DEPARTMENT OF PRIMARY INDUSTRIES
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN
NORTH EAST VICTORIA
The Alpine Valleys
Published by: Department of Primary Industries Farm Services Victoria Melbourne, Victoria, Australia July 2008
Also published on www.dpi.vic.gov.au/agribusiness
© The State of Victoria Department of Primary Industries, 2008
This publication is copyright. No part may be reproduced by any process except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968.
Authorised by: Victorian Government 1 Spring Street Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
ISBN 978-1-74217-085-5 (print)
ISBN 978-1-74217-086-2 (PDF)
Disclaimer This publication may be of assistance to you but the State of Victoria and its employees do not guarantee that the publication is without flaw of any kind or is wholly appropriate for your particular purposes and therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or other consequence which may arise from you relying on any information in this publication.
For more information visit the website at www.dpi.vic.gov.au or contact the DPI Customer Service Centre 136 186.
Produced by: Agribusiness Group Department of Primary Industries 1 Spring Street PO Box 4440 Melbourne, Victoria 3001, Australia
Author: Ashley Paech Agribusiness Development Officer – North East Victoria, Regional Agribusiness Development, DPI Agribusiness Group
Editor: Aimee McCutcheon Manager – Regional Agribusiness Development DPI Agribusiness Group
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
For North East Victoria, like other regions, rural issues and the implications of operating in a global marketplace are a challenging reality. The closure of the tobacco industry, the focal point being the Alpine Valleys, in late 2006 meant that the $26 million industry no longer contributed to the region’s economy and landholders were left without a sustainable business. Informed selection of appropriate land uses and the adoption of improved management practices will be essential to maintain the region’s prosperity and sustainability into the future.
This report provides an overview of agricultural resource information that will assist current landholders, as well as potential investors, to make better informed decisions about the agricultural capability of the region and to make sound land use decisions in North East Victoria and the Alpine Valleys.
North East Victoria comprises three major catchments: the Upper Murray, Kiewa and Ovens catchments. It also covers the Local Government Areas of Wodonga, Indigo, Wangaratta, Alpine and Towong.
The Great Dividing Range is the dominant geographic feature in North East Victoria, producing wide variations in climate. Rainfall can vary from 500 mm on the plains, up to 2000 mm in the Alpine areas. The availability of soil moisture is influenced by both precipitation and evaporation, whilst temperature influences both relative humidity and the frequency of frost events. Climate variability is an important risk factor to an agricultural enterprise.
Agriculture contributes significantly to the prosperity of North-East Victoria, with agricultural production and diversification key drivers behind the sustainability of communities in the region. Agricultural production contributes $300 million to the Ovens-Murray region economy each year. Livestock production is the largest contributor, consisting of beef, sheep and some dairying enterprises. Commercial forestry currently contributes over $213 million to the region’s economy. Tourism is the third major contributor to the region’s economic development. The Alpine Shire alone earns over $200 million from tourism annually.
Agricultural production has had a major impact on the health of the soils in North East Victoria. Changes in plant composition and diversity have exacerbated soil health problems such as soil acidity, salinity and erosion, as well as poor soil structure. By identifying the generic variations in soil attributes throughout the Ovens, King and Kiewa Valleys, including soil type, land managers will be able to better understand the capabilities and constraints of their soils.
Irrigation water is a key input into agriculture in the North East Alpine Valleys. The Victorian tobacco industry was a major user of irrigation water along the Ovens, King, Buffalo and Kiewa Rivers and their tributaries until late 2006. Irrigation practices and infrastructure used by the tobacco growers evolved over the years and
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group i impacted on their water use efficiencies. Goulburn-Murray Water is the Authority responsible for the management of surface water diversions and groundwater extractions within the Ovens Basin.
According to the most recent census data (2006) the population of the Ovens-Murray Statistical Division is approximately 97,000. Wodonga is the largest centre (36,000) followed by Wangaratta (26,000). The Alpine Shire has a population of around 13,000. This is important when considering potential labour supply in North East Victoria (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008b).
Historically there were a number of significant events which shaped the development of the North East region including: Aboriginal tribes, European settlement (1824), Alpine grazing (1851), the Gold Rush (1852), the clearing of forests and the beginning of agriculture (1860’s), and the beginning of commercial forestry plantations (1916).
Today the economic development of the North East region predominantly lies in the agricultural and forestry industries. Agriculture has changed and evolved considerably since its conception and will continue to evolve into the future. In order for the region to embrace land use change and adopt potential opportunities they must meet the needs of both landholders and/or potential investors. Criteria such as profitability, risk diversification, marketability, productivity, capabilities and opportunities for younger generations must be addressed.
It is recommended that current landholders, especially ex-tobacco growers, and potential investors use the information in this report to answer key questions in their decision making process about business planning and potential land uses in North East Victoria and Alpine Valleys.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group ii CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... I
CONTENTS...... III
TABLES ...... IV
FIGURES ...... V
CONTACTS ...... VI
1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1
2 PURPOSE...... 2
3 METHODOLOGY...... 3
4 LAND USE ...... 7
4.1 Current land use...... 7 4.2 Land use change ...... 18
5 CLIMATE ...... 20
5.1 Alpine Valleys...... 21
6 SOIL...... 27
6.1 Soil type ...... 27 6.2 Soil acidity...... 32 6.3 Soil erosion ...... 36 6.4 Salinity ...... 38 6.5 Soil structure...... 40
7 IRRIGATION...... 41
7.1 Water sources...... 42 7.2 Infrastructure ...... 43 7.3 Irrigation practices ...... 46 7.4 Water use ...... 47
8 POPULATION ...... 48
8.1 Human settlement ...... 48 8.2 Demographic changes ...... 49
9 REFERENCES...... 56
10 APPENDICES...... 58
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group iii TABLES
Table 1. Gross Value of Agricultural Product (GVP) in the Ovens-Murray region and Victoria in 2004-05...... 8
Table 2. A description of the current land use characteristics of the Alpine Shire, Ovens-Murray Region...... 13
Table 3. A description of the current land use characteristics of the Indigo Shire, Ovens-Murray Region...... 14
Table 4. A description of the current land use characteristics of the Towong Shire, Ovens-Murray Region...... 15
Table 5. A description of the current land use characteristics of the Rural City of Wodonga, Ovens-Murray Region...... 16
Table 6. A description of the current land use characteristics of the Rural City of Wangaratta, Ovens-Murray Region...... 17
