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2002 Think Globally and Act Locally: Local Implementation of Japan's Internationalization Policy Anita Y.K. Davis University of North Florida

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This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the The sprO ey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry at UNF Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Volumes (2001-2008) by an authorized administrator of UNF Digital Commons. For more information, please contact Digital Projects. © 2002 All Rights Reserved Think Globally and Act Locally: Globalization and Japan's Local Implementation of Japan's Internationalization Internationalization Policy As an academic term, globalization is Anita Y. K. Davis fuzzy. A basic definition could be "the intensification of economic, political, Faculty Sponsor: Dr. Pamela A. Zeiser, social, and cultural relations across Assistant Professor of Political Science borders" (Holm and Sorensen, 1995, p. 1). Exactly what "economic, political, social, In the late 1980s, the Japanese national and cultural relations" mean is debatable, as government proposed a plan to is the relative importance of each aspect to "internationalize" the country - to the concept of globalization. The Japanese increase international understanding. This Economic Council defmes globalization as national proposal resulted from the "the search for improved global efficiency pressures of globalization as well as a for various economic agents" (Economic mixture of domestic political and economic Council, 1999, p.5). For our purposes, we factors. Through this broad proposal, Japan focus on economic and cultural relations sought to decentralize and encourage local across borders, and how economics and levels of government to create individual culture within Japan connect to global policies for globalizing their communities. integration broadly defmed. It proposed internationalizing business and The Japanese term internationalization education, exposing the Japanese people to is equally fuzzy. Maylorie Townsend, with outside cultures, exposing foreigners to the Japanese Exchange and Teaching Japan's culture, and increasing the Japanese program, stated "Internationalization - people's familiarity with English. While the there is a conflict between foreigners and national government provided general Japanese about what this idea is. To suggestions for internationalization Japanese, it is a broad term with no (kokusaika), its intent was for the meaning. Some kind of interaction takes prefectures and cities to create their own place where both parties learn something" policies and programs. (June 20, 2000, Hachinohe City, Japan). We will explore the implementation of Internationalization is, in large part, Japan's internationalization plan in the international exchange (kokusaikoryu) of Aomori Prefecture, specifically Aomori whole cultures to increase understanding. City, Misawa City, and Hachinohe City. We can further determine the term's Each plan, despite similar goals, is meaning by understanding its emergence. intentionally highly individual in nature; we As a policy, internationalization will explore their efforts at economic (kokusaika) grew out of "the need to create internationalization and cultural diversity and facilitate the ease of face-to­ internationalization. Due in part to vague face interaction with foreigners." Japan's goals and a lack of program evaluation, it is history of isolation and demographic hard to assess the success of these homogeneity left it ill prepared for the internationalization policies. Nonetheless, inclusion of foreigners in economic, we will consider progress so far and political, and cultural institutions. conclude with suggestions for improving Historically, Japan created a "cosmopolitan future internationalization efforts. elite" to facilitate interactions with the West. Globalization and Japan's position as a global economic power, however, pose challenges to Japan's inward-looking culture and requires participation by a larger segment of the popUlation.

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 67 Internationalization is "an attempt to richness of detail in this first-cut integrate a relatively insular and exploration of Japan's internationalization homogeneous population with a global efforts at the prefecture and local levels. society made profitable and important to Globalization interacts with Japan's Japan by her own economic progress" internationalization program, and the (McConnell, 1996, p. 446-447). actions taken by each level of government Viewed from both a Western and a impinge on one another. Therefore, we non-Western perspective, globalization is choose case study as "an empirical inquiry generally perceived to be the spread of that investigates a contemporary Western economics, politics, and culture phenomenon within its real-life context, across the world - for the non-West, it is especially when the boundaries between the entrance of ideas from the outside. In phenomenon and context are not clearly Japan, internationalization is an attempt to evident" (Yin, 1994, p. 13). An additional create an atmosphere in which it can open complication of the "real-life context" of itself to the ideas and values being spread Japan's internationalization plan is its goal through globalization. Throughout this to mitigate regional inequities and promote paper, we use globalization when referring regional economic growth through to pressures from the outside and globalization. We recognize these domestic internationalization when referring to goals, but explore the local efforts primarily efforts from within Japan. in relation to the internationalization policy Given Japan's current review of its rather than directly addressing the regional internationalization proposal, this paper is inequities, rural/urban divide, or timely in providing an outside perspective demographic shifts common to of the policy. More importantly, there industrialized countries. appear to be few explorations of the The cases for this study are rural implementation of internationalization as a Aomori Prefecture as whole and the cities broad policy or at the local levels. of Aomori, Misawa, and Hachinohe as Assessments exist of the language constituent parts of that whole. We assess programs, particularly Japanese Exchange each case using two main criteria: and Teaching (Lincicome, 1993; economic internationalization and cultural McConnell 1996). Other internationalization. Economic internationalization-related publications internationalization includes local efforts to examine the need for labor and immigration make areas more attractive to international (Sassen 1994), the growth of grassroots business, increasing tourism, and building networks (Menju, 2000), and the need for globally oriented infrastructure such as increased globalization more generally seaports and airports. Cultural (Longworth, 1996; Daichi & Gardels, internationalization includes such efforts as 1999). We found no English-language increasing contact between Japanese and studies of internationalization at the local foreigners, creating sister city programs and level; our study is a preliminary attempt to establishing sports exchanges. We give fill that gap, by exploring local policies and special attention to language programs as programs oriented toward increasing an effort to promote internationalization. international understanding between Japan We rely on a combination of primary and the rest of the world. and secondary sources in this qualitative analysis. Anita Davis traveled to Japan in June/July 2000 to conduct semi-structured Methodology interviews, gather documentation, and make direct personal observations. We utilize qualitative, case study Interview subjects included high-level analysis for this paper, which ensures a representatives of the International

