EJT (2011) 20:1, 29–39 0960–2720 EJT (2011) 20:1, 29–39 0960–2720
The sin of Shinar (Genesis 11:4) The sin of Shinar (Genesis 11:4) W. Creighton Marlowe W. Creighton Marlowe
Summary Summary tower indicated a desire to have communion with God tower indicated a desire to have communion with God Research related to the so-called Tower of Babel story or the gods. The arrival in Shinar shows the people were Research related to the so-called Tower of Babel story or the gods. The arrival in Shinar shows the people were in Genesis 11:1-9 continues to debate the exact nature already migrating and multiplying. Their fear of being in Genesis 11:1-9 continues to debate the exact nature already migrating and multiplying. Their fear of being of the sin described in verse 4, which caused the Lord scattered was the fear of defeat and deportation. The of the sin described in verse 4, which caused the Lord scattered was the fear of defeat and deportation. The to punish the people with confusion and dispersion. story in Genesis 11 builds on 10:8-10 and the history of to punish the people with confusion and dispersion. story in Genesis 11 builds on 10:8-10 and the history of This article offers an atypical answer to this question. Nimrod. These Shinarites were guilty of using violence as This article offers an atypical answer to this question. Nimrod. These Shinarites were guilty of using violence as The attempt to “make a name” is reasonably defined had been the case with people God judged since Gen- The attempt to “make a name” is reasonably defined had been the case with people God judged since Gen- by the narrative in its immediate and OT context, not esis 4. The sin was that of building a fierce reputation by the narrative in its immediate and OT context, not esis 4. The sin was that of building a fierce reputation as attacking God or avoiding migration, but pride that (“a name”) to keep from being scattered by others with as attacking God or avoiding migration, but pride that (“a name”) to keep from being scattered by others with led to an abuse of power. The building of a ziggurat or similar plans for cruel conquest. led to an abuse of power. The building of a ziggurat or similar plans for cruel conquest. ******** ********
Zusammenfassung oder eines Turmes weist auf den Wunsch hin, mit Gott Zusammenfassung oder eines Turmes weist auf den Wunsch hin, mit Gott oder den Göttern Gemeinschaft zu haben. Die Ankunft oder den Göttern Gemeinschaft zu haben. Die Ankunft Für die Forschung über die so genannte Turm-von-Babel- der Leute in Schinear zeigt, dass sie bereits migrierten Für die Forschung über die so genannte Turm-von-Babel- der Leute in Schinear zeigt, dass sie bereits migrierten Geschichte in Genesis 11, 1-9 geht die Debatte über die und sich vermehrten. Ihre Furcht vor Zerstreuung war Geschichte in Genesis 11, 1-9 geht die Debatte über die und sich vermehrten. Ihre Furcht vor Zerstreuung war eigentliche Natur der Sünde weiter, die in Kapitel 11, 4 eigentlich auf ihre Angst vor Niederlage und Deportation eigentliche Natur der Sünde weiter, die in Kapitel 11, 4 eigentlich auf ihre Angst vor Niederlage und Deportation beschrieben wird. Diese hat Yahweh veranlasst, die Men- zurückzuführen. beschrieben wird. Diese hat Yahweh veranlasst, die Men- zurückzuführen. schen durch Verwirrung und Zerstreuung zu bestrafen. Die Geschichte in Genesis 11 baut sich auf die Erzäh- schen durch Verwirrung und Zerstreuung zu bestrafen. Die Geschichte in Genesis 11 baut sich auf die Erzäh- Der vorliegende Artikel bietet einen ungewöhnlichen lung in Kapitel 10,8-10 und der Nimrod-Geschichte Der vorliegende Artikel bietet einen ungewöhnlichen lung in Kapitel 10,8-10 und der Nimrod-Geschichte Beitrag zu dieser Diskussion. Der Versuch der Men- auf. Die Leute von Schinear wurden der Gewaltanwen- Beitrag zu dieser Diskussion. Der Versuch der Men- auf. Die Leute von Schinear wurden der Gewaltanwen- schen, sich selbst einen Namen zu machen (11, 4) wird dung schuldig, wie bereits die Menschen, die seit den schen, sich selbst einen Namen zu machen (11, 4) wird dung schuldig, wie bereits die Menschen, die seit den durch die Erzählung in ihrem unmittelbaren Kontext und Ereignissen in Genesis 4 unter Gottes Gericht gefallen durch die Erzählung in ihrem unmittelbaren Kontext und Ereignissen in Genesis 4 unter Gottes Gericht gefallen auch den weiteren alttestamentlichen Zusammenhang waren. Ihre Sünde bestand darin, daß sie sich den Ruf auch den weiteren alttestamentlichen Zusammenhang waren. Ihre Sünde bestand darin, daß sie sich den Ruf logisch erläutert. Dabei ging es nicht um einen Angriff der Gewalttätigkeit zugelegt hatten („einen Namen”), um logisch erläutert. Dabei ging es nicht um einen Angriff der Gewalttätigkeit zugelegt hatten („einen Namen”), um auf Gott oder um Zentralisierung, sondern um Stolz, der nicht von jenen zerstreut zu werden, die ähnliche Pläne auf Gott oder um Zentralisierung, sondern um Stolz, der nicht von jenen zerstreut zu werden, die ähnliche Pläne zu Machtmissbrauch führte. Der Bau einer „Ziggurat” einer grausamen Übernahme hegten zu Machtmissbrauch führte. Der Bau einer „Ziggurat” einer grausamen Übernahme hegten ******** ********
Résumé pouvoir. La construction d’une ziggourat manifestait un Résumé pouvoir. La construction d’une ziggourat manifestait un désir d’obtenir la communion avec Dieu ou avec les désir d’obtenir la communion avec Dieu ou avec les Dans le cadre de la recherche sur le récit de la tour de dieux. L’arrivée à Shinéar montre que les gens étaient Dans le cadre de la recherche sur le récit de la tour de dieux. L’arrivée à Shinéar montre que les gens étaient Babel (Gn 11.1-9), on continue à débattre de la nature déjà en train de migrer et de se multiplier. La crainte de Babel (Gn 11.1-9), on continue à débattre de la nature déjà en train de migrer et de se multiplier. La crainte de exacte du péché mentionné au verset 4 et qui a conduit la dispersion s’explique comme une crainte de défaite et exacte du péché mentionné au verset 4 et qui a conduit la dispersion s’explique comme une crainte de défaite et Yahvé à châtier les gens en semant la confusion et en les de déportation. L’histoire de Genèse 11 prolonge celle Yahvé à châtier les gens en semant la confusion et en les de déportation. L’histoire de Genèse 11 prolonge celle dispersant sur la terre. L’auteur propose ici une réponse de Nimrod (10.8-10). Les habitants de Shinéar se ren- dispersant sur la terre. L’auteur propose ici une réponse de Nimrod (10.8-10). Les habitants de Shinéar se ren- originale à cette question. La tentative de se faire un nom daient coupables de violence, tout comme les gens qui originale à cette question. La tentative de se faire un nom daient coupables de violence, tout comme les gens qui peut se comprendre en fonction du récit, de son contexte ont subi le jugement de Dieu depuis le chapitre 4. Leur peut se comprendre en fonction du récit, de son contexte ont subi le jugement de Dieu depuis le chapitre 4. Leur immédiat et de l’ensemble de l’Ancien Testament : il ne péché consistait à se bâtir une réputation féroce (« un immédiat et de l’ensemble de l’Ancien Testament : il ne péché consistait à se bâtir une réputation féroce (« un s’agit pas d’une opposition à Dieu ni d’un refus de la nom ») pour éviter d’être dispersés par d’autres ayant de s’agit pas d’une opposition à Dieu ni d’un refus de la nom ») pour éviter d’être dispersés par d’autres ayant de migration, mais de l’orgueil qui a conduit à un abus de semblables projets de conquête. migration, mais de l’orgueil qui a conduit à un abus de semblables projets de conquête.