Table 7. Average annual rainfall (mm) and frost days (≤0 oC) (1920-2007) and elevation (m) for localities in the Alpine Valleys...... 20
Table 8. Average monthly rainfall (mm) (1920-2007) for localities in the Alpine Valleys...... 22
Table 9. Average monthly frost days (≤0 oC) (1920-2007) for localities in the Alpine Valleys...... 22
Table 10a. Average monthly maximum temperatures (oC) (1920-2007) for localities in the Alpine Valleys...... 23
Table 10b. Average monthly minimum temperatures (oC) (1920-2007) for localities in the Alpine Valleys...... 23
Table 11. Number, volume and area@ of irrigation licences in different river basins and for different irrigation sources (2006)...... 44
Table 12. Age and population statistics from 1996, 2001 and 2006 Census results for the Ovens-Murray Statistical Division...... 50
Table 13. Age and population statistics from 1996, 2001 and 2006 Census results for the Alpine Shire, Ovens-Murray region...... 51
Table 14. Age and population statistics from 1996, 2001 and 2006 Census results for the Indigo Shire, Ovens-Murray region...... 52
Table 15. Age and population statistics from 1996, 2001 and 2006 Census results for the Towong Shire, Ovens-Murray region...... 53
Table 16. Age and population statistics from 1996, 2001 and 2006 Census results for the Rural City of Wodonga, Ovens-Murray region...... 54
Table 17. Age and population statistics from 1996, 2001 and 2006 Census results for the Rural City of Wangaratta, Ovens-Murray region...... 55
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group iv FIGURES
Figure 1. Major towns and waterways in the North East Catchment...... 5
Figure 2. Major river catchments in the Alpine Valleys in the North East Catchment.6
Figure 3. Major land uses in the North East Catchment...... 9
Figure 4. Minor land uses in the North East Catchment...... 10
Figure 5. Private or freehold land (green) in the North East Catchment...... 11
Figure 6. Local Government Areas in the Ovens-Murray region...... 12
Figure 7. Location of the Ovens-Murray Statistical Division...... 12
Figure 8. Average monthly rainfall (mm) and frost days (≤0 oC) (1920-2007) in the Ovens Valley, Alpine Valleys...... 24
Figure 9. Average monthly rainfall (mm) and frost days (≤0 oC) (1920-2007) in the Kiewa Valley, Alpine Valleys...... 25
Figure 10. Average monthly rainfall (mm) and frost days (≤0 oC) (1920-2007) in the King Valley, Alpine Valleys...... 26
Figure 11. Soil types in the North East Catchment...... 29
Figure 12. Major soil landform units in the North East Catchment...... 30
Figure 13. Distribution of soil acidity in the North East Catchment...... 35
Figure 14. The distribution of salting potential in the North East Catchment...... 39
Figure 15. Sources of irrigation water in the North East Catchment...... 45
Figure 16. Fixed-set irrigation sprinklers in the Ovens Valley...... 47
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group v CONTACTS
Department of Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia www.dpi.vic.gov.au Customer service: 136 186
Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria, Australia www.dse.vic.gov.au Customer service: 136 186
Department of Innovation, Industry and Regional Development www.diird.vic.gov.au Victorian business line: 13 22 15
Alpine Valleys Agribusiness Forum PO Box 915, Wangaratta, Victoria 3676 www.alpvalleys.com.au Ph: (03) 5721 6088 Email: [email protected]
Alpine Shire Council Rural City of Wodonga Great Alpine Road, Bright, 3741 PO Box 923, Wodonga, VIC, 3689 www.alpineshire.vic.gov.au www.wodonga.vic.gov.au Telephone: (03) 5755-0555 Ph: (02) 6022 9300 E-mail: [email protected] Email: [email protected]
Indigo Shire Council Rural City of Wangaratta 101 Ford Street, Beechworth PO Box 238, Wangaratta, Vic 3676 Victoria 3747 www.wangaratta.vic.gov.au www.indigoshire.vic.gov.au Ph: (03) 5722 0888 Ph: (03) 5728 8000 Email: Email: [email protected] [email protected]
Towong Shire Council 32 Towong Street, (PO Box 55), Tallangatta Victoria 3700 www.towong.vic.gov.au Ph: (02) 6071 5100 Email: [email protected]
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group vi 1 INTRODUCTION
North East Victoria can be described and analysed in two ways, by geographical features such as catchments basins, rivers and valleys, or by Statistical Divisions and Local Government Areas.
The North East Catchment covers an area of around 20,000 km2 in North East Victoria. Geographically it spreads from Wangaratta to Corryong and Wodonga to Mt Hotham (Figure 1).
Major waterways in the North East Catchment include Fifteen Mile Creek, King River, Buffalo Creek, Ovens River, Buckland River, Black Dog Creek, Murray River, Kiewa River, Mitta Mitta River, Lake Hume, Lake Dartmouth, and Lake Buffalo.
These rivers form the basis for describing basins and valleys in the North East region. For the purposes of this study the term Alpine Valleys has been used to describe the alpine regions of the Kiewa Valley, Ovens Valley and King Valley (Figure 2). These three valleys accommodate the major agricultural activities of North East Victoria’s alpine terrain.
The Alpine Valleys were the major production areas for Victoria’s $26 million tobacco industry until late 2006. The close of the tobacco industry in Victoria had a major impact on the landholders and communities in the Alpine Valleys and is the main driver for this report. Hence, parts of this report focus specifically on the tobacco growers and the Alpine Valleys.
North East Victoria can also be described using the statistical division and local government areas (LGA). These areas are used by the Australian Bureau of Statistics to analyse and describe statistical data from surveys and studies such as the Agricultural and Household Census.
This report uses the Ovens-Murray Statistical Division and its Local Government Areas, which include the Alpine, Towong and Indigo Shires and the Rural Cities of Wangaratta and Wodonga (Figure 6). The Ovens-Murray region does not cover all of the North East Catchment but does however include the Alpine Valleys as described above.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 1 of 87 2 PURPOSE
The purpose of this report is to bring together useful agricultural resource information that will help current landholders, as well as potential investors, to make better informed land use decisions in North East Victoria and the Alpine Valleys.
Agriculture in North East Victoria continues to face complex issues within markets, industries, the environment, climate, competition for land and water, urban development, rising input and fuel costs, and an ageing labour force.
Farmers and agribusinesses continuously have to make complex decisions about the future of their business. A complex decision is one in which there is several different answers, each of which are possible, but it is difficult to decide on the most appropriate solution. The best way to tackle a complex decision is to break it down into specific questions.
For example, ‘Which enterprise should I move into?’ can be broken down into: Is there a market for that product? Is it going to be profitable? and, Do I have the resources to produce that product?
From this, information can be gathered to answer these specific questions. The most important step is in defining the key questions that need answering.
Decision = Questions + Information
This report aims to answer the question:
‘What major agricultural resources do North East Victoria and the Alpine Valleys have?’
By presenting this information both farmers and potential investors to the region are able to make better informed decisions about the agricultural capabilities of the region. This report has been written in response to the closure of the tobacco industry in North East Victoria in late 2006. Because of this, sections of this report have focussed on the Alpine Valleys, where the majority of Victorian tobacco was grown.