68 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry Departments of government in Aomori it is expressed in the government City, Misawa City, and Hachinohe City and documents: other persons involved in various aspects of each city's internationalization projects. We Government thinks that, nonnally, have also collected infonnation from global connections arise from business to scholarly books and journals, news business connections (commercial magazines and services, and government exchanges), and in fact business should do documents and publications (gathered in it. But Japan cannot wait for this to happen. the field and from the Internet). . .. Japan needs to become more global more We first describe the Japanese national quickly. (Global Connections, 1987) internationalization policy, then explore its implementation in the Aomori Prefecture The broad goals of the and Aomori City, Misawa City, and internationalization proposal were to be Hachinohe City. In addition to the made specific by the local governments; the economic and cultural criteria discussed proposal focused on "how local level above, we examine at each level the governments could create global projects developed for internationalization. connections, global communications [among] people, and international friendship" (Global Connections, 1987). Japan's Internationalization Policy The national government set vague but extremely high goals for increased Current internationalization efforts in internationalization; we categorize these Japan began with a government policy goals into two main categories: economic proposal known as "Global Connections." expansion and cultural exchange and Created in 1987 and revised in 1988, this exposure. In the first category, suggestions directive was sent to all the local made by the national directive included governments in Japan. The proposal was encouraging commercial businesses to couched in broad tenns, seeking to make global connections, cooperation globalize business, open attitudes and between businesses and local governments accommodations to foreigners, and increase in doing so, and local government support the exposure of Japanese to the ways of the for international business projects. With world and of foreigners to the ways of the regard to cultural internationalization, Japanese (Global Connections, 1987). "Global Connections" suggestions included The internationalization directive was creating sister-city relationships, cultural crafted at a time when Japan was and educational exchange programs, sports experiencing a strong economy. It was, in exchanges, volunteer programs for part, motivated by worldwide criticism of translation and homestays, and hosting Japan's positive trade imbalance and an international events such as symposia, international call for Japan to spread its industrial fairs, cultural fairs, and sporting wealth by aiding other countries. events. The national plan also included Internationally, Japan was still viewed very suggestions for improving language much as a closed system and internal self­ education, especially English. Japan criticism was developing as well. requested prefecture and city governments Corresponding with these international create new government departments pressures were domestic ones, especially an devoted to internationalization and to internal effort to decentralize the Japanese submit local policies for endorsement by government and foster policy activity from the national government (Global the local level upward. These pressures and Connections, 1987). To support the local ideas coalesced into the Global governments in these efforts, Japan created Connections proposal. The justification for the Council of Local Authorities for

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 69 International Relations (CLAIR). Japan's evergreens - Ao means blue and mori government originally set aside roughly 1 means forest of trees. Aomori Prefecture is million yen for support of each local level a remote mountainous region with rugged policy (Nakaya, M., June 2000, Hachinohe, coastlines and a large lake. The prefecture Japan; Mahr, Y., October 25,2000; has a total population of about 1.5 million; Yokosaka-san, June 2000, Noheji, Japan). the three largest cities are Aomori City, Internationalization was to cut both Hachinohe City, and Hirosaki (Utilizing the ways: to expose Japan to the world but also Geographic Characteristics, 2000, p. 3). A to bring the world to the Japanese. "Global harsh winter climate and distance from the Connections" suggested localities economically powerful regions of Southern encourage international travel, providing Japan increase its isolation. information centers for foreign travelers, Aomori Prefecture produces primarily improving road, train, and airport access, agricultural crops and their by-products. It and, more generally, making living is the main apple-producing region of the conditions comfortable for foreigners. The country, marketing about 15 varieties and more exposure visitors have to Japan, the generating by-products such as honey, government argued, the fewer juice, cakes, candies, and dyes. Other crops misunderstandings other countries would include garlic, Chinese yams, edible have about Japan and the Japanese people chrysanthemum, livestock, rice, and grapes. (Global Connections, 1987). Fishing, particularly scallops and red squid, The Japanese government recognized also contributes to the local economy. that its people are not open to outsiders but Regional crafts such as Bunako, Kokeshi insisted that exposure to other cultures, dolls, Yawata Uma carved wooden horses lifestyles, languages, and habits could lead and Tsugaru kites are other popular to more openness within Japanese culture products of the prefecture (Aomori - which would improve its position in the Vegetables, 2000, n.p.; Apples of Aomori, global economy and mitigate international 2000, n.p.; For Better Understanding, 2000, criticism. Additionally, increasing n.p.; Products of Aomori, 2000, n.p.; international business contacts could Statistical Data, 2000, n.p.). improve regional economies within Japan There are industrial areas in the (Global Connections, 1987). The national Prefecture. Although the base is changing, government also made it clear that this was industry has traditionally centered around a long-term policy, focusing fIrst on a five­ Hachinohe City with steel, nickel, marine year timeline. products, and paper mills. Misawa City has In providing suggestions but no clear a chemical plant and Aomori City processes policy directives, Japan was emphasizing copper for Belgium, iron ore for Korea, and that each locality should identify what was sends used cars to Russia (Toward needed in their area and institute the most International, 1994; Stimulating the New appropriate policies. Below are brief Possibilities, 2000, p. 2). assessments of economic and cultural Aomori Prefecture faces a number of internationalization in one prefecture and challenges in the 21st century. Like other three cities in rural, northern Japan. rural regions of industrialized countries, it has a rapidly aging popUlation and shrinking workforce, as young people move Prefecture-Level Efforts at to centers of economic activity such as Internationalization: Aomori Prefecture Tokyo. Well-educated Japanese youth refuse to engage in manual labor - The northern most prefecture of the particularly the dirty, smelly jobs of main island of Japan takes its name from harvesting garlic and fIshing. While the the surrounding forests of bluish-tinted economy weakens, the increased need for

