land cover than the other cities of India. This peculiarity is because of hill topography and different social, economic and political environment of the study area. The study finds water bodies (8%), plantation/orchards (11.2%) and marshy area (2%) as significant land use classes. These features give the picturesque look to the city, thereby differentiating it with the other cities in the plain areas. It is a city located at an elevation of 1583 meters above mean sea level and at the same time is a leveled plain which enables it to accommodate nearly 1 million people. Besides it, Srinagar city is the centre of trade, education, Arts and Crafts etc in the state of Jammu and Kashmir ever since its evolution. It has functioned as a central place in socio-economic life, hub of political activities, place of important religious activities and the centre in the spatial framework. The built-up land contributes more than 26% land area to the total land use/cover of the Srinagar city From time to time, the city was ruled by various rulers, belonging to different religions, regions and dynasties, who shaped its land use according to their

101 desires. Mughals in the 16th century designed the city as per their luxurious styles. They built various parks/gardens, cultural and religious monuments e.g., Nishat Bagh, Shalimar Bagh, Pari Mahal etc., which are today known as the Mughal gardens. These parks/gardens and playgrounds today contributes significant proportion to the total area of the city. Later in the early 19th century, during the Dogra rule in Kashmir various royal residential areas came into existence e.g., Karan Nagar, Wazir Bagh, Gogji Bagh and Rajh Bagh etc. They gave the administrative look to the city. Later, with the onset of urbanization, physiographic limitations e.g., Dal lake in the east, marshy area in the west, hilly tracks in the north and the mountain peaks in the east and northeast played its role in shaping city’s landscape. However, because of the growing demand for land, people started to live at the foothills. However these land use features act directly as well as indirectly in the growth and development of city’s economy through Tourism and allied activities. The political disturbance in the state has also resulted in the change in land use pattern. There has been significant increase in the area under restricted land use class.

102

Chapter –IV LAND

TRANSFORMATION 4.1 Concept, Definition and Approaches of Land Transformation: Land Transformation is the process where changes in land use are observed at different time periods. Land transformation is an inevitable phenomenon in an urban space. The process of Land transformation is one of the important fields of human induced environmental transformation, with the history dating back to ancient times (Wolman and Fournier, 1987). It has taken many forms historically starting with fire management, herding practices, the development of agriculture and ending with urbanization including industrial development (Daily & Ehrlich, 1992; Ehrlich & Ehrlich, 1992; Kates et al. 1990). The past studies of human impacts to the biosphere estimate that, one third to one half of the planet’s land surface has been transformed by human action (Vitousek et al. 1997). In Neolithic times, the modification of the earth by human action mainly involved impacts on the soil and biotic resources. With the onset of the industrial revolution, globalization of the world economy and the expansion of population and technological development, the rate of land transformation increased and its impacts took many forms (Amin and Fazal, 2012). Forests were cleared, grasslands grazed, wetlands drained and crop lands and residential expanded, rapidly in the last few years. The world lands are now used and managed in widely varying degrees of intensity (Richards, 1990). It is the economic use of land which leads to its physical transformation, which indirectly unveils the demand for built-up space resulting disturbance in urban ecology. Since, Land is in a continuous state of transformation as a result of various natural and man-made processes (Fazal and Amin, 2011). Attention is being paid to urbanization as a form of land transformation in terms of its ecological impact. The extent of its influence is growing along with increasing population and material requirements (Keilis, 1994; Wackernagel & Yount, 1998). People occupy new lands by extending the urban area into rural fringe. The rapid expansion of urban centers along their peripheries is a distinctive phenomenon of urban landscape in developing countries. This expansion results into the emergence of fringe zone with its complex problems of adjustments in between rural and urban ways of life. This has led to land use problems e.g., loss of agricultural land, unauthorized urban sprawl, increasing land values, speculation in land and related problems. The growing difference between the demand and supplies

103 of house sites and units along with high cost of land in the city has increased the pressure on fringe areas. It gives rise to unauthorized development of residential and industries land use on the fringe area (Saxena, 2010). The use of land changed from one to another which is a problem and that has interconnections with various entities and interaction between them in spatio- temporal environment (Narayanan and Hanjagi, 2009). There are two fundamental steps in any study of land use change i.e., detecting change in landscape and attributing that change to some set of causal factors. However, the significant step in the study of Land Transformation is the detection of interchanges of land between different land use/cover classes (Lambin and Geist, 2006). The study of land transformation, therefore, requires a comprehensive understanding and monitoring of all the factors that lead to such change. Analysis of factors influencing transformation of land requires objective data which can explain the transformation. It also requires explaining the relationship between the observations and their apparent causes, and an understanding of the processes involved in the changes. However, the aim is to show the kinds of changes taking place on the land, impacts of significant factors affecting the land, and the nature of scientific evidence which evaluates such impacts (Wolman and Fournier, 1987). The emphasis is here on the land and an attempt is made to focus upon how social economic and political factors influence or transform the land. The present-day research approach of detecting change cover and elaborating the causal factors responsible for that change bears little resemblance to traditional experimentation approaches, as understood and practiced in many other realms of global change research. The spatially carried out analysis is increasingly used to predict landscape change. It is often evaluated both in terms of conventional inferences and appropriateness, and in order to predict actual landscape change (Pontius et al. 2004; Nelson and Geoghegan 2002). The advances made in the acquisition, processing and interpretation of remotely sensed data over the past decade have made it easier to establish the change in the dependent variable (Lambin and Geist, 2006).

104 4.2 Land Transformation in Srinagar City: Srinagar city is expanding and its fringe area comprises of the fertile agricultural land on which settlement and industrial structures have come up. Apart from land use/cover change, significant interchange of land between different classes has taken place in the city. These interclass changes are because of development of the city resulting in increased demand for various built-up land e.g., residential, commercial, industrial purposes etc. Despite of physiographic limitations which restricted the expansion of the city in certain directions but resulted in extra pressure on other areas causing accelerated transformations. There has been significant changes in the occupational structure of its residents which has also bearing on city’s landscape. The detailed Land Transformations in Srinagar city during the period of 37 years (1971- 2008) is explained below: In the present study, urban land use comprises of total 14 land categories which are; residential (3851 hectares) including planned and unplanned residential, scattered settlement (399 hectares). Commercial area contribute 268.5 hectares, Industrial (226.5 hectares), Others class which includes Educational, Governmental, Hospital and Religious land use (791.5 hectares), Parks/Gardens and Playgrounds (372 hectares), Plantation/orchards (2622 hectares), Restricted (715 hectares). The non built-up classes include Agriculture (10949 hectares), Water body (1895 hectares), Barren (480 hectares), Marshy (468.5 hectares), Vacant (255 hectares) and Forest (153.5 hectares). During the study period significant interchange among these 14 land use/cover classes have been recorded (Table 4.1). The present study has tried to evaluate the specific parcels of land where Land Transformation has taken place in Srinagar city with the help of Land Transformation map carried out in GIS environment (Figure 4.1). The negative and positive changes in every land use/cover class have been shown in Table 4.1 & Figure 4.2.

105 LAND TRANSFORMATION IN SRINAGAR CITY (1971 - 2008) N

74o 41 ' 06 '' 74o 57 '27 '' o 34o 12 ' 37 '' 34 12 ' 37 '' W E RO AD TO G A ND ER BA L

S

LEGEN D

RO AD TO B A RA MUL LA Main R oa ds Residential to C om m erci al Sca tter ed S ettle m ent to R esidential RO A D TO Vac ant to R esidential DAC HIG A M Vac ant to Agric ultur e Agri culture to Industria l Agri culture to P lantation/ O rchar d Agri culture to Re sidential Agri culture to V acant land Agri culture to others Mar shy to Agr iculture Mar shy to Pla nta tion/ Or char d Mar shy to Resi de ntia l Mar shy to othe rs Wa te r body to Agr iculture Wa te r body to Mar shy Wa te r body to othe rs Other changes CI TY No change BY PA S S RO A D

0 10 Km

RO AD TO P A MP O RE RO AD TO P UL W A MA o S O U RC E : B a se d o n IR S -ID L IS S III+P A N M e rg e d o 33 59 '14 '' 33 59 ' 14 '' S ate llite Im a g e r y (2 0 0 8 ) a n d T ow n P la n n in g M a p o o 74 41 ' 06 '' 74 57 '27 '' (1 9 7 1 ) o f S r in a g a r c ity Figure 4.1

106 SRINAGAR CITY: LAND TRANSFORMATION (1971-2008)

LAND USE RES SC. ST COM IND PRK/G REST VAC AGRI PL/OR FOR BAR MAR WAT OTH 2008 3851 399 268.5 226.5 372 715 255 10949 2622 153.5 468.5 480 1895 791.5

BAR/59.5 s

MAR/77

e

s SC.ST/110 VAC/21.5 a Pl/Or/153

e FOR/39 VAC/109 VAC/210 WAT/42.5 r WAT/148

MAR/88 c AGRI/2181

PL/OR/214 AGRI/1854 VAC/25 n VAC/33.5

I PL/OR/45 FOR/83 PL/OR/60 PL/OR/68.5 FOR/71 MAR/1041.5 MAR/49 AGRI/286.5 VAC/111 AGRI/136 PL/OR/149 AGRI/175.5 AGRI/185 BAR/59.5 WAT/92 MAR/35 AGRI/153.5

LAND USE RES Sc. St COM IND PRK/G REST VAC AGRI Pl/Or FOR BAR MAR WAT OTH 1971 1074.5 146 143.5 90.5 140 446 517 14408 1266.5 346.5 539.5 1667 2145.5 516

COM/14 RES/110 RES/210 RES/2181 AGRI/214 PRK/G/83 AGRI/1041.5 AGRI/148 RES/59.5

RES/153 COM/111 SC.ST/71 MAR/92

AGRI/109 PRK/149 Pl/Or/39 PL/OR 42.5 PL/OR/88

REST/33.5 VAC/68.5 RES/77 OTH/25 Pl/Or/1854 REST/60 e a s e s e sa e OTH/49 PL/OR/21.5

OTH/45 WAT/35

D e c r c e D SC.ST/286.5

VAC/185

REST/175.5

OTH/153.5 NOTE: - 2 cm = 2000 Hectares. IND/136

Figure 4.2 107

Table 4.1: Srinagar City: Land Transformation (1971 - 2008).

Land Use 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 TOTAL Res Sc. St Com Ind Rest Prk/gr Vac Agr Pl/Orc For Bar Mar Wat Oth Area (2008) 1. Residential 1074.5 110 210 2181 153 59.5 77 3851 2. Scattered settlement 146 5.5 286.5 71 399 3. Commercial 14 143.5 111 268.5 4. Industrial 90.5 136 226.5 5. Restricted 446 33.5 175.5 60 715 6. Parks/Gardens & P.g 140 149 83 372 7. Vacant Land 517 185 68.5 255 8. Agricultural Land 109 14408 214 1041.5 148 10949 9. Plantation/Orchard 21.5 1854 1266.5 39 88 42.5 2622 10. Forest 346.5 153.5 11. Barren 539.5 480 12. Marshy 1667 92 468.5 13. Water body 35 2145.5 1895

14.Others 25 153.5 45 49 3 516 791.5 (Edu,Govt, Hosp,Relig,) Note: Area in hectares. Figures in bold (diagonally) are area under that particular land use in 1971, while the figures in the same column represent the conversion in area to other land uses. Similarly, figures in the same row are increases in area, captured from other land uses. Source: Based on IRS-1D LISS+PAN Satellite imagery (2008) and Town planning map (1971) of Srinagar city.

108 The land transformations which have taken place in different land use/cover classes during the study period are as follows:-

4.2.1 Residential: The total area under residential land use in the year 1971 was 1074.5 hectares which increased to 3851 hectares in 2008, (increased by 3029.5 hectares) capturing land from agriculture (2181 hectares), vacant (210 hectares), plantation/orchards (153 hectares), scattered settlement (110 hectares), marshy (77 hectares) and barren (59.5 hectares) (Figure 4.3). This increase is attributed to the increase in the population from natural increase and the in-migration to the city from the neighbouring rural areas which led to the significant changes and interchanges of land use classes. The places where new residential came into existence during the study period includes Zainakot, Malura, Parimpora and Bemina in the west, Soura, Ahmad Nagar and Lal bazar in the north, Magarmal Bagh in the core area, Chanapora, Natipora, Bhagat Barzulla and Rawalpora in the south of the city.

(a) Residential from Agriculture: Residential class gained land from agriculture, mainly towards north and south of the city. The places where residential class captured the agricultural land includes Lal bazar, Omer colony, Soura, Buchpora, Nowshera and Zoonimar in the north. Similarly, Parimpora, Bemina, Nundresh colony in the west and Chanapora, Bhagat, Rawalpora, Natipora, Mehjoor Nagar and Rajhbagh in the south of the city. All these places, except Mehjoor Nagar in the south and Parimpora in the west, are well planned colonies. Agricultural land has been widely used for catering the increased demand for residential purposes in these areas due to natural increase of population and mainly because of in-migration from the neighbouring districts i.e., in the north and in the south who demanded land for residential purposes. Also economically well off people from the congested core area i.e., Kawdara, Eidgah, Mander Bagh mainly to Soura, Chanpora, Lal Bazar have shifted their residence to the outskirts of the city on fertile agricultural land. (b) Residential from Vacant: The residential land captured vacant land at Natipora, Mehjoor Nagar, Bhagat and Chanpora in the south. Similar transformation was

109 RESIDENTIAL LAND TRANSFORMATIONS IN SRINAGAR CITY (1971 - 2008)

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Figure 4.3

110 observed at Dal gate and Khanmou located to the east and southeast of city centre respectively. Likewise some residential areas came up on the vacant patches at Aalochi Bagh, Magarmal Bagh, Shaheed Gunj, Nawab bazar and Karan Nagar in the core area. Such land transformations, where residential gained land from vacant land took place within the radial distance of about 5-6 km from the city centre because there was higher demand for residential land due to increasing family size, growing trend of nuclear family. (c) Residential from Plantation/Orchards: Residential class gained land from plantation/orchard in the periphery areas of the city e.g., north of Dal Lake, some patches at Buchpora, Soura, Omer colony, Ahmad Nagar and Hazratbal in the north. Due to higher demand for residential land from residents and migrants, orchard owners sold their farms for getting instant money. Also the concern of increasing family size of the orchard owners persuaded them to transform some part of plantation/orchard to residential land use for their personal use. (d) Residential from Marshy: Residential area got some land from marshy area in and around the Khuhalsar Lake in the north, southern part of Hazratbal, eastern Jogi lankar and Rainawari adjoining the Dal Lake. It also captured significant land at Brari nambal marshy zone and the important places in this zone are Barbar shah, Khanyar, Munawarabad. Some marshy areas have completely disappeared e.g., Rakh-i-Gandakshah marsh in the western part of the study area where significant residential development has taken place. Although these places are located in the demarcated green belt zone where no construction is allowed, but due to pressing need for residential land use and poor implementation of government policies, these marshes are transformed into residential areas. (e) Residential from Scattered settlement: In the periphery of the city residential area merged with scattered rural settlements because of the expansion of the city. This significant conversion was observed at Harwan and Nishat areas in the east and Zainakot, Palapora and Khumani Chowk in the west, about 10 to 12 kms away from the city centre. Earlier these settlements were having weak connectivity with the city centre. With the betterment in transport and communication system and extension of the municipal limits, these areas have transformed from rural to urban in physical and cultural sense.

111

Photo Plate 13: Agriculture to Residential Land Transformation

Photo Plate 14: Vacant to Residential Land Transformation

112

Photo Plate 15: Plantation/Orchard to Residential Land Transformation

Photo Plate 16: Marshy to Residential Land Transformation

113

Photo Plate 17: Residential to Commercial Land Transformation

114

(f) Residential from Barren: Residential class also captured some land area from barren category at Humhama in the south and Khanmou in the southeast of the city. For example, the barren land at the foothill of Zabarwan mountain peak in southeast is dwelled by people. Similarly, some area of barren land in Khanmou in the southeast was transformed for residential purposes. The increasing demand from the growing population and speculative land holding resulted into increase in the land value which restricts the poor people from purchasing land in the plain areas of the city. Therefore they manage to live on these barren areas which are less costly than the plain areas.

