The Center for African Studies at the University of Florida

IROHIN 2015

Dr. Agnes Ngoma Leslie EDITOR Luca Brunozzi DESIGN AND LAYOUT Table of Contents

Center for African Studies Outreach Program 3

Understanding the Size of Africa 4

Making Meaningful Connections 5 MArie Pashkevich

The Importance of Finding Value in Everything: What Repurposed African Art Taught Me 7 MArie Pashkevich

African Influence in Puerto Rico 10 Alex Martinez

The Ancient Roots of African Stereotypes 12 Rachel Osborne

Views of Nollywood: The Nigerian Film Industry 15 William Marshall

Green Initiatives: Promoting Women in Africa 18 Jessica Rebstock

Women’s Economic Empowerment 20 Michelle Vargas

Tunisia Three Years Later: Reflections on Jasmine Revolution 22 Jasper P. Webb

On the Rocks: Coca-Cola’s Impact on South Africa’s Economic Development 25 Chris Salamone, JD

Beta Israel: The Jews of Ethiopia 27 Barbara Ferris

Helping from Home 29 Sarah Mckeever

Works Cited 31 CAS Outreach Program

The Center for African Studies (CAS) is partially funded under Title VI of the Federal Higher Education Act as a Na- tional Resource Center on Africa. One of only 9 in the U.S., Florida’s is the only Center located in the southeastern United States. The Center directs, develops, and coordinates interdisciplinary instruction, research, and outreach on Africa. The Outreach Program includes a variety of activities whose objective is to improve the teaching of Africa in primary and secondary schools, colleges, universities and local communities. The following are some of the regular activities which fall under the Outreach Program:

Jambo! Community & School Presentations Each summer the Center holds a high school language Faculty and graduate students make presentations on Africa program to introduce the students to an African language. to local communities and schools.

Publications Teachers’ Workshops The Center publishes and distributes teaching resources The Center offers in-service workshops for K-12 teachers including Irohin, a publication for K-12 teachers. about instruction on Africa throughout the school year.

Summer Institutes Each summer, the Center for African Studies at the University of Florida hosts a K-12 Teachers Institute. The objective of the institute is to help teachers increase their knowledge about Africa and develop lesson plans to use in their classrooms. The creative lesson plans and articles in this issue of Irohin were written by participants in the 2014 institute. Please feel free to use these materials in your teaching and share them with other teachers. Write or call the Center for African Studies for additional copies or download this issue, as well as previous ones, in PDF format at http://www.africa.ufl. edu/outreach.

The Summer Institute is free to teachers. To apply for next year, see the application on the back page.

2014 Summer Institute participants (from left to right): Dr. Agnes Leslie (summer institute director), Jessica Rebstock, William Marshall, Alex Martinez, Michelle Vargas, Buyiswa Mini (instructor), Chris Salamone, JD., Jasper Webb, Barbara Ferris, Sarah McKeever, Marie Pashkevich, Rachel Osborne and Dr. Rose Lugano (instructor).

IROHIN | 3 Understanding the Size of Africa

For those of us who have only experienced Africa through images and maps, it can be difficult to understand the true size of Africa. The hard facts don't often resolve our misconceptions. It's understandably difficult to appreciate the vast- ness of 11.67 million square miles (the area of Africa). Instead consider this: have you ever flown—or driven!—across the US? If you have, then you can appreciate the size of the US; you've seen the variety of terrain; you've heard the accents shift; you've sat and sat and sat. Now consider this: Africa is more than three times the size of the contiguous United States; there are more than 500 extant languages spoken across more than 50 countries; and the landscape spans from desert to rainforest. Languages, cultures, scenery and even the hemispheres change as you traverse Africa. This map may help us understand the true size of Africa and it's diversity.

IROHIN | 4 Knowledge Applied Marie Pashkevich attended the K-12 teachers’ summer institute on Africa hosted by the Center for African Studies in 2014. In this article she shares the impact of the institute and how she implemented what she learned.

Making Meaningful Connections Marie Pashkevich

This past year, the theme that continent to my students using a brief ferent project for each grade level, as has guided my art curriculum at JJ image-packed powerpoint that touched their artistic skills and capabilities are Finley Elementary School in Gaines- on various countries and cultures. very diverse at the elementary age. I ville, Florida, has been “Around the I asked the students to compare/ taught kindergarten –4th grade about World”. Throughout the year, the contrast the images, lifestyles, and Africa, but was unable to fit Africa into students and I have “traveled” to vari- cultures they saw with each other and my curriculum for 5th grade due to ous countries and continents across also with their own lives. I wanted the time constraints. the globe to learn about the people, kids to understand that Africa is very In kindergarten classes, I focused customs, culture, life, history, and diverse, and also get a feeling for the specifically on the Ashanti people of art. Some of our stops have been in similarities/differences between their Ghana, and I began by reading the Japan, Mexico, France, Peru, and own lives and people in other coun- children’s book Oh Kojo! How could Florida. Most recently my students tries. I ended each introductory lesson you? This is a tale about a young and I journeyed to the continent of with a Youtube video filmed by an Ashanti man who is continuously Africa, where each grade level studied American in Uganda. The video shows tricked by a mischievous old neighbor. a specific country or aspect of culture kids, teenagers, and adults in a village His luck turns when he is granted from a country, which inspired our art dancing and expressing themselves to wishes by a magical bird, and at the making. the song “Happy” by Pharrell Williams. end of the story his pet cat, which he My goal in teaching students After inviting my students to dance had been tricked into buying from his about Africa was to show them the along with the Ugandans, I asked my neighbor, saves the day and is de- diversity of the continent and expose students to point out the things they clared the most respected animal of them to some of the rich cultures in had in common with these kids, and the Ashanti people. After brainstorm- hopes of sparking their interest and if they thought they would have fun ing all the types of cats that possibly helping them establish meaningful playing with the people they saw in the live in various parts of Africa, we chose connections with the cultures and video, which always received a very to focus on lions. We discussed the people of Africa. After announcing enthusiastic YES! shapes that could be used to draw a we were moving to Africa and doing a Throughout the week, about 600 lion’s head, such as an oval for the quick check for background knowledge students come to my art classroom, head, circles for the eyes, etc. We then (Where IS Africa? What do you know where I teach grades K-3 for a 30-min- learned how to use acrylic paint and about Africa? Is Africa a county, con- ute period, and 4th and 5th graders for practiced making brush strokes with tinent, or city?, etc.), I introduced the 40 minutes. I usually choose a dif- this new material. Finally, we put

IROHIN | 5 these skills together and painted lion I taught my students about the time and ask the students to create heads, which we finished by outlining ancient Egyptian way of drawing peo- a gesture drawing of the dancers. We in black crayon. ple with the profile of the face matched spent several class periods working In 1st grade, I led my students in with the shoulders drawn from a fron- on this, and my students became very a project that focused on masks from tal angle and legs also drawn from the attached to the dancers and also were various ethnic groups throughout side. Egyptians did this to highlight happily surprised that their draw- Africa. We began by talking about why the best angle of each physical feature. ings got better and better each week. I people wear masks, the purpose and We also learned about horizon found that my students really con- function in culture, and the materials lines, vanishing points, hieroglyphics, nected with this project, and were able used to make them. The students took and I gave the students a quick lesson to immerse themselves into the culture special interest in animal-inspired on how to draw pyramids. To com- and dances that we looked at. I have masks, and I found that many of them bine all these elements together, the noticed that some of my students, really connected to the idea of wearing students created self-portraits, drawn not limited to but including African animal disguises and acting like an in traditional Egyptian style, with a American students, have trouble en- animal. After learning about symmetry background of pyramids correctly gaging in the context of the art lessons and the primary colors, the students decreasing in size as they appear to be I teach. Although they might enjoy the then created their own masks out of approaching the horizon line. art-making process, they don›t seem collaged paper we stamped. Students Finally, the project that most to care about the depth of the lessons, were given the choice to choose the excited me as a teacher was my 4th and lose interest in the context of what animal they were creating, and were grader classes. These students learned I am teaching. I was very happy to find asked to demonstrate their under- about traditional dancing in vari- that many of my African American standing of symmetry. ous countries, looking specifically at students really engaged themselves in In 2nd and 3rd grade, my students the Dogon ethnic group in Mali. We this project about African dancing and learned about Ancient and present-day then learned about gesture drawing, gesture drawing. They seemed to take Egypt. After studying the culture of the which is drawing with the intention a sense of pride in the dances, wanted past and current Egypt, we compared of capturing the body in motion in a to know about the culture and tradi- and contrasted the two civilizations. way that is not interested in features tion, and seemed to be able to relate We then spent a class period learning on anything specific but focuses on to the love of dance and music. The more about Ancient Egypt, specifically quickly drawing movements of the students connected to the videos and looking at the process of mummifica- body. When I attended the African culture in a way I had never seen be- tion, the purpose and creation of pyra- Summer Institute, there was a day fore, and their interest showed in the mids, and the art of ancient Egyptians. dedicated to music and dance, and I care they put into their artwork. I found an interactive website which took videos of the musicians and danc- The African Summer Institute allows viewers to enter the Pyramids of ers as they performed for us. I used helped me gather many tools and Giza and visit the Great Sphinx, which these videos in my classroom during materials concerning Africa in a way the kids took particular interest in. my instruction on gesture drawing. I that transformed my teaching capa- would pause the videos from time to bility. Because of the intense connec- tion I had been able to make with the continent, my students picked up on the importance and deep care I had for Africa and they too engaged them- selves in the culture, tradition, art, and people. I know that many of my students who seem to have a difficult time relating to the art world, which has been dominated by white males for hundreds of years, felt very com- fortable diving into the arts of Africa. I know that my students had a mean- ingful experience, and these types of encounters will remain a handprint on their brain and heart forever; this is why I teach.

Artwork by one of Marie's students.

IROHIN | 6 The Importance of Finding Value in Everything: What Repurposed African Art Taught Me Marie Pashkevich

Ramaulde Hazoume's African mask from recycled materials. Marie Pashkevich and her peers in front of an El Anatsui piece at the Harn Museum.

Western critics categorize Af- tion began to impact Africa, many ity of humankind throughout history. rican art into three distinct groups: African artists became known and It began with the first paintings known traditional art, popular art, and fine recognized internationally, hence the to humans in the caves of Lascaux or contemporary art (Grosz-Ngaté, term fine art. Contemporary African and ended with contemporary artists 2014, p. 162). Traditional African art art covers a wide range of materials such as Jeff Coons. The mandatory consists of vmasks, baskets, displays and subject matter, and is made for a book that supplemented the class was of scarification, and other “artifacts” global audience (Grosz-Ngaté, 2014, titled Art Across Time. This massive, that were important functional parts of pp. 162-182). 1,022 page book, that I occasionally many Africans’ lives. Popular African During my college education use as a makeshift dumbbell when art, which emerged as an effect of the there were two classes that were re- I’m feeling ambitious, has a four page colonial era, is defined by artwork quired for art majors: Art History I and section entitled “Window on the World: such as painted signs for businesses, Art History II. These were the over- African Art and the European Avant fashionable clothing ensembles, and arching art history classes that were Garde.” The only artworks described elaborately constructed and painted meant to give a little taste of art, basi- are crudely carved statues, masks with wooden coffins. Finally, as globaliza- cally exposing students to the creativ- exaggerated features, and one bronze

IROHIN | 7 war helmet that had apparently been you brought this in!” smile as I reach spent time in the Democratic Repub- acquired by Pablo Picasso. These four out my hands and chirp my usual lic of Congo. With a creativity that pages were the only part of the book response of, “GREAT! We can definitely would make Duchamp proud, the discussing African art. One of the four use (insert large amounts of some Congolese kids would use bottle tops, pages explains that “the understand- foreign object) when we are making oil cans, sticks, and string to make ing of African art is complicated by something like African masks…..” intricatly detailed cars and trucks. certain essential differences between it One day as I pondered my abun- After Googling “African toys,” I found and other non-Western styles” (Adams, dant supply of “assorted materials,” that the rest of the world has been 2002, pp. 870-873). So apparently that I found myself asking the question, tapping into this form of “art” that equates to virtually “skipping over” “What is all this stuff, anyway? And the African children have been mak- Africa. what am I really going to do with it?” ing for years (Grosz-Ngaté, 2014, pp. My confession is that when I set Igor Kopytoff suggests that objects 178). These toys, which fall under out to write this article, I was not very should be regarded with the same dig- the category of ‘Popular Art’ in Africa, interested in African masks or tradi- nity in which we might view a human have been carefully crafted by young tional African art in general. Now, I life. He suggests that when looking at African children for years – probably certainly understood the importance the biography of an object, one should since vehicles arrived on the continent. of these objects and the great impact ask questions such as: "Where did Young artists cut up rubber sandals they have in Africa’s story. Philip this thing come from and who made or inner tubes that they wrap around Ravenhill insightfully states that these it? What was its intended use and wire to create tires. Children use metal traditional artworks “constitute the how has it been used thus far? How scraps to create miniature bicycles, most accessible forms of a given soci- does this thing’s use change as it helicopters, lorries, and busses. Some ety’s visual culture. They exemplify the ages? What happens to it when it is no even use paint to add details such as integration of aesthetic and daily life in longer useful anymore?" (Appadurai, the name of a bus company or written Africa” (Ravenhill, 1991, p. 3). I cannot 1986, pp. 66-67). prayers, which they model from pub- argue that these amazing traditional Kopytoff’s perspective on ob- lic transportation in their countries artworks have an important role in jects challenged me to view the “stuff’ (Andreasen, 2004, pp. 10-13). These African culture, however, I can’t help protruding out of my closet as po- creative youngsters and their use of asking about the other African art- tential materials rather than a trash everyday, common objects to create works and artists. Is there any African collection. I began to envision my new, functional toys sparked my inter- artwork that I can actually relate to? students creating elaborate “recycled est and inspired my research on other As an elementary school art art” projects that would make other African “repurpose” artists. teacher, I feel strongly about artistic art teachers in the county cringe with One artist who caught my atten- experiences that both my students jealousy. Also, one of the hot topics in tion was El Anatsui, a contemporary and I can relate to. I find it important our culture right now is recycling and African artist who is world-renowned to expose my students to all forms of “being green,” so I figured this might for his larger-than-life sculptures that art – including African, because every earn me some brownie points with the resemble fabric. These intricate, some- culture has a voice in the history of hippy parents and maybe my princi- times wall-size textiles are woven out art. In my classroom, it never ceases pal. But then I began thinking, “Well, of metal wiring, bottle caps, and other to amaze me how much “stuff” parents what exactly IS recycled art? Who does found materials. El Anatsui was born and students bring to me as a means it? How can I teach about something I in 1944, raised in Ghana, and moved of recycling things they no longer don’t know anything about?” to Nigeria in 1975 to pursue a teach- want. I can’t tell you how many toilet After laboriously perusing several ing career in the arts (Vogel, 2002, paper rolls I get each week, how many art dictionaries and finding nothing on p. 24). He started working in wood magazines I have stacked around my the topic of “recycled art,” I did some sculpture, but soon he began incorpo- room, and how many bottle tops I have research and found that my terminol- rating tin can lids, bottle tops, cassava collected in my drawers. I have an ogy was wrong. “Repurposed art” or graters, aluminum drums, and gas enormous crate of Starbucks coffee- “readymade” art is what I actually had cans. After finding a bag of bottle tops cup holders, a box overflowing with in mind when using everyday materi- in the woods one day, he began to use floral water picks, and enough empty als to create artwork. “Ready-made,” these as a staple material in his work ribbon spools to go swimming in. I of- a term coined by Marcel Duchamp in of weaving metal textiles that resemble ten joke that I could survive the apoca- 1913, refers to taking a commonplace traditional kente cloth (Vogel, 2002, p. lypse in my art supply room, as all my object out of its functional context and 48-52). In reference to the bottle tops, materials would certainly keep me safe manipulating or elevating it to hold a Anatsui explains that he “thought from any cosmic forces. Yet despite status of artistic value (Grove, 2009). of the objects as links between my my overflowing closet, I continue to My thoughts drifted to the toys continent and Africa and the rest of plaster on my “Oh, I’m so grateful that that I saw children make when I had Europe. Objects such as these were in-