70 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry care and handicapped access by older exposure of prefecture residents to the people puts additional burdens on world and the world to the prefecture government social services. through economic expansion and cultural In Aomori Prefecture, the exchanges. Project 4 proposes promoting a internationalization policy attempts to "multi-network society." More specifically, overcome these challenges as well as meet Project 4 emphasizes that the economic and cultural goals set by the national government. The Aomori • Increased resident activities (cultural and Prefecture general long-term plan for 1997- economic) will create a "human network" 2006, or the "New Renaissance - Revival that will promote other projects. of Humanity" (referred to here as the "New • Strengthened information and Plan"), was created by the Planning communication infrastructures are Division of the Planning and Coordinating necessary for industrial development and Department and covers ten project areas "hfe improvement." governing virtually every aspect of • Improved traffic infrastructure will make prefecture life. The prologue declares "we access to metropolitan areas and foreign are aiming to realize a New Frontier countries more convenient. approach to embrace the world." The New • A strong reputation for hospitality will Plan, like the national one, calls for local attract tourism. action: "we are expecting the country, cities, towns and villages and every Project 8 of the New Plan promotes administrat[ ive] bod[y] will fully utilize industrial policy within the Aomori regional characteristics and resources and Prefecture. There are four aspects to the cooperate with us to realize the targets of Project, aimed at increasing both local and the New Plan (About New Aomori international business. First, the Plan Prefecture, 1997, n.p.; Prologue, 1997, n.p.; recognizes the broad context in which New Long-Term Blue Print, 1997, n.p.) industrial policy operates, including issues The New Plan is committed to bringing such as infrastructure development, cultural Aomori Prefecture into the global village preparation, welfare, health care, and the by integrating the existing, developed areas like. Second, Project 8 supports of the prefecture, thereby strengthening strengthening entrepreneurship and them for further economic and international alliances between industries. In particular, it development. The focus is to incorporate mentions enhancing value-added towns and villages into regions so operating productivity through industrial integration costs can be consolidated, setting the stage and cooperation. Third, it promotes specific for large-scale development and rapid development projects, such as the Aomori economic expansion. "By strengthening the Technopolis discussed below. Finally, partnership between Gsyogawara City, Project 8 of the New Plan seeks to attract Aomori City and Hirosaki City [and] ... young people back to the area by providing the partnership between Hachinohe City, favorable residential conditions for them. Towada City and Misawa City, it is Project 10 states that Aomori possible to assure ... region[al] Prefecture has a role in "the 21st Century convergence and function[al] versatility and Renaissance" in Japan and the world. convenience" (Making a New Aomori Specifically, it aims to become the "Axis of Wind, 1997, n.p.; Project 10,1997, n.p.). the Tsugaru Strait," thereby increasing Projects 4, 8, and 10 of the New Plan exchanges among regions and countries. are especially relevant to our study of This project focuses on infrastructure internationalization of the Aomori improvements related to Prefecture. In accordance with the national internationalization, including improved policy, these sections call for increasing the highways, bridges, Shinkansen railways,

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 71 international airports, and international between the two by train (Aomori seaports. Aomori Prefecture plans to Prefecture Traffic Access Conditions, 2000, construct an international shipping and n.p.; The Current State, 2000, p. 1-3). In delivery logistics center, thus providing addition to access for businesses, this more opportunities for world-market­ infrastructure development mitigates oriented industries in the region. Finally, regional isolation as Aomori residents Project 10 proposes construction of travel south and international visitors go research centers that will benefit Japan and north for travel opportunities such as skiing the world through research and and spa resorts. development activities in the areas of There are many business development environment-friendly energy, oceanic projects across the Prefecture, in studies, and bridge construction. conjunction with both internationalization Because a labor-shortfall and "youth and the consolidation of town areas. One flight" are challenges Aomori Prefecture such project is the Aomori Technopolis, faces, the New Plan also addresses the High-Tech Industrial Complex Urushikawa, region's population in relation to approved in 1992. The Technopolis is an internationalization. The Prefecture's policy industrial complex creating a "Northern focuses on drawing high-tech, low-resource high-technology based metropolis in the global industries to the area, in part because region composed of four cities, two towns, the government believes such industries and two villages, including the prefectural would attract many Japanese workers. If capital Aomori as well as the academic and such policies cannot attract Japanese labor cultural center Hirosaki City." With two back to these areas, Aomori Prefecture and universities and a two-year college nearby, Japan as a whole may have to accept one goal is to keep graduates in the area by foreign labor. This can only happen if the creating high-tech industrial jobs. The general population is first exposed to and complex seeks to attract both national and becomes more used to foreigners - a clear international industries; Hitachi Tobu example of the need for and overlap Semiconductors Tsugaru Factory is already between economic and cultural a tenant of the Aomori Technopolis (Aomori internationalization. Prefecture's Development, 2000, n.p.). Of Prefecture importance was the March 1996 designation of Hachinohe as Economic Internationalization Japan's nineteenth Foreign Access Zone (FAZ). This is the only FAZ north of Economic internationalization within Ibaraki, and it increases the national and Aomori Prefecture comprises primarily international focus of Aomori Prefecture. infrastructure improvements and business According to the Japan External Trade development projects. As noted above, Organization (JETRO), "the city is busily Aomori is relatively isolated, in part due to constructing various infrastructures, such as poor access. Efforts to improve roadways traditional and distribution-support facilities and complete toll roads will reduce travel and international economic exchange time within the region - sometimes by as centers that will encourage import growth. much as half. Though delayed by the In this way, Hachinohe will take the stage recession, the Northern Japan (Tohoku) as the main port for international trade and bullet train (shinkansen) project is key to distribution in the [region]" (FAZs in Japan, Aomori Prefecture development, making it 2000, n.p.). The FAZ designation helps far more accessible. When completed, the both the Prefecture-level and city-level bullet train trip between Aomori and Tokyo efforts, particularly because Hachinohe is will take only 2 hours and 38 minutes; the first seaport of Aomori to make currently, it takes roughly 10 hours to travel international connections. The focus of

