From Cnidarians to Mammals: the Use of Animals As Remedies in Fishing

Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

From cnidarians to mammals: The use of animals as remedies in fishing communities in NE Brazil Romuloˆ R.N. Alves a,b,∗, Iereceˆ L. Rosa c a Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Estadual da Para´ıba, Campus Universitário do Bodocongó, Campina Grande, Para´ıba, Brasil b Programa de Pós-Gradua¸cão em Ciências Biológicas (Zoologia), Universidade Federal da Para´ıba, 58051-900 João Pessoa, PB, Brazil c Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Para´ıba, 58051-900 João Pessoa, PB, Brazil Received 22 September 2005; received in revised form 10 March 2006; accepted 13 March 2006

Abstract This work documents zootherapeutic practices in Northeast Brazil. It is primarily based on ﬁeld surveys carried out in ﬁshing villages located in the states of Maranhao˜ and Para´ıba, where 60 respondents (38 men and 22 women) provided information on animal species used as medicine, body parts used to prepare the remedies and illnesses to which the remedies were prescribed. A total of 100 animal species (72 families), distributed in 12 taxonomic categories, was used as medicine. Zootherapeutic resources were used to treat 62 different diseases. The local medicinal fauna is largely based on wild animals, including some endangered species. Threatened species, such as the seahorse (Hippocampus reidi, Ginsburg, 1933) (Syngnathidae) and the green turtle (Chelonia mydas, Linnaeus, 1758) (Cheloniidae) represented important medicinal resources for the studied communities. This shows the need to integrate traditional knowledge into strategies to conserve and manage faunistic resources in Brazil. © 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Conservation; Ethnozoology; Traditional medicine; Zootherapy

1. Introduction management (MMA, 2003). Animal species have been medici- nally used in the country by indigenous societies for millennia, Naturally occurring substances of plant, animal and min- and by descendants of the European settlers for the last four eral origin have provided a continuing source of medicines centuries (Costa-Neto, 1999a). since the earliest times known to man (David and Anderson, Expressions of traditional medicine in the country, particu- 1969), and their use has been perpetuated through the use of larly of zootherapy, represent an interaction of native, African traditional medicines. Traditional forms of medicine have been and European elements, since the beginning of colonization strongly incorporated by contemporary societies, phytotherapy (Almeida, 2005), resulting in a rich ethnomedicine used by peo- and zootherapy being among the various therapeutic alternatives ple belonging to different social classes in Brazil (Costa-Neto, used around the globe (Alves and Rosa, 2005). 1999a). Nevertheless, the use of animal species as remedies, Animals and plants have been broadly used since ancient although representing an important component of traditional times in Brazilian traditional medicine (Almeida, 2005), and medicine (sometimes in association with plant species), has been have played a significant role in healing practices. This is not much less studied than medicinal plants in the country. While surprising given the estimate that Brazil possesses between 15 Calixto (2005) recorded 3722 published full paper on medicinal and 20% of all the world’s biological diversity, as well as a sig- plants in Brazil, inventories of animal species used as medicine nificant cultural mega diversity, represented by more than 200 are still relatively rare in the country. indigenous peoples as well as by a large number of local com- Moreover, a substantial portion of the information available munities which detain a considerable knowledge of the flora and on zootherapeutic practices in Brazil was obtained in the north- fauna, and of traditional systems of renewable natural resources eastern State of Bahia alone (Costa-Neto, 1996, 1999a,b,c,d, 2000a,b, 2001, 2002; Costa-Neto and Marques, 2000; Andrade and Costa-Neto, 2005; Costa-Neto and Pacheco, 2005). The ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 83 32167775; fax: +55 83 32167775. remaining brazilian studies were based on field work con- E-mail address: romulo [email protected] (R.R.N. Alves). ducted in the states of Para(´ Branch and Silva, 1983; Figueiredo,

JEP-4184; No. of Pages 18 2 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

1994); Maranhao-Tocantins˜ (Begossi and Braga, 1992); Per- tation consists of remnants of the Atlantic forest and ‘restinga’ nambuco (Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Silva et al., 2004; (coastal forest vegetation), and mangrove ecosystem covering Almeida, 2005); Alagoas (Marques, 1995; Marques and Costa- more than 6000 ha on the banks of the rivers Mamanguape and Neto, 1997); Rio de Janeiro (Seixas and Begossi, 2001); Sao˜ Miriri, and their tributaries. Other ecosystems represented in the Paulo (Begossi, 1992). ‘APA’ are lagoons, beaches and reefs. Regrettably, some of the zootherapeutic resources used in the According to Paludo and Klonowski (1999), the dwellers of country are already included in Brazil’s official lists of threat- the ‘APA’ originated from miscegenation of white, Amerindi- ened species (IBAMA, 2003; MMA, 2004). As pointed out by ans and black people. Most people living in the study Marques (1997), the medical potential of the Brazilian fauna and sites consider themselves Christian (76.69% at the Marcaçao˜ the possibility of its exhaustion through overexploitation or even site and 81.98% at Mamanguape) (http://www.zillner.eng.br/ species extinction, requires urgently an ecological evaluation of infobrasil/municipioslista.php). Most of the riverine human this process by assessing not only its zoological dimension but communities depend on the estuary and mangrove habitats for also its cultural dimension. their survival and maintenance of their culture. According to Given Brazil’s significant cultural and biological diversity, Vidal (2000), in some areas of the ‘APA’ there are subsistence the country can be used as a useful case study to increase our crop plantations and even livestock owned by local farmers. knowledge of faunistic resources used as medicines, and to draw APA’s settlers face a number of social problems, such as lack of attention to the need to protect traditional knowledge and bio- health care system, of water treatment, and of an adequate school diversity. In that context, the aim of this paper is to document system and use local natural resources as source of energy, food zootherapeutic practices in two fishing communities located in and of building materials (Pereira, 1995). In some areas closer the Northeastern region of Brazil. The study is primarily based to the mouth of the Mamanguape river tourism has emerged as on field surveys, and was centered around the following ques- an additional economic activity for the locals. tions: which animal species are used as medicine by the two Interviewees’ age ranged from 28 to 87 years (the average age communities? Which are the body parts used to prepare the being 52.7 years). With regards to schooling, 76.7% (n = 23) of remedies? Which are the illnesses treated by the remedies? How the interviewees were illiterate, 13.3% (n = 4) attended school are geographical discontinuity and local landscapes reflected in for 8 years (completing what is known in Brazil as “ensino fun- the zootherapeutic practices of the two communities? damental”), 6.7% (n = 2) attended school for less than 8 years and 3.3% (n = 1) attended the 3 years of high school (complet- 2. Methods ing what is known in Brazil as “ensino medio”).´ With regards to monthly income, most interviewees (70%) earned minimum 2.1. Sites of study wage (R$ 300 = US$ 131.34) or less.

2.1.1. APA Barra do rio Mamanguape—Para´ıba State 2.1.2. Municipality of Raposa—Maranh˜ao State The ‘APA’ Barra do rio Mamanguape has a total area of The municipality of Raposa is located on the island of 14,460 ha, and encompasses the estuaries of the rivers Maman- Sao˜ Lu´ıs, at about 37 km from the city of Sao˜ Lu´ıs, capi- guape, Miriri and Estiva (Alves et al., 2005)(Fig. 1). Its vege- tal of the state of Maranhao.˜ According to Rangel (2003),