IROHIN | 8 troduced to Africa by Europeans when munity dialogue and civil education My research about African Re- they came as traders. Alcohol was one dealing with reconciliation, memory, purpose Artists taught me what “recy- of the commodities brought with them healing, and forgiveness” (Schwartz- cled art” really is and gave me a totally to exchange for goods in Africa. Even- ott, 2011). One of the leading art- new perspective on African art, in gen- tually alcohol became one of the items ists in this movement is Kester. This eral. I realized that an artist does not used in the transatlantic slave trade. 49-year-old Mozambican, whose real necessarily have to use specific objects They made rum in the West Indies, name is Cristóvão Canhavato, is most of value in order to create marvelous took it to Liverpool, and then it made famous for an artwork he did in 2001 things. In fact, it’s quite the opposite. its way back to Africa. I thought that for the Transforming Arms into Tools One must necessarily use the mun- the bottle caps had a strong reference project. This piece, entitled “Throne of dane, accessible things around himself to the history of Africa” (Vogel, 2002, Weapons”, is a sculpture of a regal- or herself and transform them into p. 53-54). looking chair that is made entirely of something of value. Many African art- Anatsui does not see his activity decommissioned weapons that were ists have mastered the art of repurpos- as recycling in the usual sense—as an used in the Mozambique civil war ing objects and materials, and through effort to clean up the land, to return (Throne of Weapons, 2004). After being this process they have also found a a material to usefulness, or to avoid haunted by famine, death, war, and way to recycle and transform their expending new resources. He strongly economic collapse, this project strives very histories by taking the old and feels that recycling involves return- to transform objects that are intended making it contemporary and relatable ing an object to its original function for death into symbols of peace while to the modern person. so that it can perform again as it was simultaneously bringing hope to a na- African artists have taught me created to. Anatsui uses the word tion that underwent much suffering. that there is value in everything, “transformation” to describe his pro- The final artist that I would like ranging from traditional ceremonial cess and use of materials – as he gives to focus on is Ramauld Hazoumè. The masks to the pieces of rubber on the the bottle caps new life in the function Beninese artist, who began exhibiting side of the road. This idea of taking of his artwork. Not only does Anat- in the early 1990s, is internationally accessible objects and transforming sui reuse materials, but he also has famous for his sculptural "African them into valuable pieces of art is a recycled a traditional style of making masks," which are made from discard- wonderful lesson not only in the art artwork: communal. Presently, Anat- ed plastic bottles, oil canisters, scraps classroom but in everyday life. What sui hires studio assistants to help him of cloth, and other found objects “things” in my own life could use some with the labor-intensive process of his (Romauld Hazoumè, n.d.). He uses repurposing? Returning to Ravenhill’s artwork (Vogel, 2002, p. 68). Tradition- his artwork to express the impact of thought about traditional art being the ally in Africa, artists worked in groups colonization, slavery, and globalization representation of daily life in African on their projects and a community of on the culture of Africa. His crudely society, how can I repurpose and give artists would come together to create elegant African masks challenge the new meaning to everyday parts of my large works of art. In material, cre- viewer on ideas of consumerism, impe- life, much like Romauld Hazumè has ation, and product, Anatsui has found rialism, and Africa’s role in the global done with traditional masks? Maybe a a way to creatively transform an object economy (Art Romauld Hazoumè, chair, or my collection of paper scraps, or reality into something of worth and 2012). Hazoumè’s artwork transforms or even a relationship or two could use great value. everyday objects such as oil cans into a little recycling. And that art supply Another repurposing art devel- a valuable piece of art, while simul- closet of mine – WOW, what a treasure opment taking place in Mozambique taneously recycling the traditional box! There is purpose in everything, is the Transforming Arms into Plow- mask-making art that was prevalent and great value in “recycling” the shares/Transformação de Armas in earlier African cultures. He tangibly things in your life that you might deem em Enxadas (TAE) project. From and conceptually transforms what is “useless.” I leave you with the em- 1962-1975, Mozambique fought the around him into a valuable message to powering thought that I have learned Portuguese colonial rule for their share with the world. from African artists: creativity can independence. Then, from 1977-92, El Anatsui once said in an inter- transform anything into something of Mozambique fought a civil war that view, “The materials that we used in greater value. claimed 1 million lives and resulted in school—I knew that they were strange. the displacement of at least 5 million In art history we learned that in the Image Reference people (BBC, 2014). In the aftermath caves, they painted on the cave wall, Hazoume Mask. Credit: rocor. https://www.flickr. of this destructive, tragic war rose or did the engravings on the walls. It com/photos/rocor/5553111225 TAE, a project of hope and peace. The means that you do art with whatever is mission of TAE, which was founded in around you. They don’t make plaster 1995 by Bishop Dom Dinis Sengulane, in Ghana!” (Vogel, 2002, p. 103). is to promote and “facilitate com-

IROHIN | 9 African Influence in Puerto Rico Alex Martinez

Many times when we put to- pox, to which they had no immunity. joys. Almost every aspect of the Puerto gether the words Africa and influence, Other Taínos committed suicide or left Rican culture has been influenced by immediately we may think of the influ- the island after the failed Taíno Revolt Africa. Puerto Rico is considered to be ence that the spread of Christianity of 1511 (Afro-Puerto Ricans, Wikipe- “one of the zones in which the genetic and Islam has brought to the conti- dia, 2014). and cultural assimilation of people of nent of Africa. However, Africa has Friar Bartolomé de las Casas, African descent have gone the farthest, greatly influenced many aspects of the who had accompanied Ponce de León, and in which the legacy of Africa has Americas. As most people know, Africa was outraged at the Spanish treatment been most persistently denied and is a continent with many cultures and of the Taíno. In 1512 he protested at most reluctantly acknowledged” (Bran- many countries, each with its own the council of Burgos at the Span- don, 1989). identity, flag, traditions and languag- ish Court. He fought for the freedom One of the most powerful African es. Some say that there are more than of the natives and was able to secure influences in Puerto Rican culture is 500 languages in Africa. As a conti- their rights. The Spanish colonists, noticed in music. As an important ad- nent with so much diversity and so fearing the loss of their labor force, ditional note, in the midst of all these many different cultural backgrounds also protested before the courts. They historical developments, one cannot it would be almost impossible not to complained that they needed manpow- miss the fact that the popular music spread its cultural richness with all er to work in the mines, build forts, of Puerto Ricans has connected with that come in contact with Africa. and supply labor for the thriving sugar Africa, particularly through bomba, One of the countries that have cane plantations. As an alternative, plena and salsa. been heavily influenced by African Las Casas suggested the importation The Bomba Puertorriqueña de- traditions is the Island of Puerto Rico. and use of enslaved Africans. In 1517, veloped in Loíza, Puerto Rico, a town The history of how Africa began to in- the Spanish Crown permitted its sub- with a large concentration of African fluence such a small island in the Ca- jects to import twelve enslaved people descendants. It developed from African ribbean is as diverse as the continent each, thereby beginning the slave ritual dance celebrations in the 17th of Africa. It all began with the arrival trade in their colonies (Afro-Puerto century. The name was inspired by a of the first African freemen that came Ricans, Wikipedia, 2014). fairly large wooden drum or barril cov- with Christopher Columbus. These According to historian Luis M. ered with goatskin called the bomba. freemen were called libertos. One Diaz, the largest contingent of enslaved The barril was made using empty prominent liberto was Juan Garrido, Africans came from the areas of the codfish barrels. The barril is the main who arrived with Juan Ponce de Leon, present-day Gold Coast, Nigeria, and drum and rhythm instrument. The first president of Puerto Rico. Another Dahomey, and the region known as musicians also use two small sticks to prominent liberto was Francis Gallego, the area of Guineas, together known beat a secondary pattern on the side the first black entrepreneur in Puerto as the Slave Coast. The vast majority of the drums. Maracas are also part of Rico. Most libertos came from Seville, were Yorubas and Igbos, ethnic groups the Bomba percussion instruments. Spain. They came looking for work and from Nigeria, and Bantu-speaking Bomba participants form a dance were mostly domestic workers. Liber- peoples from the Guineas. The number circle and take turns in solo dance tos assisted the Spaniards in conquer- of enslaved people in Puerto Rico rose between individuals and the drum. It ing the Taíno Indians, who inhabited from 1,500 in 1530 to 15,000 by 1555. was at bailes de bomba that enslaved Puerto Rico (Afro-Puerto Rican, 2012). They were stamped with a hot iron on Africans celebrated baptisms, wed- After a few years, tension in- the forehead, a branding which meant dings, and births. Fearing rebellions creased among the Taínos, the Span- that they were brought to the country slaveowners allowed the dances on iards and the libertos. The Spanish legally and prevented their kidnapping Sundays only. Female Bomba dancers took advantage of the Taínos’ good (Afro-Puerto Ricans, Wikipedia, 2014). used their skirts to mimic and poke faith and enslaved them, forcing them It didn’t take long for the cultural fun at the slave owners (Figueroa, to work in the gold mines and in the traditions brought by the enslaved Af- AfroBorinquenMusic. 2012) construction of forts. Many Taíno died, ricans to begin to spread and form the African roots have also influ- particularly due to epidemics of small- cultural diversity Puerto Rico now en- enced the foods Puerto Ricans eat

IROHIN | 10 well known name for this type of Span- ish is called the Afro-Puerto Rican Bozal language. “Although deriving its origins from captives’ struggle to learn Spanish from their tormentors, Afro- Puerto Rican Bozal language outlasted and outgrew slavery and oppression, to add its subtle touch to the life, lit- erature, and language of all Boricuas” (Lipski, 2008) In conclusion, although many African men and women were forced to leave their homeland in order to work in the Puerto Rican sugar mills their homeland never left them. Instead of totally adopting the Taíno and Span- iard traditions and customs these en- slaved Africans impacted the island in a variety of ways. Now Puerto Ricans enjoy a very rich cultural diversity and Traditional Bomba attire. The instruments are similar to African drums. uniqueness in most part due to the heavy African influence. This African today and in earlier centuries. For ex- of Spain, Ferdinand II of Aragon and influence goes deeper than an outward ample, “In a lecture he gave on Yoruba Isabella I of Castile, established an skin color. It has influenced all the religion and culture Professor Wam- ecclesiastical tribunal known as the senses of Puerto Ricans to the point bole Abimbola mentioned the Yoruba Spanish Inquisition. It was intended to that you can see it, hear it, touch it, dish called Fufu. In Puerto Rico, Fufu maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their eat it, and speak it. is almost forgotten. The dish was made kingdoms. The Inquisition maintained with plantains, squash, and yams” no rota or religious court in Puerto Image Reference (Gonzalez, 1983). Although the Fufu Rico. However, heretics were written http://media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/50/5e/ dish is now rare in Puerto Rico, many up and if necessary remanded to re- 9f/505e9ff40446e4ff500ed03b5ebc86ef.jpg of the popular dishes eaten today on gional Inquisitional tribunals in Spain the island contain numerous ingre- or elsewhere in the western hemi- dients that are widely used in Africa. sphere. Africans were not allowed to “Nydia Rios de Colon, a contributor to practice non-Christian, native religious the Smithsonian Folklife Cookbook who beliefs. No single African religion sur- also offers culinary seminars through vived intact from the times of slavery the Puerto Rican Cultural Institute, to the present in Puerto Rico, but writes about Puerto Rican cuisine: many elements of African spiritual be- liefs have been incorporated into syn- “Puerto Rican cuisine also has a strong cretic ideas and practices. Santería, African influence. The melange of a Yoruba-Catholic syncretic mix, and flavors that make up the typical Puerto Palo-Mayombe, Kongolese traditions, Rican cuisine counts with the African are also practiced in Puerto Rico, the touch. Pasteles, small bundles of meat latter having arrived there at a much stuffed into a dough made of grated earlier time. A smaller number of green banana (sometimes combined people practice Vudú, which is derived with pumpkin, potatoes, plantains, or from Dahomey mythology (Afro-Puerto yautía) and wrapped in plantain leaves, Ricans, 2014). were devised by African women on the Another area in which African island and based upon food products traditions have influenced Puerto Ri- that originated in Africa.” (Rios de can culture is its language and there- Colon, 2014) fore its literature. Although Spanish is the official language of the island due Puerto Rican religious traditions to Spanish colonization, there is also also have been influenced by Afri- evidence of African influence in the cans. In 1478, the Catholic Monarchs Spanish language and literature. One