72 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry internationalization is the development of and Portuguese. the seaport and other projects such as the Economic internationalization in import promotion and urban development. Aomori Prefecture serves two goals: to According to JETRO, FAZ facilities in strengthen the regional economy and to Hachinohe currently or will eventually open the area to globalization. In addition include The Hachinohe Port Trade Center, to those noted above, numerous business Hachinohe Port International Distribution development projects are under way or Terminal, and the Hachinohe International planned. These efforts are buttressed by Industrial Exchange Center (Aomori FAZ, infrastructure improvements key to 2000, n.p.; Kawaida-san, personal increasing access to Aomori Prefecture and communication, July 13, 2000). its cities. It is difficult to obtain economic Fearing failure of economic growth data to determine if the region's economy and following the Project 8 directive of the has, in fact, expanded. However, interview plan, the Aomori Industrial Association was and anecdotal evidence shows that the established in 1997 to provide a network of Aomori Prefecture is actively pursuing support and development instruction to economic expansion and is putting businesses. The Association mission emphasis on attracting international statement by chairman Chuichi Sasaki businesses, both Japanese and foreign. The states: New Plan concludes in 2006; a full assessment of Projects 4, 8, and 10 can be Since most of the companies in the done at that time. prefecture are small scale and scattered around, they are unable to receive adequate staff-support, which makes it difficult to Cultural Internationalization enter even the Asian market. ... To overcome the limitations of individual Aomori Prefecture activities for companies ... and create a new basis for cultural internationalization include a sister­ industry . .. we must break new ground and state relationship, sports exchanges, and cooperate to plan the manufacture and hosting international events. The Prefecture merchandise of our products. has a sister-state relationship with the state of Maine, USA. The relationship between It is hoped that through this association these two areas "can be traced back to a these businesses will be able to fully utilize tragic shipwreck of the ship the global information system and new 'Cheseborough'in 1889 off the coast of distribution methods within the Prefecture Shariki Village which spawned a new (Introduction of Aomori, 2000 n. p.). friendship between Shariki and Bath" Another effort at internationalization of (Yang, 2000, p. 1-2). Because the national the Aomori Prefecture includes producing "Global Connections" policy and the informational brochures or fact sheets Aomori New Plan call for the creation of aimed at making the area more comfortable international exchange opportunities and for foreigners as requested by the national increasing international connections plan. For example, the Aomori Foundation through sister-city relationships, Aomori for Advancing International Relations Prefecture and Maine formalized this old (AFFAIR) posts on the World Wide Web! a and distant friendship in 1993. "Following listing of all medical services throughout this agreement, many other towns and the Prefecture that are available in villages signed sister-city agreements with languages other than Japanese. Services are towns in Maine and finally in 1994, Aomori currently available primarily in English, but Prefecture and Maine signed a sister-state in some areas they are also available in relationship" (Around Aomori, Summer Korean, German, French, Chinese, Spanish, 2000, p. 1). In fact, such relationships have

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 73 blossomed all over the prefecture - scholarship enabling an international "nineteen municipalities in Aomori have student to study in Aomori, and hosting established sister city ties with ten countries activities such as the 1995 International around the world" (Sister-City, 2000, n.p.). Friendship Fair, a Foreign Exchange There is an additional but inactive sister­ Student Jamboree (Ongoing Programs, city agreement with Kabharovsk, Russia. 2000, n.p.). These sister-city relationships allow Japan's internationalization policy has residents of Aomori opportunities to a clearly stated goal of increasing the connect with the rest of the world. Many Japanese people's exposure to English. The citizens have never been to another country, nationwide Japanese Exchange and but exchanges allow some to travel to other Teaching (JET) program is the primary countries and share what they have vehicle for this exposure. JET has been discovered. This, in tum, encourages others active in Aomori for about twelve years, to travel abroad (Kasuga, T., July 7,2000, growing from about eight teachers to about Hachinohe, Japan). Increased travel also 80 today (Shobuke, M. July 19,2000, increases home market consumer demands Hachinohe, Japan). AFFAIR also promotes for items from other countries, which can English in the prefecture by offering improve those other countries' attitudes language learning in both Japanese and toward the trade imbalance - one of the English. Additionally, it provides a factors originally prompting the bilingual publication with tips on living in internationalization policy. Japan (Aanensen, 2000, p. 3). The historical tie to Maine also While there is a Prefecture-level prompted prefecture-level sports activities. internationalization plan, each city within Since 1990, annual independent Aomori Prefecture also develops its own "Cheseborough Cup" swimming races have policy. We look at internationalization been held Bath, Maine, USA and Shariki efforts within Aomori City, Misawa City, Village in Aomori, "sending a message of and Hachinohe City. courage and love across the seas and international borders" (Yang, 2000, p. 2). Cultural internationalization in Aomori City-Level Efforts at Prefecture also occurs through international Internationalization: Aomori City sports activities. One junior high school ice hockey team participates in an international Aomori City is surrounded by competition once each year. Aomori created abundant nature and "Blue Sea, Blue Sky, an international junior (Peewee) ice hockey Blue Forest," with the Hakkado Mountains tournament and hosted the fIrst event, to the south and Mutsu Bay to the north. which now rotates through other countries. Aomori City celebrated its centennial in The Prefecture also sponsored a Russian ice 1998 and, as its mayor highlights, is hockey coach to teach in Japan. Finally, looking toward the future: Aomori Prefecture will host the 2003 Asian Winter Olympic Games. With the 21 st Century looming ever The Prefecture branch of the Council closer, we must face the important issues of of Local Authorities for International the day - the rapid greying of our society, Relations (CLAIR) is known as the Aomori internationalization, and the information Foundation for Advancing International superhighway ...in order to create a unique Relations (AFFAIR). It promotes cultural city. (Sasaki, 1999, p. 2) expansion and exchange by creating an information center for international visitors, Government officials fIrst drafted compiling a volunteer registry of those who Aomori City'S internationalization plan, can be interpreters, and fInancing a yearly then submitted it to a commission of