Fig. 1. Map showing the surveyed localities. R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 3 modern occupation of that municipality began in the 50s, To respect intellectual property rights, we adopted the fol- when fishers from the neighbour state of Cearamovedtothe´ lowing protocol in the field: before the survey, we introduced Raposa area. That coastal municipality covers ca. 63.9 km2, ourselves, explained the nature and objectives of our research and encompasses a population of 16,057 people, whose main and asked the respondents for permission to record the informa- sources of income are artisanal fisheries and production of crafts tion. A formal approach using consent forms was hampered due (Rodrigues et al., 2001; Zoneamento Costeiro do Estado do to the illiteracy found among most of the interviewees. Maranhao,˜ 2003). The coastal physiography of the region where We used the native visualization or emic approach, avoiding the Raposa municipality is located includes sandy beaches, this way the introduction of comments or terms used by the paleodunes, mangroves, etc. (Feitosa, 1998), and the munic- researcher (or interviewer), which could influence the answer ipality is considered the main producer of fish in the state given by the informants (see Sturtevant, 1964; Posey, 1986). of Maranhao˜ (Stride, 1988). Most people in the Raposa area Species’ vernacular names were recorded as quoted by inter- consider themselves catholics (56.17%), followed by evan- viewees. Zoological material was identified with the aid of spe- gelicals (35%). Some (24%) informed they had no religion cialists, through (1) examination of voucher specimens donated (http://www.zillner.eng.br/infobrasil/municipioslista.php). by the interviewees; (2) photographs of the animals or their parts, Interviewees’ age ranged between 33 and 85 years (mean: taken during interviews; (3) vernacular names, with the aid of 48.36). With regards to schooling, 26.7% (n = 8) of the intervie- taxonomists familiar with the study areas’ fauna. Voucher spec- wees were illiterate, 16.7% (n = 5) attended school for 8 years imens and/or photographs were deposited at the Department of (completing what is known in Brazil as “ensino fundamental”), Systematics and Ecology, Universidade Federal da Para´ıba. 50% (n = 15) attended school for less than 8 years and 6.67% (n = 2) attended the 3 years of high school (completing what is 2.3. Data analysis known in Brazil as “ensino medio”).´ With regards to monthly income, most interviewees (70%) earned (R$ 600 = US$ 264.68) The first step employed in the data analysis was calculation or less. of the informant consensus factor (ICF), adapted from Heinrich et al. (1998). A value near zero indicates a high variation in the 2.2. Procedures use of species, if animals are chosen randomly, or if informants do not exchange information about their use. Values will be Field research was conducted in APA Barra do rio Maman- high (near 1) indicates a high intra-cultural consensus, if there guape from September to December 2003, and in the Raposa is a well-defined selection criterion in the community and/or area from January to February 2004. During the first contacts if information is exchanged between informants (Gazzaneo et with the local population, we attempted to identify local people al., 2005). The ICF was calculated as follows: number of use with a specialized knowledge of medicinal animal use, following citations in each category (nur) minus the number of species Davis and Wagner (2003). A specialist is defined as “a person used (nt), divided by the number of use citations in each category recognized by the community as having deep knowledge about minus one. the use of animals in manufacturing remedies and in promoting n − n cures”, following Gazzaneo et al. (2005). Information on the use = ur t ICF n − of animal in traditional medicines was collected through inter- ur 1 views with 60 persons (30 in each locality), mainly from the The use-value (adapted from the proposal of Phillips et elderly populations, who still retain the major portion of tradi- al., 1994), a quantitative method that demonstrates the relative tional knowledge in their respective communities (see Pieroni importance of species known locally, was also calculated: et al., 2002a). Additional interviewees were chosen by using U the snowball technique, based on information initially provided = , UV n by the specialists. Interviews were conducted on a one-to-one basis. where UV is the use-value of a species, U the number of citations Data were gathered through interview-questionnaires per species and n is the number of informants. (Adeola, 1992), with some questions left open-ended Application of the use-value of each species is based objec- (Huntington, 2000). Questionnaires were applied to 38 men and tively on the importance attributed by the informants and does 22 women who detained knowledge of zootherapeutic practices, not depend on the opinion of the researcher. and encompassed the following aspects: local name of the animal The diseases treated with zootherapeutic resources quoted used as remedy; parts used as medicine; conditions treated with by the interviewees were distributed in 18 categories, based on the remedy; preparation and usage; restrictions of use; adverse the classification used by the Centro Brasileiro de Classificaçao˜ effects; spiritual aspects linked to the use; use of live or dead de Doenças (1993) (Brazilian Center for the Classification of animals; how animals were obtained; storage conditions; col- Diseases), as follows: (1) respiratory system; (2) osteomus- lection sites; gear used to collect the animals; efficacy of the cular system and conjunctive tissue; (3) external causes of remedies; traditional uses of the remedies in the community; morbidity and mortality; (4) skin and subcutaneous tissues; how knowledge was acquired by the interviewees; reliance on (5) digestive system; (6) circulatory system; (7) some types animal-based remedies; why the interviewee used animal-based of infection and parasitic diseases; (8) ear (middle and inner remedies. ear) and mastoid apophysis; (9) urinogenital system; (10) blood 4 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

Table 1 Categories of diseases treated with zootherapic remedies in two surveyed communities, according to the Brazilian Centre for the Classiﬁcation of Diseases Categories Diseases and illnesses mentioned by respondents Total

Some infections and parasitic diseases Amoebiasis, athlete’s foot, diarrhoea, erysipelas, measles, 10 tuberculosis, rabies, schistosomiasis, wart, whooping cough Respiratory system Asthma, bronchitis, chesty cough, cough, flu, pneumonia, shore 8 throat, shortness of breath Digestive system Ulcer, hernia, poor digestion, stomach ache, gastritis, appendicitis, 7 toothache Undefined illnesses Healing of umbilical cord of newborn baby, infection, irritation 5 when milk teeth are erupting, the evil eye, venereal disease External causes of morbidity and mortality Alcoholism, dog bite, stings (fishes, crustaceans, snakes and 5 insects), suck a splinter out of skin or flesh, swelling Osteomuscular system and conjunctive tissue Arthritis, arthrosis, backache, osteoporosis, rheumatism 5 Injuries, poisoning and other consequences of Berne, bleeding (wounds), burns, intoxication from poisonous 5 external causes animals, wounds Urinogenital system Menstrual cramps, renal failure, womb disorders 3 Circulatory system Hemorrhage, haemorrhoids, thrombosis 3 Skin and subcutaneous tissue Boil, skin spots, tumour 3 Nervous system Epilepsy, headache 2 Neoplasias (tumours) Cancer (in general), breast cancer 2 Ear (middle and inner ear) and mastoid Deafness, earache 2 apophysis Blood and haematopoeitic organs, and some Anaemia 1 disorders of the immune system Pregnancy, parturition and puerperium Disorders after partutirion (to accelerate recovery after parturition) 1 Symptoms, signs and abnormal findings from Incontinence 1 medical and laboratorial examination, not categorized in other part or section Mental and behavioural perturbations Male impotence 1 Diseases of the endocrine glands, metabolism Weakness 1 and nutrition Total 65

A, Respiratory system; B, osteomuscular system and conjunctive tissue; C, external causes of morbidity and mortality; D, skin and subcutaneous tissues; E, digestive system; F, circulatory system; G, some infections and parasitic diseases; H, ear (middle and inner ear) and mastoid apophysis; I, urinogenital system; J, blood and haematopoeitic organs and some disorders of the immune system; L, injuries, poisoning and other consequences of external causes; M, symptoms, signs and abnormal findings from medical and laboratorial examination, not categorized in other part or section; N, mental and behavioural perturbations; O, undefined illnesses; P, pregnancy, parturition and puerperium; Q, nervous system; R, neoplasias (tumours); S, diseases of the endocrine glands, metabolism and nutrition. and haematopoeitic organs, and some disorders of the immune (2001) identified 16 species used by fishers at the island of Ilha system; (11) injuries, poisoning and other consequences of exter- Grande, state of Rio de Janeiro. nal causes; (12) nervous system; (13) pregnancy, parturition In the present work, we recorded the use of 100 animal species and puerperium; (14) symptoms, signs and abnormal findings (72 vertebrates and 28 invertebrates) for medicinal purposes, of from medical and laboratorial examination, not categorized in which 31 were common to both communities studied. Among other part or section; (15) neoplasias (tumours); (16) mental the 31 species used by both communities, 81% were prescribed and behavioural perturbations; (17) diseases of the endocrine for the same illnesses at each locality (e.g., the shared use of glands, metabolism and nutrition; (18) undefined illnesses Hippocampus reidi and of Megalops atlanticus Valenciennes, (Table 1). 1847 to treat asthma). Furthermore, of the 15 species, which were quoted more than 10 times during the interviews, most 3. Results and discussion (n = 11, 73.3%) were used by both surveyed communities, sug- gesting a geographic continuum in the selection of species used 3.1. Zootherapheutical resources as medicine in NE Brazil. Respondents at the APA da Barra do rio Mamanguape used Since the 1980s various publications have shown the impor- 74 animal species as remedies, whereas the Raposa community tance of zootherapy for traditional communities from distinct used 57 (Table 2). The species inventoried comprised 12 tax- socio-cultural–environmental landscapes in Brazil. Branch and onomic categories, belonging to 72 families (Fig. 2; Table 2), Silva (1983) inventoried 33 animal species used as remedies in which represent a significant part of their medicinal armamen- the Northern state of Para;´ Begossi (1992) reported the use of tarium. 10 animal species at Buzios´ Island, off the state of Sao˜ Paulo; Fishes were the best represented group (27 species), fol- Marques (1995) reported the use of 56 species in the ecoregion lowed by mammals (22) and reptiles (18). This agrees with of Varzea´ de Marituba, state of Alagoas; Seixas and Begossi the results obtained by previous authors, who have shown that R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 5