IROHIN | 11 The Ancient Roots of African Stereotypes Rachel Osborne

The modern idea of Europe’s supplier of gold and myrrh for Egypt Despite Egyptian monopoly, relationship with Africa is often associ- and from there, the global market. African goods were widely available: ated with the era of European imperi- This supply chain was severely dis- “mainly minerals, plants, and animal alism. In reality, Europe’s connection rupted as Egypt lost its power, though products were available in large world with Africa stretches back to antiq- it is not clear whether the decline was markets extending from the Atlantic in uity. These early interactions point a political power loss or the intercep- the west, via the Mediterranean region to a complex foundation of cultural tion of goods from Punt that eventually and the Middle East and as far east understanding that both contradict weaken Egyptian control and profits as India and Southeast Asia” (Chami, modern ideas of the roots of African from the Puntite resources. Chami p. 208). Indeed, away from the Medi- stereotypes and lay the foundation explains: terranean sphere, Sub–Saharan Africa for European imperialist assumptions was well known by ancient traders about the African continent – roots “The disorder that followed and explorers – even the Chinese, who that drove European empires to colo- emanates from the fact that Egypt have described the mountains and val- nize and exploit this continent. These had monopolized affairs in Africa leys of the region (Chami). The Puntite roots are grounded in Ancient Greece and kept secret its Puntite sources region became a major international and the Roman Empire, which have of gold, myrrh, and other tropical trading hub, noted to have a global been carried into modern concepts of products by associating the source of mix of citizens from all parts, includ- Africa and Africans. these goods with various mysterious ing Greece, India, Chinese, Cretans, To appreciate the context of circumstances... When the secret was and Oceania. Greek and Roman interactions with discovered by other powers including While Ancient Greeks had a African kingdoms, it is important to those emerging at the end of the much greater understanding of the understand the history of the political 2nd Millenium BC, the control and African continent than most textbooks and economic histories on their own. monopoly of Africa by Egypt came to demonstrate, it was still a narrow Along the Upper Nile through South an end as every other power begun to view. Despite a documented presence Sudan, as well as the western Sahara, scramble for it.” (p. 193) and exploration in Nubia, Punta, West permanent agricultural communities Africa, and other areas, their main thrived well before 4000 B.C.E.—well This historical domination filter from Africa was the influence of before the Grecian city-states. Ac- of African resources by Egypt is a Egypt. Their generalized knowledge is cording to author Felix Chami, this little-known but important chapter of evident in the distinction they draw population and the language as well cultural and political dominance of the in literature between Libyans (refer- expanded south down the Red Sea African continent. Traditionally, it is ring to the Libyco–Berber area of coast to the Sub–Saharan region of European forces that are portrayed as Northwest Africa) and Ethiopians, who Africa; at the same time, relatives of being the economic exploiters of this the Greeks used as a reference to all the Libyco-Berbers were thriving in the region; evidence clearly shows, how- other non–Egyptian black Africans. northwestern region of the continent. ever, that within the continent itself, Additionally, as indicated by Chami, The most famous of the many there were similar power structures Homeric-era Greeks sailed out to the civilizations of Africa, Egypt developed led by Egypt. On a global scale, Egyp- Atlantic and reported back about the in wealth and power partially through tian dominance might have set the inhabitants of West Africa—possibly its imports from South and East Afri- tone for how Ancient Greece and Rome stirring the first rumors of the city of can regions. They used these resourc- viewed Africa outside of Egypt. Even in Atlantis. es themselves, but also funneled goods modern times, Egypt is often thought It is, perhaps, this creation of an to export throughout the Mediter- of as being distinctly separate from Atlantis myth that is most telling. To ranean and Arabia. A largely hidden the rest of Africa: perceived as being be clear, Ancient Greeks did not spe- supplier of these goods was the more historically more refined, civilized, and cifically believe that Africa or Africans southerly kingdom of Punt, commonly advanced, a view that Egypt held to be were beneath them; rather, Greeks referred to by Egyptians as “the land true, given its economic relationship believed themselves to be the supreme of the gods.” Punt was also the major with the other regions. civilization above all others. With that

IROHIN | 12 reasoning, it would be difficult to ac- references to “Ethiopians” in Greek further compares the difference of hair cept that non-Greeks could produce a literature and plays; Homer describes between the Scythians and Thracians complex society, no matter their race. them as he “furthest of men,” an indi- (straight) with the “woolly hair of the Therefore, they interpreted their ob- cator that early references to them was Ethiopians and people who live in hot servations in a culturally-comfortable, “usually as representative of peoples regions.” (p. 32) Aristotle’s inclusion superiority-sustaining mythology to living near the edge of the world;” of people from hot climates alludes to make sense of the discovery. Unfor- (Isaac, p. 36) and the Greek historian a widespread belief in “environmental tunately, their attitude was passed Herodotus grants them the equivalent determinism.” Common to both Greek on through the subsequent European modern label of the “noble savage.” and Latin texts, this interpretation powers, and greatly fueled the Euro- They are often reported as being in an of race and temperament holds that pean imperialist view of the world. opposing army’s ranks, where they “collective characteristics of groups of Students often wonder what roles are respected for their strength and people are permanently determined Africans played in Ancient Greece, and fighting skills, as well as occasionally by climate and geography... Entire later Rome. According to Frank M. appearing in artistic works of pottery nations are believed to have common Snowden Jr., “Although Greek writers or painting. characteristics determined wholly by in only a few instances state specifi- As previously noted, Ancient factors outside themselves, which are, cally that Negroes were on Greek soil, Greeks referred to almost uniformly by implication, stable and unchange- the numerous references... in certain as “Ethiopians.” Descriptions of them able.” (Isaac, p. 35) Ironically, these passages, together with the many rep- have survived in various writings; characteristics are then thought to be resentations of Negroes in Greek art, Snowden Jr. translates one such piece: genetically passed down to offspring. seem to furnish evidence of a racial “The majority of them (i.e., Ethiopi- Ancient Greeks therefore believed that type that was taken for granted by the ans), and especially those who dwell the “woolly” hair of the Ethiopians average Greek.” (p. 35) Indeed, they along the rivers, are black–skinned, (non-Berber Africans) was due to the were employed by Minoans and served flat-nosed and woolly-haired.” (p.31) heat of the sun—as were “bandy legs” in military regimes from the early This description is fairly consistent by some accounts, comparing the times of Greek civilization, and appear across Greek and later Roman ac- warping of dry planks with the warp- in various art works that include a counts, though the Romans omitted ing of human bodies. (p.36) Homeric shield. There are numerous generalization of the nose. Aristotle

A depiction of the Queen of Sheba.

IROHIN | 13 Belief in environmental determin- This implication is supported by be funneled through the medieval writ- ism—as well as foundations of African Haley’s explanation that Livy relied on ers and geographers. This historical knowledge – were passed on to the Ro- the works of another Roman writer, creation of an African concept is argu- man Empire as it rose to dominance. Polybius. While he initially emphasized ably what led to European confidence In fact, Rome used the concepts of more of the fickleness of Numidian that they could colonize and exploit environmental determinism in its alliances than passion or lust, “he an entire continent. After hundreds claims that they were more qualified to reports that [Masinissa] lived until he of years of generalizations and stereo- control the Mediterranean region than was ninety and one of his most note- types, “The image of Africa as the ‘dark the Greeks. With its expanding terri- worthy characteristics was his physi- continent’ predates the beginning of tory, Rome did gradually evolve from cal strength and stamina... At the age colonial penetration by many centu- Ptolemy’s view of Ethiopians being the of ninety, when he died, Masinissa had ries.” (Hall, p. 179) Colonization and majority of Africans to a specific region left a son of four years old...” (p. 377) imperial control of African resources along the Red Sea. (Burstein) However, His description emphasizes, though further perpetuated and encouraged the racial and cultural stereotypes not as overtly as Livy, that virility and stereotypes of the African peoples, continued to evolve as well, with Rome strength were unique characteristics supporting and reproducing the means creating—whether by accident or of Numidians. Haley traces Roman of European resource exploitation and design—the seeds of personality and stereotypes of “passionate barbarians” economic profit. Despite the plethora character being endemic to Africans. as far back as Vergil, who made veiled of vital resources African countries ex- The earliest literature to docu- references to Dido’s Numidian, hos- port that fuel global energy, technolo- ment a generalization of (specifically tile neighbors in the Aeneid. For the gy, and communication industries—as Numidian) Africans is from the Ro- purposes of plot, it was Dido who was well as industries being born in places man writer Livy. In “Livy, Passion, and passionate; but it is obvious from the like Ghana, Kenya, and Botswana, Cultural Stereotypes,” S.P. Haley dis- actions of the passionate Dido, and among many others—there is still a cusses Livy’s employment of character the hostility of the Numidians, that reluctance to create new narratives for virtues for dramatic effect as being Vergil “still accepts the general stereo- the diverse countries of Africa. (perhaps unintentionally) a starting type of the passionate (hence inferior) point for cultural generalizations about barbarian.” (p. 379) From Vergil to late Image Reference Numidians—and later, most Africans. Roman poets, Haley argues that a con- http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ Livy wrote of the Numidians with- nection between sexuality and North commons/e/ea/The_Queen_of_She- in the context of the second Punic war, Africans persists—even through the ba_%282131716999%29.jpg as “a romantic interlude describing 17th century. (p. 308) the affair between Masinissa, prince The cultural and racial discon- of the Numidians, and Sophoniba the nect is perhaps best illustrated in daughter of... a Carthagian general.” contradictory interpretations of the (Haley, p. 375) Prior to this literature, story of the “Queen of Sheba.” In the Numidians had mostly widely been European Christian tradition, the known for their willingness to switch Queen of Sheba represents the danger political alliances as it suited them—a of sexuality; as Hall describes it, she is trait that greatly troubled Rome. Livy, “the temptress with the body of a lust- however, creates a new character trait ful animal beneath the silken robes.” for Masinissa: passion. For literary (p. 183) In the Ethiopian Christian juxtaposition, passion is the antith- church, however, Sheba is depicted esis to the pragmatic Roman ideal, as an innocent noble, “the mother of and therefore an ideal plot device for Menelik, the first in the line of Ethio- tension. Haley explains that Livy uses pian emperors. In this version of the Masinissa’s character to create “moral- story, the innocent Queen is seduced ity and moral considerations” into the by Solomon by means of a trick.” (Hall, narrative; however, a consequence of p. 182) From these conflicting ver- this is that Livy transposes the charac- sions, the perceptions of European teristic of “passionate barbarian” into Christians of the African continent, as a trait of all Numidians. This is despite well as the “lustful barbarian” stereo- the fact that he wrote other passionate type of Livy, are clear—and notably characters implying that there was a absent in the Ethiopian version. previous social assumption that lust The idea of Africa has been and passion were part of the Numidian handed down through European ages culture, if not Africa as a whole. from Ancient Greece to Rome, later to

IROHIN | 14 Views of Nollywood: The Nigerian Film Industry William Marshall

The history of Africa’s film as “a foreign interlocutor” and lack of tors also convey most of the real world industries begins with colonialism. African audiences (p. 235). around them rather than extravagant While subjugated by foreign powers, Adesokan (2014) explained that and expensive sound stages. The the idea of Africa as “the dark conti- as colonization came to an end African directors’ style is what is known in nent” was emphasized through various film became “a tool for revolution” and the US as “guerilla movie-making,” or Colonial Film Units (CFU) established “mouthpieces” for a continent. African “shoot and run.” The cameras roll and by the British government. Adesokan scholars used film as a means to pres- someone keeps watch for the authori- (2014) explained that established in ent nations’ images, convey national ties. These decisions, based on neces- 1939 and dissolved in 1955, the CFU platforms, and foster independence. sity, have given Nollywood movies their produced more than 200 films. These Unifying these bourgeoning nations own quality and allowed producers films were made for and distributed was the Festival Panafricain du Ci- to make cheaper films at an acceler- to African audiences with the purpose néma de Ouadagoudou (FESPACO), ated rate (Adesokan, 2014, p. 239; The of reinforcing Great Britain’s rule over established in Burkina Faso, and the Economist, 2012). The development its colonies (Adesokan, 2014, p. 234; Carthage Film Festival in Tunisia. of digital technology was a watershed Colonial Film: Moving Images of the These institutions aided African film- moment for Nollywood. This new avail- British Empire, 2010, para, 1-4; The makers in presenting their “nationalist ability of high-tech, affordable equip- Economist Newspaper Limited, 2012, ideals of Pan-Africanism” (p. 235, 237). ment made filmmaking much more para. 7-8). America, too, played its Noted African author and filmmaker accessible and polished. part circulating the “old racist im- Ousmane Sembene worked to develop In response to the expense ages of Africa” with Tarzan and other Africa’s standing in the world of cin- involved with movie-making, many “jungle epics that further reinforced ema. Sembene films dealt with many African directors turned to a "do-it- negative stereotypes of the continent” themes including “historical, social, yourself," low-tech approach to film- (Adesokan, 2014, p. 234; The Econo- political, and personal dimensions of making. Many other African countries mist, 2012). contemporary experiences of the conti- now have burgeoning film industries There were filmmakers, though, nent” (Adesokan, p. 237). due to this approach. Kenya is the that sought more educational and so- As Adesokan (2014) presented, home of Riverwood, the nation’s film cially impactful goals with their films. Ousmane Sembene and others worked industry. It, like other African coun- According to Adesokan (2014), from to create a foundation for post-colonial tries, has found inexpensive ways to 1948 through 2004, the French eth- African film. However, issues of finan- create a thriving film industry. Thanks nographer Jean Rouch produced films cial dependence, slow development of to affordable digital equipment and about Africa. These films centered on technology, distribution, and prefer- fast post-production times, Riverwood his idea of “’shared anthropology’… ence for Hollywood films impeded the has been able to release about over the process whereby a foreign director blossoming Africa’s film industry. 20 films a week. This industry has filmed a cultural event or ritual and Entertainment cinema was regarded brought jobs to many Kenyans, either later exhibited the film to the same as an indulgence; nations lacked the through self-employment or with the people who had been filmed, with the necessary means to promote and sup- production companies (Southern Inno- expectation that mutual understand- port such industries. (p. 238-239). vator, n.d.). Increasing Kenya’s value ing would result from the encounter.” Nigeria may lay claim to one of in the filmmaking world is Lupito (p. 234). In spite of the good intentions the most successful–if not the most Nyong’o. Nyong’o is a Kenyan acress; of Rouch and other ethnographers, the visible–film industry in Africa: Nol- she won an Academy Award (2014) for racist image of the uncultured, wild lywood. Nollywood has made its mark her work in 12 Years a Slave (Gathiga, inhabitants of the continent remains; by using local production companies, 2014). Rouch’s goal of “shared anthropology low-tech equipment, and producing South Africa, too, has an up-and- was little realized due to his position films at a rapid rate. Nollywood direc- coming film industry, having grown