The following information on agricultural resources in North East Victoria and the Alpine Valleys is a representation of the general trends in agriculture today. However, as the variability of data is difficult to predict at the individual farm level, it is important to note that representative data should be used as a guide only. Site specific mapping and analysis is essential prior to establishment of any new development or enterprise.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 2 of 87 3 METHODOLOGY
This report utilised desktop research of previous studies and new data which has been analysed specifically for the purposes of this report.
In response to recommendations from studies by other authors, this report attempts to expand the analysis to include current land use, climate, soil, irrigation, and population data.
The 5 Local Government Areas (LGA): Alpine Shire, Indigo Shire, Towong Shire, Rural City of Wodonga and Rural City of Wangaratta, make up the Ovens-Murray region. The current land use within these LGA’s was analysed using data from the 2005-06 ABS Agricultural Census, which was released in March 2008. To analyse Ovens- Murray region as a whole, 2004-05 Agricultural census data was utilised as later data was not available at the time of print. Similarly, population data for each of the LGA’s was analysed using the 2006 ABS Census Community Profile Series.
Attitudes to land use change, and associated potential opportunities and barriers, were derived from the 2001 study by Ada. Ada (2001) conducted facilitated discussion groups with landholders from each of the Alpine Valleys (Ovens, King and Kiewa Valleys) as well as potential investors to the North East from existing vegetable enterprises elsewhere in Victoria. The discussion groups were centred upon diversification within the tobacco industry and many of the same issues are relevant today.
The information on climate variability has been calculated using daily data from 1920-2007 from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology. SILO Data Drill is a program which provides popular meteorological variables that are useful for research and modelling. It is administered and delivered by the Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines (QNR&M). Climatic data from the Data Drill program is NOT observed data but are estimates provided by the Bureau of Meteorology. The data is derived by creating grids of data between actual point observations. The grid lines are interpolated to 0.05 degrees spatial resolution (around 5km). The data grids make it possible to estimate climatic data for any point anywhere in Australia. This data is not suitable for all purposes; the decision to use it depends upon application needs. However, although the data is not observed data it is useful for extrapolating climate trends (Jeffrey et al. 2001).
Climatic data has been collected and analysed for several localities in each of the Kiewa, Ovens and King Valleys. The data includes: rainfall, evaporation, maximum and minimum temperatures, the frequency of frost, and maximum and minimum relative humidity.
Broad scale overview maps are presented for soil type, acidity, salinity and landforms, but should only be used as a general indication of their distribution. The
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 3 of 87 descriptions of soil parameters are referenced from the Victorian Department of Primary Industries: Virtual resources online: North East Soils.
Information and attitudes on irrigation practices, infrastructure and water use has been derived from desktop research and a survey completed in 2006 by Baxter on the tobacco industry. This information is an attempt to outline some of the irrigation practices within the Alpine Valleys, but is not a complete representation of all activities in this region, as tobacco was not the only industry.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 4 of 87 #WALWA
BRIMIN RUTHERGLEN # # GRANYA WODONGA # # CHILTERN #
CORRYONG TALLANGATTA # # TANGAMBALANGA #
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#MILAWA
MITTA MITTA # MYRTLEFORD MOYHU # #
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10 0 10 20 Kilometers N waterways 250 # Major Towns CMA
Source: (Victorian Government, Corporate Geospatial Data Library)
Figure 1. Major towns and waterways in the North East Catchment.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 5 of 87 # WALWA
BRIMIN RUTHERGLEN # # GRANYA # # WODONGA CHILTERN #
CORRYONG TALLANGATTA # # TANGAMBALANGA #
ELDORADOBlah blah # #YACKANDANDAH waterways 250 #WANGARATTA BEECHWORTH River catchments # Black Range Creek MILAWA Boggy Creek # Hurdle Creek
King River - Docker MITTA MITTA # King River - Lake William Hovall MYRTLEFORD MOYHU # King River - Edi # King River - Wangaratta Ovens River - Lake Mulwala Buckland River BRIGHT Fifteen Mile Creek # WHITFIELD Buffalo Creek # Buffalo River - Lake Buffalo Buffalo River - Ovens River Kiewa West Branch Lower Kiewa Middle Kiewa Running Creek Simmonds Creek Upper Kiewa Barwidgee Creek Happy Valley Creek Morses Creek Ovens River - Bright Ovens River - Harrietville Ovens River - Myrtleford 10 0 10 20 Kilometers N Ovens River - Wangaratta # Major Towns CMA
Source: (Victorian Government, Corporate Geospatial Data Library)
Figure 2. Major river catchments in the Alpine Valleys in the North East Catchment.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 6 of 87 4 LAND USE
Agricultural production provides the Ovens-Murray region with a sound economic base, contributing $300 million to the regions economy each year. Over 547,000 hectares are farmed across the Ovens-Murray district, producing a wide range of commodities (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008c).
Livestock production is the largest contributor to the region’s agricultural economy, consisting of beef, sheep and some dairying enterprises (Figure 3). The major cropping enterprises include wheat, oats, canola, triticale, barley, and lupins. Horticulture in the region includes wine production, berries, apples, nuts, hops, stone fruit and vegetables (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008a). Figure 4 shows the distribution of the minor land uses. In the case of mixed farming enterprises, the major land uses are the most dominant enterprises.
Commercial forestry has existed in the North East since the 1920’s and currently contributes over $213 million to the regions economy. The majority of forestry occurs on public land with softwood plantations making up the majority of private holdings. Commercial forestry is most viable in the higher rainfall areas (>800 mm) (Victoria. Department of Natural Resources and Environment 1999).
4.1 CURRENT LAND USE
The North-East Catchment encompasses almost 20,000 km2 of North-East Victoria and includes the Kiewa River basin, the Ovens, King and Buffalo River basins (Figure 2). Approximately 61% of the region is public land which is used for forestry purposes, conservation and recreation, while 39% is private or freehold land (Figure 5) used predominantly for beef, dairying and horticulture enterprises in the major river valleys, with wheat and sheep grazing on the plains to the west of the Hume Highway (Figures 3 and 4) (Reynard et al. 2002).
LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS
The North East Catchment also encompasses the Ovens-Murray Statistical Division, which is made up of 5 Local Government Areas (LGA), including Alpine Shire, Indigo Shire, Towong Shire, Rural City of Wodonga and Rural City of Wangaratta (Figures 6 and 7). Tables 2-6 summarises the agricultural land use activities within each of the LGA areas and as a result identifies the most valuable agricultural industries contributing to the Ovens-Murray region’s Gross Value of Product (GVP).
Tobacco was a major contributor to the gross value of agricultural product in the Ovens-Murray region until late 2006, particularly for the Alpine Shire and The Rural City of Wangaratta. The Rural City of Wodonga contributes relatively little value of agricultural production to the Ovens-Murray region when compared with the other shires. However, value adding is a key component of the manufacturing sector within
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 7 of 87 this shire and significant value is added to timber, beef, dairy, fruit, vegetables, viticulture and crops that are grown in the Ovens-Murray region.