4.2.2 Scattered Settlements: The total land under this class was 146 hectares in the year 1971, which increased to 399 hectares in 2008 (increased by 253 hectares), capturing land from agriculture (286.5 hectares), forest (71 hectares) and vacant (5.5 hectares). The transformation was not only for city area but it was found that rural settlement in the outskirts of the city has also expanded.

(a) Scattered settlement from Agriculture: Scattered settlement captured agricultural land in the north and northeast of the city at Ahmad Nagar, Alestang, Tailbal, Harwan and Nishat. This is mainly because of the growing family size of the residents of these scattered settlements who demand more residential space. (b) Scattered settlement from Forest: Scattered settlement captured land form forest in the outskirts of the city at Dhara, Shalimar and Harwan in the northeast and Khrew and Khanmou in the southeast of the city. This transformation is due to clearance of forest area by the people for the purpose of construction of small settlements in the scattered locations on hilly tracts of the study area.

4.2.3 Commercial: Area under commercial land use was 143.5 hectares in the year 1971, which increased to 268.5 hectares in 2008, (increased by 125 hectares), capturing land mainly from vacant (111 hectares) and residential (14 hectares). The social transformation in the city brought economic transformation which is represented in the form of growing number of commercial areas. Apart from the city core area such

115 transformation has reached to the outskirts areas also with the advancement in transport and communication. (a) Commercial from Vacant: Commercial area received land from vacant area at Karan Nagar and Shaheed Gunj adjacent to the city centre on its west, and some patches at Drogjan (Dalgate) in the east of city center. Such transformation is because of the changes in economic and occupational structure. There was good scope for commercial activities in these locations because of their nearness to the city center. Therefore all the vacant land was utilized for commercial purposes. (b) Commercial from Residential: Commercial gained land from residential at Karan Nagar, Batamaloo, Lal Chowk, also some areas at Aalochi Bagh and Boulevard. All these areas are lying in the core area of the city. Here residential houses were converted for commercial use to utilize their residential houses as the land value is substantially high in this part of the city.

4.2.4 Industrial: Industrial land use was 90.5 hectares in the year 1971 which increased to 226.5 hectares in 2008 (an increase of 136 hectares) capturing land from agriculture (136 hectares). This is mainly because of good potential for industry and investment, but this increase is insignificant while analyzing this increase with the economic development in the city.

(a) Industrial from Agriculture: It captured land from agricultural land at Khrew & Khanmou industrial area in the southeast of the city; Bagh-i-Ali mardan khan industrial area in the north, Wineer industrial area at Parimpora in northwest of the city. This transformation is mainly because of the territorial expansion of the existing manufacturing units on the neighbouring agricultural lands. Industrial sector could not flourish because of number of reasons. Firstly, the bar under Article 370 on absolute ownership of land for outsiders is the main obstacle. Similarly, the geographical accessibility to Srinagar city from the rest of India is weak, which hinders the transportation of raw materials and the finished goods; Moreover, the city lacks in basic raw materials and the ongoing political instability since 1980s, all have restricted the industrial development.

116 4.2.5 Restricted Area: The total area under restricted land use was 446 hectares in the year 1971 which increased to 715 hectares in 2008 (increased by 269 hectares), capturing land from agriculture (175.5 hectares), plantation/orchard (60 hectares) and vacant (33.5 hectares). The increase in area in this land use category is attributed to the ongoing political instability in the state. New areas are transformed to restricted zone for defence purposes. After 1980s various cinemas, hotels and other recreational places like parks and gardens were undertaken by military personals as their accommodation.

(a) Restricted from Agriculture: Restricted area captured the fertile agricultural land at Sharif Abad cantonment area in the northwest; some small patches at Humhama in the south and Khrew in the southeast of the city. This transformation took place by capturing the fertile agricultural lands for military purposes. (b) Restricted from Plantation/Orchard: Restricted class has also gained land from plantation/orchard at Chashma Shahi at the foothill of Zabarwan mountain peak, where tree plantation was removed for the purpose of expansion of Governor’s residence. Similarly, restricted area gained land from vacant in the southeast of the city at Sonawar and Badami Bagh cantonment area. Since the state of Jammu and Kashmir is facing the political imbalance since 1990’s. The development of security personals from time to time has resulted in the increase in restricted land. There has been significant increase in the existing restricted areas by expanding their territories on neighbouring land and also various other places were brought under restricted land use during the study period.

4.2.6 Parks/Gardens and Playground: Parks/garden and playgrounds covered 140 hectares in the year 1971, which increased to 372 hectares in 2008 (increased by 232 hectares), capturing land from plantation/orchard (149 hectares) and forest (83 hectares). The increase is mainly because of being important tourist destination. Parks and gardens play a vital role in the growth and development of tourist industry in the study area.

117 (a) Playground from Plantation: The prominent areas where playgrounds gained area from plantation/orchard includes Royal Springs Golf Course in the southeast at foothill of Zabarwan mountain. This area was covered with Willow plantation which was cleared to make way for Golf Course in the city mainly for the development of sports. (b) Parks and gardens from Forest: Parks/gardens captured significant area of forest land adjacent to the Royal Springs golf course in the east where Botanical garden was built. Similarly, at the northern foothill of Koh-i-Sulaiman hill, Nun Kun Park and Zabarwan Park was built on the forest area. The development in this land use category is aimed to promote tourism industry of the city.

4.2.7 Vacant Land: Vacant land in the year 1971 was 517 hectares which decreased to 255 hectares in 2008 (decreased by 262 hectares), losing land to residential (210 hectares), commercial (111 hectares), agriculture (109 hectares), restricted area (33.5), plantation/orchards (21.5 hectares), scattered settlement (5.5 hectares) and others (educational, governmental, hospital, religious) (25 hectares). Besides loss, vacant land also gained area from agriculture class (185 hectares) and plantation/orchards (68.5 hectares) (Figure 4.4). Developers help government agencies in solving the urban housing problem by transforming the vacant land into residential colonies in the outskirts of the city but they also create land banks by purchasing land from the farmers and keep that land unattended as speculative property. They also purchase the fertile agricultural land and keep that unattended, which results into the transformation of agricultural to vacant land. This vacant land was later purchased by the entrepreneurs at high prices and converted it into commercial space. The transformation is also due to discontinuity of the agricultural and horticulture activities by the farmers. They left their fields unattended in a view to sell it off at the appropriate time for getting instant income. There is a general trend where agricultural land is converted to vacant to be used later for urban usage. Therefore, in this way vacant land was transformed into various land use classes, since this land use class is having higher demand where urban expansion is taking place. However, its utilization depends upon the need and location of that available vacant land.

118 VACANT LAND TRANSFORMATIONS IN SRINAGAR CITY (1971 - 2008)

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Figure 4.4

119 4.2.8 Agricultural Land: The total area under agricultural land use was 14408 hectares in the year 1971 which decreased to 10949 hectares in 2008, (decreased by 3459 hectares) because during the study period all the expansion took place on the peripheral agricultural land. It lost area to residential (2181 hectares), plantation/orchards (1854 hectares), scattered settlement (286.5 hectares), vacant (185 hectares), restricted (175.5 hectares), industrial (136 hectares) and others (Educational, Governmental, Hospital, Religious) (153.5 hectares) (Figure 4.5).

(a) Agriculture to Plantation/Orchards: Agricultural area lost its area to Plantation/orchard all over the study area in scattered patches except in the core area. This transformation was observed at Ahmed Nagar, Zakura, New Theed, Alestang, Tailbal in the north and Rawalpora, Humhama in the south; Zainakot, Palapora and Malura in the west. Such transformation was also observed in the area lying along the river Jhelum in the western end of the city. Since, the production of timber and various fruits like Apple, Cherry, Almonds, Apricot and Walnut etc., has proved more remunerative than the traditional crop cultivation. So the paddy growers replaced significant area under, traditional paddy cultivation with plantation/orchards. (b) Agriculture to Vacant: Agriculture land lost its area to vacant class at Zakura; parts of Tailbal in the north of the city. Also few patches at Magarmal Bagh and Bhagat in the south and Bemina in the west showed transformation of agriculture to vacant land. Agriculture lost few small patches to vacant at Mehjoor Nagar and Chanapora also. This transformation is due to the annual threat of floods which becomes the cause of loss of life and property, also the low returns from the agricultural land to carry out a decent livelihood. Therefore, farmers left their agricultural land unattended and vacant. They aim to sell it in future when the prices increase because of the growing demand of land for residential and commercial purposes in the city. Besides decrease, agricultural land also gained land, mainly from marshy (1041.5 hectares), plantation/orchard (214 hectares), water body (148 hectares) and vacant (109 hectares) because of the accessibility to the new areas e.g., in the west

120 AGRICULTURAL LAND TRANSFORMATIONS IN SRINAGAR CITY (1971 - 2008)

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Main R oa ds Municipal Bounda ry Agriculture to Re sidential Agriculture to P lantation/Orchard Agriculture to V acant land Agriculture to others Agriculture to Industria l

CITY BY PA SS ROA D

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Figure 4.5

121

Photo Plate 18: Agriculture to Vacant Land Transformation

Photo Plate 19: Agriculture to Plantation/Orchard Transformation

122

Photo Plate 20: Agricultural to Institutional Land Transformation

123 of the study area and encroachment in the ecologically important parts like water bodies and marshy areas. (a) Agriculture from Marshy Area: The places where agriculture land gained area from marshy are located in and around the Dal Lake which includes western Dal Lake, southern Nigeen Lake, eastern Jogi lankar along with Rainawari and its adjoining areas. Here marshy area was converted into the Floating/vegetable gardens by the boatman (Hanji) people of the lake, because agricultural activities are the only source of their livelihood. Their increasing number and continued dependence on agricultural activity has resulted into encroachments into the lake area by filling up the marshy and water area and transforming it in to floating gardens/vegetable gardens. Similarly lot of area from Rakh-i-Gandakshah and Rakh-i-Arat marsh in the west of the study area was transformed into agricultural land by the residents and in- migrants who purchased this marshy land for the purpose of agricultural activities. (b) Agriculture from Plantation/Orchard: Agricultural land gained area from plantation/orchard at Zakura, Ahmad Nagar and Omer colony in the north and Tailbal and Harwan in northeast of the city. This transformation is because of the speculative land holding by the economically well off people of the city core area, who purchase plantation/orchard land in the city outskirts and put it to lease to the farmers who cultivates it so as to keep hold on land and also to get some economic benefits. (c) Agriculture from Vacant land: Agriculture category also gained land from vacant in the south of Mehjoor Nagar and Chanapora in the south. This is due to the speculative land holding of the residents who purchased vacant land and then cultivate it so as to keep a hold and also draw benefits from the land till the appropriate time of selling it reaches.

4.2.9 Plantation/Orchards: Plantation/orchard covered the total area of 1266.5 hectares in the year 1971 which increased to 2622 hectares in 2008 (increased by 1355.5 hectares), capturing land from agriculture (1854 hectares), marshy (88 hectares), water body (42.5 hectares), forest (39 hectares) and vacant (21.5 hectares) (Figure 4.6).

124 PLANTATION/ORCHARD LAND TRANSFORMATIONS IN SRINAGAR CITY (1971 - 2008)

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Main R oa ds Municipal Bounda ry Plantation/Orc ha rd to Agriculture Plantation/Orc ha rd to Res idential Plantation/Orc ha rd to Va cant Plantation/Orc ha rd to Othe rs Plantation/Orc hrad from Agric ulture Plantation/Orc ha rd from M arshy CITY BY PA SS ROA D

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Figure 4.6

125

(a) Plantation/Orchard from Marshy: Plantation/orchards captured land from marshy area in the south of Khushalsar Lake and southern parts of Rakh-i- Gandakshah marsh in the west. Similar transformation was witnessed in Lokut Dal area in Dal Lake, where marshy area has been transformed into Willow plantation land by Boatmen (Hanjis). This way they gradually encroached the lake area. (b) Plantation/Orchard from Water Body, Forest and Vacant land: It also gained area from water body in the south of Dal Lake and on the area lying along the banks of river Jhelum in the west of the city at Parimpora, where plantation was carried out for the purpose of urban forestry. Plantation/orchard captured land from forest at the foothill of Zabarwan. It also gained land from vacant at the southern foothill of Koh-i-Sulaiman. Also few patches at Khanmou in the southeast of the city. The Significant increase in the area under this class is attributed to the occupational shift of number of crop cultivators in the north of the city to horticulture practices, because of the typical geographical location. Also the modern inputs are not popular to cultivators resulting in low productivity and low income. The outputs of agricultural products are not increasing in proportion to the cost involved in the farming. Thus agricultural activity is increasingly uneconomic. In the absence of non-availability of employment opportunities in other sectors, the workforce is forced to depend mainly on agricultural and allied activities. Horticulture has emerged as a better option. Moreover, growing fruits is a single time investment activity which needs less work force for farm operations and management. Besides gaining the land area; plantation/orchards also lost some of its area to residential (153 hectares), parks/gardens & play grounds (149 hectares), agriculture (214 hectares), vacant (68.5 hectares), restricted (60 hectares) and others (45 hectares).

4.2.10 Forest: The total area under forest class in the year 1971 was 346.5 hectares, which decreased to 153.5 hectares in 2008 (decreased by 193 hectares), losing land to parks/gardens & play grounds (83 hectares), scattered settlement (71 hectares), and plantation/orchards (39 hectares). This transformation is due to the expansion of the city towards the foothills of the study area which surrounds it.

126

Photo Plate 21: Plantation/Orchards to Parks and Gardens Transformation

Photo Plate 22: Forest to Parks and Gardens Transformation

127 For the growth and development of the tourist industry significant land under forest area was transformed into parks and gardens mostly on the foothills of the study area which surrounds it. Moreover significant forest area was utilized to cater the need of residential space for the people living in the scattered settlements. This activity is still going on the foothills of Zabarwan and Basiwan mountains in the east. Since these people are economically weak people who cannot purchase the land in the city because of the higher land value, so they continue to live in the scattered settlements in the forest areas. Their increasing number results into capturing of more forest area for their residential purposes. Similarly the urban development agencies have cleared significant area under forest for the plantation activities for the beautification of the city at many tourist attraction places.

4.2.11 Barren: The total area under barren class in the year 1971 was 539.5 hectares, which decreased to 480 hectares in the 2008 (decreased by 59.5 hectares), losing land to residential (59.5 hectares). The transformation is attributed to the expansion of the city towards the bare rocky surfaces of the city area. Since these parts of the city are not captured by the speculative land market, therefore it becomes easy for the weaker section of the society to purchase this barren land for their residential purposes.

4.2.12 Marshy Area: The total area under marshy was 1667 hectares in the year 1971 which decreased to 468.5 hectares in 2008 (decreased by 1198.5 hectares), thereby losing its land area to agriculture (1041.5 hectares), plantation/orchards (88 hectares), residential (77 hectares), others (49 hectares) and water body (35 hectares) (Figure 4.7). Besides the loss, marshy area gained land from water body (92 hectares) due to the anthropogenic activities into the lake area by its inhabitants (Hanjis) who add nutrients to the weeds through the discharge of wastes directly in to the lake. This helps in the rapid growth of the weeds and transforming the water into marshy area.

128 MARSHY LAND TRANSFORMATIONS IN SRINAGAR CITY (1971 - 2008)

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Figure 4.7

129

Photo Plate 23: Marshy to Agricultural Land Transformation

Photo Plate 24: Marshy to Plantation/Orchard Transformation

130

Photo Plate 25: Water body to Agriculture Transformation

Photo Plate 26: Water body to Marshy Transformation

131 4.2.13 Water Body: The total area under water body in the year 1971 was 2145.5 hectares, which decreased to 1895 hectares in 2008 (decreased by 250.5 hectares), losing land to agriculture (148 hectares), marshy (92 hectares) plantation/orchard (42.5 hectares) and others (3 hectares) because of the increasing population which depends upon the lake for their livelihood.