74 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry community representatives for input. The internationalization efforts are aimed at final product became Aomori City's long­ increasing tourism to Aomori City, as part term plan entitled "Toward International three of the city's plan calls for the increase Communication City Aomori" and covers of communications for international the years 1992-2001 (Narumi, K., Ogura, visitors. In 1990, the city built the Aomori T. and Sakurada, M, July 7,2000, Aomori Industry Exhibit Center that, along with the City, Japan). The International Relations Aomori City Cultural Center, provides the Section of the Planning and Finance city with facilities for international Department of Aomori City oversees conventions (Toward International, 1994, p. the implementation of this plan. The city 18). Aomori City is working to make itself plan's mission statement describes its goals friendly and accessible to travelers by and activities: posting signs in English as well as publishing information and producing Aomori City's goal for international videos about the city, area, and skiing in exchange is to make our city friendly, languages such as English, Korean, attractive, original and comfortable to live Chinese, Hungarian and Russian (Narumi, in and through active educational, cultural K., Ogura, T. and Sakurada, M., July 7, and sports exchanges, we want to provoke 2000, Aomori City, Japan). the international awakening among citizens The Aomori City International and activate the local activities. Also, Relations Section's goal was to establish an through sister-city friendship and grass­ international expansion of the airport, "so it root level, we try to deepen mutual could function as a hub for northern Japan" understanding, thus bringing up those who with connections to the entire world can correspond to the international society (Toward International, 1994, p. 12). K. and activate our industrial economic, Narumi, T. Ogura, and M. Sakurada see academic, and cultural activities in order to "internationalization as a flow and through think globally and act locally and devote to influence of education and travel comes the world prosperity and peace. (Toward increase of economics." In 1990 the airport International, 1994, p. 3) opened and in 1995 the city expanded it, increasing domestic routes and creating With assistance from the Prefecture international routes to Korea, Russia and government, Aomori City created the sometimes China. In 1998, routes to Sendai Aomori Prefectural International and Okinawa were added (Narumi, K., Association to operate as a data bank, Ogura, T. and Sakurada, M., July 7, 2000, advertising vehicle, and promotion Aomori City, Japan). department as well as to raise money and The city does not have a monitoring work with the Aomori-Seoul Regular Flight system in place to see if this has actually Promotion Committee to internationalize increased business - deeming it "too Aomori City airport. difficult to do" - and the officials interviewed feel that so far it has only helped tourism a little, as most visitors Economic Internationalization come to main tourist events by bus. However, they are trying to develop Aomori City'S slogan is "Blue Forest: tourism further by creating a resort area in Great People, a Great Place to Live." That Asamushi and encouraging other towns to slogan is appropriate to its make their points of interest more internationalization policy, which "friendly" (Toward International, 1994, p. emphasizes people and thus obviously 35). They are also advertising their festivals blends economic and cultural at product fairs overseas. But Aomori City internationalization. Key officials have accomplished what they set

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 75 out to do: Aomori Airport is the only women's groups between the two cities, international airport in the northern half of exchange of city personnel through the the island. Aomori-Pyongtaek Short Term Exchange The long-term City Plan gives both Training Programme, and export of lilies economic and cultural reasons for an from Pyongtaek to Aomori City (Narumi, engineer exchange program with K., Ogura, T. and Sakurada, M., July 7, developing countries. "We heavily depend 2000, Aomori City, Japan). upon the resources of developing countries. A sister-city friendship agreement We have to cooperate with those countries between Aomori City and Kecskemet, more actively. So we are promoting an Hungary has been in place since 1994. economic cooperation project backed up by Their relationship includes exchanges of engineering cooperation and acceptance of pictures, art, and letters between schools in trainers for technical support." Conducted each city; visits by Kecskemet teachers to in cooperation with the national Aomori schools; creation of friendship government's Japan International associations in each city to deepen their Cooperative Association (I1CA), this understanding of each other; Aomori City project brings foreigners to Japan and trains participation in Kecskemet's Heroes Week them in a professional and technical fields Festival; and short-term music training of so that they may "play important roles in Aomori teachers at the Kecskemet Teacher their own economy and social Training College. development." This Aomori City project In February 2002, Aomori City hosted ties neatly in with another of the "Winter Cities 2002 Aomori." Since 1982, motivations for the national "Global representatives of numerous countries have Connections" plan: international pressure to met to discuss issues common to cities with become involved in official development harsh winter climates and to "exchange assistance. But Aomori City officials see knowledge regarding the fundamentals of the cultural as well as economic value in city planning, traffic problems, this exchange program, believing that development of the living environment, arts "those people come to get directly in touch and culture as well as sports and with Japanese culture, manners and recreational activities." In Aomori City in customs and we can understand each 2002, the international conference featured other, eventually friendship between a mayor's conference, a Winter Cities countries can be expected" (Toward Forum, an International Winter Exposition International, 1994, p. 32). displaying the latest in technological means for coping with winter weather, and an International Cultural Exchange featuring Cultural Internationalization winter sports and lifestyle exhibitions (Winter Cities, 2000, n.p.). Cultural internationalization in Aomori This is the first time Aomori City will City focuses on sister-city relationships and have hosted such an international event. hosting an international event. Aomori City This will expose its citizens to people and has sister cities in Korea and Hungary. ideas from other countries and allow city Since 1995, Pyongtaek, Korea has government officials to network and to undertaken exchange activities with Aomori exchange common problems and solutions. City. These activities include exchanges of For Winter Cities 2002, Aomori City is art and picture exhibits between schools cultivating a group of volunteers to help and women's clubs, establishing with the hosting and interpreting duties. relationships between Ex-Servicemen's Volunteerism is a new cultural activity Clubs in each city, sponsoring Korean for most Japanese - imported from the students at Aomori Public College, visits of West - and "through the cooperative

76 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry efforts of many volunteers to put on the military, dependents, and civilians to conference, a new awareness of "accept us all as Misawans" (Welcome to international exchange and volunteerism Misawa, n.d., n.p.). will be gained" (Winter Cities, 2000, n.p.). Misawa City'S internationalization Increasing volunteerism is also a goal of policy promotes local exchange, taking the city's internationalization policy. advantage of the international residents Other activities related to cultural within its midst: "since our city is favored internationalization in Aomori City include by international exchanges of nature, implementation since 1988 of the JET history, and culture, we must make the most language program, with a total of 15 of those elements." The overall goal of the exchange teachers from Canada, Britain, internationalization plan is to improve "the and Korea. The Aspam Building combines facilities for international exchange, and the a showcase for Aomori products and educational, cultural, and sports exchanges tourism with an information center for between Misawa people and foreign foreigners; there are 840 registered residents and the people of our sister city foreigners living in Aomori City. The Wenatchee, thus accelerating the International Relations Section will, at their understanding of each other and helping request, provide workshops to the schools people react to international society" on internationalization. (Misawa International Exchange Program, 1998, n.p.). In addition to this broad goal, the plan makes specific mention of building City-Level Efforts at a "Misawa International Exchange Internationalization: Misawa City Education Center," adding foreign language translation to signs, making foreign Misawa City is located between the residents comfortable through seminars Pacific Ocean and Lake Ogawara, in the about Japanese culture and exchanging southwestern comer of Aomori Prefecture. delegates with Wenatchee, WA, their sister The name means "three marshes" and the city. According to the Misawa City plan city has a population of about 42,000. The (1998), through these strategies they can city motto is "A Cultural City Full of "accelerate international understanding International Atmosphere with Relaxation among the citizens and help to bring up and Richness." Misawa City considers itself internationally-minded people" (n.p.). to have a long history of international interaction based on two Englishmen who opened a horse pasture in the Meiji era - Economic Internationalization the residents' first exposure to foreign culture. In 1931, a plane leaving Criticisms of Misawa City'S Wenatchee, WA successfully completed the internationalization efforts sometimes first Trans-Pacific flight by landing in emerge, particularly in regard to economics. Misawa City; this attracted the attention of "The Misawa Program is just for show, not the world (Welcome to Misawa, n.d., p. 1). facing outward to the world" (M. Nakaya, Since World War II, Misawa City has June 30, 2000, Same-machi, Japan). There been the location of an American Air Force are no local economic development projects and Naval Air Station. With about 12,000 planned in Misawa. In the mid-1990s, foreigners living on the American base, Misawa City developed a campground in a Misawa is a potential center for forestry park to attract tourism and there is international interaction. In fact, the base currently a small effort at urban renewal and city populations coexist quite within the downtown area. Ten years ago, a peacefully, in contrast to other bases in civilian Japanese business association Japan. The Misawa mayor encourages the formed, to make businesses more friendly