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Introduction oppression against humanity. The problem was Introduction oppression against humanity. The problem was This article was sparked by P. J. Harland’s obser- first and foremost horizontal (which is inevitably This article was sparked by P. J. Harland’s obser- first and foremost horizontal (which is inevitably vation that, “The account of the building of the vertical). Of course warfare and enslavement of vation that, “The account of the building of the vertical). Of course warfare and enslavement of tower of Babel in Gen. xi presents an enigma. In others had become the focus of the people who tower of Babel in Gen. xi presents an enigma. In others had become the focus of the people who contrast to the other stories of the primeval his- had already abandoned any religious instructions contrast to the other stories of the primeval his- had already abandoned any religious instructions tory the sin which the people commit is not made they may have had about the sinfulness of such tory the sin which the people commit is not made they may have had about the sinfulness of such explicit.”1 Harland discusses the two different behaviour. explicit.”1 Harland discusses the two different behaviour. traditional views: 1) the Christian interpretation The idea that Genesis 11:1 places the story at a traditional views: 1) the Christian interpretation The idea that Genesis 11:1 places the story at a time when one and only one language was in exist- time when one and only one language was in exist- that the sin was that of human pride trying to 5 that the sin was that of human pride trying to 5 take power from God and 2) the Jewish explana- ence globally will also be questioned. The purpose take power from God and 2) the Jewish explana- ence globally will also be questioned. The purpose of this article is primarily to show that the current of this article is primarily to show that the current tion that the sin was failure to comply with God’s tion that the sin was failure to comply with God’s and common view still leaves important questions and common view still leaves important questions mandate after the Flood (Genesis 9:1) to disperse mandate after the Flood (Genesis 9:1) to disperse unanswered or not answered satisfactorily. A sec- unanswered or not answered satisfactorily. A sec- and fill the earth. What follows will challenge the and fill the earth. What follows will challenge the ondary goal is to make a modest proposal for an ondary goal is to make a modest proposal for an popular understanding of the sin committed by popular understanding of the sin committed by alternative understanding: the sin of Genesis 11:4 alternative understanding: the sin of Genesis 11:4 the builders of the Tower of Babel as religious the builders of the Tower of Babel as religious that led to God’s dispersion of these people was that led to God’s dispersion of these people was rebellion, i.e. disregard for the command given in rebellion, i.e. disregard for the command given in not religious but ruthless: a preoccupation with not religious but ruthless: a preoccupation with Genesis 9:1 to populate the earth and/or pride and Genesis 9:1 to populate the earth and/or pride and military might and violence. The view that the sin military might and violence. The view that the sin self-sufficiency that led the Shinarites to “storm the self-sufficiency that led the Shinarites to “storm the was something other than or more than religious is was something other than or more than religious is heavens” and to rival God by erecting a tower so not original, but I hope to add more fuel to the fire heavens” and to rival God by erecting a tower so not original, but I hope to add more fuel to the fire tall as to threaten God. of the debate and to reawaken it and demonstrate tall as to threaten God. of the debate and to reawaken it and demonstrate According to Chrysostom the people who some weaknesses of the traditional view as well as According to Chrysostom the people who some weaknesses of the traditional view as well as migrated from the East to found Babylon were strengths of this proposal.6 The argument of this migrated from the East to found Babylon were strengths of this proposal.6 The argument of this motivated by ambition and pride. He saw this article is that a prideful desire for world conquest motivated by ambition and pride. He saw this article is that a prideful desire for world conquest text as a warning to those who seek fame through is the evil that God judges, not pride that tried to text as a warning to those who seek fame through is the evil that God judges, not pride that tried to building mansions for themselves. Augustine reject or resist God per se; so the tower was for building mansions for themselves. Augustine reject or resist God per se; so the tower was for interpreted this pride in terms of defiance of God’s military not religious purposes (although ironically interpreted this pride in terms of defiance of God’s military not religious purposes (although ironically power; Dionysius said they were giants, whose if it was a temple to rival or replace God, or engage power; Dionysius said they were giants, whose if it was a temple to rival or replace God, or engage power worried God, who were seeking salvation by in idolatry as some claim [cf. Genesis Rabbah], power worried God, who were seeking salvation by in idolatry as some claim [cf. Genesis Rabbah], 2 2 human means. None of these suggestions seems then that is a sense would be an irreligious purpose human means. None of these suggestions seems then that is a sense would be an irreligious purpose to find a connection between the sin of Shinar and by definition, i.e. men making themselves divine, to find a connection between the sin of Shinar and by definition, i.e. men making themselves divine, God’s command to fill the earth, as is now so pop- a religious yet a false religious activity).7 Whoever God’s command to fill the earth, as is now so pop- a religious yet a false religious activity).7 Whoever ular. Augustine seems to be the fountainhead of these people were, they could be held accountable ular. Augustine seems to be the fountainhead of these people were, they could be held accountable the idea that the transgression was essentially reli- for violent behaviour.8 the idea that the transgression was essentially reli- for violent behaviour.8 gious in terms of direct aggression against God’s gious in terms of direct aggression against God’s rule. The assumption that these people defied God rule. The assumption that these people defied God may be logical but it is neither the only possible One language and travel from the East may be logical but it is neither the only possible One language and travel from the East one nor the most probable. The text shows them (11:1-2) one nor the most probable. The text shows them (11:1-2) behaving ungodly but not necessarily anti-godly. Chapter 11 begins with the statement, not that behaving ungodly but not necessarily anti-godly. Chapter 11 begins with the statement, not that We agree with Skinner, “the idea of storming the entire global world had one language only, but We agree with Skinner, “the idea of storming the entire global world had one language only, but heaven and making war on the gods, which is sug- that an entire specific region (“the land”) some- heaven and making war on the gods, which is sug- that an entire specific region (“the land”) some- gested by some late forms of the legend (cf. Homer, how came to have “one tongue and a common gested by some late forms of the legend (cf. Homer, how came to have “one tongue and a common Odyssee 11.313ff) is no doubt foreign to the pas- vocabulary”.9 Even the mention of tribes moving Odyssee 11.313ff) is no doubt foreign to the pas- vocabulary”.9 Even the mention of tribes moving sage”3 and with von Rad, “That men wanted to out across #r
30 • EJT 20:1 30 • EJT 20:1 • The sin of Shinar • • The sin of Shinar •
What is most important here is the mention of the OT for “H/heaven” or “heavens/sky” depend- What is most important here is the mention of the OT for “H/heaven” or “heavens/sky” depend- people travelling “from” the East. Some transla- ing on context. Pre-scientific theologians thought people travelling “from” the East. Some transla- ing on context. Pre-scientific theologians thought tions say “to” the East but the preposition used, in terms of something like nine miles high.12 First tions say “to” the East but the preposition used, in terms of something like nine miles high.12 First min, is normally “from”. If this is correct, the story of all the ancients had no such technical ability and min, is normally “from”. If this is correct, the story of all the ancients had no such technical ability and is placed at a point in time far enough past the neither does anyone today. (The ancients equated is placed at a point in time far enough past the neither does anyone today. (The ancients equated early movements of Noah’s sons such that people Heaven with heights like mountain tops, not early movements of Noah’s sons such that people Heaven with heights like mountain tops, not have travelled eastward and then back again. This a place beyond distant galaxies as we do today.) have travelled eastward and then back again. This a place beyond distant galaxies as we do today.) is highly significant because it suggests or estab- Second, scholarly consensus is that this tower was is highly significant because it suggests or estab- Second, scholarly consensus is that this tower was lishes a lapse of time that would most likely be what we know as a ziggurat,13 and these pyramids lishes a lapse of time that would most likely be what we know as a ziggurat,13 and these pyramids long enough for various dialects if not languages were not erected to dizzying heights. Furthermore, long enough for various dialects if not languages were not erected to dizzying heights. Furthermore, to have developed. Since Shinar is by scholarly the purpose of a ziggurat was not only to reach the to have developed. Since Shinar is by scholarly the purpose of a ziggurat was not only to reach the consensus an area in Mesopotamia, moving there gods but to provide a gateway for a god to come consensus an area in Mesopotamia, moving there gods but to provide a gateway for a god to come from the East would mean that people groups were down to the people.14 So the ziggurat interpreta- from the East would mean that people groups were down to the people.14 So the ziggurat interpreta- already at least as far East as what in ancient times tion precludes any idea that building this tower was already at least as far East as what in ancient times tion precludes any idea that building this tower was became Persia. But even if ~d