Table 2 Animals species used in popular medicine at the study sites (PB = Para´ıba and MA = Maranhao)˜ Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way of Disease (or illness) administration PB MA PB MA

Cnidarians Physaliidae aPhysalia physalia—Portuguese-man-of-war, 1 1 0.03 0.03 Whole animal (1) Asthma “Caravela” Molluscs Ostreidae Crassostrea rhizophorae (Guilding, 15 3 0.53 0.17 Flesh (6), shell (3) Osteoporosis, pneumonia, stomach 1828)—mangrove oyster, “ostra do mangue” ache, cancer, flu, weakness, pain relief in injuries caused by the dorsal fin spine of a species of catfish, anaemia, tuberculosis Veneridae aAnomalocardia brasiliana (Gmelin, 2 1 0.07 0.03 Flesh (6), shell (3) Asthma, flu, stomach ache 1791)—clam, “marisco” Littorinidae aLittorina angulifera (Lamarck, 4 – 0.2 – Flesh (6, 7) Chesty cough, shortness of breath 1822)—periwinkle snail, “mela-pau” Mytilidae Mytella guyanensis (Lamarck, 1819)—mussel, – 1 – 0.03 Flesh (6) Weakness “sururu” Loliginidae Loligo sp.—squid, “lula” 11 – 0.37 – Shell (1) Asthma Ampullariidae Pomacea lineata (Spix, 1827)—snail, “arua”´ 1 – 0.03 – Extract obtained from ova Ulcer (10) Chelicerata Bothriuridae Bothriurus sp.—scorpion, “escorpiao-preto”˜ – 1 – 0.03 Whole animal (9) Pain relief caused by the species’ sting Crustaceans Ocypodidae Ocypode quadrata (JC Fabricius, 1787)—ghost 5 1 0.17 0.07 Carapace (1), bile (4) Flu, asthma, to alleviate the crab, “Maria farinha” symptoms of intoxication with poison of poison of ‘niquim’ (Pisces, Batrachoididae) Ucides cordatus (Linnaeus, 1763)—land crab, 1 – 0.03 – Bile (10) Incontinence “caranguejo-uça”´ Uca maracoani (Latreille, 1802)—fiddler crab, – 3 – 0.17 Whole animal (1) Asthma, whooping cough “maracoani” Sesarmidae aAratus pisoni (H. Milne Edwards, 6 – 0.2 – Whole animal (1), flesh (6) Epilepsy, to alleviate the symptoms 1837)—mangrove crab, “aratu preto” of intoxication with poison of Colomesus psittacus (a species of pufferfish) Grapsidae aGoniopsis cruentata (Latreille, 2 – 0.07 – Flesh (6), bile (4) Venereal disease 1802)—mangrove root crab, “aratu do mangue” Palaemonidae Macrobrachium acanthurus (Wiegmann, 1 – 0.03 – Flesh (4) Irritation when milk teeth are 1836)—cinnamon river shrimp, camarao˜ de erupting agua´ doce Macrobrachium borellii (Nobili, 1 – 0.03 – Flesh (4) Irritation when milk teeth are 1896)—freshwater shrimp, camarao˜ de agua´ erupting doce Squillidae Squilla sp.—mantis shrimp, “Siriboia”,´ – 11 – 0.4 Whole animal (9) Pain relief in injuries caused by sting “tamburutaca” of the insect itself, snake bites and the injuries caused by the spines of the fishes ‘niquim’, ‘bagre’ and ‘arraia’) 6 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

Table 2 (Continued ) Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way of Disease (or illness) administration PB MA PB MA

Penaeidae Litopenaeus schmitti (Burkenroad, – 2 – 0.07 Fat (4) Irritation when milk teeth are 1936)—southern white shrimp, camarao˜ erupting, skin spots branco Xiphopenaeus kroyeri (Heller, 1862)—Atlantic – 2 – 0.07 Fat (4) Irritation when milk teeth are seabob, camarao˜ branco erupting, skin spots Chilopoda Scolopendridae Scolopendra sp.—centipede, “centopeia”´ – 2 – 0.07 Whole animal (9) Pain relief in injuries caused by sting of insects and snake bite Insects Formicidae Atta cephalotes (Linnaeus, 1758)—a 1 – 0.03 – Abdomen of winged adults Sore throat leaf-cutter ant, “tanajura” (7) aDinoponera quadriceps (Santschi, 1 – 0.03 Whole animal (1) Asthma 1921)—“trinca cunhao”˜ Blattidae Periplaneta americana (Linnaeus, 1 1 0.03 0.03 Whole animal (1) Asthma 1758)—American cockroach, “barata” Apidae Melipona scutellaris (Latreille, 1811)—a 3 – 0.23 – Honey (10, 8) Flu, amoebiasis species of stingless bee, “uruçu”´ Melipona compressipes (Fabricius, 1804)—a – 1 – 0.07 Honey (10, 8) Asthma, cough species of stingless bee, “tiuba”´ Apis mellifera (Linnaeus, 1758)—Africanised 1 – 0.03 – Honey (10, 8) Flu, amoebiasis honey bee, “abelha italiana” Echinoderms Oreasteridae aOreaster reticulatus (Linnaeus, 10 – 0.33 – Whole animal (1) Asthma 1758)—starfish, “Estrela do mar” Astropectinidae Astropecten sp.—starfish, “Estrela do mar” 10 – 0.33 – Whole animal (1) Asthma Mellitidae aEncope sp.—notched sand dollar, “bolacha de 1 – 0.03 – Whole animal (1) Asthma praia” Fishes Myliobatidae aAetobatus narinari (Euphrasen, 5 – 0.2 – Tooth (1), liver oil (4), tail Asthma, pain relief caused in injuries 1790)—Spotted eagle ray, raia chita (1), mucous from ventral by the species’ sting, burns region (4), liver (6) Dasyatidae aDasyatis marianae (Gomes, Rosa & Gadig, 5 – 0.2 – Tooth (1), liver oil (4), tail Asthma, pain relief caused in injuries 2000)—Brazilian large-eyed stingray, raia (1), mucous from ventral by the species’ sting, burns mariquita region (4), liver (6) Dasyatis guttata (Bloch & Schneider, 5 – 0.2 – Tooth (1), liver oil (4), tail Asthma, pain relief caused in injuries 1801)—longnose stingray, raia branca (1), mucous from ventral by the species’ sting, burns region (4), liver (6) Urolophidae aUrotrygon microphthalmum (Delsman, 5 – 0.2 – Tooth (1), liver oil (4), tail Asthma, pain relief caused in injuries 1941)—Smalleyed round stingray, raia (1), mucous from ventral by the species’ sting, burns region (4), liver (6) Gymnotidae Electrophorus electricus (Linnaeus, 2 1 0.07 0.03 Fat (4) Rheumatism 1766)—Electric eel, “poraque”ˆ Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus porosus (Ranzani, – 1 – 0.03 Cartilage (3) Osteoporosis 1840)—Smalltail shark, “Junteiro” aGaleocerdo cuvier (Peron´ & Lesueur, 1822) – 2 – 0.07 Cartilage (3) Osteoporosis (Tiger shark) “Jaguara” Carcharhinus limbatus (Ranzani, – 2 – 0.1 Cartilage (3) Osteoporosis 1840)—Blackfin shark, “Sucuri preto” R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 7

Table 2 (Continued ) Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way of Disease (or illness) administration PB MA PB MA