(a) Water body to Agriculture: The places where such transformation took place include the western part of Dal Lake and the adjoining area of Nigeen Lake where significant illegal conversion of lake area into Floating/vegetable garden was carried out by the Hanjis. Also on the back waters along the eastern margin of Dal Lake, people are cultivating vegetable gardens, because it is the only source of their livelihood. (a) Water body to Marshy Area: Water body lost its significant area to Marshy class on the eastern margin of Dal Lake and northern part of Brari nambal. Sewerage from the nearby residential areas is being dumped directly into this water body. This has resulted into the dense and rapid under growth of weeds which has posed threat to the ecology of the city. The concentration of chemicals from these wastes has increased in to the lake with the increasing population. Besides it the lake has also recorded increasing levels of nitrates and total phosphorus concentration in the lake water due to rapid rate of deforestation in the lake catchment brings lots of silts rich in nutrients by surface runoff into the lake through the Tailbal channel which feeds the lake. All these are responsible for transforming the lake water into the hub of marsh.

4.2.14 Others (Educational, Governmental, Hospital and Religious): The total land under others class (Educational, Governmental, Hospital, Religious) was 516 hectares in the year 1971 which increased to 791.5 hectares in 2008 (an increase of 275 hectares), capturing land from agriculture (153.5 hectares), marshy (49 hectares), plantation/orchards (45 hectares), vacant (25 hectares) and water body (3 hectares). This increase is due to the socio-economic transformation and shift from the primary and secondary economic activities to the tertiary and quaternary services.

132 (a) Educational from Vacant: The area under educational land use gained area from vacant land at Sher-i-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST) in the northeast of the city. Also some similar transformation was observed at Lal Chowk (CBD). This is because of the social transformation which made the resident aware of the importance of education. (b) Governmental from Agriculture: The area under government offices gained land from agriculture at Parimpora and Zainakot in the west where Government Truck Terminal and other offices were established. This truck terminal was relocated to this place, in order to decongest the city center. (c) Governmental from Marshy: The area under government class captured land from marshy at Rakh-i-Gandakshah in the west. Numerous government offices were relocated from the core congested area of the city to this area so as to decongest the core area. For example J&K State Board of School education was relocated to this area which was earlier located at Lal mandi in the core area. Similarly, Srinagar Development Authority (SDA) and other new government offices came up in this part of the study area on marshy land. (d) Governmental from Vacant: The area under government class gained land from vacant land at Shaheed Gunj in west of city centre, where State High Court and Civil Secretariat were built. Various government offices were constructed on vacant land at Aalochi Bagh, and Magarmal Bagh and Jawahar Nagar in the core area of the city. Since, these are the important government offices which should be located near to the city center; therefore the available vacant land was utilized for such use. (e) Hospitals from Agriculture, Plantation/Orchard and Vacant land: Hospitals have built upon agricultural, plantation/orchard and vacant land at Bemina (Jhelum Valley medical college), Soura, Sher-i-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences (SKIMS), Wazir bagh (Children’s Hospital). There were only few hospitals in the city which could not meet the demands of the growing population, so 1971-1991 master plan proposed for the establishment of these hospitals. (f) Religious from Agriculture and Vacant: Religious land use gained area from agriculture class at Kawdara in the core area and Parimpora in the west of the city where agricultural land was converted into grave yards. Religious land use also gained area from vacant at various grave yards like the Malataing grave yard at

133 Dalgate in the core area and Parimpora in the west on the banks of river Jhelum, where significant vacant area was brought under the grave yards.

4.3 Features of Land Transformation in Srinagar city: Srinagar city is located in the heart of Kashmir valley. It has been the capital city of Kashmir valley ever since its creation. The city gained primacy in terms of functions associated with politics, administration, commerce, economic development, tourism etc. This sets a relationship of interaction, and regulates activities of its population with the people of different areas and urban centre of Valley like , Baramulla, , , , , , Bandipora, Bejbehara, , Ganderbal, etc. It also develops a relationship between the distant areas also like Leh, Kargil and Jammu etc. Because of its potentialities and importance, the city is having an economic shadow effect on its neighbouring urban centres. The economic development in the city led to the social transformation which in turn led to land use change along with the interchange of area between different land use/cover classes. Besides these factors topographic and political factors are also responsible for land transformation in the city. Increase in family size as well as increasing trend of nuclear family system and the influx of migrants has also led to the transformation of vacant and fertile agricultural land into various other land use classes. Apart from economic primacy, the city is topographically having a uniform elevation pattern along its length and breadth except some mountain peaks adjoining the Zabarwan Mountains and Koh-i-Maran hill in the east and north of the city respectively. However, these do not hamper the habitation of the people of Srinagar because there are inhabitants living along the base of the small hills. But along the southeast end of the city there are the rocky mountains which have been a hurdle in the further expansion of the city. This led to expansion towards northern area of the city which had agricultural land and the southern area over vacant and agricultural land during the study period. Thus, the agricultural, vacant and marshy land was transformed for mainly residential, commercial, industrial or any other land uses. Built-up class has significantly increased due to uncontrolled construction on non built-up land especially vacant, agricultural, marshy area by people and

134 government agencies. Residential class grabbed area mostly from agriculture because shelter is the basic requirement for the increasing population. Agricultural land has been the prime victim of the land transformation in Srinagar city. Farmer gave up agricultural practice and sold their valuable land only for getting instant money. Also, in order to lift their social status they opt for non- farm activities. There are examples from the city where farmers have given up the traditional farming practices and shifted towards the plantation and orchard practices because farmers do not have knowledge regarding the modern agricultural inputs which has resulted into low agricultural efficiency. Therefore horticulture activities are the best option left with the farmers. In addition to it, urban expansion in Srinagar city has brought both ecologically important and significant land use/cover classes e.g., water bodies and marshy areas under the transformation process. Also, forests have been cleared down for bringing up settlements, parks/gardens and play grounds, plantation/orchards etc., for various socio-economic purposes, which is a loss to the ecology. Unorganised planning and political instability in Kashmir region has also played its part in transforming the city in an unplanned manner. Most of the vacant land best suited for commercial purposes has been consumed unplanned. Unemployed youth try to establish business activities of their own without proper registrations from the government organization. This activity is leading to self selection of locations. Further economic development in the city will further lead to the land transformation. Though the Master plan for the state is already prepared still the implementations are lacking.

135

Chapter–V ACTORS OF LAND

TRANSFORMATION 5.1 Introduction: Land use/land cover changes are the result of broad economic, socio-cultural forces bringing in use and changes in land. The present research try to identify the causative factors responsible for their decision making process. In most cases, number of factors are used to represent the underlying causes; for example, population density and accessibility. These are further differentiated into ‘driving’ forces and the ‘conditioning’ factors. Driving forces are expected to change over time, such as population density and land value whereas ‘conditioning’ factors are relatively stable over time. Conditioning factors are spatially varied, such as physical setting and cultural values. This helps in the land analysis of spatial and temporal prospectus of change (Verburg et al. 2003). Broadly the causes which lead to the land use/land cover change are classified under two broad categories i.e., the direct and the indirect causes.

5.2 Direct Versus Indirect Causes of Land Transformation: Direct causes involve physical changes in land use/cover. These are usually limited to responses such as increase in built-up, infrastructure building and wood extraction etc. Direct causes generally operate at the local level, for example, at individual households or communities (Lambin and Geist, 2003; Mather 2006). Indirect or underlying causes are fundamental forces that underpin the direct circumstances for land transformation. They operate more diffusively (i.e., from a distance) and often have bearing over stable direct forces. Indirect causes are formed by a complex of social, political, economic, demographic, technological, cultural and biophysical variables (Brookfield and Stocking 1999). In contrast to direct cause the indirect/underlying driving forces operate at districts, provinces, natural or even global levels. The indirect drivers which are in general responsible for land transformations are; technological, economic, political, institutional, demographic and socio-cultural forces. The change in any of these indirect drivers usually results in changes in one or more of direct forces triggering land transformation. Bryant and Bailey have used the term ‘actors’ for the individual components of driving and conditioning forces (Bryant and Bailey, 1997). ‘Actors’ are the different institutions and people who regulate different forces leading to land transformation. The trends and pattern of

136 land transformation at any location are the outcome of certain ‘alliances’ and ‘conflicts’ among these individual actors.

5.3 Roles of Actors and Political Ecology in Land Use Issues: The actor approach was originally used in the field of the political ecology (Bryant and Bailey 1997, Blaikie and Brookfield 1987, Blaikie 1996). The land transformations are because of the different forces influencing and interacting with each other at local level. Land transformation is the outcome of the interaction of complementary and conflicting interests of different human and institutional actors. As the urbanization process is complex, the actors and their role is also complex in urban land transformation. The interests can be balancing or at variance in nature resulting in harmony or differences. Their strength of the actor approach lies in the integration of place and non place based analysis.

5.4 Socio-Political Perspectives of Land Use: The city is expanding and there are wide spread changes in land use. The study tries to investigate the role of different sections of the population as actors like residents, migrants/new settlers, farmers, boatmen, entrepreneurs, property dealers, developers and at the same time the government and private agencies who play an active and important role in the process of land transformation in Srinagar city. Generally forces found to be crucial for decisions about land in Srinagar city are: demand for land, capital and the land value.

5.5 Actors of Land Transformation Operating in Srinagar City: In the present study, distinction has been made between the Institutional and private actors including both human and institutional factors bringing about transformation in land use. Institutional actors include different government agencies. Private actors include residents, farmers, boatmen (locally called as Hanjis), entrepreneurs, property dealers and developers who are individually transforming the land. The role of individual actor acting in the process of land transformation in Srinagar city during the period of 37 years (1971 to 2008) has been evaluated. The hierarchical

137 order of these actors from the most influential actor to the least influential is given below:

5.5.1 Institutional Actors: Urban development in India is under the control of state government. J & K state is further protected through the special status of Article 370 of Indian Constitution. So, state government has the supreme authority in the development in Srinagar city. Under the provision of J&K Development Act 1970, Local Area of Srinagar was delineated and Srinagar Development Authority was constituted in early 1971. The objective of the authority was to carry out the development of the Local Area of Srinagar according to Master Plans.

(a) Government Agencies and Their Activities in Srinagar City: Government agencies play direct role in the land transformation in Srinagar city to build infrastructural services for the growing demand of the city residents. The important agencies operating in Srinagar city are Srinagar Development Authority (SDA), Srinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC), Urban Environment and Engineering Department (UEED), J&K Housing Board, Lakes and Waterways Development Authority (LAWDA), Town Planning etc. The infrastructural development has resulted in conversion of land from vacant, agriculture and plantation/orchards to built-up land. These conversions have raised the land rent of the transformed locations instigating land transformations of nearby locations. The laying of roads to connect different parts of the city have instigated widespread land transformation e.g., the road connecting Rainawari with Naupora in the central part of the city was widened at the cost of significant residential space. The commercial establishments at Batamaloo in the west of Lal Chowk and residential colonies at Bemina wetland i.e., Rakh-i-Gandakshah and Rakh-i-Arat in the west of the city have all been planned and executed by SDA. Srinagar city is garlanded with numerous water bodies which are governed by the Lakes and Waterways Development Authority (LAWDA). Several projects for beautification and development of Dal lake is carried out by the LAWDA.

138 (b) Government Policies and Their Impact on Land Transformation in Srinagar City: Government actors sometimes play indirect role in the process of land transformation in Srinagar city through different land use policies. They motivate the government and private actors to bring the changes in landscape. In the Kashmir valley, land use policy was formulated by the Maharaja under which, conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural land was restricted. But lately the division of authority into several agencies has led to poor implementation of policies. This resulted in large scale conversion of residential colonies to accommodate the growing population. Presently there are many colonies in Srinagar city which are developed on orchards. For example, Aalochi Bagh, Rambagh, Rajbagh, Gogji Bagh etc., all are the important residential places in the core area of the city.

(c) Article 370 and Its Impact on the Land Transformation in Srinagar City: The Article 370 plays an important role in land transformations. The Article 370 restricts the ownership of land only for Kashmiri residents. Outsiders cannot own land in Kashmir. This in many ways influence the land market of Srinagar city. This act in some way also helped the landlord to hold on their lands. The increasing demand for land has raised the land value substantially. This trend has clearly divided the Kashmiri residents between rich land owners and the poor land less residents. There is also state land revenue act of 1939 which prevents the conversion of farmland and Municipal Act of 1951 which restricts extensions and encroachments on public lands. But these acts are unable to restrict the conversion because of exorbitant demand for land and pressure of other actors. Presently the SDA is the nodal agency responsible for urban planning. The present Master Plan (2001-2021) prepared by SDA has divided Srinagar Metropolitan area into various land use zones such as Residential, Commercial, Industrial, Public and semi-public, Recreational, Transport and Communication, Agriculture etc. The city has been assigned areas depending on prevalent land use classes which is essentially mixed land use. These zones are meant to protect land use and the physical form of the growing city as proposed in this plan. The plan is focused to have increased efficiency in activity and utilization of space. Besides it,

139 the administrative bodies have compulsory conditions and financial weaknesses that make the implementation of Master Plan proposals a difficult issue. Lack of coordination among the government departments/agencies is also responsible for the irregular and uncontrolled transformation of land. For example, Srinagar Municipal Committee permitted the boatmen (Hanjis) people, living in and around the Dal Lake, to construct houses. Later these houses were demolished by the department of Lakes and waterways (LAWDA) in a Dal Rehabilitation Drive. This type of conflicts has led to the increase in encroachments resulting into the unplanned and illegal land transformations.

5.5.2 Private Actors: Private actors include Residents, Farmers, Boatmen (Hanjis), Entrepreneurs, Property dealers and Developers; are instigated by their social and economic needs to transform the land in the city. The role played by these actors is explained below:

(a) Residents: The role played by residents as individuals of the society in Srinagar city can be divided into three groups: the local land owning community, the local landless group, and outside migrants. Since, Srinagar city is in the developmental phase and there is increasing demand for land. This make residents attracted to invest in purchasing land. This trend is prevalent due to three reasons, firstly; families are growing and thereby splitting into nuclear households, which requires additional residential space. Also the growing preference for nuclear family system in Srinagar city has also aroused the demand for more residential land. State housing agency have been able to solve only 7% urban housing demand and the rest 93% has been contributed by the non organized sector (Srinagar Development Authority, 2000). Secondly; residents of the core part (Lal Chowk, Dal Gate, Rajbagh, Wazirbagh, Karan Nagar etc) have spared their residential space for commercial use and many residents have moved out of this part to outer locations. Srinagar city being the tourist destination, therefore the residents have also converted their houses into tourist inns and hotels for income generation. Thirdly, the developments in the outskirts of the city have created demand for goods and services and to fill this

140 demand significant commercial development is taking place instigating land transformations.

Migrants in Srinagar city are not necessarily from the rural areas only; they belong to the other parts of the city also. For example, people from the congested core areas of the Srinagar city like Lal Chowk, Kawdara, Kadal, Aali Kadal etc., are moving towards the outer parts of the city on open spaces. However there is rapid inflow of people belonging to rural areas. During the last decade, people from South Kashmir especially Anantnag, , Pampore, districts purchased land on the southern limits of Srinagar city at Nowgam, Chanapora, Rawalpora, Hyderpora etc. These migrant people were having educational and economic connections with the city. Similarly, people of the western neighbouring districts e.g., Bandipora, and Baramulla colonized areas in the west of the city. This gave rise to HMT layout, Zainakot, Bemina and Qamarwari etc. People from the north i.e., Ganderbal, Kangan have colonized areas in the north of the city like Ghulab Bagh, Alestang and Soura etc. Education and employment are important pull factor for migrants settling in Srinagar city. A large section of the younger migrants have come to the city and settled in Rajbagh, Jawahar Nagar, Wazirbagh, and Shivpora etc. The older people are attached to their rural lands and agricultural activities. So there is split in family structure but with time many rural residents dispose off their rural properties and shift to city leading to land transformations at both rural and urban locations.

(b) Farmers: The perception and objectives among individual farmers in Srinagar city vary with respect to use of land. It was observed that the farmers in the changed economic transformation have long term considerations to maximize and utilize their land resources (Figure 5.1) These considerations are depended on three elements, firstly, the available land resource and its prospective utilization; second, the role of other actors (government agencies, developers, entrepreneurs, property dealers etc); thirdly, the physical setting and location (risk of floods in the low lying areas, single cropping season and single cropping pattern etc) of their land influencing its utilization.