OVENS-MURRAY REGION GROSS VALUE OF PRODUCT
The most valuable agricultural industry in the Ovens-Murray region is livestock slaughtering, with a value of over $127 million in 2004-05, as highlighted in Table 1. This equates to 5% of Victoria’s total livestock slaughtering, with cattle and calves slaughtered the highest contributing commodity (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008c).
Crops were the second highest GVP in the Ovens-Murray region in the 2004-05 year, with a value of $101 million. This includes all broadacre, fruit, and vegetable commodities. The highest value crop in 2004-05 was tobacco at $26 million, which was almost all of Victoria’s tobacco produced. Without tobacco the total value of crops in Ovens-Murray would be similar to that of livestock products, which is the third highest GVP and includes milk and wool commodities (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008c).
The Ovens-Murray region also relies heavily on forestry, tourism and the value adding of primary products such as beef, sheep, dairy, fruit and viticulture. Overall in 2004-05, Ovens-Murray region contributed approximately 4% to the total value of Victoria’s agriculture (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008c).
Table 1. Gross Value of Agricultural Product (GVP) in the Ovens-Murray region and Victoria in 2004-05.
Ovens-Murray Ovens-Murray GVP as Victoria Statistical Division % of Victorian GVP
( GVP $'000 ) ( GVP $'000 )
Livestock Slaughterings
Cattle and calves slaughtered 111,652 1,292,775 9% Sheep and lambs slaughtered 15,419 675,034 2%
Total value of livestock slaughterings 127,741 2,526,991 5%
Crops Tobacco 26,155 26,339 99% Grapes - Wine 17,351 229,097 8% Pastures cut for hay 15,502 364,248 4% Apples 15,026 251,760 6% Cereals for grain 7,222 669,287 1% Strawberries 3,418 40,287 8% Cherries 2,711 16,532 16% Other nuts (excluding Almonds) 2,467 15,098 16% Hops 2,366 2,366 100% Blueberries 2,059 2,651 78%
Total value of crops 101,537 3,261,542 3%
Livestock Products Milk 64,649 2,079,874 3% Wool - Total 7,833 472,856 2%
Total value of livestock products 72,483 2,644,694 3%
Total value of agriculture 301,762 8,433,228 4%
Source: (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008c)
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 8 of 87 WALWA #
BRIMIN RUTHERGLEN # # GRANYA WODONGA # # CHILTERN #
CORRYONG TALLANGATTA # # TANGAMBALANGA #
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MILAWA #
MITTA MITTA # MYRTLEFORD MOYHU # #
BRIGHT #
#WHITFIELD
waterways 250 Land use main Conservation Dairying Forestry 10 0 10 20 Kilometers N Grazing # Major Towns CMA
Source: (Victorian Government, Corporate Geospatial Data Library)
Figure 3. Major land uses in the North East Catchment.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 9 of 87 WALWA #
BRIMIN RUTHERGLEN # # GRANYA WODONGA # # CHILTERN #
CORRYONG TALLANGATTA # # TANGAMBALANGA #
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MILAWA #
MITTA MITTA # MYRTLEFORD MOYHU # #
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#WHITFIELD
waterways 250 Land use minor Conservation Cropping Dairying Forestry Grazing Horticultu 10 0 10 20 Kilometers N Tree Plant # Major Towns CMA
Source: (Victorian Government, Corporate Geospatial Data Library)
Figure 4. Minor land uses in the North East Catchment.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 10 of 87 WALWA #
BRIMIN RUTHERGLEN # # GRANYA WODONGA # # CHILTERN #
CORRYONG TALLANGATTA # # TANGAMBALANGA #
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MILAWA #
MITTA MITTA # MYRTLEFORD MOYHU # #
BRIGHT #
#WHITFIELD
10 0 10 20 Kilometers N
Source: (Victorian Government, Corporate Geospatial Data Library)
Figure 5. Private or freehold land (green) in the North East Catchment.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 11 of 87
Source: (ABS. Australian Standard Geographical Classification. 1216.0. 2005)
Figure 6. Local Government Areas in the Ovens-Murray region.
Source: (ABS. Australian Standard Geographical Classification. 1216.0. 2005)
Figure 7. Location of the Ovens-Murray Statistical Division.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 12 of 87 Table 2. A description of the current land use characteristics of the Alpine Shire, Ovens- Murray Region.
Alpine Shire
Location: Approximately 270 km from Melbourne and 70 km from Albury/ Wodonga.
Area: 70,000 ha
Major towns: Bright, Myrtleford, Mt Beauty and Dinner Plain.
Landforms: Kiewa Valley, Ovens Valley, Buffalo River Valley, Kiewa River, Ovens River, Buffalo River, Mt Buffalo, Lake Buffalo, Rocky Valley Dam, Mt Feathertop and Mt Bogong.
Major agricultural commodities: • Apples (68%) of production in Ovens-Murray region. • Nuts (47%) • Hops (76%) • Berry Fruit (17%) • Capsicum and Chillies (49%) • Olives (52%) • Pears (12%) • Grapes (15%) • Kiwi Fruit (5%) • Tomatoes (54%) • Horses (15%) • Goats (13%)
Major land uses: Horticultural crops and commercial forestry.
No. of farms: 400, 16% of farms in Ovens-Murray region.
Other: Timber logging and processing are important activities for the shire, with a significant saw milling facility at Myrtleford and substantial soft wood timber plantations throughout the shire.
Approximately 74% of tobacco in the Ovens-Murray region was produced in the Alpine Shire until late 2006.
Reference: (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008a).
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 13 of 87 Table 3. A description of the current land use characteristics of the Indigo Shire, Ovens- Murray Region.
Indigo Shire
Location: Approximately 270 km from Melbourne and borders the Murray River west of Albury/ Wodonga.
Area: 113,000 ha
Major towns: Beechworth, Stanley, Chiltern, Rutherglen and Yackandandah.
Landforms: Murray River (west of Wodonga), Kiewa River, Lake Hume, Mt Pilot National Park, Black Dog Ck, Indigo Ck and Chiltern Ironbark National Park. The eastern parts of the shire are sub-alpine terrain. The western end of the shire is more open and flatter, suitable for broad acre cropping.
Major agricultural commodities: • Cereals (67%) of production in Ovens-Murray region. • Canola (73%) • Legumes (83%) • Sheep and Lambs (32%) • Apples (31%) • Pears (88%) • Grapes (27%) • Berry Fruit (73%) • Cherries (9%) • Lives (30%) • Nuts (43%) • Tomatoes (37%) • Milk Cattle (21%) • Beef Cattle (16%) • Pigs (16%) • Beekeeping (33%) • Hay and Silage (22%)
Major land uses: Broadacre cropping, grazing and horticultural crops.
No. of farms: 574, 22% of farms in Ovens-Murray region.
Reference: (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008a).