Rhizoprionodon porosus (Poey, 3 – 0.13 – Cartilage (3), oil (4) Rheumatism 1861)—Sharpnose shark, “cacao” Rhizoprionodon lalandii (Muller¨ & Henle, 3 – 0.13 – Cartilage (3), oil (4) Rheumatism 1839)—Brazilian sharpnose shark, “caçao”˜ Sphyrnidae Sphyrna sp.—Hammerhead shark, “Martelo” – 3 – 0.1 Cartilage (3) Osteoporosis Tetraodontidae Colomesus psittacus (Bloch & Schneider, – 3 – 0.1 Bile (4), liver oil (4) Breast cancer, backache, warts 1801)—banded puffer, “baiacu” Megalopidae Megalops atlanticus (Valenciennes, 6 3 0.17 0.1 Scale (1) Asthma 1847)—tarpon, “Camurupim” Aspredinidae aAspredo aspredo (Linnaeus, 1758)—Banjo – 1 – 0.03 Barbels (1) Asthma catfish, “viola” aAspredinichthys tibicen (Valenciennes, – 1 – 0.03 Barbels (1) Asthma 1840)—Tenbarbed banjo, “viola” Batrachoididae Thalassophryne nattereri (Steindachner, – 1 – 0.07 Flesh (6) Pain relief caused in injuries by the 1876)—venomous toadfish, “niquim” species’ sting Balistidae Balistes vetula (Linnaeus, 1758)—queen – 25 – 1.03 Skin (1), tooth (1) Asthma, haemorrhage, ascites triggerfish, “cangulo” (schistosomiasis), appendicitis, menstrual cramps, gastritis Syngnathidae Hippocampus reidi (Ginsburg, 29 22 1 0.97 Whole animal (1) Asthma, gastritis 1933)—longsnout seahorse, “Cavalo-marinho” Muraenidae aGymnothorax funebris (Ranzani, 1 – 0.03 – Flesh (6) Bleeding (wounds) 1840)—Green moray, “moreia´ verde” aGymnothorax moringa (Cuvier, 1 – 0.03 – Flesh (6) Bleeding (wounds) 1829)—Spotted moray, “moreia´ pintada” aGymnothorax vicinus (Castelnau, 1 – 0.03 – Flesh (6) Bleeding (wounds) 1855)—Purplemouth moray, “moreia”´ Ginglymostomidae aGinglymostoma cirratum (Bonnaterre, 3 3 0.13 0.13 Cartilage (1), oil (4) Rheumatism 1788)—nurse shark, “Caçao˜ lixa” Ogcocephalidae Ogcocephalus vespertilio (Linnaeus, – 1 – 0.03 Whole animal (1) Asthma 1758)—batfish, “Peixe morcego” Clupeidae aOpisthonema oglinum (Lesueur, 1 – 0.03 – Whole animal (12) Alcoholism 1818)—Atlantic thread herring, “Sardinha” Erythrinidae Hoplias malabaricus (Bloch, 1794)—Trahira, 1 – 0.07 – Fat (5) Deafness “tra´ıra” Exocoetidae Exocoetus sp.—Tropical two-wing flyingfish, 1 – 0.03 – Fat (10) Asthma “peixe voador” Scorpaenidae Scorpaena sp.—scorpionfish, “peixe-pedra” – 1 0.03 Flesh (6) Wounds Amphibians Bufonidae Bufo sp.—toad, “sapo” 1 – 0.03 – Whole animal (2) Wounds Reptiles Cheloniidae Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758)—Green sea 10 4 0.5 0.17 Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, earache, sore throat, turtle, “Tartaruga verde”, “aruana”˜ swelling, whooping cough, arthritis 8 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

Table 2 (Continued ) Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way of Disease (or illness) administration PB MA PB MA

Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, 11 – 0.57 – Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, earache, sore throat, 1766)—Atlantic hawksbill, “tartaruga de swelling pente” Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758)—loggerhead 5 – 0.4 – Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, earache, sore throat, turtle, “tartaruga cabeçuda” swelling Dermochelyidae Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 5 1 0.4 0.03 Fat (4), oil from skin (4 or 10) Rheumatism, earache, sore throat, 1761)—leatherback turtle, “tartaruga de swelling couro” Chelidae Phrynops geoffroanus (Schweigger, 1 1 0.07 0.03 Fat (4) Sore throat, swelling 1812)—Geoffroy’s side-necked turtle, “cagado”´ Testudinidae Geochelone carbonaria (Spix, – 1 – 0.03 Carapace (1) Asthma 1824)—Red-Footed Tortoise, “jabuti” Teiidae Tupinambis sp.—tegu, “tejuaçu”´ 20 4 0.97 0.13 Fat (4 or 10), tongue (1), skin Asthma, tumour, swelling, (1) rheumatism, earache, sore throat, infection, bronchitis Tropiduridae Tropidurus hispidus (Spix, 1825)—a lava 3 – 0.1 Whole animal (11) Sore throat, erysipelas, healing of lizard, “lagartixa” umbilical cord of newborn baby Gekkonidae Hemidactylus mabouia (Moreau de Jonnes, 1 – – 0.03 Whole animal (11) Sore throat 1818)—Afro-American house gecko, “lagartixa de lajedo” Alligatoridae Caiman latirostris (Daudin, 1801)—cayman, 4 8 0.13 0.33 Tooth (13), skin (1), fat (4) Asthma, sore throat, amulet used as a “jacare”´ protection against snake bite, rheumatism, milk teeth eruption, hernia Paleosuchus palpebrosus (Cuvier, 4 8 0.13 0.33 Tooth (13), skin (1), fat (4) Asthma, sore throat, amulet used as a 1807)—Cayman, “jacare”´ protection against snake bite, rheumatism, milk teeth eruption, hernia Boidae Boa constrictor (Linnaeus, 1758)—Boa, 1 8 0.07 0.43 Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, sore throat, arthrosis, “jiboia”´ insect sting, dog bite, boils. Epicrates cenchria (Linnaeus, 1 – 0.07 – Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, sore throat 1758)—Rainbow boa, “salamanta” Eunectes murinus (Linnaeus, – 3 – 0.13 Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, boils, male impotence, 1758)—anaconda, “sucuruju”,´ “sucuri” headache Iguanidae Iguana iguana (Linnaeus, 1758)—common 7 2 0.3 0.07 Bone (1), Fat (4), tail (1) Asthma, athlete’s foot, rheumatism, iguana, “camaleao”˜ sore throat, swelling, burn, tumour, to suck a splinter out of skin or flesh Viperidae Bothrops sp.—lancehead, “jararaca” – 1 – 0.03 Fat (4) Tumour, furuncle Lachesis muta (Linnaeus, 1766)—bushmaster, – 1 – 0.03 Fat (4) Tumour, furuncle “surucucu pico de jaca” Crotalus durissus (Linnaeus, 19 9 0.97 0.4 Fat (4), rattle (1) Rheumatism, backache, asthma, 1758)—Neotropical rattlesnake, “cascavel” tumour, furuncle, headache, earache, osteoporosis, sore throat, toothache Birds Phasianidae Gallus domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758)—domestic 6 1 0.2 0.07 Fat (4 or 10), gizzard (6) Asthma, sore throat, tumour, poor chicken, “Galinha” digestion, healing of umbilical cord of newborn baby R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 9

Table 2 (Continued ) Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way of Disease (or illness) administration PB MA PB MA