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The major issue here is the people’s desire to (or pre-Persian?) people would not necessarily The major issue here is the people’s desire to (or pre-Persian?) people would not necessarily “make a name for themselves”, that is to build a know about God’s words in Genesis 9:1. That is “make a name for themselves”, that is to build a know about God’s words in Genesis 9:1. That is fierce reputation. This second aspect of the build- only the case if we assume they are so close in time fierce reputation. This second aspect of the build- only the case if we assume they are so close in time ing programme is what is directly connected to to Noah’s sons that the command was still fresh ing programme is what is directly connected to to Noah’s sons that the command was still fresh their purpose: “so that we will not be captured and and being taught. But if they are living at a time their purpose: “so that we will not be captured and and being taught. But if they are living at a time carried away to other lands”.17 The plan was firstly when enemy nations could plunder them, they carried away to other lands”.17 The plan was firstly when enemy nations could plunder them, they to build a city with a central pyramid for the gods likely have no knowledge of the Lord or his com- to build a city with a central pyramid for the gods likely have no knowledge of the Lord or his com- (to ensure divine help) and secondly to build a rep- mands. And if they do, there still is nothing that (to ensure divine help) and secondly to build a rep- mands. And if they do, there still is nothing that utation strong enough to deter would-be attackers, makes a solid connection between their actions utation strong enough to deter would-be attackers, makes a solid connection between their actions so that the Shinarites could hopefully avoid being in 11:4 and the divine command in Genesis 9:1. so that the Shinarites could hopefully avoid being in 11:4 and the divine command in Genesis 9:1. conquered and enslaved. Perhaps this involved leg- The only possible connection textually is that while conquered and enslaved. Perhaps this involved leg- The only possible connection textually is that while islation or the imposition of a lingua franca. Per- 9:1 promotes “global” migration, 11:4 indicates islation or the imposition of a lingua franca. Per- 9:1 promotes “global” migration, 11:4 indicates haps they had forced the people in the area they a desire to avoid being scattered.19 The question haps they had forced the people in the area they a desire to avoid being scattered.19 The question had subdued (Shinar) to adopt their language in then becomes, of what were they afraid? The tone had subdued (Shinar) to adopt their language in then becomes, of what were they afraid? The tone place of their native tongue. Such measures were of 11:4 is not that of a resolution to defy God. The place of their native tongue. Such measures were of 11:4 is not that of a resolution to defy God. The and are typical when a new kingdom is established. Shinarites are not talking to God or responding to and are typical when a new kingdom is established. Shinarites are not talking to God or responding to The reader must wonder who the Shinarites feared anything about him in verses 1-3. They are having The reader must wonder who the Shinarites feared anything about him in verses 1-3. They are having might invade and enslave them. This reality sug- a discussion about why they need to build a city. might invade and enslave them. This reality sug- a discussion about why they need to build a city. gests a time in history when a number of “nations” City building had not been divinely forbidden so gests a time in history when a number of “nations” City building had not been divinely forbidden so existed as enemies, which implies the existence building a city is no proof of a plan to bypass 9:1. existed as enemies, which implies the existence building a city is no proof of a plan to bypass 9:1. of at least several dialects if not languages.18 The All the text of Genesis 11 says so far is that some of at least several dialects if not languages.18 The All the text of Genesis 11 says so far is that some traditional view is not concerned with this obser- people were moving about the Middle East and traditional view is not concerned with this obser- people were moving about the Middle East and vation because it usually understands the fear of increasing their population to the point that when vation because it usually understands the fear of increasing their population to the point that when dispersion as a fear that God would scatter the they discovered a suitable place they settled down dispersion as a fear that God would scatter the they discovered a suitable place they settled down Shinarites in light of his plan and command to and set about building a city with a tower, most Shinarites in light of his plan and command to and set about building a city with a tower, most Noah and his sons as stated in Genesis 9:1: have likely a ziggurat for contact, not conflict, with gods Noah and his sons as stated in Genesis 9:1: have likely a ziggurat for contact, not conflict, with gods children and fill the earth (#rah)! (Although again or God. children and fill the earth (#rah)! (Although again or God. it could be argued that “earth” is not necessarily Another issue that is often overlooked is that it could be argued that “earth” is not necessarily Another issue that is often overlooked is that the globe as we understand it but as Noah would many slaves would have been needed to build this the globe as we understand it but as Noah would many slaves would have been needed to build this have understood it, i.e. the land area of which he city, especially the kind of tower the traditional have understood it, i.e. the land area of which he city, especially the kind of tower the traditional was aware.) Nothing in the text from 9:1 – 11:4 view envisions. This indicates that the people who was aware.) Nothing in the text from 9:1 – 11:4 view envisions. This indicates that the people who clarifies that these settlers were worried about God moved to Shinar from the east must have enslaved clarifies that these settlers were worried about God moved to Shinar from the east must have enslaved making them perpetual travellers and/or parents. people along the way or conquered an already making them perpetual travellers and/or parents. people along the way or conquered an already In fact the text taken at face value says that they existing civilization in Shinar upon arrival, pos- In fact the text taken at face value says that they existing civilization in Shinar upon arrival, pos- have travelled from the East to get to Shinar. And sibly – as was common – by destroying an exist- have travelled from the East to get to Shinar. And sibly – as was common – by destroying an exist- this logically implies that their ancestors first had ing city and rebuilding it. The pride and power of this logically implies that their ancestors first had ing city and rebuilding it. The pride and power of to travel eastward before they could travel back 11:4, then, is not a matter of rejecting the Lord to travel eastward before they could travel back 11:4, then, is not a matter of rejecting the Lord westward. They have to be a sizable community but of ruthless military aggression. Religion or westward. They have to be a sizable community but of ruthless military aggression. Religion or in order to build a city so they had no compul- dependence on their gods or chief war deity would in order to build a city so they had no compul- dependence on their gods or chief war deity would sions about bearing children. Nothing suggests have been part of this, as the building of a zig- sions about bearing children. Nothing suggests have been part of this, as the building of a zig- they were opposing God’s ideal of filling the earth gurat shows. Spiritual sin comes into play here they were opposing God’s ideal of filling the earth gurat shows. Spiritual sin comes into play here except the assumption that they were aware of only in that they worshipped false gods; but the except the assumption that they were aware of only in that they worshipped false gods; but the Genesis 9:1 and were resolved to disobey. Even if text in verses 4-6 highlights that the problem that Genesis 9:1 and were resolved to disobey. Even if text in verses 4-6 highlights that the problem that they were not from the east but had travelled east- entreated the Lord’s wrath was the Shinarites’ they were not from the east but had travelled east- entreated the Lord’s wrath was the Shinarites’ ward and were cognisant of the command to fill attitudes and actions of building a reputation ward and were cognisant of the command to fill attitudes and actions of building a reputation the lands with people, the very fact they have just (“name”), of which the building of a city was just the lands with people, the very fact they have just (“name”), of which the building of a city was just arrived in Shinar at journey’s end is evidence of one example -not the building per se but why and arrived in Shinar at journey’s end is evidence of one example -not the building per se but why and following that order. Certainly people had to settle how they built it. Their main purpose was to guard following that order. Certainly people had to settle how they built it. Their main purpose was to guard somewhere at some time, and the fact that these against being scattered (4b) and God’s verbal somewhere at some time, and the fact that these against being scattered (4b) and God’s verbal people finally get to a desirable place is no reason response (6a) involved a concern about them people finally get to a desirable place is no reason response (6a) involved a concern about them to say that they settled down out of an evil motive being “one people with the same language”. The to say that they settled down out of an evil motive being “one people with the same language”. The to disobey God. Lord was angered by how the Shinarites had been to disobey God. Lord was angered by how the Shinarites had been Furthermore these apparently Mesopotamian and were planning to use their unified power. All Furthermore these apparently Mesopotamian and were planning to use their unified power. All
32 • EJT 20:1 32 • EJT 20:1 • The sin of Shinar • • The sin of Shinar • this points to a problem related to gratuitous and existed at this time, whether or not “a region of this points to a problem related to gratuitous and existed at this time, whether or not “a region of aggressive military might. This view fits with what the earth” or “the entire earth” is in view in verse aggressive military might. This view fits with what the earth” or “the entire earth” is in view in verse had been the principle sin of mankind throughout 1, and whether or not the tower is a religious or had been the principle sin of mankind throughout 1, and whether or not the tower is a religious or the early chapters of Genesis. Sibling rivalry led to military one, unity and the power and prospects it the early chapters of Genesis. Sibling rivalry led to military one, unity and the power and prospects it murder in the first family (4:1-8). The Flood was brings was both the goal of these people (verse 4) murder in the first family (4:1-8). The Flood was brings was both the goal of these people (verse 4) sent to judge a world or region “filled with vio- and what concerned the Lord (6). And whatever sent to judge a world or region “filled with vio- and what concerned the Lord (6). And whatever lence” (6:13). Ham’s descendants were destined to the sin of Shinar was must and will be established lence” (6:13). Ham’s descendants were destined to the sin of Shinar was must and will be established become slaves of the descendants of his brothers on grounds independent of these decisions. How become slaves of the descendants of his brothers on grounds independent of these decisions. How (9:25-27). Nimrod, the founder of the earliest set- we understand Genesis 11:1-4 is crucial, because it (9:25-27). Nimrod, the founder of the earliest set- we understand Genesis 11:1-4 is crucial, because it tlements that became Babylon and Akkad (among explains why God is so angered in verses 5-8. Also tlements that became Babylon and Akkad (among explains why God is so angered in verses 5-8. Also other cities) in Shinar (10:10), was a “mighty what is emphasized in verse 6 may be the clue to other cities) in Shinar (10:10), was a “mighty what is emphasized in verse 6 may be the clue to warrior in the land [#r