IROHIN | 15 from 4,000 people in 1995 to 25,000 at a cost of about $32,000 (US) per does that mean for Nigeria’s languag- (South Africa, 2014). The country film (Institute for Cultural Diplomacy; es? According to Dr. Adedun (2014), has been the site for many interna- Moudio, 2013, table). This is truly a the extinction of language is a gradual tional productions such as Lord of far cry from the movie business that process; other languages are preferred War (2005), District 9 (2010), Blood Rouch and even Sembene experienced. and taught more than others. English Diamond (2006) , and Invictus (2009). Despite the positive economic ef- is considered a “super language” that South Africa has also produced its fects the film industry has on Nigeria, is indicative of education, prestige, own award-winning films.Yesterday Nollywood does have its opponents. class, and opportunities. This leads to (2004), which was nominated for an In a 2010 piece, The Economist (2010) what Bamiro referred to as “subtracted Oscar, and U Carmen E Khayalitsha described a shared fear of “re-coloni- polyglossia,” or “the ascendency of (2004) which receiver Berlin’s film festi- zation” by various African nations and the English language at the expense vals Golden Bear award (South Africa. critics alike. This re-colonization was of the regression and decline of the Info, 2014). one of a cultural intrusion rather than local languages” (p. 133). Children The first Nollywood movie was an outside power; it has been labeled learn English and/or major Nigerian conceived as a simple marketing “Nigerianisation” (The Economist, languages at the expense of local or tool. It is reported that the film was 2010). However, Dr. Emmanuel Ade- mother tongues (p. 134). produced because a trader, Kenneth dayo Adedun (2014), senior Lecturer in Parents who are concerned Nnebue, was trying to move some the Department of English, University with the implications of their chil- blank video tapes. In 1992, Nnebue of Lagos, described the themes found dren watching Nollywood movies have hired a theater director to shoot a in Nollywood films: echoed Dr. Adedun’s findings. Pid- short film and then record it onto the gin – a language that is formed from blank tapes as a kind of added value. “Nollywood filmmakers have applied a mixture of several languages when The movie was “Living in Bondage”; it their talent and imagination to both speakers of different languages need sold over 500,000 copies (The Econo- historical and contemporary issues to talk to each other – is pervasive in mist, 2012). as reflected in diverse themes of Nollywood movies. Parents have com- Much has changed since 1992. their movies. The themes range from plained that their children’s English According to The Economist (2012), religion to governance, from crime to has suffered because of the influence Nollywood movies sell millions of cop- adventure and from rural/urban living of Nollywood. Non-Nigerians object to ies and provide many jobs. Nigeria’s to campaigns against social vices like the Nigerian accent mimicked by their unemployment rate is 23.9% (CIA, AIDS, corruption, prostitution, etc. children and cite it as evidence to the 2014). However, according to Moudio These are produced as common video amount of control Nigeria has. Still (2013), the film industry is the one of genres like horror, comedy, urban other parents have claimed that Nol- the largest industries in the country legend, mythic parable, romance, lywood has affected the family in other (after agriculture) employing over one witchcraft, melodrama, Christian areas: family members’ work ethics, million people. Jason Njoku found op- morality tale and historical epic” (p. church attendance, and household portunity in the industry. At 32 years 114) norms have been disrupted (Kamundi, old, he has a multi-million dollar film- 2010). There also is the view that Nol- distribution company and employs 71 These themes are often mixed with lywood portrays Nigeria as a country people. contrived or poorly developed, “com- steeped in sorcery, loose morals, and Moudio (2013) pointed out that pletely wacky” plots, and “nonsensical poor acting (AllAfrica, May, 2104). it had been speculated that Nigerians phrases” (Thetimes, 2008, p. 114). Does this view towards Nollywood could have even more access to jobs There also exists the argument actually come from the negative light with just a little help from government that Nollywood is aiding in the ex- the industry shines on Nigeria with its backing. This didn’t fall on deaf ears. tinction of many indigenous Nigerian depictions of witchcraft, voodoo, and President Goodluck Jonathan pledged languages. Dr. Adedun (2014) studied the like? Or is it merely the low qual- to N32.6 billion ($200 million US) to sociolinguistics of Nollywood films. His ity, small budget films that flood the Nollywood in 2010 (Agabi, 2013). In research found that several Nigerian market? Some argued that it’s been 2013, Agabi (2013) stated, Jonathan languages were at risk due to the the tendency of the producers to turn then pledged another N3 billion ($18.4 preference for Yoruba, Efik, Hausa, a profit rather than “portraying the million US) to further bolster the film Ibibio, and Bini, all with intermittent good image of society” (AllAfrica, May, industry, create new jobs, and gener- English. Yoruba was the most used 2014, ). ally improve the whole industry. Nev- language in production while Igbo was There are arguments from the ertheless, according to Africa Renewal totally absent. He also pointed out other side of the aisle. In contrast Online (2013) and other reports, Nolly- that most production companies chose to the growing fears of losing indig- wood sees $590 million (US) annually English over other languages in which enous languages to Pigdin, English, and produces about 50 films a week to produce their movies (p. 132). What and more common languages, writer

IROHIN | 16 Cast and Crew on a Nigerian film set.

Akinwale Adekunle maintains that innovative and cheap way to expand Nollywood is “the purveyor of Nigeria’s the African story through a variety of art and culture,” and stated, “It shows voices and images that can only serve the new generation what our diverse to turn around the image of a dying, culture entails” (AllAfrica, June, 2014). helpless Africa to one that celebrates Adekunle was outspoken about the itself (The Nigerian Voice, 2008, para. benefits of Nollywood. He went on to 22). praise the industry for providing jobs to millions of Nigerians promoting the Image Reference arts, and contributing to the nation’s http://www.nigerianemployment.com/jobs/ GDP (AllAfrica, June, 2014). nollywood-child-actors-back-behind-scene-photos- Still others find the escapist new-movie/ quality of Nollywood films alluring. “Thank God for Nigerian movies, they are an escape from news where politi- cians dominate coverage,” said Grace, a Nollywood fan (Kamundi, 2010). Ka- mundi (2010) showed how this senti- ment is echoed by many Nigerians who do not only enjoy Nollywood films, but find present them and the world a true representation of the Africa around them. “Nigeria’s pulp movies have had a wide influence on African popular culture,” stated Thetimes of The Nige- rian Voice (2008). “Nollywood offers an

IROHIN | 17 Green Initiatives: Promoting Women in Africa Jessica Rebstock

It is no secret that sustainable a small financial incentive (green- cesses and failures have helped her living or being “green” is the trend beltmovement.org). Subsequently, be more inspiring and encouraging to heard around the world. However, it this original green initiative allowed other women with the message that is not just western countries taking Maathai to simultaneously address “the sky is the limit” (Maathai, 2006, action in an attempt to be ecological. other issues, such as the disempower- pp. 136). Today, young African women What does a country need to do in ment of women. This ecological initia- are following in Maathai’s powerful order to be considered a nation that tive spread to other countries in Africa, footsteps to help continue promoting is making progress in environmental where the women were the driving green efforts in Africa through a va- sustainability? Many people think of force behind the project. The Green riety of business endeavors including solar panels and wind turbines used Belt movement not only improved the the following: to generate energy. Others think of land by the planting of more than 35 more modern technologies such as Lorna Rutto – Recycling hybrid cars, or an endless supply of Plastic Waste high efficiency appliances. While these things are some examples that help Kenya produces over 10,000 contribute to living an eco-friendly tons of plastic waste each day while lifestyle, “green living” can be found in less than 2% of Kenyan land is forest many more creative outlets that not (ecopost.co.ke). As a young child living only improve sustainability, but also in poverty, Lorna Rutto witnessed the reveal an underlying theme of women's build up of trash around her. Instead empowerment. African women across of allowing the surrounding trash to the continent are finding innovative suppress her aspirations, Rutto was solutions to help the environment. inspired to make various adornments and jewelry from the plastic trash and A Glance at Wangari Maathai sold them for money (unreasonablein- stitute.org). This idea at a young age Sustainability is not a new paved the way for Rutto to fulfill her concept to African countries, mainly dreams of entrepreneurism to help because Africa is a continent rich with Kenya’s land. Living in Nairobi, Lorna natural resources. Perhaps one of the Rutto has since become the founder most notable environmental undertak- of EcoPost Limited (2010); a sustain- ings implemented in Africa is Professor able living venture that turns plastic Wangari Maathai’s Green Belt Move- The late Wangari Maathai with, at the time, senator waste into a usable and ecofriendly ment. Barack Obama in Nairobi. plastic timber, which is then used for Started in 1977 and based out- fencing posts. This plastic timber not side Nairobi, The Green Belt Move- million trees, but also brought togeth- only aids in the issue of deforesta- ment is a response to Kenyan women er many groups of women who were tion, but also provides prospective who expressed their concern of fading organized and collaborated to make jobs, specifically for Kenyan youth and streams, diminishing food supply, and a difference in their own lives and in women. Remarkably, “EcoPost has an ever increasing distance to walk the lives of others (Maathai, 2007). withdrawn over 1 million kilograms of just to get wood necessary for daily Throughout her journey of environ- plastic and saved an estimated 250 life. The Green Belt Movement inspired mental achievements, Maathai showed acres of forest.” (ecopost.co.ke). Recy- women to get involved in planting trees that although she had gone through cling Kenya’s excessive plastic waste across Kenya and, in return, received many phases of her life, both the suc- has prevented 2,500,000 kg of CO2

IROHIN | 18 Initiative has created job training in the making of these bikes, which has helped the economy. When asked about her support and empower- ment of women through her business, Dapaah explained that her business employs more women than men and that women hold the top administra- tive positions (empowerwomen.org).

Conclusion

In the words of Professor Wangari Maathai, “We owe it to ourselves and to the next generation to conserve the environment so that we can bequeath our children a sustainable world that benefits all.” This statement embod- ies the essence of what it means to live “green” and how this rings true for businesses established and managed Bamboo bicycle built in Ghana. by remarkable women throughout the countries of Africa. emissions, which has helped alleviate production of sustainable products the issue of climate change (ecopost. (Rudolf and Emmanuel, 2013). Image Reference co.ke). In 2011, the Cartier Women’s Named as one of the 2014 Young Maathai and Obama. Credit: Fredrick Onyango. Initiative Awards recognized Rutto for Global Leaders, Bernice Dapaah is http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maathai_ her sustainable efforts in Kenya and helping put Ghana on the map regard- and_Obama_in_Nairobi.jpg for her entrepreneurism. The Cartier ing progress in sustainable living by Women’s Initiative Awards is a pro- transforming bamboo into a sustain- Bamboo Bike. http://www.myafricanow.com/ gram that creates an international able mode of transportation. Dapaah bamboo-bike-business/ network of women entrepreneurs is the executive director of Ghana and encourages the business ideas of Bamboo Bikes, a green initiative to women around the globe (cartierwom- help Ghana combat some of its major ensinitiative.com). Lorna Rutto is an challenges: climate change, poverty, ideal model of a woman transforming rural-urban migration, and high trash into treasure—a true sustainable unemployment rates among Ghana’s effort making a significant difference youth (ghanabamboobikes.org). in Africa’s ecosystem. While Ghana is rich with natural resources, including cocoa beans, and Bernice Dapaah – Making gold, it also has an abundance of bam- Bikes from Bamboo boo (ghanaembassy.org). Utilizing this bamboo in an effort to help Ghana’s Traditionally, Bamboo in Africa land and economy is one driving force is used for things that do not require behind Dapaah’s green bike initia- much durability or longevity, such as tive. These organic bamboo bikes are walking sticks, various art figures, ecofriendly as opposed to traditional and laminated coffee tables. In Ghana, steel and aluminum bikes, which there are no records of farmers even require using a lot of energy to pro- growing bamboo mainly because it is duce. Additionally, these bikes have a mainly seen as a free substance that natural shock absorption system, and can be readily found throughout in the a high load bearing capacity—up to forest (Rudolf and Emmanuel, 2013, 500 pounds. These features are ideal pp.1). However, because bamboo is a for Ghanaians who use these bikes to non-timber product and grows rapidly transport various materials across a regardless of the climate, consum- rugged land. Focusing on the business ing Ghana’s bamboo allows for the aspects, the Ghana Bamboo Bikes

IROHIN | 19 Women’s Economic Empowerment Michelle Vargas

While the world continues to ties and contribute substantially to to resources, attitude and cultural be ever changing and progressing, self-help socioeconomic development practice” (“A Study of the Economic the role of women in society, while projects” (“A Study of the Economic Empowerment,” 1998). expanding, continues to crave new di- Empowerment,” 1998). Unfortunately, mensions and empowerment. Women they receive very little credit for their Achieving Gender Equality play incredibly important roles in all contribution and face barriers to entry realms of society including as mothers as potential game changers. According to the operational and wives, but lack the acknowledg- The problem faced in Africa lies framework of the United Nations Mil- ment of their role in the socio-econom- in a series of factors that constrain lennium Project Taskforce for Educa- ic development of their countries. In women from becoming important tion and Gender, in order to achieve Africa, women are held equal to men members of Africa’s economic activi- gender equality and truly empower in various realms including religion ties. Among the lack of acknowledge- women, there must be a change in and political power, but in some areas ment for the tasks that they perform, each of the three domains (Dejene, are not acknowledged for their roles other constraining factors include 2007, p. 5): and status. “unequal access to education and “Women constitute more than training, demanding reproductive i.) Capabilities Domain – refers 50 percent of Africa’s population and responsibilities and high fertility rates, to the basic human abilities as account for 60-80 percent of the ag- restrictions to women’s employment measured by education, health, ricultural labor force. They dominate in both the public and private sec- and nutrition; informal and service sectors activi- tors of the economy, limited access

© Green Belt Movement

IROHIN | 20 ii.) Access to Resources and Op- special interest in the education of and training them to use sustainable portunities Domain – refers to African girls and women in the tech- agriculture and commerce within equality in opportunity to use or nology sector (“Vision and Objective,” their families and to gain sustainable apply basic capabilities through n.d.), can provide effective foundations incomes (“About Heifer International,” access to economic assets, for entrepreneurship and transforma- n.d.). Heifer International has a par- including land, property, and tion from traditional to non-traditional ticular interest in empowering women infrastructure, resources, such economic trends that will allow women to change the world. as income and employment, to compete and be truly empowered “Women are often the most vul- and political opportunities that economically. nerable, and building real skills and allow for female representation social capital can help lift them and in parliament and other politi- School Girls Unite their families out of poverty” – Keo cal bodies; and Keang, Heifer Cambodia Director The goal of organizations such Heifer provides the livestock, iii.) Security Domain – defined as as YFE and Dot Connect Africa is not training, and assistance to help reduced vulnerability to vio- only to empower women financially, women be self-sufficient. The program lence and conflict, as violence but also allow them to become mem- helps women achieve enough profits to targets women and girls and bers of new industries. They under- send their children to school, pay for limits them from reaching their stand that the basis for power starts their medical expenses, and to provide maximum potential. with education. School Girls Unite, a their children with the opportunity to Once the three domains have non-profit organization based in Mali find a niche within their communi- been fully achieved and a structure for dedicated to freedom via education ties and a voice within themselves. equal gender opportunities have been outlets, was inspired by the idea that The idea of this project is that “if you set in place, women empowerment will “education is the starting point to solv- change a woman’s life, she will share be achieved and allow for a truly thriv- ing almost every problem, including her knowledge with her sisters, daugh- ing society of balance. reducing diseases and ending poverty, ters and friends” and spread the power and eventually increasing the num- of femininity and womanhood (“Em- Women’s Entrepreneurship ber of women in leadership positions power Women to Change the World,” throughout the world” (“About School n.d.). Historically, women in Af- Girls Unite,” n.d.). rica have been celebrated for their They believe that by providing Empowerment Inside Out strength, work ethic, and dedication to young girls with a formal education, their families through matriarchal tra- they are providing a foundation for It is evident that African women ditions. However, as African countries growth, opportunities, and ultimate are strong and prepared to take on continue to develop into contemporary freedom. School Girls Unite, or Les roles of essential members of their societies, the roles of women within Filles Unies pour l’Education, provide socio-economic development and is their communities have remained scholarships to young girls to tackle it time that they bring that strength stagnant and “women’s entrepreneur- problems of low elementary graduation inside out. African women have ship in micro and small business that rates, child brides and illiteracy among struggled and succeeded for centuries, are often considered informal, despite women (“About School Girls Unite,” and with the foundations that local concerted efforts of poverty reduction n.d.). Through these efforts they are and worldwide organizations are help- initiatives through increased access to better able to set these young girls in ing establish, they will once more gain skills training and micro-credit, have the right path to leadership roles in recognition for their strife and perse- not been able to reach the growth po- their communities and powerful minds verance. Looking at the potential roles tential” (Dejene, 2007, p. 2). for socio-economic advancements and of women, one finds that if society is The potential growth lies in the recognition. to develop, “it is vital that society ef- power to educate women to use their fectively utilize the talent, experience traditions of hard work and dedication Heifer International and expertise of women in all levels of towards non-traditional fields that will decision-making” (Bond, 2000, p. 79). truly put African women on the map Heifer International is a charity Without gender equality, there will as leaders of their economy. Global organization that works with commu- come a point where there will be no organizations like Young Female nities to end world hunger and pov- more progression for lack of consider- Entrepreneurs (YFE), who aim to cre- erty through the “teach a man to fish” ation of the other half of society. ate a network of women worldwide to philosophy. They strive to “empower help them start and grow businesses families to turn hunger and poverty Image Reference (“About FYE,” n.d.), and Dot Connect into hope and prosperity” by provid- http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/news-and- Africa, a Kenyan organization with ing them with the necessary resources events/media-resources