141

Figure 5.1: Farmer’s Decisions that Affect Local Landscapes of Srinagar City

PERSONAL DRIVERS MEGA DRIVERS (Opportunities) (Considerations)

DECISIONS

Considerations for selling and transforming the land for: Opportunities offered by:

1. Government. RESULTS  Instant money 2. Developers.  Occupational change for more 3. Entrepreneurs. income 4. Property dealers

TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LAND TO:

Residential Plantation/orchard Vacant

Farmers in Srinagar control the first kind of elements, i.e., their own resources and knowledge. Personal driver are the farmer’s long term considerations i.e., the economic aims and objectives wherein farmer sells his fertile agricultural land. Mega drivers influence the opportunities available to the farmers. This consideration role i.e., the growing demand for more income of the farmers determines the fate of the agricultural land in the Srinagar. However, ‘Mega drivers’ i.e., the factors controlled by the external organizations e.g. government agencies also decide the agricultural land use in Srinagar. These drivers motivate a farmer to sell their land to the external agencies like government agencies, private developers and entrepreneurs. For example, in the west of the city at Rakh-i-Arat and Rakh-i-Gandakshah fertile agricultural land and the marshy area was taken by the government for the establishment of residential colonies and government offices. Similarly, personal drivers motivate the farmers in the outskirts of the city to sell off

142 their land to the local city people and the outside migrants. Therefore these farmers act indirectly in the process of land transformation. These farmers in turn receive compensation according to the size of their landholding, which adds good sums to their income. Farmers also played direct role while transforming their fertile agricultural land into plantation/orchard in the north and northeast of the city. Since the horticulture activities are more remunerative than the crop growing activities due to low agricultural productivity. Therefore number of farmers shifted to growing of fruits in order to increase their income. Moreover, the growing number of family size motivates a farmer to increase the dwelling units on the available agricultural land. Also in the low lying areas, prominently in the south and western parts of the city farmers faced the annual threat of the floods. So, to avoid the loss of crops due to floods, they shifted to horticulture and plantation activities.

(c) Boatman (Hanjis) The boatman of Kashmir is known as Ha’enz in local language and Hanji is used in script. Hanjis are among the aboriginal inhabitants and are an important and prominent tribe of Kashmir Valley. They could be traced from Pandit Kalhana’s ‘Rajatarangani’, of 826 CE which is the first historical record written on Kashmir valley. Boatman (Hanjis) is one of the important actor who control the fate of ecologically important land use/land cover in and around the water bodies and marshy areas of Srinagar city. Currently Dal Lake is sheltering about 50 Hanji hamlets with a population of over 50,000 people, who have property rights over 300 hectares (6,000 kanals) of agricultural land and 670 hectares (13,400 kanals) of water area. The important localities are Kohn Khan, Mir Mohalla, Abi Kakpora, Dar Mohalla, Nishat, Shalimar lying in the periphery of the lake and the localities namely Bujal Mohalla, Gogal Mohalla, Bakir Mohalla are lying further in the interior of the lake. Some localities are as big as more than hundred of households and some are as small as five to ten household only. The Dal Gate and Gagribal area of the lake is having high concentration of Hanjis. About 90 percent of the Dal dwellers have a poor socio-economic base and they churn out their modest income from agricultural activities i.e., cultivating

143 vegetable gardens (locally called as Radh), mat weaving, tourist related activities like paddling and deweeding of weeds. On the other hand, they play an important role in quantitative and qualitative transformation of the water bodies and the marshy areas in the city. Dal Lake is the prime victim of this indifferent role played by them during the urbanization process. Out of total decrease of 1449 hectares of water bodies and the marshy area in the city, 882.5 hectares of decrease has been witnessed alone in Dal Lake and the rest is shared by others i.e., Nigeen Lake, Brari Nambal, Khushalsar, Rakh-i-Gandakshah marsh etc. Important land transformations carried out by Hanjis during the study period in and around the Dal Lake are; water body to marshy and marshy to agriculture etc.

(d) Entrepreneurs: Entrepreneurs in Srinagar city are not only the businessmen but other economically sound residents from tertiary sector as well as large land lords turned businessmen. This section of the society has invested heavily to construct shopping malls and complexes in the core area of the city. These actors operate in group which includes land owners, policy makers, capitalists etc. Large number of commercial and residential buildings have been brought up by the entrepreneurs on vacant land at Lal Chowk, Brari nambal, Karan Nagar areas in the core area and also on agricultural land in west at Bemina. Moreover, the increased flow of tourists in and around the water bodies result into increase in the number hotels, guest houses, restaurants and house boats. This activity has been observed to be prominent in and around the Dal Lake.

(e) Property Dealers: Property dealers in Srinagar city are active and are engaged in selling and purchasing properties at very high prices. In Srinagar city, the size of built-up and non built-up land holding is small particularly in the congested core area where the properties have multiple owners. In this situation the individual buyer finds difficult to settle transaction deal. So the property dealers play a significant role to satisfy the demands of all the stakeholders of land but increases the land rent substantially. This bid of arrangements only benefits property dealers because they operate on conversion share. The higher is land rent the higher would be the commission of

144 property dealers, cutting the share of land owner and purchaser of land. However, in the recent past, it has been observed that residential areas in the core area i.e., Gonikhan, Amira Kadal, Maisuma, Habba Kadal, Zaina Kadal, Khanyar are being converted into commercial zones. This has become possible by the joint efforts of entrepreneurs and property dealers who engage the multiple owners into a deal and then succeed in acquiring land for raising shopping malls. Such deadlocks still exist in many areas of the old city because of which it is not undergoing any renovation. Efforts on the part of Government to develop the core area in the past also met failure because of multiple-ownership of properties. Acquiring land for road widening projects in the core area is a great problem faced by the urban developmental agencies. Property dealers in the state in the early 1980s played an important role in the selling and purchasing of the properties. Due to political turmoil in the state during this time Kashmiri Hindu people (locally called as Pandits) evacuated the Valley and permanently migrated to the other parts of India abandoning their property. Most of them were the residents of the core area of Srinagar city e.g., Wazir Bagh, Aalochi Bagh, Raj Bagh, Lal Chowk, Karan Nagar, Habba Kadal and Barbarshah. Few belonged to the city outskirts also. Property dealers took the advantage of this political turmoil and offered them lower prices for their property and sold it at the higher prices to the local residents and entrepreneurs, who converted those residential houses mostly into commercial buildings.

(f) Developers: They are the real colonizers in Srinagar city who try to maximize their profit through residential development of the city. While evaluating their activities on research basis they are mostly illegal. In 1971-1991Master Plan of Srinagar city, government included developers/colonizers who were holding sizeable areas of land in the land market. This inclusion was done for the speedy development of large urban land areas because of various difficulties of finances and technical personals in the government agencies. They helped the government by establishing various residential colonies e.g., the residential colonies at Buchpora and Bemina in the north and the west of the city respectively. But this led to the capture of land market by speculative developers,

145 which caused the differential in the demand and supply of urban land. Since, legally a private developer can only purchase government land but due to their greed for more money, they also purchased fertile agricultural land from local people. Land values have gone up and problems of the poor people, living in highly dense areas of the city have grown beyond the capacity of government agencies. They are politically and economically strong people. Many political leaders in Srinagar city have also stepped into these activities, who make optimal use of their power. Therefore the rate of land capture is further accelerating.

5.6 Evaluation of Actors of Land Transformation in Srinagar City: All the above discussed actors play different roles within complex framework. The land transformation is the outcome of the act of conflicts and alliances among them which may change depending upon the role they play.

5.6.1 CONFLICTS: (a) Government Agencies and Residents: Government’s role in the process of land transformation in Srinagar city many a times acts against the interests of the local residents. The implementation many times raises conflicts of policies of urban development with residents like the construction of new roads, buildings, widening of the existing roads or the relocation of the boatmen population etc, residents confronts government policies and try to block these policies. An example of this conflict is the road widening in the residential areas at the cost of residential space of the residents. However the residents are offered monetary compensation. Similarly, Srinagar Municipal Corporation’s (SMC) solid waste dumping site at Saidpora Achchan in the north of Srinagar city is another prominent example. This site has become the serious threat to the health of the residents living in its vicinity. This issue led to the clashes between the residents and the authorities from time to time. (b) Government Agencies and Farmers: There are conflicts between the farmers the government agencies in terms of the exchange of land. Government requires land for urban development and they acquire land from farmers but there is conflict the compensation rates. The farmers do not wish to hand over their land due to low compensation and their emotional attachment. Moreover the farmers consider

146 farming as their only livelihood option and this also leads to conflict with government agencies. (c) Government Agencies and Boatmen: There are conflicts between the boatmen (Hanjis) and government authorities because of their relocation to the other parts of the city in order to rehabilitate the deteriorated water bodies. This led to the clashes between boatmen and the government authorities because providing of improper substitutes of livelihood after relocation.

5.6.2 ALLIANCES: (a) Government and Property Dealers: The government policies encourage the property dealers to participate in the land/property market in the city. They help the government agencies in breaking the deadlock of multiple ownership of land/property for the infrastructure development in the congested core areas of the city. Since they are aware of the legal traits, therefore, they minimize the public dealing with the government agencies by resolving the issues related with the selling and purchasing of properties. (b) Government and Developers: Developers help the J&K Housing board in removing the residential housing backlog in the city by establishing various residential colonies and satellite towns in the outskirts of the city. Although they charge high price but they provide the better services to the residents. (c) Government and Entrepreneurs: The activities of entrepreneurs and their strong economic background in the city have created a favourable atmosphere between them and the government authorities. They invest their money in business establishments like shopping malls and complexes which helped government to accelerate economic growth in the city. (d) Property Dealers and Entrepreneurs: Entrepreneurs in Srinagar city are dependent upon the property dealers for purchasing the property/land for their business activities because it is the easiest way to purchase the property. They pay good sums of money as commission to the property dealers for getting land at the appropriate site and price. Therefore, they maintain the harmonious relationship with each other. (e) Property Dealers and Developers: Like the entrepreneurs, developers in Srinagar city have also good relationship with the property dealers. Since developers

147 are dependent on property dealers for the selling and purchasing of the property. The property dealers act as mediators in the deal and earn good commission out of the transaction.

5.6.3 STRONG ACTORS: The actors operating in land market of Srinagar city are in certain alliances and conflicts. Their operation projects certain actor’s role as strong and some other appear weak. (a) Government Agencies: Among the actors operating in Srinagar land market, government agencies appear as strongest actor. These agencies formulate and implement the policies regarding urban development. All other actors operate according to these policies formulated by government agencies (Srinagar Development Authority (SDA), Srinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC), Town Planning Department and Lakes & Waterways Development Authority (LAWDA) carry out various developmental proposals which have to be followed by the people by one way or the other. Here article 370 of the Indian constitution is also an important policy issues. This has significant influence in all the policies and their implementation. (b) Property Dealers: Property dealers also emerge as strong actor in Srinagar land market. They act as link between land owners and developers, entrepreneurs etc. The land deals have multiple stake holders and the role of property dealer is to satisfy the demand of all. But on several occasions they operate to favour certain stake holders resulting in disputes. (c) Entrepreneurs and Developers: The entrepreneurs also are strong actor as they have good financial background and operate in alliance with government agencies. This means actually they invest capital in accordance to governmental policies. The investments are very high so is the profits also. Here there alliances with other actors are crucial for the success of their investments.

5.6.4 WEAK ACTORS: The conflicts and alliances among the actors resulted into weakening the residents, boatmen (Hanjis) and the farmers who are socio-economically weak people of the city. The weaknesses of these actors are discussed below:

148 (a) Residents: Residents appear as relatively weak actors as they come into the land market with limited resources. They have small land holding and that too have multiple owners. This makes their role curtailed in land market. They depend heavily on property dealers for good deals making them weak and vulnerable. (b) Farmers and Hanjis: The farmers and Hanjis are also weak actors in general. But they have the advantage of owning land. But due to their poor economic and social background their stakes are manipulated by other actors. The government agencies in some way protect the interests of farmers and Hanjis but when the stakes are high, other actors override their stakes forming suitable alliances.

5.6.5 BENEFICIARIES: It was observed that strong actors came out as the beneficiaries from the process of land transformation because of the following reasons: (a) Entrepreneurs: The strong economic and political base of the entrepreneurs in Srinagar city makes them the successful businessmen. With the help of money they maintain harmony in the society and achieve their goals by establishing shopping malls and complexes. (b) Property Dealers: Since, the property dealers command the price of a particular property. Also are responsible for the soaring land value in the city. They command both the demand and the supply ends of land and make huge money without investing their own money. Property dealer is and outstanding beneficiary actor in the process of land transformation in Srinagar city. They made huge sums of money even during the political disturbance in the state when there were no signs of development. (c) Developers: Developers made outstanding income from the establishment of residential colonies because of the growing demand for the residential space in the city. They give attractive services to the society and thereby make the sound economic base for themselves.

5.6.6 VICTIMS: The weaknesses among the actors made them the victims of the land transformation process in the Srinagar city. The reasons are discussed below:

149 (a) Residents: A resident in Srinagar city is a weak actor, who suffers from the adverse circumstances. Residents are the prime victims of land transformation process who are dictated by the law, government authorities and policies etc. They sometimes turn the victims of the property dealers, developers etc., at the time of selling and purchasing of the property. However, every resident is not a victim; the authoritative residents in the city who have an upper hand in the society are the prominent beneficiaries. (b) Farmers: They are the main sufferers of the process of land transformation. Farmers in Srinagar are the weaker section of the society, even though they are the part of the city. Firstly, the farmers are weak actors because of their low agricultural output. Secondly, many a times they sell their fertile agricultural asset at the cheaper rates for getting instant income because of their lack of knowledge of the proper utilization of land resource. Moreover, farmers are exploited by government agencies, property dealers, entrepreneurs and developers who dupe them with attractive monetary exchange and grab the asset from them for various urban developmental activities. They not only lost their fertile agricultural land but also their livelihood in the process land transformation in Srinagar city. (c) Boatmen (Hanjis): Boatmen are the exploited because of their poor socio- economic base in the city. They are being relocated to the other places of the city in order to rehabilitate the loss incurred by them in water bodies, without assuring them with the proper livelihood substitutes. In addition to it, their houses in their localities in and around the Dal Lake were number of times demolished by the Lakes and Waterways Authority (LAWDA), so as to save the lake from further deterioration. Their interests have always been sidelining.

150

Chapter–VI CASE STUDIES 6.1 Overview Urbanization has brought transformation of traditional rural economies where primary economic activities dominate the modern industrial society of secondary and tertiary economic activities. The sequential changes in social system led to the change in economic activities. Social system includes culture, religion, need for food, housing, recreation and traditional factors have the direct impact on economic activities. The growth in the number and variety of economic activities led to significant economic development resulting into restructuring of the economy and investments in social overhead capitals. These activities act as the driving forces for rapid changes in material and immaterial phenomenon. The material phenomenal changes include the changes in land use/land cover and the immaterial changes includes the socio-economic changes. The technological advancement brought up a new social system where the activity depends on mass production, consumption and disposal of natural resources. Increasing human population and their use of resources have transformed the terrestrial biosphere into anthropogenic biomes. Urban areas began to be characterized by the new economic structure and landscape. There is rapid increase in demand by the migrant and resident population for land for built-up spaces e.g., houses, shops, commercial areas, public offices, factories, hotels and restaurants, recreational activity centers, play grounds etc. The growing demand from migrants is bringing about financial resources, but also increases pressure and competition for land because of the limited nature of land. Thus the increasing gap between the demands for supply of land supported by the speculative nature in the land market has resulted in the increase of land values. Therefore, evaluation of the causes and the consequences of changes in land use and land cover is becoming an urgent need for the researchers because the increasing population is putting pressure on the available resources (Turner et al. 1993). Such evaluation is concerned with uncovering the causes behind social and economic issues, rather than merely focusing on the symptoms (Robbins, 2004). Keeping this in view, few key wards were identified for in-depth analysis. These case studies focused to understand the respondent‟s activities which influence the transformations in land use/land cover of the Srinagar city. In these case studies the focus is on human response to the different social, economic and cultural situations.