EJT 20:1 • 33 EJT 20:1 • 33 • W. Creighton Marlowe • • W. Creighton Marlowe • rites’ quest for a name and defensive posture better seek to harmonize the text with “were building” rites’ quest for a name and defensive posture better seek to harmonize the text with “were building” explains the Lord’s anger and anxiety as expressed although the verb used does not say that). A solu- explains the Lord’s anger and anxiety as expressed although the verb used does not say that). A solu- in the next half of the story (verses 5-9). tion is to translate the verb in verse 5 as “had built in the next half of the story (verses 5-9). tion is to translate the verb in verse 5 as “had built [so far]”. They may have built the tower first as a [so far]”. They may have built the tower first as a priority. Verse 8 says that they stopped building the priority. Verse 8 says that they stopped building the The Lord’s opinion of these plans (11:5- city but it does not mention the tower – although The Lord’s opinion of these plans (11:5- city but it does not mention the tower – although 7) the tower could have been included as the central 7) the tower could have been included as the central The most significant feature of verse 5 is the refer- feature of the city, as understood by ancient read- The most significant feature of verse 5 is the refer- feature of the city, as understood by ancient read- ence to God coming down. This is consistent with ers. It may be also that verse 8 indicates contin- ence to God coming down. This is consistent with ers. It may be also that verse 8 indicates contin- what we know about the function of the ziggurat ued building beyond the first phase of a city with a what we know about the function of the ziggurat ued building beyond the first phase of a city with a as a means of contact between people and their tower. This could be an indication that the people as a means of contact between people and their tower. This could be an indication that the people principle deity. It was not for them to go up to were excessively consumed with greedily and principle deity. It was not for them to go up to were excessively consumed with greedily and meet Him but for Him to have a place to dwell mercilessly advancing their kingdom at all costs meet Him but for Him to have a place to dwell mercilessly advancing their kingdom at all costs in yet above their city and possibly to descend the (although not the megalomaniacs some suggest), in yet above their city and possibly to descend the (although not the megalomaniacs some suggest), steps to meet with them or for priests to ascend to which would explain God’s great grief over their steps to meet with them or for priests to ascend to which would explain God’s great grief over their Him. Yet the entire atmosphere and attitude was actions and his swift punishment. Him. Yet the entire atmosphere and attitude was actions and his swift punishment. one of communion. From the narrator’s point of Still what they had begun to do that bothered one of communion. From the narrator’s point of Still what they had begun to do that bothered view the Lord is the one and only true God, so the Lord as sinful was not the construction project view the Lord is the one and only true God, so the Lord as sinful was not the construction project only He could respond to what people do, whether per se. The problem must be related to the nature only He could respond to what people do, whether per se. The problem must be related to the nature they know His name or not. This verse indicates of the unity created, which was driven by evil they know His name or not. This verse indicates of the unity created, which was driven by evil His concern with the city and tower but nothing motives and enabled by having a city, especially His concern with the city and tower but nothing motives and enabled by having a city, especially negative is yet revealed. That comes in the next but not necessarily if the tower was a military one. negative is yet revealed. That comes in the next but not necessarily if the tower was a military one. verse. The city was a tool, morally neutral like an axe, verse. The city was a tool, morally neutral like an axe, In verse 6 the concern shifts from the city and but capable of being used with evil intent. If these In verse 6 the concern shifts from the city and but capable of being used with evil intent. If these tower to the real problem: these people’s unity, people are not stopped they will apparently con- tower to the real problem: these people’s unity, people are not stopped they will apparently con- both political and philological, along with their tinue to abuse their privilege of having a unified both political and philological, along with their tinue to abuse their privilege of having a unified methods and motives. God’s response and solu- population. But the odd thing here is that unity is methods and motives. God’s response and solu- population. But the odd thing here is that unity is tion in verse 7 is also aimed at their linguistic unity. normally something positive in the Bible and the tion in verse 7 is also aimed at their linguistic unity. normally something positive in the Bible and the So this is the key. Something about their power eyes of the Lord. Linguistic unity is something we So this is the key. Something about their power eyes of the Lord. Linguistic unity is something we and potential in concert with their psychology would typically see as a blessing, because we expe- and potential in concert with their psychology would typically see as a blessing, because we expe- alarmed the Lord enough that he needed to stop rience our linguistic barriers as troublesome for the alarmed the Lord enough that he needed to stop rience our linguistic barriers as troublesome for the them (6-7). Interestingly this return to a statement communication of the Bible’s Good News. Here, them (6-7). Interestingly this return to a statement communication of the Bible’s Good News. Here, about the “one language” found in 11:1 makes use however, linguistic and societal unity is sinful. So about the “one language” found in 11:1 makes use however, linguistic and societal unity is sinful. So only of the first element (11:1a, “one lip”) and not the Lord confuses their communication (verse 7). only of the first element (11:1a, “one lip”) and not the Lord confuses their communication (verse 7). of the second (11:1b, “unified words”). Jacques Ellul wrote regarding this phenomenon of of the second (11:1b, “unified words”). Jacques Ellul wrote regarding this phenomenon of What is ambiguous yet vital for understanding miscommunication, even when people speak the What is ambiguous yet vital for understanding miscommunication, even when people speak the this text is the statement “and this to begin to do”. same language, this text is the statement “and this to begin to do”. same language, The versions translate this as “and this they have The versions translate this as “and this they have begun to do” (NIV, KJV, LXX) or “this is only the A humanity capable of communicating has in its begun to do” (NIV, KJV, LXX) or “this is only the A humanity capable of communicating has in its beginning of what they will do” (e.g. NRSV). But possession the most terrible weapon of its own beginning of what they will do” (e.g. NRSV). But possession the most terrible weapon of its own the question the translations do not answer (seek- death: it is capable of creating a unique truth, the question the translations do not answer (seek- death: it is capable of creating a unique truth, ing to be more literal than interpretive in such believed by all, independent of God. By the ing to be more literal than interpretive in such believed by all, independent of God. By the cases, even the dynamic equivalent ones like NIV) confusion of tongues, by noncommunication, cases, even the dynamic equivalent ones like NIV) confusion of tongues, by noncommunication, is what “this” is. What is it exactly that these people God keeps man from forming a truth valid for is what “this” is. What is it exactly that these people God keeps man from forming a truth valid for have begun to do that upsets the Lord? The city all men. Henceforth, man’s truth will only be have begun to do that upsets the Lord? The city all men. Henceforth, man’s truth will only be 23 23 and tower are almost finished. This is based on partial and contested. and tower are almost finished. This is based on partial and contested. 11:5, which says God came down to see the city The expression “let’s go down” (7a) is a pun 11:5, which says God came down to see the city The expression “let’s go down” (7a) is a pun and tower these people “had built” (WnB'), likewise meant to ridicule the people who had said “Let’s and tower these people “had built” (WnB'), likewise meant to ridicule the people who had said “Let’s LXX (w|vˆkodo,mhsan), although some versions have go build” (4a). God mimics their words: If you try LXX (w|vˆkodo,mhsan), although some versions have go build” (4a). God mimics their words: If you try “were building” (e.g. NIV). Yet there is an appar- to go up, I will just come down. This use of “let “were building” (e.g. NIV). Yet there is an appar- to go up, I will just come down. This use of “let ent contradiction in verse 8, which says that the us” when God is speaking brings to mind state- ent contradiction in verse 8, which says that the us” when God is speaking brings to mind state- Lord’s intervention led to a halt in the construc- ments like we see in Genesis 1:26, “Let us make Lord’s intervention led to a halt in the construc- ments like we see in Genesis 1:26, “Let us make tion of the city (which is why some translations man in our image.” The “us” has been interpreted tion of the city (which is why some translations man in our image.” The “us” has been interpreted