IROHIN | 21 Tunisia, Three Years Later: Reflections on Jasmine Revolution Jasper P. Webb

Background the government building that, to him, let ceded control and granted indepen- represented corruption after exclaim- dence to Tunisia (Perkins, 1986, pp. On Friday, December 17, 2010, ing, “How do you expect me to make 109-115). Mohamed Bouazizi, a twenty-six year a living?” (Simon, 2011, p. 1). It was a At the end of the protectorate, old street vendor, poured gasoline on sentiment shared by many Tunisians. nationalist leader Habib Bourguiba himself, lit a match and set himself In order to understand the des- was elected the first prime minister ablaze in front of the governor’s of- peration of Bouazizi and many of his of independent Tunisia and president fice in Sidi Bouzid, Tunisia. He could fellow Tunisians, we must begin our of the Republic of Tunisia - a posi- hardly have known as the flames investigation earlier than December tion he held from 1958 until he was engulfed him that his actions would 2010. Situated on the Mediterranean removed for medical reasons in 1987 be the catalyst that would spark a half Sea of northern coastal Africa, Tunisia (Perkins, 1989, p. 28). Bourguiba’s century of social and political tensions has a long history of power struggles presidency was characterized early in Tunisia into a full scale revolt that dating back to antiquity (Perkins, on by a wide range of social reforms would spread across national bound- 1986, pp. 15-95). In modern times, intended to modernize the country. aries through much of northern Africa France invaded Tunisia in 1881 under His Neo-Destour party had long been and parts of the Middle East. For him, the auspices of protecting French Ter- a secular nationalist movement which it was a personal statement against a ritory in Algeria from raids by Tunisian neither rejected nor invited participa- government that he felt had oppressed Khrumir tribespeople. This invasion tion of Islamic religious leaders (Rine- him for many years. culminated in the establishment of hart, 1979, p. 52). He quickly made When Bouazizi was only ten Tunisia as a French protectorate moves to eliminate what he considered years old, he became the primary under the Treaty of the Bardo which to be “obsolete” religious customs provider for his family supporting his was further reinforced by the Berlin and regulations including abolish- mother and five younger siblings by Conference of 1884-1885 between Eu- ing the religious courts, absorbing selling produce from a wooden cart ropean powers and the Ottoman Em- the school of the Zituna mosque into (Ryan, 2011, 15 January). Despite pire (Perkins, 1986, p. 85). Following the new University of Tunis, prohibit- applying to join the army and seek- WWI, a Tunisian nationalist movement ing the wearing of the veil by women, ing employment in various sectors, began to develop and made modest in- and increasing women’s legal rights Bouazizi would continue to support his roads towards autonomy from French including access to birth control and family as a street vendor until the day rule (Perkins, 1986, pp. 97-107). The abortion (Rinehart, 1979, p. 52). He he died. Bouazizi was often harassed second world war saw Tunisia fall to also adopted socialist-etatist socio- by police and forced to pay bribes the Axis powers, occupation by Ger- economic policies that established a while selling his wares to support his many, and upon Allied victory, return large bureaucracy to provide social family (Beaumont, 2011). On Decem- to status as a French protectorate services, expanded security services ber 17th, Bouazizi was confronted by despite the issuance of the “Manifesto and the army, subsidized foodstuffs police led by a female municipal offi- of the Tunisian Front” by a coalition and energy production, and created a cial, Faida Hamdi. They physically as- of numerous political leaders, labor large number of public sector employ- saulted him, confiscated his electronic activists, educators and religious of- ment opportunities (Winckler, 2013, p. scales, and overturned his produce ficials calling for self government and 68). These policies led to rapid eco- cart (Abouzeid, 2011, p. 8). Enraged an elected assembly (Perkins, 1986, nomic growth and a sharp decline in by the altercation, Bouazizi sought the pp. 108-110). During the post war unemployment during the 1950s and intervention of the local governor, but years, France encountered increasing 1960s; also, the oil boom of the 1970s the official refused to meet with him. nationalist movements in its territories brought Tunisia vast revenue sources Less than an hour after the altercation in Africa and Indochina, and in March from neighboring oil-rich arab coun- with the police, Bouazizi self immo- 1956, French Prime Minister Guy Mol- tries in the form of aid, labor migra- lated in the middle of traffic in front of

IROHIN | 22 tion, and tourism (Winckler, 2013, p. nounced violent protest as unaccept- spike in online revolutionary conversa- 69). Economic opportunities bolstered able (Al Jazeera, 2010). On January tions often preceded major events on young Tunisians, particularly the 14th, Ben Ali fled the country with the ground” (Howard, 2011, Abstract). educated, against opposition to Bour- his family to Saudi Arabia, leaving the These modes of communication pro- guiba’s regime by muslim fundamen- Prime Minister, Mohammed Ghannou- vided connections that were, at least talists and other opponents (Winckler, chi, to take over as interim president initially, beyond the scope of govern- 2013, p. 69). (BBC, 2011, 15 Jan). Ghannouchi ment censorship. Here dissidents were By the time Prime Minister Zine formed an interim government and empowered to share ideas and dis- El Abidine Ben Ali assumed the presi- vowed to resign after holding trans- cover information that was otherwise dency, Tunisia was in decline. Due to parent and free elections within six prohibited or unavailable (Ross, 2011). a rapid population increase and the months. Protests against Ghannouchi Ross explains further that, “on the effect of the global decline in oil prices and the ruling RCD party continued, whole, the clear evidence of recent his- during the 1980s, the GDP (Gross and Ghannouchi announced in a tory shows that the network technolo- Domestic Product) growth rate had television address on January 27th gies infusing the nervous system of fallen from 7.5% to 3.6% - the unem- that 12 ministers had been replaced. modern political, economic, and social ployment was 16.4% (Winckler, 2013, He further insisted the government life tend to resist centralized control pp. 70-72). Unemployment contin- was "transitional" and would "take the and empower decentralized move- ued to rise during the 1990s and the country to democracy" (BBC, 2011, 27 ments of ideas” (Ross, 2011). early part of the 21st century reach- Jan). Protests continued until Ghan- Communication through these ing 28.4% in the 15-24 age bracket nouchi resigned on February 27th say- networks allowed individuals to meet just prior to the financial crash on ing: "After having taken more than one virtually in situations where organiza- Wall Street and the subsequent global week of thinking, I became convinced, tion in person would have raised gov- financial crisis (Winckler, 2013, p. 72). and my family shared my conviction, ernment attention and been classified The Tunisian government attempted and decided to resign. It is not fleeing as unlawful assembly. Moreover, social to counteract the economic trend by my responsibilities; I have been shoul- networks allowed leadership and or- tripling subsidy expenditures between dering my responsibilities since 14 ganization to be diffused among many 2000 and 2010, but this was insuf- January [when Mr Ben Ali fled]" and participants instead of one leader or ficient to maintain the prices of energy that his resignation would serve the core group (Ross, 2011). In addition production and basic food supply revolution and the future of Tunisia to connecting the protesters, tweets, (Winckler, 2013, p. 73). As was to be (BBC, 2011, 27 February). Facebook and YouTube posts provided expected, popular opinion evolved from the rest of the world with instant on the support of Bourguiba to growing Social Media Plays a the ground reports of revolutionary dissent and a feeling that the Ben Ali Central Role in 21 st Century progress and setbacks. administration was not responding Revolution to the peoples needs - as things got Women’s Role in the worse, an increasing portion of the Technology found a new role Revolution and Beyond population began to see the govern- in the events of the Jasmine Revolu- ment as corrupt (Winckler, 2013, p. tion. During the months of revolution, Tunisian women played an active 74). social media proved to be more than role in the Jasmine Revolution. Am- It was in this socio-economic en- just a place to post pictures of cats bassador for Global Women’s Issues, vironment that Mohamed Bouazizi felt or idly banter about social politics. Melanne Verveer, told the U.S. Senate he had no future and chose to set him- Instead it became a tool that played a Committee on Foreign Relations,“They self ablaze that December morning. central role in determining the out- were in the streets of Tunisia ... His physical protest statement quickly come of the Jasmine Revolution and standing shoulder to shoulder with led to mass protests in the streets of the greater Arab Spring. Social media the men as they struggled together to Sidi Bouzid, and by December 27th, platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, build a better future for all” (Verveer, demonstrators were beginning to oc- and YouTube brought elements to the 2011, p. 4). Furthermore, since most cupy the streets of the nation’s capital, revolution that had been absent from conventional media networks in the Tunis, and labor unions were calling previous protests and uprisings. Arab Spring countries were dominated for “solidarity protests” (Bhatnagar, First, social networks trans- by older males, cyberactivism gave 2010). Protests continued through formed into political networks that women their own voice both locally December and spread throughout Tu- provided instant connections between and internationally (Newsom, 2012). nisia. In January, a general strike by mass groups of protesters. A study One such case was blogger, Lina lawyers and teachers led to increased analyzing over three million tweets, Ben Mhenni. During the most violent violence between police, military, and gigabytes of YouTube content and days of the uprising, she travelled to protesters. Meanwhile Ben Ali de- thousands of blog posts found that “a Sidi Bouzid, and was the only blogger

IROHIN | 23 p. 70). The tourism industry, which had provided employment for 11.5% of the workforce and accounted for 6.5% of the GDP, suffered a 33% drop in revenue in 2011 (Winckler, 2013, p. 76). In an effort to combat the economic decay, the Tunisian govern- ment created 20,000 new positions for civil employees and raised the average public sector wages an average of 4.7% in 2011 (Winckler, 2013, p. 78). The tourism industry made a significant recovery during 2012, but deteriorated again in 2013 following the murder of opposition leader Chokri Belaid in February and Islamic attacks on tourist destinations in April (Winckler, 2013, p. 76). Women played a significant role in Tunisian liberation. Two years later, things are in Regueb and Kasserine when the se- sian feminist, called for the United beginning to look more promising. In curity forces massacred people there. Nations' Universal Declaration of January 2014, the Tunisian national She provided first hand accounts and Human Rights to be the basis of the assembly adopted a new constitution photographs of the dead and injured country's new laws (Michaud, 2011, that is lauded as a "shining star" in on her blog, "A Tunisian Girl," to 6 June). Melanne Verveer, Ambassa- contrast with other Arab Spring na- ensure that other Tunisian activists dor‑at‑Large for Global Women’s Is- tions such as Libya and Egypt that and international media would know sues told the U.S. Senate, “In Tunisia, remain plagued by instability and what was happening (Ryan, 2011, 21 which held its first fully democratic political turmoil (Dasgupta, 2014). October). Moreover, she was one of election on October 23 [2011], women French President Francois Hollande, the few brave Tunisian cyberactivists won around 25 percent of the seats in the only European head of state in who blogged and tweeted under a real the new Constituent attendance at the ceremony, de- name during the reign of former Presi- Assembly” (Verveer, 2011, p. 6). clared, "The constitution honours your dent Zine El Abidine Ben Ali (Ryan, Moreover, Verveer advised, “All politi- revolution and is an example for other 2011, 21 October). The revolution was cal parties who won significant seats countries to follow" (Al Jazeera, 2014, not just for young women either. Saida responded to Human Rights Watch’s 7 February). "This constitution that we Sadouni led the historic Kasbah picket pre-election (sic) survey indicating are celebrating today is a hope and an that succeeded in forcing Mohamed their support for the principles of example for other countries," echoed Ghannouchi's interim government out gender equality and nondiscrimina- European Council President Herman of office, but she does not conform tion. They all, including the moder- Van Rompuy (Al Jazeera, 2014, 7 to the typical image of an Arab revo- ate Islamist al-Nahda party, favored February). Tunisian President Moncef lutionary. The 77-year-old Tunisian maintaining the country’s progressive Marzouki said it best, "By adopting woman camped in front of the prime personal status codes which grant the constitution, Tunisia celebrated a minister's headquarters for more than Tunisian women the same rights as triple victory, over dictatorship, over two weeks in the bitter Tunisian cold. Tunisian men” (Verveer, 2011, p. 7). terrorism that seeks to spread chaos "I have resisted French occupation. This seems to indicate an acknowledg- and block our path to democracy and I have resisted the dictatorships of ment not only of women’s role within over our own divisions” (Al Jazeera, Bourguiba and Ben Ali. I will not rest the revolution itself but also their 2014, 7 February). The Economic Intel- until our revolution meets its goals," importance as Tunisia makes its way ligence Unit also sees hope for Tuni- she explained to thousands of protest- into the future. sia’s future albeit with reservations. ers who joined her. Many have hailed In June 2014, it reported that Tunisia Sadouni as the mother of Tunisia's is making progress beyond that of its Looking Forward: When Will Arab Spring neighbors, but they still revolution, a living record of her coun- the Sun Rise on Tunisia? try's modern history and its struggle have many hurdles to overcome. for emancipation. The Jasmine Revolution had se- Following the revolution, women vere effects on the Tunisian economy. Image Reference Credit: Tarek MRAD. https://www.flickr.com/pho- are playing an increasing role in gov- In 2011, the GDP growth rate dropped tos/altruisto/9487508359/ ernment. Raja bin Salama, a Tuni- from 3.7% to -1.8% (Winckler, 2013,

IROHIN | 24 On the Rocks: A Sugary Chronicle of Coca- Cola’s Impact on South Africa’s Economic Development Chris Salamone, JD