151 The study was based on primary sources. The main objective of the sample survey was to find out the process of land transformation at micro level that too among different socio-economic groups of the Srinagar city. The data was collected based on well structured questionnaires. Stratified random sampling of around 2 per cent of the total households was used. Sampling was done on random basis with the help of available municipal ward map (Figure 6.1). The interviews included total number of 380 respondents. These interviews were held at six micro level sites (Lal Chowk ward, Aalochi Bagh ward, Bemina ward, Soura ward, Chanpora ward and the Hanji localities of Dal Lake area). The aim of survey was to find out the specific socio-economic characteristics and the activities carried out by different people responsible for land transformations. Further the questionnaires included the queries of the issues related with land transformation. The detailed explanation of these case studies is as follows:-

6.2 Case study sites: From the study area six sample sites were identified representing different social, economic and cultural background. These sample sites represent the social economic and cultural characteristics of the whole of the city. (i) Lal Chowk ward: Located in the city center. This ward has been selected for the study because it represents the CBD of the city. This locality is the centre for trade and commerce not only for Srinagar city but also for whole of the valley. People from various parts of the city and valley come to this place for exchange of the goods and services. It is oldest part of the city and the seat of political activities. (ii) Aalochi Bagh ward: Located adjacent to Lal Chowk ward in the core area of the city. This ward has been selected for the study because it has mixed land use with residential being dominating but due to proximity to Lal Chowk, it has the presence of commercial land use also. (iii) Bemina ward: Located in the west of the city. It is the newly developed area where in the recent past lot of land transformation has taken place. There is vast

152 LOCATION OF CASE STUDY SITES

ROAD TO GANDERBAL

ROAD TO BARAMULLA

4 ROAD TO DACHIGAM

6

3 3 1 2

MAIN ROADS 5 MUNICIPAL BOUNDARY CITY BYPASS ROAD MUNICIPAL WARDS 1 LAL CHOWK WARD 2 AALOCHI BAGH WARD 3 BEMINA WARD 4 SOURA WARD 5 CHANPORA WARD ROAD TO ROAD TO PAMPORE 6 HANJI LOCALITIES

10 0 10 KILOMETERS

Figure 6.1 153 low lying agricultural and marshy area, therefore, the city is expanding rapidly towards this area. (iv) Soura ward: Located in the north of the city. Despite its far away location from the city center this area has rapidly developed during the past few decades. Significant migration from older part of the city to this area has been observed. (v) Chanapora ward: Located in the south of the city. This ward is also newly developed part. The urban authorities have provided good infrastructure in this area resulting in-migration of population. The migration is from city centre as well as neighbouring districts. Significantly this area is prone to floods and water logging and this is an important issue related with development. (vi) Hanji localities: Located in the western part of the Dal Lake (Figure 6.2). These localities have been selected for the study because they are located in the vicinity of Dal Lake. The study aimed to assess the impact of growing number of Hanji population on their localities and as well as on the lake area. These case studies have been carried out in a common frame focusing on its demographic characteristics, existing land use and land transformation characteristics and the important issues related with land transformations. The detailed explanation of these wards is given below:

6.2.1 LAL CHOWK WARD Lal Chowk represents ward number 4, of the total 68 wards of Srinagar city. It is an elevated area in the central part of the city. It is located on the east bank of river Jhelum. Lal Chowk is named after the central market place „Red Square‟ of Moscow‟s but it is not as extensive as the Red Square. The area is characterized by narrow lanes and by-lanes, converging at Ghanta Ghar (Clock Tower). These narrow lanes are dotted with shops and street vendors. The important market places in Lal Chowk are, Maisuma, Kokar bazaar, Polo view, Residency road, Sheikh Bagh, Court road, Dubji, Bagh-i-Sikandar, Abi Guzar, and Abi Guzar Ghat etc. Lal Chowk acts as a Central Business District (CBD) of the Srinagar city holding important government and business establishments.

154 (a) Demographic Profile of Lal Chowk Ward: In the year 1951, the total population of Lal Chowk ward was 7520 which increased to 11166 persons (provisional) in 2011 (Census, 2011). Most of the residents are the original population of this place, who have been living here since decades. This ward is dominated by the economically well off people who are mostly associated with tertiary economic activities. Most of them own business establishments in various shopping malls and complexes. Some have their own commercial buildings which they transformed from their residential spaces. The recent economic transformations in tourism industry have resulted into large scale transformation in economic activities of the residents of this ward. These people were originally traders and had space for business establishments; therefore, they utilized the available space and developed arts and crafts for tourist industry. This way they made good sums of money from the tourism industry. Apart from this, the resident government employes who are not economically as well of as the business class, rent part or entire residential space to the shopkeepers and entrepreneurs for shops. The land rent is very high so these residents get benefit of this locational advantage. These activities have changed the character of Lal Chowk area. This heritage part which was traditional and sleepy few years back now appears dynamic and bustling with activities. Table 6.1: Important Features of Lal Chowk Ward

TOT_POP TOT_AREA TOT_RES RES POPULATION RES FLOOR GROSS GROSS STREET LOCATION (in Ha) (in Ha) DENSITY CONCENTRATION SPACE RES DENSITY CONNECTIVITY (per Ha) INDEX (Per head) SPACE of Dwelling INDEX units

LAL 11166 207 14 797 1.9 49 78 43.6 2 CHOWK

Source: Based on field survey, 2009-10. Lal Chowk is dominated by residential and commercial land use. It is densely populated ward with more than 11000 residents residing on only 14 hectares of land. Table 6.1 shows that this ward has the residential density of 797 persons per hectare with the population concentration index of 1.9. Presently there is limited scope for the horizontal expansion in Lal Chowk ward due to non availability of

155 land area. Therefore, old residential houses are being converted into concrete multi- storied commercial buildings.

(b) Land Use/Land Cover of Lal Chowk Ward: The total area of Lal Chowk ward is 207 hectares. In the year 1971 the total area under built-up was 171 hectares which increased to 185 hectares in the year 2008 (8.18 percent increase). The total area under non built-up classes decreased from 36 hectares to 22 hectares. Since this ward is the CBD of the city, therefore commercial land use occupies maximum area of the ward and it is spread over 43 hectares. Lal Chowk has attained the status of principal ward with respect to trade and commerce. It is attracting growth of commercial activities. During the study period it has increased by 10.5 hectares capturing land from residential (4 hectares) and vacant (5.5 hectares). Another land use class where transformation took place was vacant land where almost all available vacant land (11 hectares in 1971 to 0.5 hectares in 2008) was utilized. The other land use classes i.e., residential, parks and gardens, plantation and water bodies have remained more or less unchanged. The area under built-up class has increased because it represents the CBD of the city where people and government agencies are inclined toward the construction of shopping malls and complexes. All the vacant land was utilized by the entrepreneurs and businessmen on paying high prices to the government and property dealers for making money through business activities. Government agencies brought land transformations through the implementation of land use proposals which are proposed in the master plan. On the other hand parks/gardens and playgrounds were further beautified for preserving the aesthetic look of the city center. However during the study period not much land transformations have taken place, which is because of being the developed area. There was not much scope left for the large scale land transformation because of non availability of land area. The demand for commercial land is high but there is no land available. Therefore residents are converting their residential space for commercial activities.

156 Besides small land holding, the multiple ownership of the single ancestral property is acting as the hurdle while the property is set for sale. It becomes difficult for a buyer to purchase the property. Some of the owners are willing to sell their holding for running a business or for purchasing the land in the outskirts of the city while some emotionally attached to their ancestral place refuse to sell their share. Since the land value is high in this ward therefore, property dealers play their role by satisfying all the stake holders but charge high commission from both the sellers and the purchasers. Also it was found that entrepreneurs for their monetary benefits get involved with the property dealers in breaking the deadlock of multiple-ownership. Both the property dealers and the entrepreneurs engage the multiple owners in a business deal and then succeed in acquiring the land for raising the shopping malls. In many cases it was found that few owners of the same property shifted their residence to the outer areas of the city on open spaces leaving their share behind. These people do not allow the property dealers to interfere in transaction deal and wait for the time when all the owners of the property are willing for its sale. Government agencies are facing difficulty in acquiring the land from residents for the widening of the roads, hence the lanes and streets are narrow. Multiple ownership of property is one of the reasons of Lal Chowk CBD having the old look. Another peculiar characteristic of the land use of Lal Chowk ward is that residential and commercial land use has intermingled causing traffic congestion. The inadequate road widths do not allow the proper functioning of activities in this area. Collectively all the problems arising out of this phenomenon, has begun to emerge which are successively reducing the functional efficiency of this trading center, hampering economic development.

(c) Actors of Land Transformation in Lal Chowk Ward: Entrepreneurs and residents were found as the prominent actors playing an important role in the land transformation in this ward. Entrepreneurs played direct role, who are inclined towards business establishments merely for economic gains. They transformed the available vacant land into built-up land use. People visit this place from different parts of valley for selling and purchasing of goods and services and offer attractive rent to their land lords.

157 Property dealers acted indirectly by involving themselves in breaking the deadlock of multiple ownership of property in receipt of commission both from the seller as well as from the purchaser. That property is mostly utilized for commercial development of the area. Residents also has role in land transformation. They offer their property for rent to get income benefits as there is higher demand while the land availability is limited. However, it was also observed that some residents moved from this place to the other open areas of the city. These people have rented their property. This is also a kind of speculative property where the owners are holding it for increase in its value. The role of government agencies was found to be insignificant because of being primarily the business centre where entrepreneurs and residents have better role to play.

(d) Issues of Land Transformation in Lal Chowk Ward: (i) High land value: The increasing demand and competition for commercial activities and involvement of the property dealers in the selling and purchasing of the property led to the increase in land prices. Also it was observed that the property prices were more dictated by the residents in case when he knows that the purchaser is financially sound. (ii) Residential congestion: Lal Chowk has only 14 hectares of residential land area for its 11166 residents. Transformation of vacant land for commercial and infrastructural development in the residential areas has led to residential congestion. The streets became congested. Not only are the houses built very close to the roads, but commercial encroachments are inevitable leading to further congestion in residential areas. (iii) Traffic congestion: Vehicular traffic has increased with the increasing number of people and increase in commercial establishments. Lack of planning and inadequate parking space aggravates the problem.

158

Photo Plate 27: Residential Congestion in Lal Chowk Ward

Photo Plate 28: Traffic Congestion in Lal Chowk Ward

159 6.2.2 AALOCHI BAGH WARD Aalochi Bagh represents ward number 16 of Srinagar city. It is a low lying area, on the west bank of the river Jhelum, adjacent to Lal Chowk ward. Aalochi Bagh has got its name from the „Berry‟ fruit which is locally called as „Aalochi‟ and „Bagh‟ locally means „an orchard‟. The name of this ward itself explains its land use in the past. This ward lies along the busy corridors of the city core area. The important localities in this ward are Sarai Bala, Sarai Payein, Magarmal Bagh, Haft chinar, Solina, Solina Bala, and Solina Payein etc. Mostly the residents of this ward are the migrated people from various parts of the city.

(a) Demographic Profile of Aalochi Bagh Ward: In the year 1951 the total population of this ward was 10744 persons. As per 2011 census this ward has the total population of 33304 persons (provisional) (Census, 2011). Aalochi Bagh ward is dominated by the moderately rich people. These people are engaged in various government offices and few carry out some business related activities e.g., retail and wholesale trade of readymade garments, daily needs, electronics etc. This ward also accommodates some economically well off people who work as administrative departments in various government offices in the city centre. During the field survey it was also found that there are few families of sweeper community also who are economically backward people of this ward. These residents have now shifted from their traditional occupation utilizing their residential space for some menial business activities like retail shopkeepers e.g., vegetable, footwear and daily need shops etc. In general, residents were found to be economically stable but socially they are weak, because they have come from different places of the city and outside, leading to impersonal social relations in the community. The peculiar demographic characteristic of this area is that people from every religion are found in this ward. Besides the Muslim majority, there are good number of Sikhs and Christians also. Almost all the Sikh population is the migrant population belonging to various rural areas of the valley. These people are economically good working in various government departments of the city.

160 Table 6.2: Important Features of Aalochi Bagh Ward

TOT_POP TOT_AREA TOT_RES RES POPULATION RES FLOOR GROSS GROSS STREET LOCATION (in Ha) (in Ha) DENSITY CONCENTRATION SPACE RES DENSITY CONNECTIVITY (per Ha) INDEX (Per head) SPACE of Dwelling INDEX units

AALOCHI 33304 90 26 1280 2.7 38 98 37.2 1.7 BAGH

Source: Based on field survey, 2009-10. Aalochi Bagh has both residential as well as commercial area but residential area dominating land use, therefore it has high population density with 1280 persons living per hectare of residential land area (Table 6.2). The main reason behind the high population density is its nearness to the city centre and importantly this ward has three times more population and three times less area than Lal Chowk CBD ward. Thus highest population concentration index of the city of 2.7 was observed in this area. However, the increasing commercial land use in this ward has limited the scope for increase in area under residential building. Therefore the area has 38 sq feet of per head residential floor space which is even lower than the Lal Chowk CBD ward. Despite increasing commercial area, this ward has high gross density of 37.2 dwelling units per acre of residential land area.

(b) Land Use/Land Cover of Aalochi Bagh Ward: The total area under built-up land in the year 1971 was 52 hectares which increased to 83 hectares in 2008 (i.e., 59.6 percent increase). Non built-up has decreased from 38 hectares to 7 hectares (i.e., 81.5 percent decrease). This ward is important for being mostly residential area in the city core, therefore the residential area has increased from 13.5 hectares in the year 1971 to 20.5 hectares in 2008, gaining land from agriculture (8 hectares) and vacant (6 hectares). Its nearness to the city center has created higher demand for residential land as well as commercial land. Besides residential importance, higher demand for commercial land was observed in Saraibala, Magarmal Bagh, Solina localities in this ward as they are influenced by the adjoining Lal Chowk CBD. These areas have mixed character of residential and commercial land use. People have transformed their residential and

161 space into shops and commercial outlets. Henceforth 21.5 hectares of area is under commercial land use capturing land from agriculture (4 hectares) and residential (6 hectares). Another significant transformation was observed in vacant (13 hectares) and agricultural land (9 hectares) losing its area completely for residential and commercial development. The land transformation in Aalochi Bagh also has imprints of social unrest which shaped its land use. This ward had people from different religions especially Muslim, Pandit (Local name for Kashmiri Hindu people) and Sikh. These people were dominated in Sarai Bala, Magarmal Bagh and Solina localities of this ward. Due to political instability almost all the Pandits shifted to other places. Few disbursed their assets to Muslims while as most of them took help from the property dealers for the sale of their residential and commercial spaces. So, economically well off people got attracted from various parts of the city to purchase such property and settle here or kept it as speculative asset. Migrants got a chance to live near the city centre at the affordable rates. These old structures were later used for residential, business or commercial purposes by the people who purchased these assets. During this political instability some of these assets were occupied by the defence personals as their accommodation, which hampered the growth of commercial activities. There are still various security establishments in the commercial as well as residential areas, due to which many residents sold their houses to the new settlers and started moving to the other parts of the city. The influence of economic development in the city centre adjoining this ward led to unplanned commercial development which undermined the residential character of this area. Non commercial area has been significantly transformed into one of the important commercial places of the city. With the span of time the residential and commercial overcrowding motivated economically well off people to shift to the outer areas of the city.

162 (c) Actors of Land Transformation in Aalochi Bagh Ward: There are two important actors which acted directly or indirectly in the process of land transformation in Aalochi Bagh ward; they are the residents/new settlers and farmers/land owners. Residents and the new settlers acted directly by transforming the available vacant, agriculture and orchard land for residential purposes because of increasing family size, increasing trend for nuclear family, also the increasing pressure from in- migrants. This ward has got higher demand for residential as well as commercial land because of its nearness to the city centre. New settlers used the land for residential purposes where as the original residents transformed the residential houses into commercial buildings because of shortage of land and offered it to the entrepreneurs in exchange of high rates of returns through rents. Sarai Bala is an outstanding example where nearly most of residential houses have been rented by the residents for commercial use. These residents are mostly government employes who increase their income through proper utilization of their surplus residential space. This led to significant transformation of residential to commercial land use resulting into increase in commercial land use. Farmers/land owner acted indirectly in land transformation by willingly selling out their land to the new settlers and residents for getting instant money due to the growing demand of land for commercial and residential development. This led to agriculture to residential & agriculture to commercial land transformations. These activities resulted into complete removal of fertile agriculture and plantation/orchard land.