34 • EJT 20:1 34 • EJT 20:1 • The sin of Shinar • • The sin of Shinar • as God and the angels or as the Trinity. But the if an enemy nation was the direct cause of their as God and the angels or as the Trinity. But the if an enemy nation was the direct cause of their similar use in Genesis 11 indicates that such an scattering. The word “scattered” does not intrin- similar use in Genesis 11 indicates that such an scattering. The word “scattered” does not intrin- expression is just a figure of speech like the edito- sically mean “to the four winds”; that is merely expression is just a figure of speech like the edito- sically mean “to the four winds”; that is merely rial we. In 11:7 the Lord says “Let us” not due a default meaning in modern English due to the rial we. In 11:7 the Lord says “Let us” not due a default meaning in modern English due to the to a plan to work with the angels but merely as traditional teaching. Being scattered in a number to a plan to work with the angels but merely as traditional teaching. Being scattered in a number a play on words to make fun of the people’s frail of Old Testament texts speaks of how Israel will a play on words to make fun of the people’s frail of Old Testament texts speaks of how Israel will plans – however majestic it was in their own eyes.24 be conquered and captured by other nations (Deu- plans – however majestic it was in their own eyes.24 be conquered and captured by other nations (Deu- Regardless, the point of verse 7 is that the Lord’s teronomy 4:27; 28:64; Jeremiah 9:15; Ezekiel Regardless, the point of verse 7 is that the Lord’s teronomy 4:27; 28:64; Jeremiah 9:15; Ezekiel solution to the problem or sin of Shinar is to create 11:16 et al.). “Over the face of the earth/land” may solution to the problem or sin of Shinar is to create 11:16 et al.). “Over the face of the earth/land” may misunderstanding and to confuse their commu- alternatively picture being dragged away over the misunderstanding and to confuse their commu- alternatively picture being dragged away over the nication. It must be observed that nothing is said ground by a foreign power rather than splitting up nication. It must be observed that nothing is said ground by a foreign power rather than splitting up specifically about the creation of new languages. and travelling in many directions. specifically about the creation of new languages. and travelling in many directions. That is one possible logical deduction to make, but That is one possible logical deduction to make, but not the only one. The rest of the passage only says not the only one. The rest of the passage only says that something happened to bring urban sprawl to Conclusion and application that something happened to bring urban sprawl to Conclusion and application a halt and that the people were scattered (8, 9b). “Babel” does not mean “confused”, it just sounds a halt and that the people were scattered (8, 9b). “Babel” does not mean “confused”, it just sounds As a result the place was ridiculed as “Babel” (a like the word that has that meaning. The Israelites As a result the place was ridiculed as “Babel” (a like the word that has that meaning. The Israelites pun between Babylon, babel, and Hebrew balal could not miss this opportunity to take a pot shot pun between Babylon, babel, and Hebrew balal could not miss this opportunity to take a pot shot “to mix up”) because of their inability to commu- at the pompous Babylonians. Parts of the story are “to mix up”) because of their inability to commu- at the pompous Babylonians. Parts of the story are nicate (9a). The author or editor is writing after intended as humorous and heuristic and overall nicate (9a). The author or editor is writing after intended as humorous and heuristic and overall the rise of Babylon or maybe even Neo-Babylon to promote holiness by encouraging the readers the rise of Babylon or maybe even Neo-Babylon to promote holiness by encouraging the readers in order to poke fun at this idolatrous empire. The not to follow the bad example of these Shinarites. in order to poke fun at this idolatrous empire. The not to follow the bad example of these Shinarites. LXX translates babel as Babylon. Verse 9 speaks of Genesis 11:1-9 picks up on 10:8-10 and the tales LXX translates babel as Babylon. Verse 9 speaks of Genesis 11:1-9 picks up on 10:8-10 and the tales confusion and scattering throughout the #r EJT 20:1 • 35 EJT 20:1 • 35 • W. Creighton Marlowe • • W. Creighton Marlowe • potential problems if their unified power (mili- Pseudepigrapha I (London: Darton, Longman and potential problems if their unified power (mili- Pseudepigrapha I (London: Darton, Longman and taristic and linguistic) went unchecked (11:6). Todd, 1983); Josephus Antiquities 1:118, transl. taristic and linguistic) went unchecked (11:6). Todd, 1983); Josephus Antiquities 1:118, transl. He so orchestrated events that they became con- H.St.J. Thackeray (London: SPCK, 1930) 57. For He so orchestrated events that they became con- H.St.J. Thackeray (London: SPCK, 1930) 57. For fused; through miscommunication and chaos their rabbinic views, Commentaries on the Pentateuch, ed. fused; through miscommunication and chaos their rabbinic views, Commentaries on the Pentateuch, ed. unity was weakened (11:7). As a result they were C. Pearl (New York: Harper and Row, 1970) 39; unity was weakened (11:7). As a result they were C. Pearl (New York: Harper and Row, 1970) 39; C. Westermann, Genesis 1-11 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: C. Westermann, Genesis 1-11 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: defeated and their empire building ceased; they Neukirchener Verlag, 1974) 734; G.J. Wenham, defeated and their empire building ceased; they Neukirchener Verlag, 1974) 734; G.J. Wenham, were deported and dragged away to another region Genesis 1-15 (Word Biblical Commentary; Waco: were deported and dragged away to another region Genesis 1-15 (Word Biblical Commentary; Waco: as captives (11:8). Epilogue: This is why the city Word Books, 1987) 245; V.P. Hamilton, The Book as captives (11:8). Epilogue: This is why the city Word Books, 1987) 245; V.P. Hamilton, The Book was named Babyl[on]: because the area under its of Genesis Chapters 1-17 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, was named Babyl[on]: because the area under its of Genesis Chapters 1-17 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, control became confused, mired down in miscom- 1990) 356; and others, in addition to the famous control became confused, mired down in miscom- 1990) 356; and others, in addition to the famous munication, and the Lord used another nation as painting by Pieter Brueghel (which has probably munication, and the Lord used another nation as painting by Pieter Brueghel (which has probably his instrument to bring judgment and to scatter influenced popular belief more than the Bible or his instrument to bring judgment and to scatter influenced popular belief more than the Bible or this once proud and powerful but too proud and any book, except Bible books for children, or lecture this once proud and powerful but too proud and any book, except Bible books for children, or lecture powerful people who violently misused their privi- and is likely equalled by fundamentalist sermons). powerful people who violently misused their privi- and is likely equalled by fundamentalist sermons). leged position. See Theodore Hiebert, “The Tower of Babel and leged position. See Theodore Hiebert, “The Tower of Babel and the Origin of the World’s Cultures”, Journal of Bibli- the Origin of the World’s Cultures”, Journal of Bibli- What then is the value of this text for the modern cal Literature 126:1 (2007) 29, citing James Kugel, What then is the value of this text for the modern cal Literature 126:1 (2007) 29, citing James Kugel, reader? It is an example of one of the dominant “The Tower of Babel” in Traditions of the Bible: A reader? It is an example of one of the dominant “The Tower of Babel” in Traditions of the Bible: A themes of the Old Testament: God’s repeated judg- guide to the Bible as it was at the start of the Common themes of the Old Testament: God’s repeated judg- guide to the Bible as it was at the start of the Common ment of those who act violently and abuse power. Era (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ment of those who act violently and abuse power. Era (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, The issue is not the tower but the power of Babel. 1998) 228-242 (for a review of early interpreters); The issue is not the tower but the power of Babel. 1998) 228-242 (for a review of early interpreters); The narrative in Genesis 11:1-9 gives every indica- Theodore Hiebert, “The Tower of Babel: Babble or The narrative in Genesis 11:1-9 gives every indica- Theodore Hiebert, “The Tower of Babel: Babble or tion that the problem was not votive (religious) or Blueprint? Calvin, Cultural Diversity, and the Inter- tion that the problem was not votive (religious) or Blueprint? Calvin, Cultural Diversity, and the Inter- volitional (refusal to migrate) but violence (a repu- pretation of Genesis 11:1-9”, in Wallace M. Alston, volitional (refusal to migrate) but violence (a repu- pretation of Genesis 11:1-9”, in Wallace M. Alston, tation built on power, real and perceived). Jr. and Michael Welker (eds.), Reformed Theology: tation built on power, real and perceived). Jr. and Michael Welker (eds.), Reformed Theology: Identity and Ecumenicity, vol. 2 (forthcoming), for Identity and Ecumenicity, vol. 2 (forthcoming), for a review of interpretations until the present. Wes- a review of interpretations until the present. Wes- Dr. W.C. Marlowe teaches at the Evangelical Theo- termann, Genesis 1-11, 719-721, warns against an Dr. W.C. Marlowe teaches at the Evangelical Theo- termann, Genesis 1-11, 719-721, warns against an logical Faculty in Leuven, Belgium. interpretation that focuses on a particular place or logical Faculty in Leuven, Belgium. interpretation that focuses on a particular place or tower; yet also traditionally says their sin was forc- tower; yet also traditionally says their sin was forc- ing their way into God’s presence. ing their way into God’s presence. Notes 6 Besides Harland’s approach (see note 1), Hiebert Notes 6 Besides Harland’s approach (see note 1), Hiebert 1 P.J. Harland, “Vertical or Horizontal: The Sin of has proposed that this story is about the tension 1 P.J. Harland, “Vertical or Horizontal: The Sin of has proposed that this story is about the tension Babel”, Vetus Testamentumi 48 (1998) 515. Luther between cultural solidarity and diversity (cultural Babel”, Vetus Testamentumi 48 (1998) 515. Luther between cultural solidarity and diversity (cultural also thought that “This chapter [11] does not indi- injustice). See Hiebert, “ Tower of Babel and Origin also thought that “This chapter [11] does not indi- injustice). See Hiebert, “ Tower of Babel and Origin cate clearly wherein the sins of the builders of the of Cultures”, 29-58. He argues that Genesis 11:1-9 cate clearly wherein the sins of the builders of the of Cultures”, 29-58. He argues that Genesis 11:1-9 Tower of Babel consisted.” Jaroslav Pelikan (ed.), has no focus on pride and punishment but exclu- Tower of Babel consisted.” Jaroslav Pelikan (ed.), has no focus on pride and punishment but exclu- Luther’s Works, vol. 2: Lectures on Genesis Chapters sively explains why the world has a diversity of cul- Luther’s Works, vol. 2: Lectures on Genesis Chapters sively explains why the world has a diversity of cul- 6-14 (St. Louis: Concordia, 1960) 2:210. tures. 6-14 (St. Louis: Concordia, 1960) 2:210. tures. 