As a commercial force in Africa, worldwide dominance of English as profit margins, but also a symbiotic globalization has become an unavoid- the lingua franca in business transac- and measurable benefit to the regional able catalyst and consequence in the tions. Evidence of this is that the most economy. Additionally, globalized pursuit of a mass consumption-based spoken languages of South Africa are labor forces shift scarce resources to worldwide economy. The list of intend- Afrikaans and English, despite having less developed countries, therefore ed and unintended econsequences to eleven official languages. A fact made strengthening the economies of the the international economy, as a func- even more astounding by the reality countries which are most in need. tion of globalization, is long. Further, that both popular tongues are foreign Sometimes this strengthening can re- these consequences have resulted in origin. The rate of indigenous lan- sult in positive trade agreements, such in meaningful and often distressing guage extinction has only increased as as the South Africa Development Com- political ramifications between trading globalization has continued to march munity (SADC), TDCA or FTA, which nations. However, instead of focusing forward. And, with the advent of shift- may favor all participating countries. on the purely negative aspects of glo- ed manufacturing and labor to less Direct economic impact can also balization, this paper seeks to explore developed countries, pollution and the be attributed to Coca-Cola’s presence some of the key benefits associated degradation of sensitive environments in South Africa. In 2003 alone, Coca- with one particular international com- have both become increasingly perva- Cola’s activities amounted to $1.75 bil- mercial enterprise, Coca-Cola, within a sive. Sometimes these negative con- lion toward South Africa’s GDP, which single African country, South Africa. sequences may result in international represents about 1.4 percent of the trade regulations, tariffs or sanctions country’s total GDP (Moore School of A Bitter Taste which create political tension in a Bus., 2005). That simply means that fiercely competitive global economy. Coca-Cola would be the equivalent of 1 The most common criticism in 100 companies that create the total of globalization is the potential for On the Sweet Side value of goods and services within the homogenization of human culture. entire country. Of course, all these (Holton, 2000, pp. 140-152). Local Conversely, in terms of posi- goods and services have generated a customs and habits relative to unique tive effects associated with global- large number of direct and indirect dietary constraints tend to evolve ization, the most commonly studied jobs, about 166,360. toward a global mainstream when (Rubenstein, 2011, pp. 29-30) has Critics of globalization might be a multinational company, such as to be access to and the availability of concerned and ask: Why should we Coca-Cola, establishes itself in a com- affordable/quality goods and services. dedicate such a large section of the munity. Unfortunately, Coca-Cola also In large part, international outsourc- workforce to a product which possibly tends to operate along other major ing for labor is a direct result of lax erodes dental enamel, stomach lining, transnationals such as McDonald’s, international regulations pertaining as well as calcium in bones, and may thereby vastly exacerbating its im- to workplace safety, minimum wage, contribute to rising levels of worldwide pact on a cultural environment. This healthcare and age of employees. This obesity? And, obesity is a real concern new uniform landscape may not be a is also the main reason why Coca-Cola in South Africa where 29.2% of men positive change for cultures rooted in tends to bottle and distribute their are either overweight or obese and a historical precedent, such as South products regionally (Moore School of relatively shocking 56.6% of women Africa, and can be paralleled to the Bus., 2005). When taken in the ag- are overweight or obese (Mbananga et impact of British-influenced tea trad- gregate, these labor trends amount al., 2012, pp. 1038-1048). While these ing over generations. Also, a result to a higher return on investment for statistics are troubling, few academ- of large-scale trade has been the companies seeking to increase their

IROHIN | 25 ics argue that products such as soft require local individuals to come pick who have been provided access to drinks should be banned internation- up Coca-Cola products from a central “business skills, financial services, ally because of their adverse health location. Second, and in more remote assets and support networks of peers effects. To argue that South Africa locations, distributers and salespeople and mentors.” (Coca-Cola Co., 2012). should be restricted would remove via all forms of transportation carry The goal is to reach more than 40,000 South African agency and individual Coca-Cola products into less-populous women in South Africa, Egypt and responsibility. Should we also remove markets. These modes of transport in- Brazil by the end of 2015! This is sugar from local grocery stores? Per- clude anything from truck, to bicycle, especially significant in South Africa, haps South Africans may not prefer and even handcart (Berry, 2010). Of where Black Economic Empowerment the use of sweeteners or explore their the 166,360 jobs reportedly caused by has been a priority of the government own ability workout more? Are ham- Coca-Cola’s activities in South Africa, since the end of the apartheid political mers too dangerous to sell out of hard- even legal and medical personnel, in system in 1994. ware stores as well? addition to the many thousands of The links to Fetal Alcohol Syn- related and ancillary jobs from ex- The Dregs drome as a result of the commercial- clusivity contracts with other major ization of alcoholic beverages in South companies such as McDonald’s benefit Much has been said about the Africa, are even worse. (May, 2000, from the Coca-Cola System’s regional negative ramifications of multina- pp.1905-1912). Fortunately, however, control network. tional corporations in culturally rich Coca-Cola is fairly isolated from the Omnipresent products like Coca- locations, like South Africa. Yet, the manufacture and distribution of al- Cola have a tremendous impact on economic benefits of Coca-Cola’s intru- cohol products in South Africa. There the economic activity of a market. Job sion into South Africa have been vast are some regionally-owned bottling creation and the generation of large and mostly non-exploitive. From local companies, which Coca-Cola utilizes, quantities of goods and services are control, to contributions to GDP and that also bottle and distribute alcohol. all positives for South Africa. But the job growth, as well as professional However, Coca-Cola (as a company) is story of Coca-Cola’s impact does not empowerment, Coca-Cola has also had not directly involved in the alcohol bot- conclude with GDP and jobs. In- positive effects. Even water steward- tling process. stead, a myriad of other local sectors ship, a concern for South Africa in Jobs which stem from the Coca- also benefit from the production and general, has been aligned with Coca- Cola system are diverse and func- distribution of Coca-Cola products. Cola: by 2020 the company plans to tion in two primary business models Businesses and industries which are replenish 100% of the water used in within Africa. Both models receive involved in plastic, metals such as iron beverages back to communities and flavoring or syrups from Coca-Cola’s and steel, chemicals, motor vehicles, nature through the support of healthy headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia. electricity, ancillary business services, watersheds and community water From there, regional bottlers combine trade, agriculture and food all derive programs. In the aggregate, the more water, carbonation and the proprietary benefits from their gargantuan and goods and services which are bought materials provided by Coca-Cola and ongoing associations with Coca-Cola. and sold in South Africa, the more distribute according to regional prefer- This is important because the Coca- citizens will have access to and be able ences. First, regional bottlers employ Cola System does not maintain com- to purchase necessary items, such as Manual Distribution Centers (MDCs) plete control, nor by extension receive food, water, shelter, healthcare and in large urban centers. These MDCs the total profit associated with local education. Coca-Cola’s addition of activity in South Africa. $1.75 Billion to South Africa’s GDP, Instead, regional activities hundreds of thousands of jobs, cor- are controlled by regional porate social responsibility programs individuals and businesses. and maintenance of regional control Finally, as of Novem- in the international Coca-Cola Sys- ber 2012, Coca-Cola an- tem, ensure that while Coca-Cola may nounced a strong commit- not primarily offer items necessary to ment to the empowerment survive, with the exception of bottled of women in South Africa. water, the company has nevertheless Worldwide, this initiative provided a gear for the South African is known as 5by20, which consumption-based economy to turn aims to empower 5 mil- on. lion women entrepreneurs by 2020. In South Africa, Image Reference 5by20 has translated to Credit: Megan Trace. https://www.flickr.com/pho- more than 4,600 women tos/megantrace/6886269689

It seems that Coca-Cola is available just about everywhere.

IROHIN | 26 Beta Israel: The Jews of Ethiopia Barbara Ferris

Ethiopian Jews, or Falasha, maintaining their cultural traditions.

Ethiopia consists of many reli- pia, in more than 500 small villages amon, 1999) They trace their lineage gious faiths, the most numerous being spread over a wide territory among to the Lost Tribe of Israel from the Old the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians. populations that are predominantly Testament. Occupationally, the Beta Twenty percent of Ethiopians are of Christian and Muslim. Most of them Israel were skilled as potters, weavers, the Protestant faith, more than a third were concentrated in the area around smiths and masons. Because of their are Muslims, and there is also a small Lake Tana, and the Amhara Region outcast positions among the ethnic but longstanding Jewish community of Gonder. In early times, they were groups in Ethiopia, the Beta Israel (Ethiopian Census, 2007). Before a referred to as “Falasha” which means were not allowed to own land. (Klein, mass emigration to Israel, there were outcast. Falasha also means “land- 2007) about 28,000 Jewish people in Ethio- less” in the dominant Amhara society. There are several theories about pia. Today, only 7,000 of these people (Klein, 2007) the origins of Beta Israel and how remain. This article is a short history The Beta Israel are physically they came to be in Ethiopia. The three of the Jewish people in Ethiopia, the and linguistically indistinguishable major theories are: the Lost Tribe Beta Israel, or, “The House of Israel”. from the Christian majority in Ethiopia Theory, which claims that the Beta The Beta Israel lived for centuries but have considered themselves to be Israel are the lost tribe of Dan (one in North and Northwestern Ethio- ethnically and religiously distinct. (Sal- of the twelve tribes of Israel from the

IROHIN | 27 Old Testament) and came to Ethiopia attacked three times which resulted in munity. Faitlovich created schools for in the mid eighth century BC because a massive loss of life (Quirin, 1992). In Beta Israel and acted as an emissary of a mass migration from Israel; the 1614, Beta Israel tried to revolt against on behalf of the world Jewish commu- Convert Theory, which holds that Emperor Susenyos. As a result, Suse- nity (Klein, 2007). Awareness of Beta Beta Israel were converted to Judaism nyos ordered the extermination of all Israel by Jewish and Israeli leaders from Christianity by outsiders travel- Beta Israel men and the sale of the have led to the mass exodus of Ethio- ing to Ethiopia; and the Rebel theory women and children into slavery. The pian Jews to Israel. In 1984, during a which holds that these people ended Beta Israel who did not revolt were famine in Ethiopia, Operation Moses up separating themselves in rebel- spared, as long as they converted to was arranged for 8,000 Ethiopian lion against the political, social and Christianity. Another revolt in 1624 Jews who were flown to Israel. Opera- economic structures of the state and led to more extermination of the Beta tion Joshua, in 1985 helped with the church of Ethiopia. (Quirin, 1992) The Israel group. removal of 494 Ethiopian Jews from Beta Israel group and the international During the Gonder Era, which refugee camps in Sudan to relative Jewish community hold the belief that was marked by the building of the City safety in Israel. In 1991, the dramatic the Beta Israel are from the Lost Tribe of Gonder in 1632, Beta Israel in- Operation Solomon, over the course of Dan who migrated from Israel in the creased their skills as carpenters and of 36 hours, flew 14,325 Beta Israel eighth century BC. (Klein, 2007) masons to help construct the city’s to Israel. More than 36,000 Ethiopian Historical records for the Beta monumental castles and churches. Jews now live in Israel. They continue Israel are limited. As early as the ninth They also maintained their traditional to suffer from economic and social century a letter by a Jewish traveler occupations such as smiths, potters hardships. However, they are given tells of a people who maintain Jewish and weavers. At this time, during the assistance in their settlement in Israel. traditions, possess Jewish texts and Gonder Era, Beta Israel were free to There full integration into Israeli so- spoke Hebrew and established a pow- practice agriculture and were incor- ciety is an ongoing process, worthy of erful Jewish Kingdom whose people porated into the Ethiopian political continued interest (World Directory of possess characteristic strength and economy with a relatively high eco- Minorities, 2013). valor (Adler, 1966). A common theme nomic and social status. The men of in the history of Beta Israel has been Beta Israel, at this time, developed a Image Reference courage and valor within a framework level of excellence in the smithing but http://www.africanmag.com/FORUM-1687-de- of a persecution and of Jewish suffer- were viewed with suspicion by their sign004 ing (Kaplan, 1984). neighbors because of their ability to After the rise of Christianity in “spit fire” (Klein, 2007). the fourth century, the Beta Israel In the late 19th century, Gonder withdrew to the mountainous Gonder ceased to be a political center and was region where they lived for more than replaced by new “modern” cities (Klein, 2,000 years. During this time, the 2007). The effect for the Beta Israel Jews of Ethiopia withstood numer- is that their skills were needed else- ous conflicts with the rulers of Ethio- where and they spread throughout the pia because of the proselytizing by empire. The primary area of Gonder the church and aggressions towards continued to exist, but with fewer non-Christians. One era of conflict numbers of Beta Israel as they were was during the Solomonic dynasty in dispersed throughout the country. the thirteenth Century. Another was Famine and conversion to Christianity during the reign of Emporer Yshaq by the influx of Protestant missionar- (1443-1430) which marked a turn- ies further decreased the population ing point in which the non-Christians of Beta Israel. During this time, some confiscated the lands of Beta Jewish Beta Israel began doomed treks to peoples. The Beta Israel of that time Israel in which many perished, to save compensated for this loss of land by themselves from persecution, famine becoming skilled in masonry and and to continue to practice their faith metallurgy (Kaplan, 1992). In the 15th in the Promised Land. Century, the Jews who lived by Lake The movement to save the Jews Tana would have been completely of Ethiopia was started in 1867 by wiped out if it was not for the greater French scholar Joseph Halevy (Klein, threat to the kings of this era by the 2007). Jaques Faitlovitch, a student of influx of Muslims (Kaplin, 1992). Be- Halevy’s worked to improve the condi- tween 1579 and 1590, the Jews were tions of the Ethiopian Jewish com-

IROHIN | 28 Helping from Home: Assisting Children in The Central African Republic Sarah Mckeever