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 14 of 87 Table 4. A description of the current land use characteristics of the Towong Shire, Ovens- Murray Region.
Towong Shire
Location: North-East corner of Victoria, 120 km east of Albury/ Wodonga on the Murray Valley Highway.
Area: 170,000 ha, Towong is the largest shire in the Ovens- Murray region.
Major towns: Tallangatta and Corryong.
Landforms: Mitta Mitta River, Mt Granya National Park, Murray River (east of Lake Hume), Lake Hume and Lake Dartmouth. These dams are key water storages for regulating the water flows of the Murray River.
Major agricultural commodities: • Sheep and Lambs (20%) of production in Ovens-Murray region. • Milk Cattle (38%) • Beef Cattle (35%) • Pigs (74%) • Chickens – Layers (95%) • Horses (24%) • Goats (15%) • Hay and Silage (29%)
Major land uses: Livestock and commercial forestry.
No. of farms: 537, 21% of farms in Ovens-Murray region.
Other: Towong shire also supports a strong timber industry.
Reference: (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008a).
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 15 of 87 Table 5. A description of the current land use characteristics of the Rural City of Wodonga, Ovens-Murray Region.
Rural City of Wodonga
Location: Approximately 300 km from Melbourne and borders the Murray River and the New South Wales town of Albury.
Area: 25,000 ha
Major towns: Wodonga, Baranduda and Bandiana.
Landforms: Kiewa River, Murray River, Baranduda Ranges and Lake Hume.
Major agricultural commodities: Negligible
Major land uses: Housing and development, manufacturing.
No. of farms: 119
Other: Manufacturing is the largest industry sector followed by retail, government and defence, health and community services, and education.
Major investments have been made in the manufacturing and processing sectors including a $90 million distribution centre for Woolworths, which has formed the basis for a transport and logistics hub, called LOGIC. The Rural City of Wodonga is also home to Victoria’s largest livestock saleyard complex and proposals are currently being considered to upgrade and modernise these facilities.
Reference: (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008a).
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 16 of 87 Table 6. A description of the current land use characteristics of the Rural City of Wangaratta, Ovens-Murray Region.
Rural City of Wangaratta
Location: Approximately 235 km from Melbourne.
Area: 179,000 ha
Major towns: Wangaratta, Everton, Glenrowan, Oxley, Milawa, Moyhu, Peechelba, Springhurst, Whitfield, Whorouly and Eldorado.
Landforms: King Valley, King River, Ovens River (north of Wangaratta is heritage listed), the Warby Ranges Lake William Hovel, Reedy Ck and Fifteen Mile Ck. King Valley and the Warby Ranges have good granitic soils which are especially suitable for stone fruit production.
Major agricultural commodities: • Citrus (100%) of production in Ovens-Murray region. • Cherries (90%) • Nectarines (100%) • Peaches (100%) • Grapes (59%) • Kiwi Fruit (95%) • Capsicums and Chillies (51%) • Zucchinis and Button Squash (98%) • Sheep and Lambs (40%) • Beef Cattle (31%) • Chickens – Meat (100%) • Horses (45%) • Goats (62%) • Deer (69%) • Beekeeping (43%) • Hops (24%) • Hay and Silage (37%) • Berry Fruit (10%) • Milk Cattle (24%) • Cereals (32%) • Canola (27%) • Legumes (18%)
Major land uses: Broadacre cropping, livestock and horticultural crops.
No. of farms: 930, 36% of farms in Ovens-Murray region.
Other: The Rural City of Wangaratta is renowned for its gourmet food and wine areas. This shire is primarily a manufacturing and commercial centre for North-East Victoria. Several large transport and freight companies are located in Wangaratta.
A green tea processing plant was opened in Wangaratta in 2004 and processes green tea produced solely within the Alpine Shire. A proposal to build a large scale abattoir and meat processing facility in Wangaratta is currently being considered.
Approximately 26% of the total tobacco in the Ovens- Murray region was produced in the King Valley within this shire until late 2006.
Reference: (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008a).
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 17 of 87 4.2 LAND USE CHANGE
Agricultural businesses across North East Victoria continuously have to improve and diversify their enterprises in order to embrace the opportunities and challenges of a changing business environment in agriculture. For instance, the recent closure of the tobacco industry in late 2006 has greatly impacted on both the growers and the communities of the Alpine Valleys in North East Victoria. Over $26 million of agricultural production has been removed from these communities and around 130 growers were affected (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008c).
The tobacco growers had a total production area of around 1500 hectares. Production areas ranged from 1.5 hectares to 33 hectares, with an average production area of 13.7 hectares (Baxter 2007). Ada (2001) states some of the opportunities and barriers to land use change within the Ovens-Murray region and greater North East Victoria.
Key attitudes of North East landholders (Ada 2001) were:
• Landholders showed some support towards potential land use change, partly for diversification, but also for providing opportunities for the younger generation and maintaining community infrastructure. However, common constraints for adopting new enterprises were: production, climate and market risk; lack of skills and knowledge; problems with labour supply; chemical use and environmental impact.
• For any new enterprise to be adopted it would have to have strong advantages such as more profitable, diversifies risk, utilises highly suitable soils, compliments existing enterprises and lifestyle choices, environmentally sustainable and provides opportunities for the younger generation. Landholders interviewed in the four river valleys of the North East also valued the aesthetic aspects of their location, particularly the pristine environment and landscape.
• Many landholders stated they would sell land if the price was high enough, but some would sell only the whole property and not part of the property. While, some saw custodianship of the farm for the next generation as a higher priority than any price. Another concern about selling land was potential environmental degradation.
• Leasing or share farming land appeared to more appealing than selling land. The benefits of leasing or share farming were seen as a way of bringing expertise in, learning by watching, being involved without risking too much capital, and providing a guaranteed income (at least through lease payments), as long as the land was left in the same condition, and they could reduce their workload (either due to retirement or other employment).
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 18 of 87 Key attitudes of potential investors to the North East (Ada 2001) were:
• Prospective investors had a similar list of potential reasons for and against investing in new enterprises in North East Victoria. There was clear support for purchasing land over leasing or share farming. The only situations in which leasing was likely to be used was in testing the area before committing or in expanding production in the short term once already established in the area.
• Key issues for prospective investors were whether their current enterprises were suitable to the North East, climate, land suitability, land availability, price of land and water, quality and security of water, supply of labour, access to transport and logistics, access to markets, establishment costs of new enterprise, access to towns and amenities and good quality roads.
• Potential investors indicated that they would prefer to purchase land with an existing water licence rather than have to source water themselves. It was also important that investors considering moving or expanding their existing enterprises to the North East were able to maintain or improve their market position by doing so.