2 See Andrew Louth (ed.), Ancient Christian Com- It has even been suggested that Jesus had the Tower 2 See Andrew Louth (ed.), Ancient Christian Com- It has even been suggested that Jesus had the Tower mentary on Scripture: Genesis 1-11 (Downers Grove: of Babel in mind when he taught his disciples about mentary on Scripture: Genesis 1-11 (Downers Grove: of Babel in mind when he taught his disciples about IVP, 2001) 166-170, citing Fathers of the Church: counting the cost of discipleship. He told his disci- IVP, 2001) 166-170, citing Fathers of the Church: counting the cost of discipleship. He told his disci- A New Translation (Washington, D.C.: Catholic ples the parables of the tower builder and the king A New Translation (Washington, D.C.: Catholic ples the parables of the tower builder and the king University of America Press, 1947) 14:495-499; going to war (Luke 14:25-33), which interestingly University of America Press, 1947) 14:495-499; going to war (Luke 14:25-33), which interestingly 48:170; 67:66-67; 78:138-139; 82:222-229; combines a story of building of a tower with one 48:170; 67:66-67; 78:138-139; 82:222-229; combines a story of building of a tower with one 91:147-148; Pseudo Dionysius, The Complete Works, about warfare. See Peter G. Jarvis, “Expounding 91:147-148; Pseudo Dionysius, The Complete Works, about warfare. See Peter G. Jarvis, “Expounding transl. C. Luibheid et al. (Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist the Parables: V. The Tower-builders and the King transl. C. Luibheid et al. (Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist the Parables: V. The Tower-builders and the King Press, 1987) 282; and Corpus Christianorum. Series Going to War (Luke 14:25-33)”, Expository Times Press, 1987) 282; and Corpus Christianorum. Series Going to War (Luke 14:25-33)”, Expository Times Latina (Turnhout: Brepols, 1953-) 128:79. 77 (Jan 1966) 196-198. Latina (Turnhout: Brepols, 1953-) 128:79. 77 (Jan 1966) 196-198. 3 John Skinner, Genesis, 2nd ed. (ICC; Edinburgh: T. Jacques Ellul gave a brilliant treatment of the mean- 3 John Skinner, Genesis, 2nd ed. (ICC; Edinburgh: T. Jacques Ellul gave a brilliant treatment of the mean- & T. Clark, 1930) 226. ing of such a city in the ancient world. He spoke & T. Clark, 1930) 226. ing of such a city in the ancient world. He spoke 4 Gerhard von Rad, Genesis, rev. edition (Philadel- of the inevitability of the city, due to the motives 4 Gerhard von Rad, Genesis, rev. edition (Philadel- of the inevitability of the city, due to the motives phia: Westminster Press, 1961) 149. for its creation, needing to conquer the “country” phia: Westminster Press, 1961) 149. for its creation, needing to conquer the “country” 5 For related literature see Jubilees 10:18 and Sib- and of its necessary spiritual power for good or 5 For related literature see Jubilees 10:18 and Sib- and of its necessary spiritual power for good or ylline Oracles 3:100, in J.H. Charlesworth, Old evil. Nimrod accomplished his “hunting” of men ylline Oracles 3:100, in J.H. Charlesworth, Old evil. Nimrod accomplished his “hunting” of men Testament Pseudepigrapha II (London: Darton, through city building. In the same context of the Testament Pseudepigrapha II (London: Darton, through city building. In the same context of the Longman and Todd, 1985) and Old Testament building of Babylon in Shinar in Genesis 10 is also Longman and Todd, 1985) and Old Testament building of Babylon in Shinar in Genesis 10 is also 36 • EJT 20:1 36 • EJT 20:1 • The sin of Shinar • • The sin of Shinar • the reference to Nineveh in Assyria (also “built” by it would suffice to just say “everyone spoke one (or the reference to Nineveh in Assyria (also “built” by it would suffice to just say “everyone spoke one (or “Nimrod”). According to Nahum 3:1, Nineveh was ‘the same’) language”. Why add the comment about “Nimrod”). According to Nahum 3:1, Nineveh was ‘the same’) language”. Why add the comment about a city of falsehood, violence and plunder. This is the “words”? To say “one language and a shared vocab- a city of falsehood, violence and plunder. This is the “words”? To say “one language and a shared vocab- legacy of city building in human history. Jacques ulary” is redundant, unless meant appositionally or legacy of city building in human history. Jacques ulary” is redundant, unless meant appositionally or Ellul, The Meaning of the City (Exeter: Paternoster, explicit as a restatement (“that is, a shared vocabu- Ellul, The Meaning of the City (Exeter: Paternoster, explicit as a restatement (“that is, a shared vocabu- 1997, repr. ed.) 8-22. lary”). But then Hebrew does possess some redun- 1997, repr. ed.) 8-22. lary”). But then Hebrew does possess some redun- 7 Some non-traditional views on the nature of the sin dant features. Regardless of what exactly is meant, 7 Some non-traditional views on the nature of the sin dant features. Regardless of what exactly is meant, regard the tower not as a ziggurat but a siege or the added phrase and the context (see comments on regard the tower not as a ziggurat but a siege or the added phrase and the context (see comments on watch tower. See e.g. C. Uehlinger, Weltreich und 11:2 above) seem to place the event historically at watch tower. See e.g. C. Uehlinger, Weltreich und 11:2 above) seem to place the event historically at “eine Rede”: Eine neue Deutung der sogennanten Tur- a point when linguistic and dialectical changes had “eine Rede”: Eine neue Deutung der sogennanten Tur- a point when linguistic and dialectical changes had mbauerzahlung (Gen 11, 1-9) (Göttingen: Vanden- already occurred. mbauerzahlung (Gen 11, 1-9) (Göttingen: Vanden- already occurred. hoeck & Ruprecht, 1990) 231-236, 503-513, 10 Hamilton, Genesis, 350-351, notes 7-8, citing hoeck & Ruprecht, 1990) 231-236, 503-513, 10 Hamilton, Genesis, 350-351, notes 7-8, citing 534-536, who argues against the temple idea and sin numerous articles and chapters by C.H. Gordon, 534-536, who argues against the temple idea and sin numerous articles and chapters by C.H. Gordon, of religious pride, indicating the sin was an attempt especially “Ebla as Background for the Old Testa- of religious pride, indicating the sin was an attempt especially “Ebla as Background for the Old Testa- at world domination. Uehlinger compares the lan- ment”, Congress Volume: Jerusalem, 1986, VTSup 40 at world domination. Uehlinger compares the lan- ment”, Congress Volume: Jerusalem, 1986, VTSup 40 guage of world domination found in Assyrian rhet- (Leiden: Brill, 1988) 295. He also cites an argu- guage of world domination found in Assyrian rhet- (Leiden: Brill, 1988) 295. He also cites an argu- oric, specifically inscriptions dealing with the failure ment that this language was Sumerian and the scat- oric, specifically inscriptions dealing with the failure ment that this language was Sumerian and the scat- of Sargon II in conquering the known world. Pride tering is linked to the Ur III period in D.S. DeWitt, of Sargon II in conquering the known world. Pride tering is linked to the Ur III period in D.S. DeWitt, is said not to be the issue for Genesis 11, but pride “The Historical Background of Genesis 11:1-9: is said not to be the issue for Genesis 11, but pride “The Historical Background of Genesis 11:1-9: can be or most certainly is involved whether people Babel or Ur?” Journal of the Evangelical Theological can be or most certainly is involved whether people Babel or Ur?” Journal of the Evangelical Theological are trying to rival God or run over fellow humans. Society 22 (1979) 15-26. are trying to rival God or run over fellow humans. Society 22 (1979) 15-26. See Harland, “Vertical or Horizontal,” 518 citing 11 Gordon Wenham suggests a hendiadys here (“city See Harland, “Vertical or Horizontal,” 518 citing 11 Gordon Wenham suggests a hendiadys here (“city Uehlinger. Empire building as an interpretation was tower”?), which takes the city out of the picture Uehlinger. Empire building as an interpretation was tower”?), which takes the city out of the picture also promoted in J. Severino Croatto, “A Reading of (unless it is “towered city”). But a city tower pre- also promoted in J. Severino Croatto, “A Reading of (unless it is “towered city”). But a city tower pre- the Story of the Tower of Babel from a Perspective supposes a city so even if the focus is on the tower the Story of the Tower of Babel from a Perspective supposes a city so even if the focus is on the tower of Non-Identity” in Fernando F. Segovia and Mary per se, we still have to ask its purpose. If the reader of Non-Identity” in Fernando F. Segovia and Mary per se, we still have to ask its purpose. If the reader Ann Tolbert (eds.), Teaching the Bible: The Dis- does not know about ziggurats, it is reasonable to Ann Tolbert (eds.), Teaching the Bible: The Dis- does not know about ziggurats, it is reasonable to courses and Politics of Biblical Pedagogy (Maryknoll, conclude this is a watch or siege tower. As a reli- courses and Politics of Biblical Pedagogy (Maryknoll, conclude this is a watch or siege tower. As a reli- NY: Orbis Books, 1998) 203-223. Others explain gious structure, however, it could still fit a warfare NY: Orbis Books, 1998) 203-223. Others explain gious structure, however, it could still fit a warfare the sin as social injustice, e.g. Steve Reimer, “The situation as far as the story goes. A ziggurat would the sin as social injustice, e.g. Steve Reimer, “The situation as far as the story goes. A ziggurat would Tower of Babel: An Archaeologically Informed have been used for inviting the gods’ blessings on Tower of Babel: An Archaeologically Informed have been used for inviting the gods’ blessings on Reinterpretation”, Direction 25:2 (1996) 64-72. their battles. The purpose of a ziggurat could in no Reinterpretation”, Direction 25:2 (1996) 64-72. their battles. The purpose of a ziggurat could in no Ernest B. Cohen, “The Tower of Babel Revisited”, way have enraged the gods. The Lord would have Ernest B. Cohen, “The Tower of Babel Revisited”, way have enraged the gods. The Lord would have Reconstructionist (21 Jan 1972) 25-29, compares been upset by idolatry but these are not Hebrews Reconstructionist (21 Jan 1972) 25-29, compares been upset by idolatry but these are not Hebrews the Tower Story to loss of jobs for NASA scien- and the text does not describe the problem in this the Tower Story to loss of jobs for NASA scien- and the text does not describe the problem in this tists in spite of their grand schemes and abilities to way. The sin would have to be something that was tists in spite of their grand schemes and abilities to way. The sin would have to be something that was reach the skies and asks for social solutions for those universally viewed as sinful, like gratuitous violence. reach the skies and asks for social solutions for those universally viewed as sinful, like gratuitous violence. unemployed. Wenham, Genesis 1-15, 239. unemployed. Wenham, Genesis 1-15, 239. 