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 77 to Americans, but little developed out of it. The Misawa Youth Exchange project, Globalization, in the fonn of currency started in 1988, provides Japanese students exchange, adversely affects the Misawa the opportunity to stay at American houses economy. As the yen strengthens and the on the base while the American students dollar falls, the Americans shop on base stay with Japanese families in the town. rather than in the town - the base has a Misawa officials consider this a successful relatively new shopping mall, several fast project; many Japanese students are food establishments, and other recreational interested in participating. Fewer American facilities. All of this makes it convenient students are interested, but the program for the majority of the military population continues. Yoshinori Sawame, Assistant to spend their money without ever leaving Chief, Guidance Section of Misawa City the base. Board of Education, finds value in the While there is some housing growth program, because "from their early stage, with the city, significant development in children can acquire the international sense the Misawa area takes place outside the to be the bearer of the new age." A second, city limits. Developments include a large international home stay program is mall in Shimode, a housing development sponsored by the Board of Education in Lake Town, and a large national (Y. Sawame, July 14,2000, Misawa development project. This national project, City, Japan). Mutsu Ogawara Industrial Development, The unique situation of having a large will draw the economic center of the area population of foreigners on hand led to the away from Misawa. It is possible Misawa creation of two cultural holidays, will become a "bedroom community" for "American Day" and "Japan Day." First these outside developments. held in 1987, Japan Day introduces Japanese culture to the Americans. It is held on the base, and cultural activities include a Cultural Internationalization tea ceremony, kimono exhibits, and drum playing. Japan Day is fairly well attended There are a number of cultural by the Americans. American Day began a programs within Misawa City - more than year later. Initially a homegrown affair put the other two cities, which is quite logical on by volunteers, it is now a two-day, semi­ given its proximity to the American professional event with imported American military base. Misawa City's bands. It is extremely well attended by internationalization plan is built upon the Japanese from all over the northern region, local exchanges made possible by the who want exposure to Americans and their inherently international nature of the city. It cultural activities (S. Hiraide, July 5, 2000, has a sister-city relationship, organized Misawa City, Japan; Yokosaka-san, July 12, home stay programs, two intercultural 2000, Neheji, Japan). holidays, and sports competitions. Misawa City sports exchanges are The sister-city relationship is with primarily with the American base. Local Wenatchee, WA and goes back the 1931 schools compete with base teams in Trans-Pacific flight. Misawa City baseball, basketball, and volleyball. Also, in fonnalized the relationship in 1981; it is anticipation of the Asian Winter Olympics perhaps the oldest fonnal relationship in and future similar events, the city built a Aomori Prefecture. Each partner is a small new ice rink. town and both grow apples. Delegates from In addition to these fonnal cultural each city visit the other, they trade junior exchanges, there are numerous infonnal high school ambassadors, and exchange contacts between town and base. While sports groups (Welcome to Misawa, n.d., many base residents do not venture into the p. 1, 17). community much, there is still a significant

78 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry segment of the base population that City-Level Efforts at regularly encounters the town population Internationalization: Hachinohe City and encourages contact. These Americans may invite the Japanese to visit the Hachinohe City is located in the American mall, experience the food court, southeast comer of Aomori Prefecture and view Christmas lights, and participate in has more of an industrial base than Aomori Halloween trick or treat, and so forth. or Misawa. Residents consider it more of The language program in Misawa City an "international" city because of its port; it is highly dependent on the base population; does indeed have a long history of contact Misawa City does not have a JET program. with outsiders, if not an intense one. In a The International Understanding Language 1964 effort to promote economic Program, in effect since 1988, is more cost­ development, the Japanese government effective than JET because it recruits chose "core cities" and gave them financial language teachers from the base instead of support. As part of this effort, the national importing them and paying a yearly salary. government designated Hachinohe City a These teachers, often housewives, teach "new industrial city" and it is considered a English clubs at elementary and junior high success of the 1960s policy (T. Kasuga and schools all over the city. Additionally, base M. Townsend, June 29, 2000, Hachinohe clubs such as the German Club or Thai City, Japan). Hachinohe became one of the Club will offer language experience or biggest industrial cities in northern Japan instruction in languages other than English. by emphasizing coastal and basic material "To go out into the world we must learn to industries (Hachinohe City Home Page, speak in the world. We use the base to 2000). Over time, however, Hachinohe supply [English] teachers so our future has City's industrial base began to decline. more options" (Y. Sawame, July 14, 2000, Since the late 1980s, the focus has been on Misawa City, Japan). shifting from heavy industry, such as steel An innovative new language program and mills, to high-technology industry. sponsored by the Misawa City International Hachinohe City'S internationalization Exchange Section is "Let's Communicate," a plans detail their efforts to augment cable television program. Citizens can get a economic and cultural internationalization. lesson book and follow along with televised Through these policies, government lessons. Each week, a camera crew films at a officials expected that "international different school in the city, recording exchange on the local level would children's reactions to the show. "Let's [inspire] city planning and policy Communicate" is quite popular, as children making." The key component of these participate so they can be filmed and efforts is the Port of Hachinohe, which families watch to see if their children are consists of fishing, commercial, and shown on television (S. Hiraide and J. industrial components. In 1988, the Coleman, July 5, 2000, Misawa City, Japan). national government supported plans to Misawa City also draws on the build an "intelligent" or high technology American base for the MATE project, park in conjunction with Port activities. through which Americans of different Other broad strategies for economic cultural backgrounds and non-native internationalization include increasing Americans go out to the schools to teach tourism, and building an international about their cultures. This broadens the center for meetings, exhibitions, and so typical Japan-America focus of many forth (T. Kasuga and M. Townsend, June Misawa projects by introducing students to 29, 2000, Hachinohe City, Japan). As Russia, Thailand, the Philippines, and so noted above, in 1996 the Japanese forth (T. Tanaka, July 5, 2000, Misawa government named Hachinohe the City, Japan). nineteenth Foreign Access Zone (FAZ) in