(d) Issues of Land Transformation in Aalochi Bagh Ward: (i) High land value: The increasing population led to the decrease in per capita land availability. Besides it the other important factor behind the increase in land value and real estate is the overall economic development, nearness to the city centre, rise in income level of the household, scarcity of land speculation among the economically well off people and employment opportunities for the growing generations in the city centre. (ii) Social Problem: Aalochi Bagh holds people from many religions. It has shaped the land use differently. The left over Pandit property in this ward has turned to be a

163 matter of conflict between different religious sects from time to time. Some economically weak people from the ward and also from outside tried to illegally capture this property.

6.2.3 BEMINA WARD Bemina represents ward number 21 and 22 i.e., Bemina East and Bemina West respectively of the Srinagar city. The old name of Bemina was Judea which was the name of the mountainous part of the historic Land of Israel. Later when the Muslim came, they changed the name to “Bemina”. It is a low lying area lying in the west of the city at a distance of about 6-7 kilometers from city centre. This was un-inhabitable area having weak road accessibility till recent decades. In the year 1970, a bypass road was laid which made the area better connected. Some of the important places in this ward are Qamarabad colony, Hilal colony, Arampora, Gousia colony, S.D.A colony, Abu Bakr colony, Sher-i-Kashmir colony, Police colony, Hamza colony, Bilal colony, Boatman colony, Ibrahim colony, Shah-i-Hamadan colony, Usmania colony, Firdous colony etc.

(a) Demographic Profile of Bemina Ward: In the year 1951 total population of Bemina was 12043 persons and in 2011 it was 40644 persons (provisional) (Census, 2011). Mostly, the residents of Bemina are migrated people who came from the various parts of the city and the neighbouring districts, especially from Baramulla in the northwest. This ward is dominated by the middle class people who are engaged in various government services and business related activities. At the time of the development of this area, government sold land only to the economically middle standard government employs; therefore their percentage is higher here. Some percentage of higher class people is also found among whom some are working in various government administrative offices and others work as entrepreneurs. These entrepreneurs have their business establishments in and around the city centre. This ward also accommodates few lower residents also which include the boatmen (Hanjis) living in Boatmen Colony. These are the backward people of this area. They have been relocated from Dal Lake and river Jhelum for filling the loss incurred by them to these water bodies. These residents churn out their modest

164 income from street vending in and around the city centre. They are also engaged in local transportation services. Table 6.3: Important Features of Bemina Ward

TOT_POP TOT_AREA TOT_RES RES DENSITY POPULATION RES GROSS GROSS STREET LOCATION (in Ha) (in Ha) (per Ha) CONCENTRATION FLOOR RES DENSITY CONNECTIVITY INDEX SPACE SPACE of Dwelling INDEX (Per head) units

BEMINA 40644 741 139 292 0.6 98 186 25 0.6

Source: Based on field survey, 2009-10. Bemina is the newly developed area which is away from the core area of the city. Therefore it has low population density of 292 persons per hectares of residential area with population concentration index of 0.6 (Table 6.3). However, in the near future this area will also experience the high population concentration index because the rapidly developing of commercial, residential and governmental land use. Mostly, houses are built in a planned way with open spaces in front, except in the slum dwellings. Therefore the gross density of only 25 dwelling units per acre of residential land area was observed. Still there is the vast area left for the residential development and there is the availability of 98 sq feet of per head residential floor space which is highest in the city. However, Bemina has limited road network because of its newly development. There are some areas in the interior of this ward which are devoid of proper road connectivity. Thus street connectivity index of 1.7 was observed here

(b) Land Use/Land Cover of Bemina Ward: Bemina ward is having a vast area covering the total area of 741 hectares. This area of Srinagar city has experienced large scale land transformations during the study period. Its built-up area has increased by 213 hectares at the cost of non built-up area which decreased by the similar proportion. This increase is attributed to the high demand of land for built-up purposes and also government‟s initiative in developing this area and assuring the requisite infrastructure. Although this ward is the newly developed area where people from various parts have settled, transforming the fertile agricultural land into residential spaces,

165 but still agricultural area covers the maximum area, which is spread over 366 hectares. It has lost its area to residential (136 hectares), plantation/orchards (27.5 hectares), vacant land (45.5 hectares), Educational and Governmental (19 hectares) land use classes. This vast agricultural area gave the impetus to the people to purchase land and settle. Therefore residential area covers 139 hectares of land area capturing mainly from agriculture (136 hectares). Mostly the land belonged to the government which was also used by the new settlers for various residential and agricultural activities. However, these agricultural people were not the owners of that land but were the tillers who did not had property rights on that land. Later, State Legislative Assembly passed the Jammu and Kashmir State Lands Act (Vesting of ownership to the occupants) in the year 2001 and was implemented in the year 2007. This act gave free of cost ownership rights to 16.60 lakh kanals of State land under the occupation of farmers in the state, which also benefited the farmers of Bemina area. Due to higher demand for land these farmers sold this owned land to the residents, new settlers and government agencies. At few places it was found that government agencies took the land from the farmers either by force or at low monetary exchange. Besides agricultural land Bemina was known for its wide spread marshy areas which decreased from 231 hectares to 17 hectares losing its area to agriculture (157 hectares), Educational and Governmental buildings (47 hectares), plantation/orchards (5 hectares), residential (3 hectares) etc. The large scale migration of people to this area led to some peculiar land transformation in this ward in the form of creation of new land use classes like plantation and vacant land; firstly, because the residents and the economically well off people from the city core purchased the agricultural as well as marshy land and kept is as speculative property. Few among them left that land unattended whereas others put plantation in it for economic benefits. Secondly, due to the fear of floods, farmers left their field unattended and later sold it at the appropriate time at good economic exchange. Another significant change was observed in the governmental and educational land use classes which increased from 45 hectares in the year 1971 to 119 hectares in 2008, capturing land mostly from agriculture (19 hectares), marshy (47 hectares). This increase is because of Srinagar Development Authority‟s initiative in 1970s to transform this area into a well planned built-up area by shifting

166 some of the important government offices and institutions to this area so as to decongestion the city core area. Since, this area is a leveled plain with adequate infrastructure to hold public and private offices and institutions. Moreover, due to the physiographic limitations from the other areas this was the only area left for further expansion of the city. Hence activity is still continuing.

(c) Actors of Land Transformation in Bemina Ward: Government agencies acted both directly as well as indirectly in the process of land transformation in Bemina, followed by the farmers/land owners and residents. Srinagar Development Authority constructed the bypass road and provided the requisite infrastructure. Therefore the area got well connected; as a result people started migrating to this place. Government is also held responsible for selling land to the new settlers for residential purposes. These activities led to the transformation like agricultural to residential, agriculture to governmental and educational land use. Similarly marshy to governmental and educational land transformation took place which resulted into decrease in the fertile agricultural and marshy land. Farmers/land owners acted indirectly by selling their fertile agricultural land to the residents and new settlers for residential purposes because of two prominent reasons; firstly, the recurrent floods due to low lying area, used to destroy their crops, therefore they left their fields unattended and waited for the appropriate time to sell it off and engaged themselves in some other economic activities. Secondly, the increasing demand and the land value motivated them to sell their land to the new settlers which fetched high economic returns. New settler played direct role by purchasing agricultural and marshy land from the farmers/land owners and government agencies and transformed that into residential houses. Also some of the economically sound residents from the core area of the city purchased land in this area, in a view that its sale would give good economic returns in the near future. All these activities led to almost complete removal of marshy area and increase in the area under residential land use.

(d) Issues of Land Transformation in Bemina Ward: (i) Water logging: Water logging is one of the serious problems at many places in this ward because of being newly developed area. Since, this is a low lying area, also

167 there was a flood channel running through it in the past, which was converted into the built-up area due to faulty government policies. In addition to it, the Rakh-i- Gandakshah and Rakh-i-Arat marsh in this area used to act as sponges during the floods and heavy rains which was transformed into built-up space. Now, two to three day continuous rains leads to the inundation and flooding situation. This problem is worsening due to increased migration from the core area as well as the neighbouring districts which has put tremendous pressure on its infrastructure. (ii) Slums and squatters: The government‟s policy to develop Bemina into the residential and official area increased its land value. Besides the existing and the migrant poor population, government accommodated economically poor boatmen population (Hanjis) from various water bodies of the city in this area. The increasing land prices restricted this poor population from purchasing land, due to which slums and squatter got developed. These areas have become the breeding ground of various anti social groups like delinquents, drunkards, criminals, etc. Their intermingling with the economically well off people of the same area sometimes lead to conflicts and clashes.

168

Photo Plate 29: Residential Development in Bemina Ward

Photo Plate 30: Relocated Hanji Settlements in Bemina Ward

169

6.2.4 SOURA WARD Soura represents ward number 52 of Srinagar city. It is located on the east bank of Aanchar Lake in the north, about 10 kilometers away from the city center. Soura acts as the north-western end of the city as per the municipal limits. It is the most developed area nearly in the outskirts of the city. This area got importance because it was the resident place of the former chief minister of the state Late Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah. He carried out various developmental activities in this area. Establishment of medical institute is one such activity which he named after his own local name as Sher-i-Kashmir (Lion of Kashmir) Institute of Medical Sciences (SKIMS). This institute is one of the largest medical institutes of the valley. His aim was to transform Soura into a mini city. Janab Sahab Soura is the Muslim religious place which adds importance to this place. The other important places are Wontabowan, Vicharnag and Aanchar etc.

(a) Demographic Profile of Soura Ward: In the year 1951 the total population of Soura ward was only 6100 persons, which increase to 22110 persons (provisional) by the year 2011 (Census, 2011). The residents of this area are mostly the migrated people from various parts of the valley and city also. This ward is dominated by the economically medium class people who are engaged in different government departments especially the SKIMS hospital, educational institutes, charitable institutions and corporate organizations and some are engaged in various private business activities. Out of total resident, only few are the original residents of this area. Majority of the residents belong to the other parts of the Valley who have now permanently settled in this area. Various business activities carried out by the residents include the retail and whole sale trade. Most of them are involved in the Kashmir Arts (Kashmir handloom industry). These residents have maintained the good standards of living. A small section of economically weak people are also found here who earn their livelihood from various water related activities in Aanchar Lake. They are socio-economically backward people living poor life. Instead of far away location of this ward from the city centre, this ward got rapidly transformed into residential area

170 because of growing demand of land for residential use. Table 6.4 shows that this ward has the residential density of 394 persons per hectares of residential area with the availability of 60 sq feet of per head residential floor space which is considerably lower than its neighbouring areas, thereby reflects the developed nature of this area. Table 6.4: Important Features of Soura Ward

TOT_POP TOT_AREA TOT_RES RES POPULATION RES FLOOR GROSS GROSS STREET LOCATION (in Ha) (in Ha) DENSITY CONCENTRATION SPACE RES DENSITY CONNECTIVITY (per Ha) INDEX (Per head) SPACE of Dwelling INDEX units

SOURA 22110 103 56 394 0.8 60 120 30 1.1

Source: Based on field survey, 2009-10. Soura is the rapidly growing nodal centre after Lal Chowk in the city because it holds the important government and private offices of the city. Due to the location of important medical institute of the Valley people from all parts of the corners flock this area. The street connectivity index for Soura was observed as 1.1, which is because of the available infrastructure provided by the government.

(b) Land Use/Land Cover of Soura Ward: Soura ward covers the total area of 103 hectares. Maximum area of the ward is presently occupied by built-up land use which has increased from 10 hectares in the year 1971 to 96.5 hectares in 2008. This ward is primarily dominated by the residential land use. Therefore the area under residential land use increased from 10 hectares in the year 1971 to 56 hectares in 2008, capturing land from agriculture (36 hectares), plantation/orchards (10 hectares). The political and religious importance of this area led to the development of the infrastructure and due to which people started migrating to this area. Soura is a mini city, with adequate infrastructure, having good market facility including retail as well as the wholesale trade, adequate transportation facilities and road connections with the city centre. It attracted people from the neighbouring district i.e., Ganderbal from north. Also the shifting of economically well off people from the city congested core area i.e., Kawdara and Eidgah most of them are engaged in Kashmir handloom industry. The places where trade is carried out is yet in mixed

171 character with the residential land use because the political stress from the past number of decades has undermined this industry. However, recently government has planned to promote this house hold industry/crafts and has proposed the development of Craft Concentration Centres at various locations in this area. Similarly, significant transformation was observed in agricultural and plantation/orchard land which lost 90 hectares for residential (36 hectares) and other infrastructural (Hospital, 23 hectares) development of this ward. The Kashmir valley is linked to rest of India by only one national highway that too remains in a state of poor condition during winters. People with ailments that are not curable over here have to move outside state for treatments. Therefore keeping in view the weak medical facilities in the valley and Srinagar city in particular, SKIMS medical institute was established which is spread over more than 40 hectares of land area. This institute has strengthened major health centres in the entire State. This hospital facilitated specialized medical care and particularly developed super specialties that provide tertiary health-care and need oriented education in medical sciences and clinical research. The employs in the hospital cannot commute every day to this place from far areas; therefore they prefer to settle near the place they are employed. However their elders are still at their native places. In some cases it was observed that their elder people sold out their bulk of agricultural land and purchased small agricultural land for residential purposes because of higher land value in this area.

(c) Actors of Land Transformation in Soura Ward: Residents and migrants played direct role in conversion of fertile agricultural land into residential houses. Mostly migrants include the people employed in the SKIMS hospital and other government departments, who belonged to the other parts of the Valley. Moreover, the well off and large families from the core congested areas e.g., Kawdara, Safa Kadal and Rajouri Kadal shifted to this place. This led to the transformation of fertile agricultural land to residential and other built-up land uses. The residents engaged in the water related activities in Aanchar Lake have transformed it into a mess of marsh due to the cultivation of floating gardens (Radh) and extraction of various other aquatic foods. However this lake is not located in the municipal jurisdiction.

172 Government as actor played direct role by offering attractive price to the farmers for exchange of their land. On this land hospital (SKIMS) was established which covers more than 40 hectares of land area. This led to the transformation of agricultural land to hospital land use.

(d) Issues of Land Transformation in Soura Ward: (i) High land value: The concentration of population in this ward or the so called emerging nodal centre with the available infrastructures has put an economic shadowing effect on its neighbouring wards Nowshera, Zoonimar and Buchpora and has adversely affected the land value of the ward. This has increased the gap between the demand and supply of land supported by the speculative nature from developers and property dealers in the land market resulting the increase in land value. Such price hike has always favoured the property dealers only. (ii) Degradation of lake environs: The ecology of this area has got disturbed because of the removal of plantation in lake environs, which used to shield it. Moreover, the lake used to have a marine effect on the local climate of this area which is not there now due to its conversion into marshy area. This lake used to be a fresh water lake in the past where large number of people were involved in the extraction of various aquatic foods which has considerably decreased now.

173

Photo Plate 31: Deteriorated View of Aanchar Lake

Photo Plate 32: Aerial View of Soura Ward

174

6.2.5 CHANPORA WARD Chanpora represents ward number 10 of Srinagar city. It is a low lying area in the south at a distance of about 10 kilometers from the city center. Chanpora got its name from two words “Chan” locally meaning „Carpenter‟ and “Pora” means the „place to live‟. This area was earlier inhabited by the skilled carpenter community of the city although in smaller number. Till 1970s this area was having weak road connectivity until the construction of bypass road in its south. Besides agricultural activities, its residents were also engaged in carpentry in the past. Chanpora got importance because it leads to the important tourist place called and the important Muslim religious place called Chrar-i-Sharief. It also leads to the famous Doodh Ganga River in the south. The prominent places in Chanpora ward are Khan Mohalla, Gulshan Nagar, Methan, Housing colony Chanpora, Maisuma colony (relocated fire victims of Maisuma area of Lal Chowk ward). Also Kashmiri Hindu people (locally called as Pandits) used to live here before they permanently migrated to the other states.