8 Ephrem the Syrian (born ca. AD 306) suggested 12 Luther spoke of medieval folklore that placed the 8 Ephrem the Syrian (born ca. AD 306) suggested 12 Luther spoke of medieval folklore that placed the that after confusion set in, a war erupted in which Tower at nine miles high. Pelikan, Luther’s Works, that after confusion set in, a war erupted in which Tower at nine miles high. Pelikan, Luther’s Works, Nimrod was victorious. He then scattered the 2:211. Nimrod was victorious. He then scattered the 2:211. population of the city and set himself up as king 13 Therefore Dale DeWitt could confidently assert: “It population of the city and set himself up as king 13 Therefore Dale DeWitt could confidently assert: “It of Babylon. See Louth, Ancient Christian Commen- is common knowledge now that the tower is the of Babylon. See Louth, Ancient Christian Commen- is common knowledge now that the tower is the tary, 166, 187. ziggurat of the lower Tigris-Euphrates basin.” See tary, 166, 187. ziggurat of the lower Tigris-Euphrates basin.” See 9 Orally, T. Muraoka (Hebrew and Semitics professor DeWitt, “The Historical Background”, 15. In the 9 Orally, T. Muraoka (Hebrew and Semitics professor DeWitt, “The Historical Background”, 15. In the emeritus of Leiden University) suggested the mean- Archaeological Study Bible (Grand Rapids: Zonder- emeritus of Leiden University) suggested the mean- Archaeological Study Bible (Grand Rapids: Zonder- ing “one dialect” for the phrase ~ydIx'a] ~yrIb'd>W. The van, 2005), 20 it says regarding Genesis 11:4: ing “one dialect” for the phrase ~ydIx'a] ~yrIb'd>W. The van, 2005), 20 it says regarding Genesis 11:4: entire statement tx'a, hp'f' ~ydIx'a] ~yrIb'd>W is enig- “Ancient cities were dominated by a temple com- entire statement tx'a, hp'f' ~ydIx'a] ~yrIb'd>W is enig- “Ancient cities were dominated by a temple com- matic as illustrated by the various ways it is trans- plex, including a tower…. Ziggurats were dedicated matic as illustrated by the various ways it is trans- plex, including a tower…. Ziggurats were dedicated lated and interpreted. Perhaps the connective waw to particular deities. Their design made it conven- lated and interpreted. Perhaps the connective waw to particular deities. Their design made it conven- is not conjunctive syntactically (“and also”) but ient for a god to ‘come down’ to his temple, receive is not conjunctive syntactically (“and also”) but ient for a god to ‘come down’ to his temple, receive explicative (“especially”) or pleonastic (stylistic). worship from his people and bless them.” On sacred explicative (“especially”) or pleonastic (stylistic). worship from his people and bless them.” On sacred Possibly the two clauses are appositional (“that is”). space in the ancient world, see V. Hurowitz, I Have Possibly the two clauses are appositional (“that is”). space in the ancient world, see V. Hurowitz, I Have This could be a hendiadys. It sounds redundant to Built You an Exalted House, JSOT Sup 115 (Shef- This could be a hendiadys. It sounds redundant to Built You an Exalted House, JSOT Sup 115 (Shef- say “one language and one speech” as if two dif- field: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992). DeWitt say “one language and one speech” as if two dif- field: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992). DeWitt ferent things are meant, unless Muraoka is right plausibly argues that the date of the Tower event ferent things are meant, unless Muraoka is right plausibly argues that the date of the Tower event about the latter being a dialect. If the point in his- is best related to the fall of the Third Dynasty of about the latter being a dialect. If the point in his- is best related to the fall of the Third Dynasty of tory was when only one language was being used, Ur, the end of the Sumerian civilization, ca. 1960 tory was when only one language was being used, Ur, the end of the Sumerian civilization, ca. 1960 EJT 20:1 • 37 EJT 20:1 • 37 • W. Creighton Marlowe • • W. Creighton Marlowe • BC. He connects the division of languages in Gen- a traditional interpretation that is held by those who BC. He connects the division of languages in Gen- a traditional interpretation that is held by those who esis 11:7 with the time of Peleg when the earth was accept this text as historical and divinely authorita- esis 11:7 with the time of Peleg when the earth was accept this text as historical and divinely authorita- divided (10:25; cf. 11:18; DeWitt 10:18 [sic?]). tive. divided (10:25; cf. 11:18; DeWitt 10:18 [sic?]). tive. His defence of the tower of Genesis 11 as a temple 19 The verb used for “scatter” in 11:4b (#wp) is similar His defence of the tower of Genesis 11 as a temple 19 The verb used for “scatter” in 11:4b (#wp) is similar uniting Heaven and earth is based mainly on the to but not the same as that found in 9:19, where uniting Heaven and earth is based mainly on the to but not the same as that found in 9:19, where wording of 11:4 (mentioning the heavens) for Noah’s sons are mentioned as those whose descend- wording of 11:4 (mentioning the heavens) for Noah’s sons are mentioned as those whose descend- which he finds parallels in ancient Mesopotamian ants were scattered (#pn) over the “earth”. which he finds parallels in ancient Mesopotamian ants were scattered (#pn) over the “earth”. texts which speak of ziggurats or temples as links 20 People’s pride and pursuit of power inevitably lead texts which speak of ziggurats or temples as links 20 People’s pride and pursuit of power inevitably lead between Heaven and earth (DeWitt, “The Histori- to battles between cities for more prestige. This usu- between Heaven and earth (DeWitt, “The Histori- to battles between cities for more prestige. This usu- cal Background”, 21). However, these texts use the ally ends in the defeated population being dispersed cal Background”, 21). However, these texts use the ally ends in the defeated population being dispersed term “house” not “tower”, although structurally or deported (scattered and enslaved). God allows term “house” not “tower”, although structurally or deported (scattered and enslaved). God allows these temples were often seven-stepped pyramids of this to continue as the natural consequence of and these temples were often seven-stepped pyramids of this to continue as the natural consequence of and ca. 30 feet [10 metres] high. Extant towers range punishment for gratuitous violence against neigh- ca. 30 feet [10 metres] high. Extant towers range punishment for gratuitous violence against neigh- from 60 to 200 feet per side. See John H. Walton, bours. Interestingly a Puritan commentator speak- from 60 to 200 feet per side. See John H. Walton, bours. Interestingly a Puritan commentator speak- Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament ing of Nimrod said: “By hunter here is not meant an Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament ing of Nimrod said: “By hunter here is not meant an (Nottingham: Apollos, 2007) 119. hunter of beasts, but an hunter of men.” See William (Nottingham: Apollos, 2007) 119. hunter of beasts, but an hunter of men.” See William 14 As André Parrot concluded, a ziggurat was “a bond Whately, Prototypes or, the Primarie Precedent Presi- 14 As André Parrot concluded, a ziggurat was “a bond Whately, Prototypes or, the Primarie Precedent Presi- of union, whose purpose was to assure communica- dents of the Booke of Genesis (London: Edvvard Lang- of union, whose purpose was to assure communica- dents of the Booke of Genesis (London: Edvvard Lang- tion between earth and heaven”; therefore, a “giant ham, MDCXL) 87. Luther said about verse 4 that: tion between earth and heaven”; therefore, a “giant ham, MDCXL) 87. Luther said about verse 4 that: step-ladder by means of which a man may ascend “The descendants of Ham had invaded the region step-ladder by means of which a man may ascend “The descendants of Ham had invaded the region as near as possible to the sky”. Such a definition on of Shem… Because they were inclined towards des- as near as possible to the sky”. Such a definition on of Shem… Because they were inclined towards des- the surface seems to align well with the words of potism, they had a desire not only to drive out the the surface seems to align well with the words of potism, they had a desire not only to drive out the Genesis 11:4a. See André Parrot, The Tower of Babel, descendants of Shem but also to establish [as Satan Genesis 11:4a. See André Parrot, The Tower of Babel, descendants of Shem but also to establish [as Satan Studies in Biblical Archaeology 2 (New York: Philo- does] a new government and a new church.” See Studies in Biblical Archaeology 2 (New York: Philo- does] a new government and a new church.” See sophical Library, 1955) 64. Pelikan, Luther’s Works, 2: 219. Cf. Ellul, The Mean- sophical Library, 1955) 64. Pelikan, Luther’s Works, 2: 219. Cf. Ellul, The Mean- 15 See inter alia John H. Walton, “The Mesopotamian ing of the City, 10-13, who makes a case for “hunter 15 See inter alia John H. Walton, “The Mesopotamian ing of the City, 10-13, who makes a case for “hunter Background of the Tower of Babel and its Implica- before the Lord” meaning “plunderer” or “con- Background of the Tower of Babel and its Implica- before the Lord” meaning “plunderer” or “con- tions”, Bulletin for Biblical Research 5 (1995) 155- queror”. I would add that the parallel with “mighty tions”, Bulletin for Biblical Research 5 (1995) 155- queror”. I would add that the parallel with “mighty 175; Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, 121. warrior” supports this as a military statement, not 175; Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, 121. warrior” supports this as a military statement, not 16 Luther was influenced by such wording, as many one about hunting game. Ellul speaks of this reflect- 16 Luther was influenced by such wording, as many one about hunting game. Ellul speaks of this reflect- still are. He concluded it was a place of worship. ing the establishment of the first military empires still are. He concluded it was a place of worship. ing the establishment of the first military empires See Pelikan, Luther’s Works, 2:213. He may have by one whom God knows about but who does See Pelikan, Luther’s Works, 2:213. He may have by one whom God knows about but who does been influenced by the Vulgate, as were the KJV not know God as did Moses (Ellul, City, 11-12). been influenced by the Vulgate, as were the KJV not know God as did Moses (Ellul, City, 11-12). translators. The Vulgate in verse 4 reads et dixerunt Being “before the Lord” is a negative assessment translators. The Vulgate in verse 4 reads et dixerunt Being “before the Lord” is a negative assessment venite faciamus nobis civitatem et turrem cuius culmen in this case. The city is a centre from which war venite faciamus nobis civitatem et turrem cuius culmen in this case. The city is a centre from which war pertingat ad caelum et celebremus nomen nostrum is waged (Ellul, City, 13). Josephus wrote: “They pertingat ad caelum et celebremus nomen nostrum is waged (Ellul, City, 13). Josephus wrote: “They antequam dividamur in universas terras. (“And they were incited to this insolent contempt of God by antequam dividamur in universas terras. (“And they were incited to this insolent contempt of God by said: Come, let us make a city and a tower, the top Nebrodes [LXX name for Nimrod], grandson of said: Come, let us make a city and a tower, the top Nebrodes [LXX name for Nimrod], grandson of whereof may reach to heaven: and let us make our Ham the son of Noah, an audacious man of doughty whereof may reach to heaven: and let us make our Ham the son of Noah, an audacious man of doughty name famous before we be scattered abroad into vigour. He persuaded them to attribute their pros- name famous before we be scattered abroad into vigour. He persuaded them to attribute their pros- all lands”; The Holy Bible Translated from the Latin perity not to God but to their own