Cathartidae Coragyps atratus (Bechstein, 1793)—black 2 1 0.1 0.03 Feather (3), liver (6) Bronchitis, anaemia, flu (catarrh), vulture, “urubu” alcoholism Psittacidae Amazona sp.—parrot, “papagaio” 1 1 0.03 0.07 Faeces (5 or 3) Earache, alcoholism Meleagrididae aMeleagris gallopavo (Linnaeus, 3 – 0.1 – Feather (1) Asthma 1758)—turkey, “peru” Mammals Delphinidae Sotalia fluviatilis (Gervais and Deville, 3 5 0.1 0.23 Fat (4 or 10), oil from skin (4 Asthma, headache, rheumatism, 1853)—Amazonian dolphin, “boto” or10) hernia, womb disorders, sore throat Sotalia guianensis (P.J. Van Ben´ eden,´ 3 5 0.1 0.23 Fat (4 or 10), oil from skin (4 Asthma, headache, rheumatism, 1864)—Guianan river dolphin, “boto” or 10) hernia, womb disorders, sore throat Iniidae Inia geoffrensis (Blainville, 1817)—Amazon 1 – 0.1 Fat (4 or 10), oil from skin (4 Asthma, headache, rheumatism, river dolphin, “boto rosa” or 10) hernia, womb disorders, sore throat Balaenopteridae Balaenoptera acutorostrata (Lacep´ ede,` 3 1 0.13 0.1 Fat (4 or 10), oil (4 or 10) Rheumatism, sore throat, wounds 1804)—minke whale, baleia minke Physeteridae Physeter macrocephalus (Linnaeus, 4 1 0.13 0.13 Fat (4 or 10), oil (4 or 10) Rheumatism, sore throat, wounds 1758)—sperm whale, “cachalote” Trichechidae Trichecus manatus (Linnaeus, 4 3 0.2 0.17 Fat (4 or 10), milk (10) Rheumatism, sore throat, wounds 1758)—manatee, “peixe-boi” Trichecus inunguis (Natterer, 3 3 0.1 0.17 Fat (4 or 10), skin (1) Rheumatism, burns, asthma, 1883)—Amazonian manatee, “peixe-boi” menstrual cramps Mephitidae Conepatus sp.—a species of skunk, “tacaca” 1 – 0.03 – Bone (3) Osteoporosis, renal failure Procyonidae Procyon cancrivorus (G. [Baron] Cuvier, 1 3 0.03 0.1 Skin (1 or 13) Thrombosis, amulet used as a 1798)—crab-eating raccoon, “guaxinim” protection against snake bite Nasua nasua (Linnaeus, 1766)—Coati, “quati” 1 – 0.03 – Bone (13) Backache Canidae Cerdocyon thous (Linnaeus, 6 – 0.2 – Fat (4 or 10), bone (1) Rheumatism, flu, haemorrhoids, 1766)—crab-eating fox, “raposa” disorders after parturition (to accelerate recovery after parturition) Canis familiaris (Linnaeus, 1758)—dog, 5 1 0.17 0.03 Faeces (1) Measles, menstrual cramps “cachorro” Erethizontidae Coendou prehensilis (Linnaeus, 9 – 0.33 – Spines or quills (1) Asthma 1758)—Brazilian porcupine, “Coandu”,´ “porco espinho” Didelphidae Didelphis albiventris (Lund, 1840)—common 7 – 0.23 – Fat (4) Hernia, boils opossum, “timbu”´ Didelphis marsupialis (Linnaeus, – 2 – 0.07 Fat (1 or 4) Stomach ache, rheumatism, diarrhoea 1758)—southern opossum, “mucura” Leporidae Sylvilagus brasiliensis (Linnaeus, 1 – 0.03 – Fur (4) Burns 1758)—rabbit, “coelho” Dasypodidae Euphractus sexcintus (Linnaeus, 3 1 0.1 0.07 Tail (5), skin (1) Earache, amulet to protect against 1758)—armadillo, “tatu peba” “evil eye”, asthma Dasypus novemcinctus (Linnaeus, – 2 – 0.1 Tail (5), skin (1) Earache, amulet to protect against 1758)—nine-banded armadillo, “tatu “evil eye”, asthma galinha” 10 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

Table 2 (Continued ) Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way of Disease (or illness) administration PB MA PB MA

Bradypodidae Bradypus sp.—sloth, “preguic¸a” 12 1 0.47 0.07 Claw (1), skin (1) Rabies, asthma, rheumatism Suidae Sus scrofa (Linnaeus, 1758)—pig, “porco” 1 – 0.07 – Fat (lard) (4) Athlete’s foot, berne, wounds Myrmecophagidae Tamandua tetradactyla (Linnaeus, 5 – 0.17 – Bone (1) Thrombosis 1758)—collared anteater, “tamandua”´ Bovidae Ovis aries (Linnaeus, 1758)—sheep, “carneiro” 1 – 0.03 – Fat (4) Arthritis, arthrosis, rheumatism

1, Tea; 2, powder, to be spread on the affected area; 3, powder, to be ingested with food; 4, ointment to be rubbed on the affected area; 5, ear drops; 6, ingestion of the cooked part; 7, ingestion of the crude part; 8, beverage (‘garrafada’), obtained by mixing medicinal plants and animals; 9, mixed with alcohol and rubbed on the affected area; 10, taken as a drink; 11, concoction, taken as a drink; 12, mixed with alcoholic beverage and take as a drink; 13, worn as a talisman. a Species not recorded in previous studies.

fishes, reptiles and mammals are the groups with the highest Tupinambis sp. (0. 97), Crotalus durissus (0.97), Eretmochelys number of species used as medicine in Brazil (Branch and Silva, imbricata (Linnaeus, 1766) (Cheloniidae) (0.57), Crassostrea 1983; Begossi, 1992; Costa-Neto, 1999a; Seixas and Begossi, rhizophorae (0.53) and Bradypus sp. (Bradypodidae) (0.47). 2001; Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Silva et al., 2004). In the Raposa municipality, the highest use-value was for the The species most frequently quoted were Hippocampus reidi species Balistes Vetula (1.03), followed by Hippocampus reidi (Ginsburg, 1933) (Syngnathidae)—seahorse (n = 51), Crotalus (0.97), Boa constrictor (Linnaeus, 1758) (Boidae) (0.43) and durissus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Viperidae)—rattlesnake (28), Bal- Crotalus durissus (0.40). Most species exhibited low use-values. istes vetula (Linnaeus, 1758) (Balistidae)—queen triggerfish The high use-value of the threatened seahorse species Hip- (25), Tupinambis sp. (Teiidae)—tegu (24) and Crassostrea rhi- pocampus reidi in both surveyed localities confirms its impor- zophorae (Guilding, 1828) (Ostreidae)—oyster (18). tance as a medicinal resource in Brazil (its main importance While the medicinal use of 20 animal species had not been residing in its attributed healing effects on asthma), and rein- not recorded in previous studies conducted in coastal loca- forces the need to further address the links between zoothera- tions in Brazil (Table 2), many of the medicinal species used peutic practices, and seahorse conservation and management in at the Mamanguape and Raposa sites appear to have a more the country (see Rosa, 2005). widespread used within the country (see Begossi, 1992; Seixas Most medicinal animals used by the surveyed communities and Begossi, 2001; Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002). The value were obtained within the limits of their villages; only a few use (VU) of zootherapeutic resources ranged from 0.03 to 1.03. species were obtained from adjacent localities, usually through At the APA Barra do rio Mamanguape, the species which traders who sold their products in markets. The links between the attained the highest use-value were Hippocampus reidi (1.00), communities and their surrounding landscape became apparent

Fig. 2. Number of animal species used as remedies per taxonomic category at the Raposa and Mamanguape study sites. R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 11 when relating the species used as remedies to the habitat were used to treat 65 different diseases. The most widely treated types found in the study sites. Most animals inventoried were condition were asthma, rheumatism and sore throat, conditions, from marine and estuarine (53%) habitats, followed by terres- which had a wide variety of animals to treat them with (Table 2). trial (39%) and freshwater (8%); furthermore, at Mamanguape The categories with the highest number of diseases cited were: (where remanescents of coastal forest are found) a higher num- infections and parasitic diseases, 10; diseases of the respira- ber of terrestrial species were quoted than at the Raposa site. tory and digestive apparatuses, with 8 and 7 illnesses, respec- This use of local, more easily accessible resources possibly is tively. Costa-Neto (1999b) found that animal-based remedies related to historic aspects (i.e., medicinal knowledge focusing on were frequently used to treat respiratory diseases (asthma and species familiar to the locals, reflecting transmission of knowl- bronquitis), while Almeida and Albuquerque (2002) indicated edge through generations) and to financial constraints, which that digestive problems represented the category with the high- limit access to alloctonous resources. est use-value, followed by respiratory diseases, diseases of the A similar trend has been observed by Adeola (1992) in Nige- osteomuscular system and of the conjunctive tissue. A similar ria, where the utilization of wildlife was related to the ecological trend in relation to medicinal plants was found in the state of zone in which the people concerned live, and to the relative Pernambuco, where, according to Gazzaneo et al. (2005), the abundance of species in each zone. Also, Apaza et al. (2003) two most frequently quoted categories of use referred to gas- has shown that animal abundance correlated with a higher prob- trointestinal and respiratory diseases. ability of using animals in the Bolivian rainforest. In our work, the various disease groups showed different lev- Some of the quoted animal species have been used in Brazil els of cultural consensus, and the categories with the highest since colonial times (e.g., Iguana iguana (Linnaeus, 1758) number of quoted species were: respiratory system (55); osteo- (Iguanidae), Caiman latirostris (Daudin, 1801) (Alligatoridae) muscular system and conjunctive tissue (33); external causes and Dasyatis guttata (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) (Dasyatidae), of morbidity; mortality (23) and skin and subcutaneous tissues corroborating what Almeida (2005) described as the “high capa- (19). Those categories presented the highest ICF values: 0.78, bility of reproduction of zootherapeutic practices in Brazil”. 0.72, 0.62 and 0.69, respectively (Table 3). Table 2 shows the animal species used as medicines at the Interviewees quoted the following animal parts/products two surveyed localities. Most of raw materials were harvested used as remedies: flesh, bone, cartilage, skin, tail, fur, feather, directly from the wild, and only six species of domestic animals tooth, nail, head, tongue, stomach, viscera, liver, bile, milk, (e.g., chicken, sheep and turkey) whose products and body parts fat, rattle (from rattlesnakes), spine, shell, abdomen and body were readily available were used. secretions. Previous authors (Branch and Silva, 1983; Begossi and Braga, 1992; Marques, 1995; Costa-Neto, 1999a,b)have 3.2. Illnesses and remedies reported the use of similar raw materials as remedies in other Brazilian localities, which suggests that their use is widespread Wild animals, their parts and products are considered impor- in the country. This evidenciates the importance of understand- tant ingredients for preparing curative and preventive medicines ing such uses in the context of biodiversity conservation in (Anyinam, 1995). In the study sites, zootherapeutic resources Brazil.