(a) Demographic Profile of Chanpora Ward: In the year 1951 the total population of Chanpora ward was 7024 persons which increased to 35648 persons in 2011 (provisional). This ward is dominated by economically middle class people who are working in various government departments in the city core area and some are carrying out their private retail business activities. Few residents are engaged in the agricultural activities. Also few economically well off people are also found here who include the residents who are working as high government officials and emerging entrepreneurs. Many of upper class businessmen have their business establishments in the city centre and are the daily commuters to that place. This area has a good scope for market development; therefore entrepreneurs mostly from the other parts of the city and few from this area also have initiated the establishment of various shopping complexes, malls and few private hospitals in this area. This shows the inclination of people towards the modern society.

175 Table 6.5: Important Features of Chanpora Ward

TOT_POP TOT_AREA TOT_RES RES POPULATION RES GROSS GROSS STREET LOCATION (in Ha) (in Ha) DENSITY CONCENTRATION FLOOR RES DENSITY CONNECTIVITY (per Ha) INDEX SPACE SPACE of Dwelling INDEX (Per head) units

CHANPORA 35648 96 65 544 0.9 57 114 35 0.8

Source: Based on field survey, 2009-10. Chanpora ward is among the densely populated areas, mostly due to in- migration of people from various parts of the city. Therefore has the residential density of 544 persons per hectares of residential area with the population concentration index of 0.9 (Table 5). Due to the ongoing economic development in the form of establishments of various hospitals and shopping malls and complexes, population concentration is increasing rapidly. Chanpora has per head residential floor space of 57 sq feet, therefore has the scope for both residential as well as commercial development. Chanpora leads to the important places in the south of the valley. Thus, it has the street connectivity index of 0.8, which is among the highest figures of this index.

(b) Land Use/Land Cover of Chanpora Ward: Chanpora is one of the smallest wards of Srinagar city covering the total area of 96 hectares. The increasing population and the proportionate demand of land for residential purposes led to the large scale land transformations in this ward. This ward is primarily the residential area. Therefore the total area under residential land use increased from 2 hectares in the year 1971 to 65.5 hectares in 2008, capturing land from agriculture (49.5 hectares) and vacant (14 hectares). The available land for residential development attracted people to from various parts of the city and outside to migrate to this area. In-migration of people was mainly observed from the neighbouring districts; hence these rural people got a chance to live in the city since the urban authorities have provided good infrastructure in this area. This in- migration was also driven due to the key location of this ward. This area connects the capital city Srinagar with the important religious and tourist destinations of district Chadora, Yusmarg and Pulwama. Also people from the overcrowded city

176 core area i.e., Mander Bagh, Gao Kadal, Maisuma, Ganpatyar, Wazir Bagh etc., shifted to this area. The agricultural and vacant land which belonged to government was divided into average size plots by J&K Housing Board and sold it at average price to the people for filling the lag of housing in the city. Later, this department established a housing colony which was the second residential colony in Srinagar city after Jawahar Nagar housing colony in the core area. Due to large scale in-migration of people agricultural land observed significant land transformation during the study period. This land use class has decreased from 68.5 hectares in the year 1971 to 12 hectares in 2008, losing its land to residential (49.5 hectares) and plantation/orchards (10 hectares). Farmers and land owners sold their land to the new settlers mainly because of getting instant money. Also the low productivity of agriculture and risk of floods motivated them to sell their field or shift the traditional crop cultivation to horticulture activities. The economic transformation led to the shifts from primary sector to service sector activities. Thus gave an urban look to this area where people were living a rural life instead of residing within the city limits. Similarly as in Aalochi Bagh, Pandits (Local name for Kashmiri Hindu people) evacuated this area because of the political disturbance in the state. They left their property with their Muslim residents as guardians. This property was later sold by these Pandits through property dealers and residents to the new settlers and also the entrepreneurs from city core area purchased it and kept it as speculative property. Due to its far away location from the city centre and the residential nature of the area this property could not get transformed into commercial buildings. Now these entrepreneurs are converting these traditional and old residential structures into modern built-up spaces like hospitals, shopping centres because of the demand for such infrastructure in this area.

(c) Actors of Land Transformation in Chanpora Ward: Farmers acted indirectly by selling their fertile agricultural land to the new settlers & government agencies for residential, governmental and commercial development of the area. Many farmers transformed their agricultural land into orchards for increasing their income. Due to lack of awareness and accessibility towards the new

177 agricultural technological inputs the production was low. Therefore they converted their agricultural land into plantation/orchards which gave them desired income returns. Also the risk of floods compelled them to either convert the fields into orchards or to sell it or kept it unattended in a view to sell it at good price at the appropriate time. This resulted into decrease in the area under agriculture and plantation/orchards. Residents on the other hand acted directly by building residential houses on vacant and agricultural land. The increasing family size of the residents and in- migrants of this area demanded more residential space. Government acted indirectly by selling the fertile agricultural land in the form of small plots to the new settlers and the residents for residential purposes. This led to transformation of agricultural land to residential land use.

(d) Issues of Land Transformation in Chanpora Ward: (i) Social problems: The aboriginal population sold their agricultural land merely for getting instant money and also due to the scarcity of government jobs their younger generations got unemployed. However, few could manage to engage in the government services, but they work in the similar way the traditional labour or artisan do. There is poor social mobility among the migrant population of Chanpora ward because most of them have migrated to the city due to employment opportunities. Therefore they sold their bulk of agricultural land and settle permanently in this area. Orchard owners who sold their farms lost their social identity in the horticulture market which is an important sector of the city‟s economy.

(ii) Flood problem: Chanpora is the low lying area with the flood spill channel of river Jhelum running through it. Every year floods has become a permanent threat to the crops and the property.

6.2.6 HANJI LOCALITIES A boat man of Kashmir is known as Ha‟enz in local language and Hanji in Hindi script. He is also called by different names like Kishtiban (Boatman) and Jalbashi (Water-dweller) etc. Hanjis are among the aboriginal inhabitants of Kashmir Valley

178 as per ‘Rajatarangani’, (the first historical record written by Pandit Kalhana in about 826 AD). They are residing in and around the low lying areas of the water bodies of Kashmir Valley. When the water level of the lake goes up, these localities get flooded. Their maximum concentration is in Dal Lake and its environs, living in different localities, which are locally called as Mohallas (Figure 6.2). Earlier these localities were confined to the western bank of the Dal Lake, but presently they are found in the interior of the lake also. There are about 50 localities/Mohallas in the western and central part of the Dal Lake (ward number 58 and 59 of Srinagar city). Some of the important localities in western and south western parts i.e., Dal Gate and Gagribal area of the lake are Kohn Khan, Mir Mohalla, Abi Kakpora, Dar Mohalla, Gaddi Mohalla, Bata Pora Khurd, Bagwan Mohalla, Khar Mohalla, Jafferi Mohalla, Bujal Mohalla, Gogal Mohalla, Bakir Mohalla, Nishat, Shalimar, Doji Mohalla, Gaad Hanz Mohalla, Hazratbal and Taki Lal Shah. These localities are having high concentration of Hanjis. Their form, structure and size vary from one locality to the other.

(a) Demographic Profile of Hanjis: According to 1951 estimates of Srinagar Municipal Corporation, total Hanji population in Dal Lake was 21500 The Census of India 2001 presented the total population living in and around the lake peripherals as more than 1.5 lakh. As per 2011 census there are 57500 people living in different localities in Dal Lake and its environs. Hanji localities are dominated by the economically weak people who include the vegetable growers, sellers, cultivators, fishermen, boat paddlers, wood cutters and labourers. Besides dominant economically weak people, there are few localities of economically moderate people and they are engaged in the tourism related activities. These people include carpet weavers, shawl makers, embroidery,

179 LOCATION OF HANJI MOHALLAS/LOCALITIES

HARWAN

BUD DAL

NIGEEN BASIN

HAZRATBAL BASIN NISHAT

Bakir Mohalla LOKUT DAL

Jafferi M Gogal Mohalla Sheikh Mohalla Khar Mohalla Bagwan Mohalla Bujal Mohalla GAGRIBAL BASIN Dar Mohalla Abi Kakpora Mir Mohalla

Kohn Khan RAINAWARI

DAL GATE BARBARSHAH

Figure 180 6.2 180 needle workers, carpenters, shopkeepers, tailors, blacksmiths, houseboats services, motorboat drivers, walas, tourist guides, and restaurant owners etc. About 7500 Hanjis live within the houseboats and 50,000 people in the hamlets. There are more than 775 houseboats, about 400 Dunga boats, 4210 Pucca house and 3493 huts in Hanji localities. They have very limited agricultural land holding and most of the land is in the form of open water, especially for the fishermen who have no land for agriculture purposes. On the basis of different economic activities, Hanjis have been categorized into eight types and they are Demb Ha‟enz, Gari Ha‟enz, Dunga Ha‟enz, Ma‟er Ha‟enz, Gaad Ha‟enz, Haka Ha‟enz, Shikara Ha‟enz and Houseboat Ha‟enz. Table 6.6: Important Features of Hanji Localities

TOT_POP TOT_AREA TOT_RES RES POPULATION RES FLOOR GROS GROSS STREET LOCATION (in Ha) (in Ha) DENSITY CONCENTRATION SPACE S RES DENSITY CONNECTIVITY (per Ha) INDEX (Per head) SPACE of Dwelling INDEX units

HANJI 50518 782 65 771 1 25 55 39 --- LOCALITIES

Source: Based on field survey, 2009-10. The rapidly increasing Hanji population has widened the gap between demand and supply ends of the land market. Table 6.6 shows that 65 hectares of residential area is shared by 50518 people. It refers to the residential density of 777 persons per hectare with the population concentration index of 1. Since, the economy of Hanjis is dependent primarily on agriculture and tourist related activities. These localities have become the busy places of the city. People from various part of the valley are by one way or the other linked with this community. These localities are well connected by the water ways rather than the roadways. These Hanjis are living in the densely constructed small hamlets and houses with their large family size, because of the limited availability of land. So there is only 25 sq feet availability of per head residential floor space which is the lowest share in the city.

181 (b) Land Use/Land Cover of Hanji Localities: Hanji localities are spread over the total area of 899.5 hectares. The growing number of Hanjis has led to the increase in the area under residential land use and hence it has increased from 5.5 hectares in the year 1971 to 53 hectares in 2008, gaining land mainly from marshy (47.5 hectares). Hanjis have illegally encroached the lake waters, which has lead to decrease in the area under marshy and the adjoining lake area. In order to demarcate their land ownership which is practically illegal, Hanjis have planted willow trees at many locations in their localities. The localities which emerged during the study period in the middle part of the lake are Bujal Mohalla, Gogal Mohalla, Bakir Mohalla etc. Another important land transformation during the study period (1971-2008) was observed in marshy land which lost 602.5 hectares to agriculture (591 hectares), residential (47.5 hectares) and plantation/orchards (13 hectares). This increase is attributed to the transformation of marshy area and water body into agricultural land and floating gardens (Radh) by vegetable grower section of Hanjis in and around their localities as this is the only source of their livelihood. Every year vegetables worth nearly 35 crores of rupees are being cultivated and supplied to nearly half of the Srinagar city by Hanjis. Despite their property rights over 300 hectares of agricultural land and 670 hectares of water area, they have illegally encroached the lake area. They can carry out any activity which would benefit them. Significant area of the Dal Lake has been transformed into various land uses by Hanjis. They gradually transformed the adjoining lake waters into land area in different sequential stages, initiating from transformation of water to marshy area, followed by marshy to floating gardens and finally to the land. Although, this practice among Hanjis has a long history but the rate of transformation has rapidly increased with the increase in their numbers from the past number of decades. Various nitrogen and phosphorous effluents discharged from the floating gardens, houseboats, hamlets, hotels and the restaurants are being directly dumped into the lake. These nutrients lead to the speedy growth of weeds which have transformed the lake water into marshy area. Despite modern technological and educational development, Hanjis are having the traditional way of living and have remained one of the backward

182 communities of Kashmir throughout the history which has directly influenced the land use of their localities and their environs.

(c) Actors of Land Transformation in Hanji Localities: Hanjis played direct role in land transformation in and around their localities. Because of their increasing number, the demand for land increased. Therefore they converted the water and marshy area into land area for residential purposes. Moreover, they transformed marshy area into plantation by planting of willow and poplar trees in the marshy areas. Demb Ha’enz are the main culprits of land transformation, who are involved in primary agricultural activities or the cultivation of floating gardens (Radh). Since, they have a poor socio-economic base and they churn out their modest income from agricultural activities. Government agencies played an indirect role in the process of land transformation. Government has itself facilitated the movement of people inside the lake by constructing concrete roads such as one connecting Durganag temple near Kohn Khan in the west of the lake. The authorities are incompetent in checking the illegal encroachment by Hanjis because these people are having strong ties with the political groups of the state.

(d) Issue of Land Transformation in Hanji Localities: The increase in the Hanji population has become the source of number of problems. The major threat from this community is on the ecology of the Dal Lake and also on the area they are residing in. Some of the important issues aroused from the land transformation in these localities are discussed below: (i) Residential congestion: The houses of Hanjis are shared by more than one family and the increasing family size has led to residential congestion. They filled up the water channels for residential purposes. These channels were used for navigation purposes and also used to circulate the lake water with the other important water bodies of the city. The left out narrow lanes without street lighting have degraded the living condition in these localities. (ii) Rise in the influx of nutrients: Hanjis filled the adjoining water area and transformed it into floating/vegetable gardens (Radh). Moreover, the discharge of sewerage from their localities which is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus content, acts

183 as a fertilizer for the weeds in the lake. This has resulted in an explosive growth of duckweed, water ferns, and algae thereby choking of the Dal waters prominently in the south where concentration of Hanjis is high. (iii) Increasing number of tourists: Tourists prefer to stay in the houseboats and hotels in Hanji localities. Their increasing number leads to increase in the waste generation which is directly dumped into the lake. (iv) Breach in law and order: Government authorities carried out various court rulings for the relocation of Hanjis in order to rehabilitate the lake. This resulted into clashes between Hanjis and the authorities because they were not provided the appropriate substitutes of livelihood after relocation. Moreover, the residential congestion in Hanji localities leads to everyday clashes. There are quarrels and clashes among them related to the issues like, residential space, growing number of delinquency, drunkards, stealing of the floating gardens and so on. Sometimes, clashes related to the stealing of floating gardens leads to the loss of life and property.

184

Photo Plate 33: Houseboats in Dal Lake

Photo Plate 34: Hanji Settlements in Dal Lake

185

Photo Plate 35: Hanji Locality in Dal Lake

Photo Plate 36: Floating Gardens (Radh) in Dal Lake

186

CONCLUSION Land transformation is an inevitable phenomenon in an urban space. The process of land transformation is one of the important fields of human induced environmental transformation. Initial land transformation was the disturbance of natural vegetation- the clearing of land in order to get land suitable for producing food and fibers for human beings and feed for domestic animals. Land Transformation accelerated and diversified with the onset of Industrial revolution, globalization of the world economy, expansion of population and technological capacity. The urbanization process further fuelled the land transformation. The present study also corroborates the same trend. The urbanization process and socio-economic transformation have resulted in land transformations. The Srinagar city is no exception, but because of its location, natural setting and fragile hill ecosystem the transformation is of great concern. There has been rapid growth of population since 1901 to 2001. The urbanization process accelerated since the year 1971, which marked the substantial increase in population of the city and the resultant areal expansion. Being state capital, the concentration of economic, political and socio-cultural, administrative activities and infrastructural development has also accelerated the urbanization process. The economic development in the city led to the social transformation which in turn led to the land use/cover change. While carrying out the land use/land cover analysis in this study, total number of 14 land use/land cover classes were mapped which include, Residential, Scattered settlement, Commercial, Industrial, Restricted, Parks/gardens & playgrounds, Vacant land, Agricultural land, Plantation/orchard, Forest, Barren, Marshy, Water bodies and others (Educational, Governmental, Religious and Hospital land use) covering total land area of 23446.5 hectares. The area under built-up land, which includes Residential, Scattered settlement, Commercial, Industrial, Restricted, Educational, Governmental, Religious and Hospital land use classes, has increased by 3835 hectares during the study period of 37 years (1971-2008). This increase is because of the growing demand for land from increasing population due to natural increase and in-migration from the adjoining districts to the city, mostly from north and south and the development made in secondary and tertiary sectors. This increase was at the cost of non built-up land use/cover classes comprising of Playground, Vacant land, Agricultural land, Barren,

187 Forest, Marshy and Water Bodies, which have not only significantly decreased during the study period, but also are in the deplorable state. Despite urban expansion even the area under parks and gardens has increased which is because of important tourist destination. The general trend of expansion took place along the roads which are in the radial pattern. This expansion is mostly haphazard and unplanned. Most of the recent residential colonies are even devoid of basic amenities resulting into traffic congestion. Core area became denser despite shifting of various government and private offices and institutions to the west of the city. This has resulted in even more denser and congested city core characterized by narrow lanes, open drains, lack of open spaces, etc. The middle part has experienced the emergence of new built-up in western, northern and southern parts due to expanding core area where major increases were recorded mostly in residential and governmental land use. The peripheral areas mostly in north and south observed rapid increase in residential land use on fertile agricultural land due to both migrations from outside and within the city. Also the growing number of family size in the scattered settlements in the peripheral areas led to the increase in the settlement sites. The increasing population has widened the gap between the demand and supply of land has created shortage of land for various uses especially residential, commercial and industrial use. However residential area is spread over 3851 hectares which is mostly unplanned. Land under commercial and industrial use is relatively low because of political disturbance in the state, bar under Article 370 on absolute ownership of land for outsiders and weak geographical location which hinders the transportation of raw materials and the finished goods. Commercial area is prominent in and around the city centre (Lal Chowk area) which acts as the CBD of the city. The unplanned expansion has led to the growth of few unauthorized commercial and industrial pockets in the city prominently in the west, north and south east. Looking into the requirements and needs for administrative, hospital and educational buildings and allied institutions, their existing land use is also comparatively low which is because government authorities are incapable of maintaining balance between the population increase and the developmental activities.