In December 2013, UNICEF man Development Index” (2012). The emphasis on divination and prophecy, reported “unprecedented” levels of vio- Central African Republic has “one of and belief in witchcraft… Interactions lence against youngsters with at least the lowest population densities in the between religious groups are gener- 16 children dead and 60 injured (at world”; the Eastern part of the C.A.R. ally peaceful, and there is a high level least two beheaded) and “MSF figures still has a lower population density yet of tolerance from the government and show they have treated over 1,000 as a result of the slavery raids the 19th, religious freedom.” Perhaps this has people in Bangui in December”(African and 20th Century (2012). something to do with having a female Research Bulletin). Bangui is the capi- Despite ending slavery, French president? At least they are ahead of tal of the Central African Republic. The colonization introduced armed groups the United States in women’s empow- C.A.R. was formerly the French colony to violently enforce the collection of erment… Ubangi-Shari (also spelled Oubangui- rubber, the cultivation of cash crops, After gaining independence, the Chari by Juergensmeyer and Roof in etc which led to mistreatment, sick- country experienced successive mili- 2012) until August 13, 1960 when it ness, hunger, exhaustion of the “more tary governments. With lack of nation- gained independence from France. than 80 ethnic groups” (Roof, 2012). alism, Seleka rebels overthrew Presi- The C.A.R. is land-locked and With French forms of Education, and dent Bozize in 2013. Michel Djotodia bordered by Cameroon, Chad, Su- religion, Central Africans converted to assumed power as the first Muslim dan, the Democratic Republic of the Christianity. In 2012, Juergensmeyer Head of State provoked the current Congo, and the Republic of the Congo. and Roof found that “Roughly half of crisis in C.A.R. Over one thousand Although the C.A.R. grows food crops the inhabitants are Christian, evenly people were killed in 2013, almost one including cassava, peanuts, sorghum, split between Catholics and Prot- million people fled, and one fourth of millet, maize, sesame, and plantains, estants; 15% are Muslim, and 35% the country were refugees. 2.2 million it is listed as “one of the least-devel- follow African traditional religion pri- people are in need. Catherine Samba- oped countries in the world” (Rholet- marily. Jehovah’s Witnesses, Baha’is, Panza, the mayor of Bangui, capital ter 2012). The C.A.R. is a country of Mormons, and Seventh-Day Adven- of the Central African Republic, was 4.5 million people in Sudano-Guinean tists have a small presence as well… elected interim president by the Na- savannas (rural villages where “almost French Catholic and Swedish Baptist tional Transitional Council to replace 70 percent of the population lives be- missionaries arrived in the region by Djotodia. She became the country’s low the poverty line”). They depend on the end of the 19th century. Converts first female leader. With 19.8 percent farming, hunting, fishing, and gather- were won slowly, mostly through the GDP growth based on October 2013 ing to sustain their life expectancy of missionaries’ offerings of education, projections, this is a brave woman! 49 years (Rholetter, 2012). The Central literacy, and medical care.” In the State tax revenue cannot finance basic African Republican national languages 20th century, the Mission to Africa public services, and public investment are Sango and French, but most store and the church of Simon Kimbangu, is externally financed. In addition to clerks, cooks, government employees, “attracted huge numbers to their political turmoil, general health is an traders, artisans, builders and pastors distinctly Africanized form of Christi- issue, with 34% of pregnant women speak Niger-Congo language. Mi- anity… characterized by faith healing, that participated in a Banghui 1996 norities speak Nilo-Saharan languages prophecy, divinely inspired prayer, study being diagnosed with an STD. (Kaba) or Afro-Asiatic languages (Ara- and long, ecstatic worship services” The current fertility rate in CAR is five bic and Hausa). Rholetter said that (Juegensmeyer, Roof, 2012). In 2007, children per female. According to the the 2009 Human Development Report Nicolette D. Manglos explained that CIA’s World Factbook, 40.6% of the of the United Nations Development without a uniform religion, “common- country’s population is under the age Programme ranked the CAR, “with an alities across groups can be found in of fourteen, with a median age of 19, annual per-capita income of $750, their belief in a supreme god, venera- 28% of children under five are under- 179th out of 182 countries in its Hu- tion for ancestors and for the elderly, weight, and over half a million children

IROHIN | 29 money towards the street children. With this money, Awatole Solidarite Internationale supports its missons in both France and Africa. The President of the organization, Yeguete’s dad says that it promotes civic values, respect for others, and solidarity (a great motto for a divided country). They have a three-day basketball camp in France every summer in Beauval. They teach basketball fundamentals, “because it’s something we are very good at”, but as his father pointed out, “If there’s no infrastructure for playing basketball, it serves no purpose at all.” And so, to help the “children who don’t go to school”, the organization collects bas- ketball equipment, and builds basket- ball courts in Africa. Axelle Angouan- Wilfried Yeguete. de, a 38-year old from Cribi, Cameroon are in child labor. The C.A.R. is listed some sense of humor and sportsman- is the auditor of the organization, and under the CIA’s trafficking in persons ship when a student who did not have spoke, in the only online video about watch list. a question, but raised his hand to say it that I found with English subtitles. I first became interested in this that he and his family were not Gator, She called the building of a basket- part of Africa by talking to my friend, but Badger fans! Referred to as “the ball court in Poudoukou district of Wilfried Yeguete. He told me first-hand unsung hero” in Rex Chapman’s blog, C.A.R. “a celebration”. Apparently in experiences, as he remembered the Will also shared with the students attendance were both the Minister, days he spent in C.A.R. as a child. Will the importance of learning, and his and mayor! They get the importance just graduated from the University of passion for knowledge of history, the of this “very educational” organization Florida as a Gator Basketball start- world, language, sports, philanthropy that teaching the children, the future ing forward. Although UF has idols on (Dance Marathon), that got him where about nonviolent ways to “attack, and NBA teams, like Kenyon Martin, the his is today! defend”. recent former Gator great Chandler My students are not the only After a great basketball season Parsons, or from my college years; the lucky ones that this man, with a in which UF made it to the Final Four, French former Gator National Cham- heart-of-gold, found time between his Will traveled to Meaux and tried out pion Joakim Noah, is an idol to the rigorous college ball/class schedules for the French National Team. youth of our day, including my own to meet on a personal level. In between I remember discussing with Will students! The day after bussing back his International Studies, Will men- the truth behind a Jackie Robinson from a night win at South Carolina, tored boys at other schools in the Boys quote “A life is not important, except on Florida’s way to the SEC tourna- Club, and also built a deep relation- for the impact it has on other lives”. ment, Mr. Yeguete came and read “The ship with a local four-year old cancer Will’s selfless, positive, go-getter out- Empty Pot” to my students. With his patient. It’s no wonder this heart- look on life has impacted many lives adorable French accent, he was simply warming story of this uplifting man in his 22 years, including that of a wonderful with the kids. You can tell giving back to society was featured in Gainesville-locked elementary teacher. he’s used to being in the spotlight of Sports Illustrated. Although he is not sure where his fu- the press because he was more com- Just before graduating, and al- ture endeavors will lead, I am excited fortable than even past interns I’ve ways thinking about others, Will raised to see what lies ahead for him, the worked with. He praised the students money for his father Lucien Yeguete’s organization, and the Central African for their good listening skills, and non-profit organization Awatole Soli- Republic! Wilfried demonstrated deep self-con- darité Internationale. This company, nections as he read (about a successor established in August of 2004, helps Image Reference to the Chinese emperor being selected “street children in cities across the http://www.bebasket.fr/a/46533-will-yeguete- because he was the only child that Central African Republic”. Will did this rejoint-le-havre didn’t lie by replacing the cooked seeds by spending six hours at Finish Line at with a beautiful plant). Will answered the Oaks Mall in Gainesville, Florida. questions, and demonstrated his awe- Will had a box to which we donated

IROHIN | 30 Works Cited

The Importance of Finding Value in Everything: Afro-Puerto Ricans. (2014). Retrieved from the website: What Repurposed African Art Taught Me http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Rican MArie Pashkevich Brandon, George. (1989). African Religious Influences in Cuba, Puerto Rico ans Hispaniola. Journal of Carrib- Adams, L. (2002). African Art and the European Avant- bean Studies, 201. Volume 7, Nos 2 & 3. Garde. Art Across Time (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw- Figueroa, Ivonne. (2012). AfroBorinquen music. Retrieved Hill. from the website: http://www.elboricua.com/Afro- Andreasen, J., & Overton, C. (2004). Creative recycling: Borinquen_music.htmlGonzalez, Emanuel. (1983). handmade in Africa. United States?: Xlibris Corpora- Puerto Rico and Africa: Elements of Yoruba Culture. tion. Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies, 12 (3). Appadurai, A., & Kopytoff, I. (1986). The Social life of things: Lipski, John (2008). From Bozal to Boriqua: Implications of commodities in cultural perspective. Cambridge [Cam- Afro-Puerto Rican Language in Literature 859. bridgeshire: Cambridge University Press. Art Romauld Hazoumè (2012, January 1). Retrieved June 15, 2014, from http://www.wefaceforward.org/art- The Ancient Roots of African Stereotypes ists/romuald-hazoumè Rachel Osborne BBC - A History of the World - Object: Throne of Weapons. (2014, January 1). . Retrieved June 16, 2014, Burstein, S. M. (1997). Ancient African civilizations: Kush from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/ and Axum. Princeton: M. Wiener Publishers. objects/97OnxVXaQkehlbliKKDB6A Chami, Felix. (2006). The Unity of African Ancient History: Grosz-Ngaté, M., Hanson, J., & O’Meara, P. (2014). Visual 3000 BC to AD 500. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: E & D Arts in Africa. Africa ( ed.). Bloomington, Indiana: Ltd. Indiana University Press. Haley, S.P., (1990). Livy, Passion, and Cultural Stereotypes. Grove, M. (2009, January 1). Ready-made. Retrieved June Historia: Zeitschrift fur Alte Geschichte, Bd. 39 (H. 3), 15, 2014, from http://www.moma.org/collection/de- pp. 375-381. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4436158 tails.php?theme_id=10468 Hall, Martin. (1995). The Legend of the Lost City; Or, the Ravenhill, P. L. (1991). The Art of the Personal Object. Wash- Man with Golden Balls. Journal of Southern African ington, D.C.: National Museum of African Art : Studies, Vol. 21 (No. 2), pp. 179-199. http://www.js- tor.org/stable/2637020 Romauld Hazoumè. (n.d.). Retrieved June 15, 2014, from http://www.octobergallery.co.uk/artists/hazoume/ Isaac, Benjamin. (2006). Proto-Racism in Graeco-Roman Antiquity. World Archaeology (Vol. 38, No. 1, Race, Schwartzott, A. (2011, September 13). And They Shall Beat Racism and Archaeology), pp. 32- 47. http://www. Their Swords into Plowshares. Retrieved June jstor.org/stable/40023593 16, 2014, from http://www.peacexpeace. org/2011/09/“and-they-shall-beat-their-swords-into- Snowden, Jr., Frank M. (1948). The Negro in Ancient plowshares“/ Greece. American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 50 (No. 1, Part 1), pp. 31-44. http://www.jstor.org/ Throne of Weapons. (2004, January 1). Retrieved June 14, 2014, from http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/ stable/663949 highlights/highlight_objects/aoa/t/th Vogel, S. M., & Anatsui, E. (2002). El Anatsui: art and life. New York, NY: D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers Views of Nollywood: The Nigerian Film Industry William Marshall African Influence in Puerto Rico Adedun, E. A. (2010, July). The Sociolinguistics of a Nol- Alex Martinez lywood Movie. Journal of Global Analysis. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/4830072/The_So- Afro-Puerto Rican. (2012). Retrieved from the website: ciolinguistics_of_a_Nollywood_Movie http://www.afropedea.org/afro-puerto-rican

IROHIN | 31 Adesokan, A. (2014). African Film. In M. Grosz-Ngaté, J. H. United Nations Development Programme. (n.d.). Riverwood: Hanson, P. O’Meara (Eds.), Africa (4th ed.) (pp. 233- Kenyan Super-Fast, Super Cheap Filmmaking. South- 249). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ern Inovator. Retrieved from: http://www.southernin- Agabi, C. (2013, May). Nigeria: When FG Engaged Nolly- novator.org/index.php/component/content/article/1- wood On N3 Billion Entertainment Intervention Fund. creative-econ/7-riverwood-kenyan-super-fast-super- AllAfrica. Retrieved from: http://allafrica.com/sto- cheap-filmmaking ries/201305120059.html AllAfrica. (2014, May). Nigeria: Nollywood Films Sending Positive, Negative Messages to Viewers. Van- Green Initiatives: gaurd. Retrieved from: http://allafrica.com/sto- Promoting Women in Africa ries/201405281425.html?viewall=1 Jessica Rebstock AllAfrica. (2014, June). Nigerian Film Industry, a Tool for Economic Empowerment, Says Writer. Daily Inde- A Country of Natural Wealth, (n.d.) Retrieved June 19, pendent. Retrieved from: http://allafrica.com/sto- 2014, from http://www.ghanaembassy.org/index. ries/201406051321.html php?page=a-country-of-natural-wealth Central Intelligence Agency. (2014, May). The World Fact Eight Questions to an Entrepreneur: Featuring - BERNICE Book. Retrieved from: https://www.cia.gov/library/ DAPAAH, GHANA BAMBOO BIKES, GHANA. (n.d.). publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ni.html knowledgeGateway. Retrieved June 19, 2014, from Colonial Film: Moving Images of the British Empire. (2010). http://www.empowerwomen.org/news/bernice- Colonial Film Unit. Retrieved from: http://www.colo- dapaah---ghana-bamboo-bikes---ghana?utm_ nialfilm.org.uk/production-company/colonial-film- source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campai unit gn=Feed%3A+ungen+%28UN+gender+equality+news+ feed%29 The Economist Newspaper Limited. (2012, December). Lights, Camera, Africa. The Economist. Retrieved from: Ghana Bamboo Bikes. (n.d.). Ghana Bamboo Bikes. Re- http://www.economist.com/node/17723124 . trieved June 19, 2014, from http://ghanabam- boobikes.org/about-us.html Gathigah, M. (2014). Oscar Win to Boost Kenya’s Fledgling Entertainment Industry. Inter Press Service News Laureate 2011 for Sub-Saharan Africa. (n.d.). Retrieved Agency. Retrieved from: http://www.ipsnews. June 19, 2014, from http://www.cartierwomensinitia- net/2014/03/oscar-win-boost-kenyas-fledgling-enter- tive.com/candidate/lorna-rutto tainment-industry/ Our History. (n.d.). The Green Belt Movement. Retrieved Institute for Cultural Diplomacy. (2013). History of African June 19, 2014, from http://www.greenbeltmovement. Film Industry. Experience Africa. Retrieved from: org/who-we-are/our-history http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/experienceafrica/ Maathai, W. (2006). The Greenbelt Movement: sharing the index.php?en_annual-african-film-festival-2013_afri- Approach and the Experience (ed.). Nairobi: Lantern can-film-industry Books. Kamundi, C. (2010, March). Pidgin and the Effect of Nol- Rudolf, S., & Emmannuel, T. Bamboo, Hope for the Wood lywood. Nigeria Films.com. Retrieved from: http:// Industry in Ghana. Journal of Natural Sciences Re- www.nigeriafilms.com/news/6850/17/pidgin-and- search, 3, 1-5. Retrieved June 18, 2014, from www. the-effect-of-nollywood.html iiste.org Moudio, R. (2013, May). Nigeria’s Film Industry: A Potential Unreasonable Institute. (n.d.). Unreasonable Institute Posts Gold Mine? Africa Renewal Online. Retrieved from: by lrutto. Retrieved June 19, 2014, from http://unrea- http://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/may- sonableinstitute.org/profile/lrutto/ 2013/nigeria%E2%80%99s-film-industry-potential- Who we are. (n.d.). Our History. Retrieved June 19, 2014, gold-mine from http://www.ecopost.co.ke/about-us/our-history Pidgin. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved from: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pidgin South African.Info. (2014). South Africa’s Film Industry. Women’s Economic Empowerment Retrieved from: http://www.southafrica.info/busi- Michelle Vargas ness/economy/sectors/film.htm#.U6PLoS_962y Thetimes. (2008, June). Nollywood Helps Me Appreciate A study of the economic empowerment of women and their Nigerian Pidgin. The Nigerian Voice. Retrieved from: role in the socio-economic development of africa. http://www.thenigerianvoice.com/movie/4325/3/ (1998, Autumn). WIN News, 24, 50. Retrieved from nollywood-helps-me-appreciate-nigerian-pidgin.html http://search.proquest.com/docview/231099395?acc ountid=10920