Table 3 Informant consensus factor (ICF) by corporal systems or diseases Category Raposa and Mamanguape combined Raposa Mamanguape

Species (%) All Use (%) All use ICF Species (%) All Use (%) All use ICF Species (%) All Use (%) All use ICF species citations citations species citations citations species citations citations

A 55 55.0 249 39.2 0.78 27 47.4 84 35.1 0.69 45 60.8 165 40.4 0.73 B 33 33.0 119 18.7 0.72 27 47.4 63 26.4 0.58 22 29.7 66 16.2 0.68 C 23 23.0 60 9.4 0.62 6 10.5 19 7.9 0.72 19 25.7 42 10.3 0.56 D 19 19.0 60 9.4 0.69 9 15.8 17 7.1 0.5 12 16.2 43 10.5 0.73 E 17 17.0 31 4.9 0.46 9 15.8 15 6.3 0.42 8 10.8 16 3.9 0.53 F 17 17.0 22 3.5 0.23 7 12.3 7 2.9 0 11 14.9 15 3.7 0.28 G 15 15.0 29 4.6 0.5 8 14.0 8 3.3 0 9 12.2 21 5.1 0.6 H 12 12.0 16 2.5 0.26 2 3.5 3 1.3 0.5 10 13.5 13 3.2 0.25 I 9 9.0 9 1.4 0 6 10.5 6 2.5 0 3 4.1 3 0.7 0 J 2 2.0 2 0.3 0 1 1.8 1 0.4 0 1 1.4 1 0.2 0 L 8 8.0 8 1.3 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 8 10.8 8 2.0 0 M 6 6.0 6 0.9 0 5 8.8 5 2.1 0 1 1.4 1 0.2 0 N 6 6.0 6 0.9 0 6 10.5 6 2.5 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 O 6 6.0 11 1.7 0.5 1 1.8 1 0.4 0 6 8.1 11 2.7 0.5 P 3 3.0 4 0.6 0.33 2 3.5 3 1.3 0.5 1 1.4 1 0.2 0 Q 1 1.0 1 0.2 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 1 1.4 1 0.2 0 R 1 1.0 1 0.2 0 1 1.8 1 0.4 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 S 1 1.0 1 0.2 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 1 1.4 1 0.2 0 12 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

Although a number of species quoted (47%) were prescribed impacts should be properly assessed and contextualized. As to treat a single disease, according to interviewees, different parts pointed out by McMichael and Beaglehole (2000), many of of a single species provided the raw materials to prepare different today’s public-health issues have their roots in the same socioe- remedies, which were prescribed to treat various diseases. For conomic inequalities and imprudent consumption patterns that instance, while the shell of the mangrove oyster Crassostrea jeopardise the future sustainability of health. rhizophorae was prescribed to treat osteoporosis, its flesh was Different ways of preparing and administering animal reme- used to treat anaemia, pneumonia, stomach ache, cancer, flu and dies were reported by the interviewees. Hard parts, such as teeth, weakness. Mangrove oysters were also was also used as a pain nails, shells, rattles from snakes, fish scales, bone and cartilage relief in injuries caused by the dorsal fin spine of a species of were generally sun-dried, grated and crushed to powder, being catfish (family Ariidae). then administered as tea or taken during meals. Fat, body secre- On the other hand, different animals species were sometimes tion and oil were ingested or used as an ointment. used to treat the same illness. For instance, products obtained Medicinal products were stored in plastic or glass jars, except from 38 different species were used to treat asthma, while prod- for perishable products (e.g., flesh of fishes and oysters, eggs ucts from 27 species were prescribed to treat rheumatism. The and milk), which are only obtained when needed. Interviewees possibility of using various remedies for the same ailment is also mentioned that non-perishable ingredients, particularly hard popularly valued (Ngokwey, 1995), as it renders an adaptation parts (e.g., claws, teeth, rattles, shells) could be stored for over to the availability/accessibility of animals possible. a year (see Fig. 3). The same applied to animals kept in alco- It is known that the use of medicinal plants is frequent in sev- hol (e.g., snakes, crustaceans, fishes) and fats. This agrees with eral Brazilian regions (Carvalho, 2004), and that often there are Seixas and Begossi (2001), who have suggested that the use of overlaps in the medicinal use of plants and animals (Almeida animals as medicines might be related to the durability of the and Albuquerque, 2002). A close association between phy- products extracted, animal fat (which is easily extracted and totherapeutic and zootherapeutic practices was also found in stored at room temperature) being the most used part; other the present study. According to 42% of the respondents, some products (except for eggs and milk) are dehydrated, toasted and animal species (e.g., Balistes vetula, Crotalus durissus, Chelo- ground, being also easily preserved. nia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758) (Cheloniidae)) can be replaced with It is known that some natural products (from plants, animals, plants to treat some diseases, or be used in association with them minerals) used in traditional medicine may cause serious adverse in garrafadas, a concoction defined by Camargo (1975) and side effects (De Smet, 1991). Nevertheless, in the present study, Ngokwey (1995), as a therapeutic drink composed of various the majority of the respondents had a perception that most reme- plants soaked in cacha¸ca (Brazilian sugar cane liquor) or white dies had no adverse side effects if their dosage and administration wine and contained in a bottle (garrafa in portuguese, hence were appropriate (the dosage depending upon the age of the the name garrafada). Examples of animals species used in gar- patient, being usually lower for children). A similar perception rafadas are Hippocampus reidi and Uca maracoani (Latreille, was found by Ngokwey (1995) at Feira de Santana, NE Brazil, 1802) (Ocypodidae). where the administration of herbal medicines followed certain Parts, such as feather and fur were extracted without the need rules concerning dosage, the quantity of a remedy used varying to kill the animal, however in most cases (89% of the species according to the age group of the patient (an adult would need quoted) remedies were prepared from dead specimens. The use more than a child). of live or dead specimens was determined by the raw materi- In the present study, only three interviewees reported that a als extracted, by popular beliefs and by the type of illness to bad use of a remedy could result in serious adverse effects, and be treated. For instance, a lizard could be used live (directly provided three examples: (1) the medicine extracted from sea- applied to the skin or to a child’s navel) or dead, to treat cases horses and from starfish to treat asthma should not be adminis- of sore throat (the lizard is boiled in water; the person gargles tered until the third of the manifestation of symptoms, otherwise the concoction). the patient could die; (2) the remedy extracted from opossum Some of the species harvested in the wild, besides being Didelphis albiventris (Lund, 1840) (Didelphidae) to treat hernia prescribed as remedies, were used for other purposes, such as could cause impotence if not administered correctly; (3) the fat food (e.g., Opisthonema oglinum (Lesueur, 1818) (Clupeidae), of the snake Eunectes murinus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Boidae) was Crassostrea rhizophorae, Anomalocardia brasiliana (Gmelin, used to treat headache and male impotence; however, the daily 1791) (Veneridae), Ucides cordatus (Linnaeus, 1763) (Ocypo- dosage should be limited to one spoon, otherwise the remedy didae), Balistes vetula). The seahorse Hippocampus reidi is sold could affect the nervous system. as ornamental fish, souvenir or folk-religious talisman (Rosa, Traditional drugs and traditional medicine in general repre- 2005). Field ethnomedical studies carried out in the last decades sent a still poorly explored field of research in terms of ther- around the world described more than 40 animal food-medicinal apeutic potential or clinical evaluation (De Smet, 1991), and remedies (Pieroni and Grazzini, 1999). A study conducted in little research has been done so far to prove the claimed clin- central Italy showed that an important part of the recorded ani- ical efficacy of animal products for medicinal purposes (Still, mal remedies was represented by food-medicines. In particular, 2003). The implementation of sanitary measures to the use of some meat preparations were considered as having a special animal or their parts for medicinal purposes poses considerable character as ailments for light diseases (Pieroni et al., 2002b). challenges, among them ensuring adequate participation of all The multiple uses (including the medicinal aspects) and their stakeholders involved (Alves and Rosa, 2005). R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 13

Fig. 3. Examples of animal products used as remedies at the Raposa and Mamanguape study sites. From left to right: dried seahorse (Hippocampus reidi), dried batﬁsh (Ogcocephalus vespertilio), ‘rattle’ of rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus), dried tongue of ‘tejuac¸u’´ (Tupinambis sp.), spine of ‘coandu’´ (Coendou prehensilis) and claw of sloth (Bradypus sp.) (Photo: Andre´ Castro).