• If prospective investors were to lease land in the North East they would prefer a lease length of 5-10 years. They would also take into consideration further options to lease or buy at the end of the contract, the availability of infrastructure (including irrigation infrastructure), and the current status and maintenance of soil conditions including chemical residues.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 19 of 87 5 CLIMATE
The Great Dividing Range is the dominant geographic feature in North East Victoria, producing wide variations in climate. Rainfall can vary from 500 mm on the plains, up to 2000 mm in the Alpine areas, much of which falls as snow (Victoria. Department of Primary Industries 2008c).
Climate variability is one of the most important risk factors to an agricultural enterprise. Both plant and animal systems are heavily reliant on climate variables. The length of the growing season is strongly influenced by the availability of soil moisture and the suitability of temperatures (Rowe 1972; Rowe 1984).
The availability of soil moisture is influenced by both precipitation and evaporation, whilst temperature influences both relative humidity and the frequency of frost events. Climate variables are all interrelated and plants and animals require an optimal balance of all variables in order to maximise their productivity. Each plant or animal species has different optimal conditions under which they are most productive (Rowe 1972; Rowe 1984).
Low temperatures can restrict or completely inhibit plant growth. Frost can kill plants outright if it occurs during critical growth stages such as flowering or fruit setting. High temperatures lead to high evaporation and potential moisture stress in both plants and animals. High rainfall can result in waterlogging or erosion activities, whilst extremely low rainfall will lead to moisture stress such as drought. Increases in relative humidity can cause problems such as higher incidence of fungal disease (Rowe 1972; Rowe 1984).
Table 7. Average annual rainfall (mm) and frost days (≤0 oC) (1920-2007) and elevation (m) for localities in the Alpine Valleys.
Average Annual Rainfall Average Annual Frost Days Elevation (m) (mm) (1920-2007) (≤0 'C) (1920-2007)
Ovens Valley Harrietville 1369 31 500 Bright 1063 24 315 Buffalo River 938 18 230 Myrtleford 887 19 210 Whorouly 748 18 180 Kiewa Valley Mt Beauty 1195 26 355 Running Creek 993 19 250 Kergunyah 1086 31 195 King Valley Cheshunt South 1188 17 325 King Valley 969 15 210 Moyhu 698 18 170 Source: (Australian Bureau of Meteorology SILO Data Drill (1920-2007))
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 20 of 87 5.1 ALPINE VALLEYS
Variations in climate and weather patterns throughout the Alpine Valleys are strongly influenced by elevation and topography. Monthly and yearly data are presented in this section for rainfall, frost and temperature for the Kiewa, Ovens and King Valleys which make up the Alpine Valleys (Table 7-10b and Figures 8-10). More detailed analysis of trends for each locality is presented in the appendices.
Precipitation is predominantly influenced by topography. Rain is the main form of precipitation in the Alpine Valleys, however, at high altitudes a large proportion of winter precipitation falls as snow. In each of the valleys winter rainfall is higher than summer rainfall (Reynard et al. 2002).
Townships within the Alpine Valleys have an average annual rainfall (1920-2007) of between 700 and 1,400 mm. The average annual rainfall decreases with elevation and subsequently decreases down the valleys (Table 7). At each location the distribution of rainfall shows a winter peak, while January and February are the driest months in the year. The difference between summer and winter rainfall is less prominent with a decrease in elevation (Table 8).
The relationship between altitude and temperature is complex and also influenced by topography.
The hottest months in the Alpine Valleys are December, January and February. Average maximum summer temperatures (1920-2007) range from 26.8 0C at Harrietville to 30.3 0C at Moyhu. July is normally the coldest month with average maximum temperatures (1920-2007) varying between 9 0C at Kergunyah and 12.4 0C at Moyhu, Buffalo River, Myrtleford and Whorouly (Table 10a).
Average minimum temperatures range from around 11.6 0C to 14 0C in February and 1.5 0C to 3 0C in July. Minimum temperatures vary greatly from locality to locality due to the influence of topographic features (such as valleys and depressions) on overnight temperatures (Reynard et al. 2002) (Table 10b).
Frosts generally occur in the period between April and October in the Alpine Valleys, even at lower altitudes. The highest frequency of frost days (≤0 0C) is generally confined to the period June to August (Table 9 and figures 8-10). At higher elevations frosts are often more frequent and may occur into the summer months, although frosts in the summer period are unlikely to be severe (Reynard et al. 2002)
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 21 of 87 Table 8. Average monthly rainfall (mm) (1920-2007) for localities in the Alpine Valleys.
Average Monthly Rainfall (mm) (1920-2007)
Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total
Ovens Valley Harrietville 70.4 66.0 72.0 89.5 127.2 142.8 166.2 176.4 140.9 139.1 95.5 82.6 1369 Bright 58.0 51.0 59.0 71.7 100.4 106.1 125.5 121.1 110.8 113.3 80.3 66.3 1063 Buffalo River 50.1 49.1 51.8 65.9 87.7 98.9 110.2 112.0 92.4 94.7 66.0 59.2 938 Myrtleford 48.6 47.7 50.2 64.1 80.9 92.0 103.6 104.1 84.7 89.4 62.9 58.4 887 Whorouly 43.9 44.8 45.2 55.7 66.8 74.8 81.6 83.9 68.6 75.7 55.8 51.4 748 Kiewa Valley Mt Beauty 64.7 55.7 65.6 80.5 107.6 128.1 139.1 150.7 120.3 121.1 88.3 72.8 1195 Running Creek 53.0 47.2 56.5 67.4 92.3 105.2 121.2 120.3 96.7 99.6 69.7 64.1 993 Kergunyah 61.7 48.4 59.8 68.9 111.4 128.6 131.0 149.0 91.9 95.6 68.8 70.7 1086 King Valley Cheshunt South 58.9 52.9 64.0 80.7 112.8 136.4 159.5 147.9 119.3 111.4 78.8 65.5 1188 King Valley 52.2 45.4 53.2 66.3 95.3 110.5 123.3 119.6 93.6 89.6 63.7 56.3 969 Moyhu 44.4 41.3 43.0 48.9 64.7 73.9 78.0 77.4 64.2 69.0 47.8 45.3 698 Source: (Australian Bureau of Meteorology SILO Data Drill (1920-2007))
Table 9. Average monthly frost days (≤0 oC) (1920-2007) for localities in the Alpine Valleys.
Average Monthly Frost Days (1920-2007)
Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total
Ovens Valley Harrietville 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 2.6 7.3 9.8 7.4 3.3 0.6 0.1 0.0 31 Bright 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 2.0 6.1 7.5 5.4 2.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 24 Buffalo River 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.3 4.9 6.4 4.3 1.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 18 Myrtleford 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.4 5.0 6.6 4.3 1.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 19 Whorouly 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 1.6 5.1 6.5 4.0 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 18 Kiewa Valley Mt Beauty 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 2.1 6.6 8.5 6.0 2.3 0.4 0.0 0.0 26 Running Creek 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.4 5.2 6.7 4.4 1.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 19 Kergunyah 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 3.0 7.0 9.9 7.2 3.2 0.7 0.1 0.0 31 King Valley Cheshunt South 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.2 4.2 5.9 3.9 1.5 0.2 0.0 0.0 17 King Valley 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.1 4.1 5.6 3.3 0.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 15 Moyhu 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.6 4.9 6.2 3.8 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 18 Source: (Australian Bureau of Meteorology SILO Data Drill (1920-2007))
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 22 of 87 Table 10a. Average monthly maximum temperatures (oC) (1920-2007) for localities in the Alpine Valleys.