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 79 the country and the only one in northern organizers actively recruit companies to Japan. This designation buttressed visit Hachinohe and see these facilities internationalization efforts already (T. Kasuga, June 29, 2000, Hachinohe under way. City, Japan). Hachinohe City's internationalization There is little tourism in Hachinohe, policies include detailed activities to but the city has produced tourist maps, internationalize the local culture, such as guides, and emergency information youth sports exchanges, youth overseas pamphlets for English visitors. The study programs, sister-city relationships, Hachinohe Port Trade Center has hosted and language exposure. Planners saw that international business activities such as the "to meet the 21st Century international Australian Industry Fair and Seminar and a society, we'll have to make efforts to bring North America Housing Seminar sponsored up internationally-minded youth who can by the US Embassy. The city dispatches think globally and act locally" (T. Kasuga exchange groups to industrial events and M. Townsend, June 29, 2000, overseas, such as CanAsia 2000 in Hachinohe City, Japan). Vancouver and encourages exchanges among business people.

Economic Internationalization Cultural Internationalization The Port of Hachinohe is at the center of the internationalization plan for the city. Despite provisions for cultural "The Port is the City's point of uniqueness internationalization in the city's plan, and we have been influenced by long the emphasis of Hachinohe City's history with foreigners by comparison to internationalization is economic. Kawaida­ other cities. Internationalization is a way of san, the Port Authority Promotions survival" (T. Kasuga, June 29, 2000, Representative, directly stated that "in Hachinohe City, Japan). Hachinohe Port almost all cases, projects are definitely can handle ships up to 50,000 tons and has connected to an economic aspect. With no developed route to six countries/territories economic payback, no projects start" - the China, Hong Kong, Korea, New (personal communication, July 13, 2000). Caledonia, Taiwan, and the US. Over 500 Nonetheless, there are several activities ships from these countries dock annually in related to cultural internationalization, Hachinohe. New Caledonia, for example, particularly sister-city relationships with ships nickel that is then processed in New Caledonia, LanChow (China) and Hachinohe. The US Navy also uses the port Federal Way (Washington, USA). The and has a naval oil refinery there. Port sister-territory relationship with New officials see port expansion as an economic Caledonia was initiated about four years success of the internationalization policy ago. This relationship seems to be valued (T. Kasuga and M. Townsend, June 29, less than others are, partly due to the fact 2000, Hachinohe City, Japan). that it is with a non-English speaking The Hachinohe High-Tech Park, community. The sister-city relationship with including the Hachinohe Intelligent Plaza, Federal Way, begun in 1993, is the most seeks to draw computer, software, and developed (M. Townsend, June 29, 2000, biotech companies to replace the current Hachinohe City, Japan). It is also tied to the industries of steel and paper mills. The city's economy: "Hachinohe hopes to location encompasses research and testing improve economic development that is why facilities and can offer international and they picked [a] city on the west coast" (T. Japanese businesses cheaper land and rents Kasuga, June 29, 2000, Hachinohe City, than other parts of Japan. The Park Japan). For economic reasons, the

80 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry Hachinohe Port Authority is attempting to Hachinohe City International Relations establish a sister-city relationship with Department offers Japanese language Manila (T. Kasuga and M. Townsend, June classes to foreigners (T. Kasuga, June 29, 29, 2000, Hachinohe City, Japan). 2000, Hachinohe City) Exchanges within these sister-city Hachinohe City has seen a return on relationships rely primarily on home stays. their efforts at internationalization. They The Board of Education arranges and have reached out and connected with many partially pays for student groups to travel to parts of the world. They are actively each city for about one week at the end of changing their industrial base and planning July. Teachers serve as chaperons and chose for economic expansion that will be which students will go; seven each are sent globally oriented. Tthe Hachinohe City to New Caledonia and Federal Way and policy is undergoing a review. A new eight to LanChow. Current Japanese fifteen-year plan will result. cultural biases affect these exchanges, as the Hachinohe students who go to China sometimes experience snubbing by their Conclusion classmates. Sources in Hachinohe stated that this was due to a traditional superior As noted above, the goals of each attitude about the Chinese and because locality's internationalization plan are LanChow is a poor area. vague and thus it is hard to assess progress. Other international cultural activities There is little or no measurement of goal include a Hachinohe school that achievement or cost-benefit analysis of participates in an International Robot internationalization. The Japanese appear Contest for high school students through reluctant to engage in such monitoring, connections with a robot club at a Detroit recognizing that while economic efforts are school. Together with the city's easier to measure, it is very difficult to International Relations Department, an assess the success of intangibles such as organization called the Hachinohe cultural internationalization. Additionally, International Exchange recruits volunteers their very culture seems biased against it. In to serve as tour guides, plans intercultural answer to the question "How does the street fairs, and hosts foreign speakers. The government determine the success or city government hopes that this failure of goals?" Kawaida-san of the organization will become self sufficient and Hachinohe Port Authority responded, independently organize and fund many of "Sorry, I don't know, but I think Japanese the activities currently planned by the organizations tend to hesitate to admit the International Relations Subsection (T. project was a failure, even if it was an Kasuga and M. Townsend, June 29, 2000, absolute failure. Perhaps nobody knows Hachinohe City, Japan). exactly whether the project was successful Concerning language programs, JET is or not" (personal communication, July 13, active in Hachinohe, not only providing 2000). Nevertheless, we do draw some language teachers but also helping the conclusions about each locality's plan. International Relations Department to run a At the level of Aomori Prefecture, program to translate signs within the city infrastructure building as well as business and post city streets in English. JET development plans promote economic arranges language teacher visits to internationalization. Cultural internation­ elementary and high schools; however, alization is also present. While there are these are occasional and/or short term and concerns and criticisms about the high cost amount to little more than giving students of hosting this event, the 2003 Asian Winter exposure to foreigners (M. Shobuke, June Olympics will be a boost for both economic 30, 2000, Hachinohe City, Japan). The and cultural internationalization in the