In the present study, one of the interviewees remarked that 3.3. Cultural beliefs controlling the diet was a necessary measure for those taking animal-cased medicines, otherwise the medication would not Folk-illnesses exist within the cultures that create them, “eti- work. A similar situation was described by Ngokwey (1995) with ology, diagnosis, preventive measures and regimens of healing” regards to the use of herbal medicine at Feira de Santana, Brazil, (Rubel, 1977) being provided by the culture. Cultural issues are where the administration of herbal medicines was regulated by recognized as important components of the provision of effective eating restrictions. health care (Zweber, 2002). Because medical systems are orga- Begossi (1992), in a study carried out at Buzios,´ state of nized as cultural systems, the use of animal substances should Sao˜ Paulo, observed the use of the term “carregado”, which be understood according to a cultural perspective (Costa-Neto, includes a set of supposed attributes of an animal (such as 2004). teeth, blood, agressive behavior, “strong flesh”, fattiness) and In every society certain general beliefs exist. Some of these factors that could cause inflamation if eaten by someone who are easily changed, while others are deeply rooted in the cul- is wounded or unhealthy. Seixas and Begossi (2001) recorded ture and are quite difficult to alter. This is of particular rele- the use of that term by fishing communities at Ilha Grande, vance when it comes to contagious diseases, in particular, to state of Sao˜ Paulo, to describe some types of meat which were issues, such as how individuals contract diseases, how these “strong” or caused indigestion, and that should be avoided by ill diseases are spread and how they can best be treated (Ezinna, people. 1999). Among the species quoted by interviewees in the present As noted by Straker (1994), the supernatural world is as rele- study, some are widely used in modern medicine. For exam- vant in the diagnosis of illness as the natural world, with the main ple, snakes belonging to the families Viperidae, Crotalidae and causes of illness being magical, mystical and animistic forces. Elapidae present in their venom analgesic substances, which Maher (1999) showed that Aboriginal people have categorized are stronger than morphine, used in terminal patients of cancer illness as natural, environmental, direct supernatural, indirect (Bisset, 1991). Marval and Aroucha-Pinango˜ (1993) reported supernatural and emergent or western causes. Pieroni and Quave reptilase or botroxobine (prepared from the venoms of Bothrops (2005) found, in a study carried at Ginestra/Zhure, Italy, that the atrox) being used for thrombosis. Other example is the use of aetiologies of various folk-illness are commonly linked to spir- honey in the treatment of wounds, ulcers and burns (Farouk et itual transmission, and that the treatments were often magical al., 1988; Nazrul-Islam et al., 1993). or psychotherapeutic in nature. Furthermore, for many illnesses As pointed out by Pieroni et al. (2002b), the chemical con- deriving from relations with the supernatural, modern medicine stituents and pharmacological actions of some animal products is considered ineffective (Stone, 1976; Molnar, 1981). are already known to some extent and ethnopharmacological Animals provide the raw materials for remedies prescribed studies focused on animal remedies could be very important in using the clinical method and are also used in the form of amulets order to clarify the eventual therapeutic usefulness of this class and charms in magico-religious diagnosis. Popular beliefs may of biological remedies. also have implications to the way species are used in zootherapy. 14 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