188 The land use pattern of Srinagar city is different from general land use pattern of the cities located in the plain areas. Its expansion has been shaped by its physiographical setting rather than commercial and industrial distribution of land use. The hills and water bodies have greatly influenced the expansion of city. There is significant area under water bodies, marshy areas and plantation/orchards. Srinagar city has less resemblance with the western cities where pattern of land use form concentric circles due to specialized economic activities. Srinagar city has mixed character of commercial and residential land use in its core area. Also the CBD area is having significant area under residential land use. The present Master Plan proposed various land use zones for the city which are based on mixed spatial activities. In recent times commercial in the peripheral part and small scale industry in the core area has come up. The city also has fair share of land under parks and gardens. All these features give Srinagar city a unique pattern of land use.

Apart from land use change, there has been significant interchange of land between different land use/cover classes in Srinagar city during the study period which is the outcome of social, economic, religious and cultural factors. The demand for land, functional convenience, functional magnetism and the land value of the particular area influenced the pace and direction of land transformation in the city. The expansion has swallowed the fertile agricultural land in its fringe area, where industrial and residential development is taking place. The feature of land transformation in Srinagar city is characterized by increasing gap between the available land and the growing population which has accelerated the process of land transformation. Srinagar city acting as the primate city in the past has its imprints in the present land transformation study. The land transformation clearly points towards development of the city as the centre of trade, education, Arts and Crafts etc., in the state of Jammu and Kashmir ever since its evolution. It has functioned as a central place in socio-economic life, hub of political activities, place of important religious activities and the centre in the spatial framework which offered employment opportunities to the growing people of the city and outside. This resulted into increased demand for land resulting into expansion of the city.

189 During the study period, it was found that the non built-up classes lost 3835 hectares of land area for the development of built up area during the study period of 37 years (1971-2008). Important land transformations witnessed were among residential, vacant, plantation/orchard, agriculture, marshy area and water bodies. Residential area has increased by 2776.5 hectares during the study period capturing land mainly from agriculture, vacant and plantation/orchards due to increasing family size, increasing trend of nuclear family system and the influx of migrant population. Similarly demand for commercial, industrial, religious and institutional land use also increased due to the increasing population. Agriculture land is the prime victim of the process of land transformation in the city which lost 3459 hectares during the study period. Farmers not only lost their fertile agricultural assets for city development but also lost their livelihood. There was also occupational shift as farmers switched from agricultural to horticultural activities only for economic gains which affected the total crop production of the city. Vacant land was primarily utilized for residential, commercial, educational, health and social well being infrastructure development. New areas were accessed in the west for residential and commercial development of the city. Also due to the ongoing political instability in the state, new areas were transformed to restricted zone for defence purposes which is unique transformation in this urban study. Land transformation has severely affected the marshy areas and water bodies losing 1449 hectares of their area for agriculture (floating gardens Radh), residential and institutional development in the city. It has disturbed the drainage pattern of the city. For such type of land transformation government agencies are held responsible because they are unable to maintain the balance between the increasing population and rate of planned infrastructural development. The quality of water in dirrerent water bodies of the city is also deteriorating at an alarming rate due to the habitation of boatmen population (Hanjis). These water bodies are precious because they are not only tourist attractions but also act as lifeline to the city as they provide livelihood to large population. Similarly, forest cover was removed for recreational and sports development in the city. These activities have threatened the ecology as well as the economy of the city. The increasing population led to the decrease in per capita land availability resulting into increasing land value and shortage of land. Therefore, the rate and

190 direction of land transformation in Srinagar city is the outcome of the increasing land value which commands the demand and supply ends of the land market. The core area did not experience any significant land transformations due to non availability of land which could be used as built-up, but the increasing demand for commercial and residential land have drastically increased the land value. In contrast to it middle and the peripheral part of the city observed severe land transformations of vacant, agricultural and marshy areas. High land value resulted in people who could not manage to get land on the plain area started to on the foot hills in the east, north and the south east of the city periphery.

Land transformation analysis showed that the land resource in Srinagar city is influenced by this dynamic process. The causal analysis revealed that the grass root level actors acted directly and indirectly, leading to the process of land transformation. Land transformation is the outcome of the interaction of complementary and conflicting interests of different human and institutional actors. The study identified some important actors which includes residents, farmers, boatmen (Hanjis), government agencies, entrepreneurs, property dealers and developers. These are characterized by great diversity and a complex mix of conflicting and complimentary interests. Government as an actor has the supreme authority in the transformation of Srinagar city and acts as the strong actor, firstly because the urban development in India is under the control of state government and secondly, due to the special status of Article 370 of Indian Constitution which restricts ownership of land for outsiders. With the expansion of the city, there were slums for the urban poor and mushrooming of unauthorized colonies and industrial units in the peripheral part of the city. Besides it, various developmental activities carried out by the governmental agencies undermine the interests of local actors e.g., residents, farmers, boatmen, property dealers and developers etc., in many parts of the city resulting into conflicts. The city has expanded rapidly mostly on the fertile agricultural land. The consideration role i.e., the growing demand for more income of the farmers determines the fate of the agricultural land in the Srinagar city. Low agricultural output and annual fear of floods in the low lying areas motivates farmers to sell their agricultural lands to the residents, property dealers, developers, government

191 agencies and migrants or to switch to horticulture activities which is more remunerative. Also due to the increasing land value farmers kept their fields unattended as speculative property and waited for the appropriate time to sell it off. There is greater demand for built-up land in the city. Every actor has different interests which lead to conflicts and practices of intimidation and manipulation to defend certain interests of specific individuals or groups. There is excessive inter-mixing of spatial functions which is the outcome of inflated land values, unrestricted and unplanned expansion. The land market in the city is characterized by multiple-ownership of land/property. This is the main reason for legal conflict and uncertainty. The role of Property dealers as an actor becomes crucial in this case as they are quick to fill the gap left by these multiple owners and inadequate formal government planning. Therefore, the land market is commanded by the speculative property dealers and the developers who dictate its price and create land banks thereby bring shortage in its supply. Legal restrictions are widely violated by the developers and entrepreneurs in the city. This has created a wide gap between the proposals made in the Master plan and the actual changes brought in land use of the city leading to the situation of uncontrolled growth of unauthorized residential and industrial areas on the vacant and agricultural land. Evidences from the study shows that beneficiaries and victims can be encountered in any group, depending on the local situation. The outcome is also greatly depended on the economic and political strength, the connections, and the alliances among the actors. The residents, land less farmers and boatmen were found to have the weakest position and are the victims of this urbanization process. They are excluded from any direct benefits of the process. This is because of their weak economic and political background. Elevated land prices have further limited their ability to acquire extra residential and commercial space.

The micro level causes and consequences of land transformation were assessed in Lal Chowk, Aalochi Bagh, Bemina, Soura and Chanpora and also the Hanji localities located in and around the Dal Lake. Lal Chowk and Aalochi Bagh ward represents the land transformation scenario of the core area of the city, since they are located in the core area. Bemina, Soura and Chanpora represent the land transformation of outer area of the city, while, Hanji localities represent the land

192 transformation in and around the water bodies of the city. There is excessive demand for land from the residents, migrants, government agencies and entrepreneurs. The core area sites are characterized with the mixed nature of commercial and residential land use, whereas the sites in outer areas are dominated with the agriculture and marshy land use/cover classes. The changes brought in land use/cover by the different actors at these locations are reflected from various issues of land transformation and problems related with residential congestion. High population density observed in Lal Chowk, Aalochi Bagh and Hanji localities resulted into high, residential density, Population Concentration Index and Street Connectivity Index whereas such characteristics range from moderate to low in Bemina, Soura and Chanpora wards located in the outer city area. This situation led to the availability of low per head residential floor space in the core area. The recent economic transformations in tourism industry have resulted into large scale transformation in economic activities of the residents of the core area. Not much scope was left in the core area for land transformation because of shortage of land and the resultant high land value. However, the demand for commercial land is increasing which led to the conversion of residential spaces into commercial places. In this survey it was found that the areas within the municipal limits are having the adequate basic amenities and facilities with some weaknesses in the interior areas. The growing population in the core area has led to the congestion and intermixing of the residential and commercial areas. Also, the wholesale and mixed retail trade has intermingled in haphazard manner, causing congestion. The concentration of educational facilities in and around CBD further reflects poor inter relationship of city activities. The unmanaged land use change has become the source of clashes and conflicts among the different actors of land transformation. However, it had proved to be beneficial for actors like property dealers and entrepreneurs, who involve themselves in breaking the deadlock of multiple ownership of property and in turn charge huge sums of commission from both the seller and purchaser. This anarchic residential congestion motivated the economically well off people to move to the outer areas of the city on open spaces. The social unrest also played its role in transforming the left over property of

193 Kashmiri Pandits into residential and commercial buildings and here also the property dealers got maximum benefits from the transaction deal. The expansion of the city core led to the emergence of new residential area of Bemina, Soura and Chanpora. The land use in these locations was dominated by mostly agricultural, vacant and marshy areas. Later these places witnessed large scale in-migration from the city core and the neighbouring rural areas leading to large scale land transformations. Bemina was primarily developed in a view to shift various government offices and institutions to this area so as to decongestion the city core and also to fill the gap of residential backlog in the city. Soura and Chanpora emerged due to expanding population which needed more space for residential purposes. Farmers sold their agricultural land to get instant income. This land was mostly purchased by the developers who brought up various residential colonies and sold that at very high rates, helping government agencies catering the demand for housing in the city. They also created land banks at these locations and hence determine the fate and value of that speculative land. The transformation of these areas have resulted into numerous issues like, water logging, growth of slums and squatter settlements in Bemina ward, high land value and the degradation of the lake environs in Soura ward and lastly the weak social mobility and pressure over employment opportunities from excessive in- migration in Chanpora ward. The transformation of prominent marshy areas in the west, which used to act as the sponge during the rains and floods, results into the inundation of its residential area during the rains. Apart from this, Dal lake, which is the ecological and the cultural asset of the city has been deteriorated both in their area as well as in quality of water by Hanji habitation. The efforts carried out by the government agencies to relocate these people resulted into the clashes. The transformation of lake area into floating gardens (Radh) in and around these localities has resulted into the shrinking of the lake area. These micro level studies also surfaced the important social issues e.g., unemployment due to occupational change, which is a key issue with the former land owning people of the city. Another important social issue with the rural migrant population is that they face social stagnation due to their permanent settlement in the city outskirts prominently in Chanpora and Soura area. The social ties with the

194 people of their ancestral place get weakened and in case of multiple ownership of the property the individual is denied his share.

Srinagar city was a fair example of civic design as designed by British regime. But it seems that thereafter, no comprehensive efforts for development of the city were made till the preparation of Master Plan in 1971 under Section 7 (2) of the J&K Development Act. This was projected plan for 1971 to 1991 with logical policy directions and proposals. In this plan efforts were made to bring maximum land under public ownership, which could make the task of planning and development of the city easier and successful. But because of irregularities this was not done. The authority also recognized that implementation of the proposals were not carried out properly. The reasons behind this weak implementation are stated as below: 1. Proposals of Land acquisition, Land development, and Land disposal articulated in the Master Plan were not implemented. 2. Amendments in Land Acquisition Act were not carried through. 3. No agency was established to monitor the proposals of the Master Plan.

In view of the above shortcomings, the present study has put some suggestions for development of the city and to overcome the damage caused by the faulty government planning. These suggestions can act as the guideline in helping to revive the pristine glory of the city. These are as follows:

i. There should be stricter implementation of master plan proposals for preserving the precious land and water resources and also a constant periodical review of the 20 long years Master Plan by the urban development agencies. Besides land use planning, the plan should also cover all services keeping in view the carrying capacity of existing infrastructure. ii. Land market should be checked by the government authorities so as to avoid the dictatorial price determination by the speculative property dealers which leads to soaring land value preventing the poor from owning land. Government should provide finance for housing, acquire undeveloped land

195 area for development and make this land available for the poorest section of the society at reasonable rates. iii. Instead of the speculative property dealers government agencies should intervene in breaking the deadlock of multiple ownership of property in the city core area for the developmental activities. This will ensure the fair transaction deal between the seller and the purchaser and determine the reasonable price of the property. iv. The policy makers, resources planners, and administrators, e.g., department of town Planning, Srinagar Development Authority, Srinagar Municipal Corporation, Urban Environmental Engineering department and so on, who make decisions about the land, all need to take into account about population growth and its possible influence on land use. They need more detailed land information than has been traditionally available. v. There is an urgent need to revive the urban land ceiling act 1976, so as to check the shortage of land due to the creation of land banks by the developers and economically well off people. vi. Government should impose restrictions on the conversion of plantation/orchards and fertile agricultural land into built-up area and provide subsidized agricultural inputs and mechanization to the farmers which would help in increasing the agricultural productivity. Orchard owners should be provided the incentives so that they may not sell their assets and change the traditional character of the city merely for the economic gains. vii. The industrial land use in Srinagar city is dominated by the small scale industry. Therefore, Agro-based and eco friendly industries should be promoted for economic development and generation of employment opportunities. viii. There should be separate markets of retail and whole sale to avoid the traffic congestion. Also there is need to interlink the major roads to disperse the vehicular movement around the core area by developing alternative roads parallel to them. ix. There is need to check the illegal encroachment in the ecologically sensitive land use features i.e., marshy lands, lakes, forest area, water and flood channels etc. Also the important task for preserving the water bodies is to get

196 rid from duckweed, water ferns, and algae which have deteriorated them not only in the quality of water but also in their areal extent. Moreover, for the growing number of Hanjis in these water bodies, proper rehabilitation programmes should be carried out which would ensure them better livelihood substitutes after their relocation. x. Lastly, the accelerated rate of urban growth of Srinagar city has made the urban development management a complex issue. There is an urgent need to bring all the urban developmental agencies under unified control to streamline and channelize the city development as per the developmental plans.

This study assumes significance as it encompasses all the land use/cover classes while the earlier studies carried out in this study area included only few land use classes like water bodies or wet lands etc. The analysis of interchange of land between different land use/cover classes is also new to this area. The study has identified the actors/stake holders which could not be found in any work carried out so far in the present study area. This actor approach gave the better vision to the understanding of man-land relationship in Srinagar city. This gave a better insight into the study of demand and supply ends of the land market which influences the land use. Moreover, issues of land transformation at the micro-level study, if dealt in the master plan, can help in the better implementation of the plans at the grass root level, which is the basic requirement for the proper implementation of plans.

197

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