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 81 prefecture. While the Aomori Prefecture English and, to a lesser extent, carry out plan is grand and being accomplished at a exchanges with sister cities. great rate, too much remains undone to Cultural internationalization may be meet the 2006 goal. most important for the children of Japan. Aomori City's focus on its airport has Because many of the sister-city activities are accomplished the expansion hoped. In aimed at children, the next generation can addition, it has very active exchanges with gain a more personalized feeling of sister cities. The 2002 Winter Cities closeness with the rest of the world and conference further promoted both economic learn to view foreigners as 'human' like and cultural internationalization. Overall, themselves. This is one of the reasons Japan however, Aomori City could achieve much fIrst initiated its internationalization policy. more in meeting national There is some backlash against Japan's internationalization goals. focus on internationalization. Some citizens Misawa City'S internationalization wonder why money and effort is spent efforts perhaps leave the most room for making foreigners more comfortable in improvement. With no attempts at their area when they experience local economic internationalization, it must rely problems that are more immediate and on the plans of the Prefecture. There is important to them. The national nothing wrong with doing so, especially as government has recently proposed making the Prefecture is promoting consolidation. the English language a more structured part However, the question remains whether of the education system and even approving Misawa City actively chose to rely on the it as a second official language. These economic internationalization of the policy options sparked much debate, Prefecture efforts or has done so by default. particularly among those Japanese citizens It is cost-effective and sensible for Misawa who feel their culture is already threatened City to focus on local cultural exchanges by globalization. between base and town populations. Globalization and mandated However, while both Japanese and foreign internationalization will continue, Misawa residents get exposure to other especially with the recent increased cultures, these "internal" exchanges would availability of the internet in Aomori. As seem to negate the overall intent of national the Internet is moving into the prefecture the plan, which is to look outside of Japan schools, instruction in the English language and become more open to globalization. will become even more necessary. Already, Japanese openness to base residents could even some of the smallest towns have come be significantly different from openness to on line with information and home pages in the world or other cultures as a whole. English. The Internet may be the tool that Thus, the criticisms that Misawa City's does more to realize internationalization internationalization policy is "just for than all local policies combined. show" may indeed be valid. Hachinohe City appears to have best We would like to make some realized its internationalization goals. suggestions for refming Japan's Perhaps by concentrating on and drawing internationalization plans: support for development of its port, Hachinohe had an advantage over the other • Set specific goals for all aspects of two cities. Nonetheless, they have effected internationalization, including defining a balance of economic changes and have levels of internationalization plans accomplished much by building up the port, • Develop assessment techniques and increasing imports, and reaching out to measure of cost-effectiveness. other countries. Hachinohe City makes a • Better market internationalization to the concerted effort to expose its youth to Japanese people. As authors, we see how

82 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry much the internationalization plans tie to Takashi Ogura- Senior Staff, International regional and city economies. Convincing Relations Section Aomori City Office the nation's people that internationalization Shuichi Hiraide- Supervisor, International could strengthen the economy and better Exchange Section, Misawa City Hall enable the cities toJor example, provide Takako Kasuga -Administrative Staff, services to the elderly may mitigate International Relations Subsection, backlash against the policy. Hachinohe • Reconsider related policies and laws. For Mitsuhiko Shobuke- Teacher's Consultant, example, importing foreign labor is illegal, Education Guidance Dept., Hachinohe City but in many areas there are not enough Board of Education Japanese laborers to fill unskilled Taeko Tanaka - International Education positions. Coordinator, Misawa City • Determine the usefulness of the Internet in Yoshinori Sawame- Assistant Chief, internationalization. Guidance Section, Misawa City Board of Education Japan is currently reviewing national Yokosaka-san- Retired Naval translator and local internationalization policies. Kawadai Takaaki- Representative, Hachinohe City, for example, is talking Hachinohe Port Authority about including methods of cost-benefit in its revised plan. It is clear that Japan intends to continue its internationalization References efforts just as it plans to remain a part of the global economy. This study shows that 1. Aanensen, Michele. (2000). Message local internationalization efforts vary from AFFAIR. In AFFAIR. Around Aomori. widely; additional research into Japan's (p. 2) Aomori City, Japan: AFFAIR. continuing internationalization could further explicate the policy for the rest of 2. About New Aomori Prefecture General the world and for Japan itself. Future Long-term Plan. (1997). Retrieved research could include assessing programs May 29, 2000 from the World Wide Web: and their implementation, determining http://www.prefaomori.jp/info/new- plan/e­ success level indicators, and exploring index.html 'new' features such as volunteerism and the impact of the Internet. It may be that 3. AFFAIR. (Summer 2000). Around Japan's internationalization plan and its Aomori. Aomori Ci ty, Japan: AFFAIR. consequences become a force helping to determine the shape of the country's future. 4. Aomori FAZ (Hachinohe Port Area) Aomori Prefecture. 2000. Retrieved September 28, 2000 from the World Appendix A Wide web: http://www.jetro.go.jp/ov/e/faz/ aomori/02. html List of Interviews 5. Aomori Prefecture's Development. Maylorie Townsend- JET Program (2000). Retrieved September 27,2000 from Coordinator of International Relations, the World Wide Web: http://www.pref Hachinohe City. aomori. jp/ ki g-eI O.html Masaki Sakurada- Staff, International 6. Aomori Prefecture Traffic Access Relations Section Aomori City Office. Conditions. (2000). Retrieved September Katuhiro Narumi- Assistant Chief, 27, 2000 from the World Wide Web: International Relations Section Aomori City http://www.prefaomori.jp/kig- you Office

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