For instance, an animal species can be used live or dead based The linkages between biodiversity and human health are on the belief system of the community. especially important for developing countries. Biodiversity is In the present study, respondents (58%) associated the use a source of the invaluable information and raw materials that and efficacy of some remedies to popular beliefs locally known underpin medicinal and health care systems. The traditional as ‘simpatias’. As examples they mentioned that animals parts medicine is widely available and affordable, even in remote (e.g., caiman’s teeth) were used as amulets against diseases, areas, and generally accessible to most people. In many devel- and that a person receiving a given treatment cannot know what oping countries, a large part of the population, especially in rural that he/she is taking, otherwise the effect ceases. Links between areas, depends mainly on traditional medicine for their primary popular beliefs and zootherapy have also been found in other health care, because it is cheaper and more accessible than ortho- Brazilian localities (Branch and Silva, 1983; Begossi and Braga, dox medicine (Sofowora, 1993; Luoga et al., 2000; World Health 1992; Costa-Neto, 1999a,b; Marques, 1995), and those links Organization, 2002). Traditional medicine is also more accept- should be taken into consideration when interpreting results able because it blends readily into the peoples’ socio-cultural of field surveys, and when designing public health programs life (Tabuti et al., 2003). for communities where traditional medicine is used. In some Local people recognized the socio-cultural importance of cases, integrative approaches encompassing an understanding zootherapic resources, showing an understanding of the rel- of traditional cultural views and insights concerning the cause, evance of the human–animal connection. Additionally, most dissemination and treatment of a disease might be required to respondents (93.3%) informed that they know someone who effectively treat it. has been cured by using traditional medicines obtained from In herbal medicine, it is very common, the presence of a animals. Nazarea et al. (1998) highlight that social, economic shaman or herbalist, who combines the roles of pharmacist and and cultural factors play a large role in determining how indi- medical doctor with the cultural/spiritual/religious beliefs of a viduals and communities use natural resources. Furthermore, region or people, which are often regarded as magic or mys- it has been documented that people sometimes resort to tra- ticism (Desmarchelier et al., 1996; Fabricant and Farnsworth, ditional home remedies as a means of resisting urban modern 2001; Bourdy et al., 2004). This approach is widely practiced medicine (Boltanski, 1977) and of asserting their traditional cul- in Africa and South America (Rastogi and Dhawan, 1982). ture (Ngokwey, 1995). Although present in some Brazilian communities (particularly in Traditional medicine encompasses a body of knowledge the Northern region), shamanic practices involving animals were linked to natural resources, specifically biodiversity (Alves and not found in the sites surveyed in the present work. Nevertheless, Rosa, 2005), the recognition of traditional knowledge and asso- shamanic practices have been incorporated into umbanda (Afro- ciated biodiversity use being important in the conservation and Brazilian religion), in the sense that some of the species used sustainable use of biological diversity (Tabuti et al., 2003). as medicine in the study areas are also used in religious rituals. Recently, concern about the ethics of exploiting indigenous According to Voeks (1997), the role of herbalist, folk healer, knowledge and resources from tropical countries, without shar- diviner and shaman, as well as that of magician and sorcerer, ing the benefits with those who are the traditional custodi- would come to be occupied by pais and mães-de-santo Afro- ans of the knowledge and land, has gained attention through Brazilian priests and priestesses of the Yoruba religion known the convention on biological diversity (CBD), which requires as Candomble.´ that such knowledge be protected, respected and preserved (http://www.biodiv.org/; article 8(j)) and related provisions). 3.4. Socio-economic aspects of traditional knowledge Traditional knowledge related to traditional medicine may be protected and conserved through the development of intellectual In the present study, all respondents informed that the use of property rights (IPRs) and/or through benefit sharing (Moran et animals as remedies is ancient and that knowledge has passed al., 2001; Zhang, 2000). Intellectual property rights are rights through generations. They claimed that they cannot afford to buy over intangible information that provides incentives for future allopathic remedies, and thus viewed zootherapic resources as innovations (Moran et al., 2001). the most accessible way to treat their health problems. In fact, as The compensation of indigenous people can validate their pointed out by Smith et al. (2001), the explanations for difficul- knowledge of the biodiversity they manage and also provide ties in access to essential drugs in the poor countries relate not them with an equitable reward for sharing it, thereby compen- only to the population precarious socio-economic conditions, sating biological stewardship and encouraging conservation (see but also to lack of organization health services, inadequate sup- Svarstad, 2000; Moran et al., 2001). ply system management and irrational prescription. Compared to western medicine, zootherapeutical resources 3.5. Sustainability of zootherapheutical resources use were perceived as cheaper and more readily available; also, the use of animals is considered a trusted therapeutic practice. Some of the animal species mentioned by the respondents At the two surveyed localities, the limited access to western figure in Brazil’s official list of endangered species: the sperm medicine resulted both from financial limitations and deficien- whale Physeter macrocephalus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Physeteri- cies in the local public health care system. In that context, animal dae); the manatees Trichechus manatus (Linnaeus, 1758) and medicines, associated with herbal medicines, often represented Trichecus inunguis (Natterer, 1883) (Trichechidae); the green an important alternative to the local communities. turtle Chelonia mydas and the leathery turtle Dermochelys R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 15 coriacea (Vandelli, 1761) (Dermochelyidae); the hawksbill tur- traditional medicinal uses of animals by communities around the tle Eretmochelys imbricata and the loggerhead turtle Caretta world should be addressed when designing strategies to conserve caretta (Linnaeus, 1758) (Cheloniidae) (IBAMA, 2003). The biodiversity. land crab Ucides cordatus, the Atlantic seabob Xiphopenaeus The needs of local populations with regard to traditional kroyeri (Heller, 1862) (Penaeidae); the starfish Oreaster reticu- health care should be respected, and support offered to improve latus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Oreasteridae); the seahorse Hippocam- the management of sources where medicinal plants (and ani- pus reidi are listed in the National List of species of aquatic mals) are threatened. The protection of intellectual property over invertebrates and fishes endangered, overexploited or threatened traditional health care systems also needs attention (http://www. of exploitation (MMA, 2004). undp.org/biodiversity/biodiversitycd/biobrief%20health.pdf). According to some respondents (n = 11), although materi- Celso (1992) pointed out that natural medicine is one impor- als obtained from whales, manatees and turtles were prescribed tant form of the use of biodiversity, while Begossi (1992) as medicines; currently they were rarely used, because of the suggested that the conservation of animals used in popular low number of specimens available (they claimed they only medicine might be happening because of their use by local peo- used stranded specimens). Some informants (n = 8), however, ple. Anyinam (1995) pointed out that, like the current spasm informed that many species were illegally captured and used as of plant and animal species extinction, the practitioners of eth- food or medicine. Various Brazilian authors (Marques, 1995; nomedicine appear to be at a greater risk of extinction than even Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Alves and Rosa, 2005)have forests and other biomes. He also pointed out that for centuries, discussed the conservation concerns of the use of medicinal Indian peoples have collected plants and animals without threat- products from animal species, many of which threatened. ening the species population dynamics because of the low level Seixas and Begossi (2001) have suggested that new reg- of exploitation. According to Calixto (2005), despite the many ulations should be more in tune with the local population individual efforts of the governments to preserve the biodiversity needs, thereby increasing compliance in management. Costa- for future generations in Latin American, traditional knowledge, Neto (2001) has shown that on the coast of Bahia, new regula- especially that of derived from traditional medicine, such as tory measures have turned the formerly free-collection into an indigenous knowledge, is also disappearing. exogenous taboo, generating cultural disconnections between There is a growing recognition of the need to consider the the animal source and fishers. socio-cultural aspects in all discussions on sustainable devel- Ingredients sourced from wild plants and animals are not only opment (e.g., Morin-labatut and Akhtar, 1992; Posey, 1997; widely used in traditional medicines, but are also increasingly Alves and Nishida, 2002), a view that encompasses people’s per- valued as raw materials in modern medicine and in herbal prepa- ception, utilization, allocation, transference and management of rations. An increased demand and increased human populations their natural resources (Johannes, 1993). are leading to increased and often unsustainable rates of exploita- In that context, Nations (1997) emphasizes the utilitarian tion of wild sourced ingredients, with some wild species already value of species’ protection, and the perspective of long term threatened with extinction (Kang and Phipps, 2003). A World use of biological diversity, while Soejarto (1996) remarks that Wildlife Fund (WWF) report estimates that over two thirds of conservation permits the continuing use of the resources in ways the 50,000 medicinal plants in use today are still harvested from that are non-destructive and sustainable, while from the pharma- the wild. Between 4000 and 10,000 of these may now be endan- ceutical point of view, it provides time to eventually demonstrate gered (Hamilton, 2003). The increased use of medicinal animals fully the potentially medicinal value of the resources. has led to over-exploitation of species like rhinos, tigers, musk Also, there is a need to shift the focus from how to obtain deer, bears, monkeys and pangolins (Miller, 1993). Seahorses the greatest amount of zootherapeutical resources to how to are another example. Among other uses, those fishes are sold ensure future uses, and to foster transdisciplinary approaches dried for traditional medicines, particularly traditional Chinese to integrate the various aspects of zootherapy (Alves and Rosa, medicine (TCM) and as tonic foods. Pre-packaged pharmaceu- 2005). As pointed out by Costa-Neto (2004), the inclusion of ticals are also popular in traditional medicine, and offer industry zootherapy in the multidimensional conception of sustainable a chance to absorb animals previously thought undesirable for development is fundamentally important for the conservation of use in conventional (whole) form, including juvenile seahorses faunistic resources. (Lourie et al., 2004). The impacts of zootherapeutic practices on wild populations 4. Conclusions should be carefully assessed in the study areas, particularly when considering that (unlike many plant-based remedies) prepara- The results obtained in this study showed that the surveyed tion of most animal-based remedies use products obtained after communities rely on zootherapeutic practices as a form of killing the specimen. In that context, Almeida and Albuquerque affordable health care. From our ethnozoological findings, 100 (2002) point out the need to raise awareness about the sustain- species represent the heritage of the folk medicine of the com- able use of medicinal animals. munities surveyed. The local medicinal fauna is largely based Nevertheless, some traditional medicinal systems, like the on wild animals, including some endangered species. Chinese Traditional Medicine, is recognized by the WorldHealth Culture undeniably influenced the way traditional commu- Organization (WHO) and accepted by one-fourth of the world nities perceive and use the medicinal resources of their envi- human population (Alves and Rosa, 2005), and the reliance on ronment, their ethnomedicinal practices having a close interface 16 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx with the local landscapes. Financial constraints, which limited wild animals for traditional medicine: a case study among the Tsimane’ interviewees’ mobility and access to some products, as well as Amerindians of the Bolivian rain forest. Journal of Ethnobiology 23, their familiarity with the local biota also constituted significant 47–64. Begossi, A., 1992. Food taboos at Buzios´ Island (Brazil): their signifi- elements in the choice of the repertoire of medicinal resources cance and relation to folk medicine. Journal of Ethnobiology 12, 117– used by studied communities. Nevertheless, there appears to 139. a geographic continuum in the selection of species used as Begossi, A., Braga, F.M.S., 1992. Food taboos and folk medicine among medicine in NE Brazil. fishermen from the Tocantins River. Amazoniana 12, 101–118. Many parts of the Brazilian coast are rapidly being altered, Bisset, N.G., 1991. One man’s poison, another man’s medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 32, 71–81. both ecologically and culturally. 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Popular use, chemical composition and trade of Cer- for financial support. To CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desen- rado’s medicinal plants (Goias,´ Brazil). Environment Development and volvimento Cient´ıfico e Tecnologico)´ for providing a research Sustainability 6, 307–316. fellowship to the second author. Thanks are also due to the Celso, R., 1992. Criaçao˜ de condiçoes˜ e incentivos para a conservaçao˜ local researchers who assisted in species identification: Gentil Alves P. de biodiversidade. In: Speth, J.C., Holdgate, M.W., Tolba, M.K. (Eds.), Filho (reptiles), Ana Carolina Martins Queiroz (echinoderms), A estrategia´ global da biodiversidade. Diretrizes de açao˜ para estudar, salvar e usar de maneira sustentavel´ e justa a riqueza biotica´ da Terra. Claudio´ Lu´ıs Sampaio (fishes), Isabel Feitoza (aquatic mam- WRI/UICN/PNUMA, Rio de Janeiro, pp. 92–93. mals), Alberto Kioharu Nishida and Jefferson de B. Batista Centro Brasileiro de Classificaçao˜ de Doenças (CBCD), 1993. 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