valour, and little all lands”; The Holy Bible Translated from the Latin perity not to God but to their own valour, and little Vulgate, Douay-Rheims [New York: Edward Duni- by little transformed the state of affairs into a tyr- Vulgate, Douay-Rheims [New York: Edward Duni- by little transformed the state of affairs into a tyr- gan,1844]; emphasis added). anny, holding that the only way to detach men from gan,1844]; emphasis added). anny, holding that the only way to detach men from 17 Cf. KJV punctuation: “Go to, let us build us a city the fear of God was by making them continuously 17 Cf. KJV punctuation: “Go to, let us build us a city the fear of God was by making them continuously and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven; and dependent upon his own power.” Josephus, Antiq- and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven; and dependent upon his own power.” Josephus, Antiq- let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad uities IV, transl. Thackeray, 55. let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad uities IV, transl. Thackeray, 55. upon the face of the whole earth”; and NRSV: 21 The Sumerians worshiped Anu (meaning “sky” or upon the face of the whole earth”; and NRSV: 21 The Sumerians worshiped Anu (meaning “sky” or “Come, let us build ourselves a city, and a tower “heaven/s”) as the chief deity. Ellul refers to the “Come, let us build ourselves a city, and a tower “heaven/s”) as the chief deity. Ellul refers to the with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name distance between the Lord and Nimrod, who was with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name distance between the Lord and Nimrod, who was for ourselves; otherwise we shall be scattered abroad “before the Lord” (Genesis 10:9; see Ellul, Mean- for ourselves; otherwise we shall be scattered abroad “before the Lord” (Genesis 10:9; see Ellul, Mean- upon the face of the whole earth.” ing of the City, 11-12). The Lord was not sanction- upon the face of the whole earth.” ing of the City, 11-12). The Lord was not sanction- 18 An alternative approach is not to worry about such ing Nimrod’s prowess; rather Nimrod was separated 18 An alternative approach is not to worry about such ing Nimrod’s prowess; rather Nimrod was separated inconsistencies (e.g. only one language and one set from the Lord while a part of his omniscience. inconsistencies (e.g. only one language and one set from the Lord while a part of his omniscience. vocabulary but various nations) and to admit that 22 In Gen 10:8 he is called a son of Cush (a son of vocabulary but various nations) and to admit that 22 In Gen 10:8 he is called a son of Cush (a son of the story is a fable meant to teach a valid lesson, not Ham in verse 6) but in Micah 5:6 he is Assyrian. the story is a fable meant to teach a valid lesson, not Ham in verse 6) but in Micah 5:6 he is Assyrian. validate historical details. But the presupposition of 23 Ellul, Meaning of the City, 19. validate historical details. But the presupposition of 23 Ellul, Meaning of the City, 19. this study is to understand that a historical event is 24 Likewise such a statement in Genesis 1:26 is prob- this study is to understand that a historical event is 24 Likewise such a statement in Genesis 1:26 is prob- behind the story, and its intention is to interact with ably just a literary convention and nothing theologi- behind the story, and its intention is to interact with ably just a literary convention and nothing theologi- 38 • EJT 20:1 38 • EJT 20:1 • The sin of Shinar • • The sin of Shinar • cal should be taken from it. power. The story shows they had no problem with cal should be taken from it. power. The story shows they had no problem with 25 A widely accepted chiasm of Genesis 11:1-9 makes migration and reproduction. And nothing indicates 25 A widely accepted chiasm of Genesis 11:1-9 makes migration and reproduction. And nothing indicates a parallel between “had one language” (b; 11:1b) that God was angry about the tower per se but a parallel between “had one language” (b; 11:1b) that God was angry about the tower per se but and “the Lord confused the language” (b’; 11:9b). rather about the motives behind the city. The tower and “the Lord confused the language” (b’; 11:9b). rather about the motives behind the city. The tower This would suggest that the one language was con- was evidence that they sought God but the Ten This would suggest that the one language was con- was evidence that they sought God but the Ten fused not divided. See e.g. J.P. Fokkelman, Nar- Commandments had established God’s resolution fused not divided. See e.g. J.P. Fokkelman, Nar- Commandments had established God’s resolution rative Art in Genesis (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1975) that a right relationship with him was related to a rative Art in Genesis (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1975) that a right relationship with him was related to a 13-22. In this chiasm the centre point or climax, for right relationship with humanity. Jesus summed up 13-22. In this chiasm the centre point or climax, for right relationship with humanity. Jesus summed up which there is no corresponding line, is “The Lord the Old Testament and its two greatest commands which there is no corresponding line, is “The Lord the Old Testament and its two greatest commands came down” (g; 11:5a). as love God and your neighbour as yourself (Luke came down” (g; 11:5a). as love God and your neighbour as yourself (Luke 26 Wenham’s view is that that 11:1-9 explains the 26 Wenham’s view is that that 11:1-9 explains the 10:27). Cf. 1 John 4:20, “If anyone says, ‘I love 10:27). Cf. 1 John 4:20, “If anyone says, ‘I love diversity and dispersion of chapter 10, but he does diversity and dispersion of chapter 10, but he does God’, yet hates his brother, he is a liar. For anyone God’, yet hates his brother, he is a liar. For anyone not tie it specifically to Nimrod. See Wenham, not tie it specifically to Nimrod. See Wenham, Genesis 1-15, 242-244. My proposal is also that 11 who does not love his brother, whom he has seen, Genesis 1-15, 242-244. My proposal is also that 11 who does not love his brother, whom he has seen, explains 10 but not in terms of how the diversity of cannot love God, whom he has not seen.” explains 10 but not in terms of how the diversity of cannot love God, whom he has not seen.” tribes and tongues arose. However, the view that 27 S.v. lb,b in Koehler and Baumgartner (eds.), Hebrew tribes and tongues arose. However, the view that 27 S.v. lb,b in Koehler and Baumgartner (eds.), Hebrew violence is the sin of verse 4 does not depend on and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Accord- violence is the sin of verse 4 does not depend on and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Accord- how the language of verse 1 is understood. Whether ance Bible Version). David C. Mitchell, “‘God Will how the language of verse 1 is understood. Whether ance Bible Version). David C. Mitchell, “‘God Will of not 11:1-9 fits chronologically before chapter 10 Redeem My Soul from Sheol’: The Psalms of the of not 11:1-9 fits chronologically before chapter 10 Redeem My Soul from Sheol’: The Psalms of the or early in it, the attempt to make a name is reason- Sons of Korah”, Journal for the Study of the Old Testa- or early in it, the attempt to make a name is reason- Sons of Korah”, Journal for the Study of the Old Testa- ably defined by the narrative in its immediate and ment 30 (2006) 373 n. 30, notes the derisory nature ably defined by the narrative in its immediate and ment 30 (2006) 373 n. 30, notes the derisory nature Old Testament context, not as attacking God or of the translation of Babel (“Gate of God” in Ara- Old Testament context, not as attacking God or of the translation of Babel (“Gate of God” in Ara- avoiding migration, but pride that led to an abuse of maic). avoiding migration, but pride that led to an abuse of maic). The Faith of Jesus Christ The Faith of Jesus Christ Exegetical, Biblical and Theological Studies Exegetical, Biblical and Theological Studies Edited by Michael F. Bird and Preston M. Sprinkle Edited by Michael F. Bird and Preston M. Sprinkle The Faith of Jesus Christ represents an attempt to grapple with one of the most perplexing problems in The Faith of Jesus Christ represents an attempt to grapple with one of the most perplexing problems in Pauline studies, namely that of the phrase pistis christou. Issues of considerable theological import hinge on Pauline studies, namely that of the phrase pistis christou. Issues of considerable theological import hinge on how we interpret it (does it mean ‘faith in Christ’ or ‘the faithfulness of Christ’?). The topic is now well how we interpret it (does it mean ‘faith in Christ’ or ‘the faithfulness of Christ’?). The topic is now well rehearsed in contemporary scholarship and this volume sheds new light on the question by presenting rehearsed in contemporary scholarship and this volume sheds new light on the question by presenting rigorous exegetical studies from both sides of the debate. It also brings creative new proposals to bear on rigorous exegetical studies from both sides of the debate. It also brings creative new proposals to bear on the problem, and orients the discussion in the wider spectrum of historical, biblical and systematic theology. the problem, and orients the discussion in the wider spectrum of historical, biblical and systematic theology. The Faith of Jesus Christ represents the most penetrating and comprehensive attempt to date to grapple with The Faith of Jesus Christ represents the most penetrating and comprehensive attempt to date to grapple with the significance of Jesus’ faithfulness and obedience for Christian salvation and the extent to which it is the significance of Jesus’ faithfulness and obedience for Christian salvation and the extent to which it is represented in key biblical texts. Contributors include Francis Watson, Douglas Campbell, Stanley Porter, represented in key biblical texts. Contributors include Francis Watson, Douglas Campbell, Stanley Porter, David DeSilva, Paul Foster, Richard Bell, Joel Willitts, Mark Seifrid, Barry Matlock, Michael Bird, Andrew David DeSilva, Paul Foster, Richard Bell, Joel Willitts, Mark Seifrid, Barry Matlock, Michael Bird, Andrew Pitts, Mark Elliott, Ardel Caneday, Peter Bolt, Bruce Lowe, Bill Salier, Debbie Hunn, Ben Myers, and Pitts, Mark Elliott, Ardel Caneday, Peter Bolt, Bruce Lowe, Bill Salier, Debbie Hunn, Ben Myers, and Preston Sprinkle. Foreword by James D.G. Dunn. Preston Sprinkle. Foreword by James D.G. Dunn. Michael F. Bird is Tutor in New Testament at Highland Theological College, Scotland; Preston M. Sprinkle is Michael F. Bird is Tutor in New Testament at Highland Theological College, Scotland; Preston M. Sprinkle is Assistant Professor of Biblical Studies, Cedarville University, USA Assistant Professor of Biblical Studies, Cedarville University, USA 978-1-84227-641-9 / 229 x 152mm / 208pp (est.) / £14.99 (est.) 978-1-84227-641-9 / 229 x 152mm / 208pp (est.) / £14.99 (est.) Paternoster, Authenticmedia Limited, 52 Presley Way, Crownhill, Milton Keynes, MK8 0ES Paternoster, Authenticmedia Limited, 52 Presley Way, Crownhill, Milton Keynes, MK8 0ES EJT 20:1 • 39 EJT 20:1 • 39