Average Monthly Maximum Temperatures (1920-2007)
Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Ovens Valley Harrietville 26.8 26.8 23.8 18.8 14.2 11.1 10.1 11.5 14.7 18.1 21.4 24.3 Bright 29.3 29.3 26.2 21.0 16.2 12.8 11.9 13.6 16.7 20.2 23.8 26.9 Buffalo River 30.2 30 26.8 21.6 16.8 13.4 12.4 14 17.1 20.7 24.4 27.7 Myrtleford 30.3 30.1 26.9 21.6 16.8 13.4 12.4 14.1 17.2 20.7 24.4 27.8 Whorouly 30.5 30.3 27 21.8 16.9 13.4 12.4 14.1 17.2 20.7 24.6 28 Kiewa Valley Mt Beauty 28 28 24.9 19.8 15.1 11.8 10.8 12.4 15.6 19.1 22.5 25.5 Running Creek 29.7 29.7 26.5 21.3 16.4 13 12 13.7 16.9 20.5 24.1 27.3 Kergunyah 27.2 27.1 23.8 18.4 13.6 10.2 9 10.6 13.8 17.5 21.3 24.7 King Valley Cheshunt South 28.4 28.3 25.2 20 15.4 12.1 11.1 12.6 15.7 19 22.7 25.9 King Valley 29.9 29.7 26.5 21.3 16.6 13.2 12.3 13.9 16.9 20.3 24.1 27.4 Moyhu 30.4 30.1 26.9 21.7 16.9 13.5 12.4 14.1 17.2 20.7 24.6 28 Source: (Australian Bureau of Meteorology SILO Data Drill (1920-2007))
Table 10b. Average monthly minimum temperatures (oC) (1920-2007) for localities in the Alpine Valleys.
Average Monthly Minimum Temperatures (1920-2007)
Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Ovens Valley Harrietville 11.4 11.6 9.6 6.6 4.1 2.3 1.5 2.1 3.6 5.7 7.8 9.8 Bright 12.8 12.9 10.4 7.2 4.7 2.9 2.3 2.9 4.4 6.6 8.8 11.0 Buffalo River 13.5 13.6 11 7.7 5.2 3.4 2.7 3.4 5 7.2 9.4 11.7 Myrtleford 13.7 13.8 11.1 7.7 5.1 3.4 2.7 3.4 5 7.2 9.4 11.7 Whorouly 13.9 14 11.2 7.7 5.2 3.4 2.8 3.5 5.1 7.3 9.6 11.9 Kiewa Valley Mt Beauty 12.2 12.4 10.2 7 4.5 2.7 1.9 2.6 4.2 6.3 8.4 10.5 Running Creek 13.4 13.6 11 7.7 5 3.2 2.6 3.3 4.8 7.1 9.4 11.7 Kergunyah 12.5 12.7 10.4 6.9 4.3 2.5 1.6 2.3 3.8 6 8.3 10.6 King Valley Cheshunt South 12.6 12.8 10.5 7.4 5.2 3.4 2.7 3.2 4.6 6.6 8.8 10.8 King Valley 13.6 13.7 11.2 7.9 5.4 3.7 3 3.6 5.2 7.3 9.5 11.7 Moyhu 14 14 11.3 7.8 5.3 3.5 2.8 3.6 5.2 7.4 9.8 12 Source: (Australian Bureau of Meteorology SILO Data Drill (1920-2007))
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 23 of 87 Average Monthly Rainfall (mm) in the Ovens Valley (1920-2007)
200
180
160
140
120
100 (mm)
80
60
40
20
0 Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Month
Harrietville Bright Buffalo River Myrtleford Whorouly
Average Frost Days (≤0 'C) per Month in the Ovens Valley (1920-2007)
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0 (Days)
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0 Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Month
Harrietville Bright Buffalo River Myrtleford Whorouly
Source: (Australian Bureau of Meteorology SILO Data Drill (1920-2007))
Figure 8. Average monthly rainfall (mm) and frost days (≤0 oC) (1920-2007) in the Ovens Valley, Alpine Valleys.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 24 of 87 Average Monthly Rainfall (mm) in the Kiewa Valley (1920-2007)
200
180
160
140
120
100 (mm)
80
60
40
20
0 Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Month
Mt Beauty Running Creek Kergunyah
Average Frost Days (≤0 'C) per Month in the Kiewa Valley (1920-2007)
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0 (Days)
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0 Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Month
Mt Beauty Running Creek Kergunyah
Source: (Australian Bureau of Meteorology SILO Data Drill (1920-2007))
Figure 9. Average monthly rainfall (mm) and frost days (≤0 oC) (1920-2007) in the Kiewa Valley, Alpine Valleys.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 25 of 87 Average Monthly Rainfall (mm) in the King Valley (1920-2007)
200
180
160
140
120
100 (mm)
80
60
40
20
0 Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Month
Cheshunt South King Valley Moyhu
Average Frost Days (≤0 'C) per Month in the King Valley (1920-2007)
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0 (Days)
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0 Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Month
Cheshunt South King Valley Moyhu
Source: (Australian Bureau of Meteorology SILO Data Drill (1920-2007))
Figure 10. Average monthly rainfall (mm) and frost days (≤0 oC) (1920-2007) in the King Valley, Alpine Valleys.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 26 of 87 6 SOIL
Agricultural production has had a major impact on the health of the soils in North East Victoria. The initial clearing of land had the biggest impact, causing major changes to the hydrological balance of the catchments. Changes in plant composition and diversity have led to decreased water uptake, and as a consequence land degradation problems such as acidity and salinity have occurred. Agricultural management practices have also led to a range of other soil health problems such as erosion and poor soil structure (Victoria. Department of Natural Resources and Environment 1999).
6.1 SOIL TYPE
The North East Catchment has a great diversity of soil types and landform units (Figures 11 and 12). This diversity reflects differences in parent material, geology, topography, climate, organic activity and age e.g. degree of weathering. In the higher rainfall areas of the region, Kurosols and Acidic Dermosols are the most prevalent soils. For agricultural purposes, many of these soils have some chemical and physical limitations, such as acidity, which requires careful management (Victoria. Department of Primary Industries 2008b).
The North East Catchment can be described using 10 different soil orders, classified using the Australian Soil Classification. The soil orders can be grouped into four main soil categories: Texture contrast soils, Soils lacking strong texture contrast, Cracking clay soils and Shallow soils (Victoria. Department of Primary Industries 2008a).