IROHIN | 32 About FYE. (n.d.). Retrieved June 19, 2014, from http:// Beaumont, P. (2011, 20 January). Mohammed Bouzizi: The youngfemaleentrepreneurs.com/ about/ Dutiful Son Whose Death Changed Tunisia’s Fate. The About Heifer International. (n.d.). Retrieved June 18, 2014, Guardian (UK). Retrieved June 18, 2014 from http:// from http://www.heifer.org/about-heifer/index.html www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/20/tunisian- fruit-seller-mohammed-bouazizi About School Girls Unite. (n.d.). Retrieved June 19, 2014, from http://www.schoolgirlsunite.org/ About Bhatnagar, B. (2010, 28 December). Tunisia Jobless Pro- tests Rage. Al Jazeera English. Retrieved June 19, Bond, S. (2000). Cultural and Feminine Leadership. Wom- 2014 from http://www.aljazeera.com/video/africa/ en, Power and the Academy: From Rhetoric to Reality : 2010/12/20101228182021539319.html UNESCO. Dasgupta, R. (2014, 19 February). An Arab Spring success Dejene, Y. (2007, November). Promoting women’s economic story: Tunisia's new constitution. Fortune. Re- empowerment in Africa. In Africa Economic Confer- trieved June 19, 2014 from http://fortune.com/ ence, Addis Ababa (pp. 2-19). 2014/02/19/an-arab-spring-success-story-tunisias- Empower Women to Change the World. (n.d.). Retrieved new-constitution/ June 19, 2014, from http://www.heifer. org/gift-cata- Economist Intelligence Unit, the. (2012, July). Country Re- log/empowerment/the-gift-of-womens-empowerment- port: Tunisia. London, United Kingdom: The Econo- donation.html mist Intelligence Unit. Ndinda, C., & Ukeke-Uzodike, U. Present but Absent: Economist Intelligence Unit, the. (2014, June). Country Women in Business Leadership in South Africa . Jour- Report: Tunisia. London, United Kingdom: The Econo- nal of International Women’s Studies. mist Intelligence Unit. Vision and Objective. (n.d.). Retrieved June 19, 2014, from Ghannoushi, S. (2011, 11 March). Perceptions of Arab http://www.dotconnectafrica.org/ about/mission- Women Have Been Revolutionised. The Guardian. and-objective/ Retrieved June 19, 2014 from http:// www.theguard- ian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/11/arab-women- revolutionised-egypt-tunisia-yemen Tunisia Three Years Later: Howard, P.N., Duffy, A., Freelon, D., Hussain, M., Mari, W. Reflections on Jasmine Revolution & Mazaid, M. (2011). Opening Closed Regimes: What Jasper P. Webb Was the Role of Social Media During the Arab Spring?. Seattle: PIPTI. Retrieved June 18, 2014 from http:// Abouzeid, R. (2011, 7 February). Postcard: Sidi Bouzid. pitpi.org/wp- content/uploads/2013/02/2011_How- Time, 8. ard-Duffy-Freelon-Hussain-Mari- Mazaid_pITPI.pdf Al Jazeera (2011, 6 January). Thousands of Tunisia Law- Michaud, A. (2011, 6 June). Michaud: Arab Spring Can’t yers Strike. Al Jazeera English. Retrieved June 19, Neglect Women. Newsday. Retrieved June 19, 2014 2014 from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/ from http://www.newsday.com/opinion/oped/mi- 2011/01/201116193136690227.html chaud- arab-spring-can-t-neglect-women-1.2935204 Al Jazeera (2014, 7 February). Foreign Leaders Hail Tuni- Newsom, V. & Lengel, L. (2012). Arab Women, Social Media, sia’s Constitution. Al Jazeera English. Retrieved June and the Arab Spring: Applying the Framework of 19, 2014 from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/ Digital Reflexivity to Analyze Gender and Online Activ- africa/ 2014/02/foreign-leaders-hail-tunisia-constitu- ism. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 13 (4), tion-201427144047687702.html 31-45. BBC. (2011, 15 January). Tunisia: Ex-President Ben Ali Perkins, K. (1986) Tunisia: Crossroads of the Islamic and flees to Saudi Arabia.BBC News Africa. Retrieved European Worlds. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. June 19, 2014 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ Perkins, K. (1989) Historical Dictionary of Tunisia. world- africa-12198106 Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press. BBC. (2011, 27 January). Tunisia Announces Major Cabi- Rinehart, R. (1979) Historical Setting. In H. D. Nelson (Ed.), net Reshuffle After Protest.BBC News Africa. Re- Tunisia: A Country Study. (pp. 1-58). Washington D.C.: trieved June 19, 2014 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ The American University. news/ world-africa-12302232 Ross, A. & Scott, B. (2011). Social Media: Power to the BBC. (2011, 27 February). Tunisian PM Mohammed Ghan- People?. NATO Review. Retrieved June 18, 2014 from nouchi resigns over protests. BBC News Africa. http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2011/ social_ Retrieved June 19, 2014 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ medias/21st-century-statecraft/EN/index.htm news/ world-africa-12591445

IROHIN | 33 Ryan, Y. (2011, 16 January). The Tragic Life of a Street The Econ. Impact of the Coca-Cola System on S.A. Moore Vendor. Al Jazeera English. Retrieved June 18, 2014 Sch. of Bus., Div. of Res. Retrieved, from http://www. from http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/ moore.sc.edu/UserFiles/moore/Documents/Divi- 2011/01/201111684242518839.html sion%20of%20Research/sareport2.pdf. Ryan, Y. (2011, 21 October). Tunisian Blogger Becomes Holton, R. Globalization’s Cultural Consequences. The An- Nobel Prize Nominee. Al Jazeera English. Retrieved nals of the American Academy of Political and Social June 19, 2014 from http://www.aljazeera.com/ Science, 140-152. indepth/features/2011/10/2011106222117687872. Katzman, M. A. The Meaning of “Self-Starvation” in Impov- html erished Black Adolescents in South Africa. Culture, Simon, B. (2011, February 20). How a Slap Sparked Tuni- Medicine and Psychiatry, 28, 439-461. sia’s Revolution. CBS News, 1-4. May, P. Epidemiology of fetal alcohol syndrome in a South Verveer, M. (2011). Statement of Hon. Melanne Verveer, African community in the Western Cape Prov- Ambassador at Large for Global Women’s Issues, U.S. ince. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1905- Department of State. Joint Hearing Before the Subcom- 1912. mittee on International Operations and Organizations, Mbananga, N. et al. Obesity in South Africa: The South Human Rights, Democracy, and Global Wome’s Issues African Demographic and Health Survey. Obesity, 10, and the Subcommittee on Near Eastern and South 1038-1048. and Central Asian Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations United States Senate. Washington D.C.: U.S. Popkin, B. Global nutrition dynamics: the world is shifting Senate rapidly toward a diet linked with noncommunicable diseases. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 84, Winckler, O. (2013) The “Arab Spring”: Socioeconomic As- 289-298. pects. Middle East Policy, 20, No. 4, pp.68-87. Quelch, J., & Austin, J. (1993, April 15). Should Multina- tionals Invest in Africa? | MIT Sloan Management Review. MIT Sloan Management Review RSS. Retrieved On the Rocks: June 18, 2014, from http://sloanreview.mit.edu/ar- A Sugary Chronicle of Coca-Cola’s Impact on South ticle/should-multinationals-invest-in-africa/. Africa’s Economic Development Robbins, S.P. & Judge, T.A. (2015). Organizational Behavior Chris Salamone, JD (p. 10). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Blanchard, K. (2007). Leading at a Higher Level (pp.74-76). Rubenstein, James M. (2011). The Cultural Landscape: An Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Introduction to Human Geography (pp. 29-30). Upper Berry, S. (2010, December 10). How Coca-Cola’s distribu- Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. tion system works. ColaLife. Retrieved June 18, 2014, South Africa’s Economic Transformation: A Strategy for from http://www.colalife.org/2010/12/19/how-coca- Broad-Based Economic Empowerment. Retrieved colas-distribution-system-works/. June 18, 2014, from http://bee.b1sa.co.za/docs/ The Coca-Cola Company Expands 5by20 Women’s Econom- Strategy%20for%20Broad-Based%20Black%20Eco- ic Empowerment Initiative. (2012, November 27). nomic%20Empowerment.pdf. Retrieved, from http://www.cocacola.co.za/articles/ SouthAfrica.info. The languages of South Africa. Retrieved cocacolaexpands.html?cat=5. June 18, 2014, from http://www.southafrica.info/ Coca-Cola South Africa and UN Women Partner to Econom- about/people/language.htm#.U53e8vldVA0. ically Empower Women. (2014, February 18). Re- Thomas, M. (2009). Belching out the devil: global adventures trieved, from http://www.cocacola.co.za/articles/ with Coca-Cola. New York: Nation Books. UN_Women_Partner.html?cat=3. Villiers, A. D. Price and availability of healthy food: A study Coca-Cola - Sustainability - Water Stewardship. Coca-Cola in rural South Africa. Nutrition, 27, 55-58. - Sustainability - Water Stewardship. Retrieved June 18, 2014, from http://www.cocacola.co.za/sustain- ability_waterStewardship.html. Beta Israel: The Jews of Ethiopia Dept.: Trade & Industry, Republic of South Africa. Trade Barbara Ferris Agreements. Retrieved June 18, 2014, from http:// www.dti.gov.za/trade_investment/ited_trade_agree- Adler, E. (1966). Jewish Travelers: a Treasury of Travel- ment.jsp. ogues from Nine Centuries. Hermon Press, New York.

IROHIN | 34 Kaplan, S. (1984). Some Hebrew Sources on the Beta Israel Palsky, Isabelle BNP Paribas February 17, 2011 Reporters (Falasha). In Proceedings of the Eighth International for a day: “Awatole Solidarité Internationale” Conference of Ethiopian Studies. Institute of Ethiopian Philander, S. George. (2012). Encyclopedia of Global Warm- Studies, Addis Ababa. ing & Climate Change, Second Edition. Pub. date:2012 Kaplan, S. (1992). The Beta Israel (Falasha) in Ethiopia: |Online Pub. Date:May 31, 2012|DOI:http:// From Earliest Times to the Twentieth Century. New dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452218564|Print York University Press, New York. ISBN:9781412992619|Online ISBN:9781452218564| Klein, R. (2007). We Do Not Eat Meat With the Christians: Publisher:SAGE Publications, Inc. Interaction and Integration Between the Beta Israel and Purdy, Elizabeth Rholetter. African Research Bulletin Pages Amhara Christians of Gonder, Ethiopia. A Dissertation. 19958B–19958C University of Florida National Security. Central African Republic. First published: Quirin, J. (1992). The Evolution of the Ethiopian Jews: A 21 Jan 2014. History of the Beta Israel (Falasha) to 1920. University January 23, 2014 Central African Republic Transitional of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. Demobilization and Reintegration Program. The World Salamon, H. (1999). The Hyena People: Ethiopian Jews in Bank http://www.tdrp.net/centralafricanrepublic.php Christian Ethiopia. University of California Press, Untreated STDs in Young Pregnant Women, Central African Berkeley. Republic: Reproductive Health Matters (RHM) 2000. Falashas of Ethiopia. World Directory of Minorities. Re- Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3775204 trieved from http://www.faqs.org/minorities/Sub- http://www.microsofttranslator.com Saharan-Africa/Falashas-of-Ethiopia.html bv.aspx?ref=SERP&br=ro&mkt=en-US&dl=en&lp=FR_ The Jewish Federation. The History of Ethiopian Jews. Re- EN&a=http%3a%2f%2fwww.manageo.fr%2ffiche_ trieved from http://www.jewishfederations.org/page. info%2f479611402%2f13%2fawatole-solidarite-inter- aspx?id=791 nationale.html 2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia. Retrieved www.hoovers.com/company-information/cs/company-pro- from htttp://unstats.un.org/unsd/censuskb20/At- file.AWATOLE_SOLIDARITE_ tachment489.aspx INTERNATIONALE.242da62e2ce234f7.html Virtual Jewish Library. Ethiopia. Retrieved from http:// www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ejhist. html

Helping from Home Sarah Mckeever

Bradshaw, Richard & Fandos-Ruis, Juan. Central African Republic Oxford Bibliographies Dowd, Robert A.(2003). Economic Crisis and Authoritarian Breakdown: Reassessing the Conventional Wisdom in Light of Evidence from Africa. Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies, 29(2-3). international_asc_ufaha- mu_16551. Retrieved from: http://www.escholarship. org/uc/item/0n1264qb Emery, Robert E. (March 01, 2013). Cultural Sociology of Divorce: An Encyclopedia. DOI:http:// dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452274447|Print ISBN:9781412999588|Online ISBN:9781452274447| Publisher:SAGE Publications, Inc. Juergensmeyer, Mark & Roof, Wade Clark. Encyclopedia of Global Religion. Pub. date:2012 |Online Pub. Date:September 15, 2007|DOI:http:// dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412997898|Print ISBN:9780761927297|Online ISBN:9781412997898| Publisher:SAGE Publications, Inc.

IROHIN | 35 teachers’ summer institute

The Center for African Studies at the University of Florida is offering a two-week Summer Institute for ten K-12 teachers. The objective of the institute is for participants to increase their knowledge about Africa, including its geography, history, and culture. Participants will develop lesson plans for use in their classrooms. Participation in the summer institute is free. In addition participants will receive a stipend of $700. Alachua county teachers will receive continuing education credit. Participants are responsible for their accommodation.

HoW To APPlY Send APPlICATIonS To: Complete the application below and include the following items: Dr. Agnes Ngoma Leslie, Outreach Director • A brief statement of at least one page outlining 427 Grinter Hall, P.O. Box 115560, Gainesville, FL 32611-5560 - What you teach - How you would benefi t from the institute T | 352.392.2187 - How you would incorporate those benefi ts F | 352.392.2435 in your teaching e | [email protected] .edu • A complete curriculum vitae

• A letter supporting your application from your school

TeACHeR’S SUMMeR InSTITUTe APPlICATIon

name email

doB Telephone: Offi ce / Personal

School Affi liation & Address Home Mailing Address

grades & Courses You Teach

Highest degree discipline Institution