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 27 of 87 TEXTURE CONTRAST SOILS
Texture contrast soils are those that display strong texture contrast between the surface (A horizons) and the subsoil (B horizons) e.g. sand or loam over clay. In the North East region, there is a range of soils with strong texture contrast, previously referred to as Duplex soils using the Northcote Factual Key. Using the Australian Soil Classification there are three soil orders represented, based on subsoil chemistry (specifically pH): Kurosols, Chromosols and Sodosols.
Kurosols
• Have clay subsoils which are strongly acid (i.e. pH <5.5 in water). • Surface texture ranges from loam to fine sandy loam over clay subsoil. • The most common of the texture contrast soils in the region. • Occur generally in the higher rainfall areas.
Chromosols
• Have clay subsoils which are not strongly acid (i.e. pH >5.5 in water) and are non-sodic. • Surface texture ranges from loam to fine sandy loam over clay subsoils. • Most common in the drier north-western corner of the region. • Occur on the broad plains to the north of Myrtleford and west of Wodonga, in the lower reaches of the Kiewa Valley and to a lesser extent in the Murray and Mitta Mitta Valleys upstream of Lake Hume.
Sodosols
• Have subsoils which are not strongly acidic (i.e. pH >5.5 in water) but are sodic. • Surface texture ranges from sandy loam to clay loam over medium to heavy clay. • Not very common in the higher rainfall areas of the North East region. • Occur mainly in the drier north-western areas. • Generally occur on the Riverine Plains to the north and northwest of Wangaratta. Source: (Victoria. Department of Natural Resources and Environment 1999)
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 28 of 87 WALWA #
BRIMIN RUTHERGLEN # # GRANYA WODONGA # # CHILTERN #
CORRYONG TALLANGATTA # # TANGAMBALANGA #
ELDORADOBlah blah YACKANDANDAH # # WANGARATTA BEECHWORTH # #
MILAWA #
MITTA MITTA # MYRTLEFORD MOYHU # waterways 250 # Soil type Black Dermosol Brown Dermosol Red Dermosol BRIGHT Red Dermosol # WHITFIELD Brown Chromosol # Grey Chromosol Red Chromosol Yellow Chromosol Brown Kandosol Red Kandosol Yellow Kandosol Brown Kurosol Grey Kurosol Red Kurosol Yellow Kurosol Brown Sodosol Grey Sodosol Red Sodosol Red Ferrosol 10 0 10 20 Kilometers N Yellow Rudosol # Major Towns CMA
Source: (Victorian Government, Corporate Geospatial Data Library)
Figure 11. Soil types in the North East Catchment.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 29 of 87 WALWA #
BRIMIN RUTHERGLEN # # GRANYA WODONGA # # CHILTERN #
CORRYONG TALLANGATTA # # TANGAMBALANGA #
ELDORADOBlah blah YACKANDANDAH # # WANGARATTA BEECHWORTH # #
MILAWA #
MITTA MITTA # MYRTLEFORD MOYHU # #
BRIGHT # WHITFIELD waterways 250 # # Major Towns Soil Landform Units Public Land Floodplain Alluvial Colluvial Low Hills Hills Mountains Hill Plateaux 10 0 10 20 Kilometers N Mountain Plateaux CMA
Source: (Victorian Government, Corporate Geospatial Data Library)
Figure 12. Major soil landform units in the North East Catchment.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 30 of 87 SOILS LACKING STRONG TEXTURE CONTRAST
There are a number of soils in the North East region which lack strong texture contrast between the surface and subsoil horizons. These soils have previously been referred to as Gradational soils using the Northcote Factual Key. Using the Australian Soil Classification they are classified as: Dermosols, Kandosols and Ferrosols.
Dermosols
• Non-texture contrast soils, which have moderately deep and well-structured subsoils. • Widespread throughout the North East region and are most commonly Red or Brown Dermosols. • In higher rainfall areas, are generally strongly acidic throughout the soil profile. • Red Dermosols occur along margins of river flats. • Brown Dermosols (mountain areas) occur in higher rainfall, mountainous areas of north-eastern Victoria. • Yellow and Brown Dermosols (plains) occur in the drier north-western part of the North East region.
Kandosols
• Differ from Dermosols as have minimal structural development in the subsoil. • Found on the steep lower slopes in the northern half of the North East region. • Usually well drained, permeable soils and often have low fertility.
Ferrosols
• Deep, well-structured and friable soils that have formed on basalt. • High in free iron oxide and clay, and are generally strongly acid. • Occur on basalt hills and plateaus to the west of the King River. Source: (Victoria. Department of Natural Resources and Environment 1999)
CRACKING CLAY SOILS
These soils are now referred to as Vertosols using the Australian Soil Classification.
Vertosols
• Clay soils that shrink and swell causing seasonal cracking as the soil dries out. • Occur in lower-lying areas and are not extensive in the North East region. • Most common on the Riverine Plains in the North-West part of the region. Source: (Victoria. Department of Natural Resources and Environment 1999)
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 31 of 87 SHALLOW SOILS
There are two shallow soils in the North East region as classified by the Australian Soil Classification: Rudosols and Tenosols.
Rudosols
• Young soils which show little development. • These include some alluvial soils along the Ovens River. • Three types of Rudosols can be found in the North East region. • Stratic Rudosols (distinct sedimentary layers but are not gravely). • Clastic Rudosols (gravely i.e. more than 10% of the material is greater than 2 mm in size). • Leptic Rudosols (hard unweathered rock, other hard materials).
Tenosols
• Shallow, weakly developed soils that show more profile development than Rudosols. • Generally have low water holding capacity and fertility. • Chernic Tenosols are common on high plains and are characterised by organic rich surface horizons. • Orthic Tenosols are usually shallow soils which have developed on hills and mountains. Source: (Victoria. Department of Natural Resources and Environment 1999)
6.2 SOIL ACIDITY
Soil acidification is a major land degradation issue for the sustainability and productivity of agricultural soils in North East Victoria (Figure 13) (Victoria. Department of Natural Resources and Environment 1999). pH indicates the strength of acidity or alkalinity in the soil solution. Soil is neutral when pH is 7; it is acidic when pH is less than 7; and alkaline when it is greater than 7. The pH scale is logarithmic, so one unit is a tenfold difference in acidity or alkalinity (e.g. pH 5 is ten times more acid than pH 6) (Victoria. Department of Primary Industries 2008c).
Traditionally soil pH has been measured using a pH electrode in a suspension of one part soil and five parts water (1:5). However, in recent times water has been replaced by a calcium chloride (CaCl ) solution. It is a more robust method as it is less 2 affected by soil salts. The calcium chloride method gives a lower reading by up to 1.3 pH units and therefore it is important to specify which method has been used when assessing pH (Victoria. Department of Primary Industries 2008c).
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA: The Alpine Valleys DPI Agribusiness Group Page 32 of 87