Masaryk University Faculty of Arts
Department of English and American Studies
English Language and Literature
Barbora Orlická
Magic in the Arthurian Legends Bachelor‟s Diploma Thesis
Supervisor: prof. Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc., M.A.
2012
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.
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Author‟s signature
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my supervisor, prof. Franková, for her guidance, advice and encouragement. I would also like to express my gratitude to my friends who have supported me and without whom I would not have been able to finish my work.
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ...... 2 2 The Concept of Magic ...... 4 3 Arthurian Romance ...... 10 3.1 Natural Magic ...... 16 3.2 Merlin and the Role of Destiny ...... 21 3.3 Sorcery and Enchantment ...... 35 3.3.1 Nimue ...... 36 3.3.2 Morgan le Fay ...... 41 3.3.3 Other Characters ...... 48 3.4 The Grail Quest ...... 53 4 Conclusion ...... 58 Works Cited...... 62 Primary Sources ...... 62 Secondary Sources ...... 62 Resumé ...... 64 Résumé ...... 65
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1 Introduction
Magic has had its place in culture and in literature for thousands of years. It has been studied, practised and otherwise exploited from the dawn of the human civilization. The whole spectrum of emotions from divine fascination to numbing fear has accompanied the presence of magic throughout history. Its role in society and culture has been discussed and described by many anthropologists and historians. People have always been interested in mystery, marvels and miracles. Their perception and judgement of such events on the other hand has always fluctuated and has never been united. What some people see as divine intervention others see as coincidence; what one sees as
God‟s miracle, others can see as magic. Therefore there has always been a dispute over the role, significance, effect and essence of magic.
This thesis proposes an analysis of the element of magic as it is portrayed in medieval romances, with primary focus on Le Morte d‟Arthur by
Thomas Malory. Malory‟s extensive treatment of the Arthurian legends is in many respects a unique work of this author as it is a text crystallizing from works of many others. The aim of the thesis is to describe the character and the role of magic in medieval romances, and to probe the motivation of the practitioners in order to analyze the ambivalent perceptions of the practice of magic by the medieval authorities and society. The thesis will try to argue the point that the ambiguous perception of magic in Arthurian romances represent the long-term dispute between Christian and pagan traditional beliefs, and that this dispute in fact results in formation of an illusory differentiation of magic
2 and in its pitting against religion, whereas the crucial (and sometimes the only) difference lies in the intention of the practitioner.
The first chapter will deal with the origins of magic and its cultural significance from ancient times to the Middle Ages, and with a basic assessment of the theme.
The second chapter will direct its focus toward Arthurian romances and
Thomas Malory‟s Le Morte d‟Arthur and will be concerned with a deeper discussion on the matter of magic in the Middle Ages and on the relationship between magic and religion. The thesis will examine various extracts from the text to argue its implications. Individual sub-chapters will be dedicated to the character of Merlin, the characters of various female enchantresses such as
Nimue or Morgan le Fay, and to various other magical instances in the narrative in order to closely analyze the significance and essence of them all. The story of the Grail Quest will be analyzed independently in order to compare and contrast the treatment of the supernatural with the previous sub-chapters. The aim will be to illustrate the major differences in perception and the implications arising from the contrasting traditions.
The thesis does not propose arguments or proofs of any kind for the question of real existence of magic or the supernatural of any kind. It is not the purpose of this work to provide evidence of the existence or non-existence of
God or any other deity.
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2 The Concept of Magic
The origins of magic as a cultural phenomenon obviously stretch way beyond its first literary treatment. Its position in human societies suggests that it “is a deeply ingrained human response to the world, and the cultural significance, mainly among primitive tribes, was a special focus in the development of the discipline of anthropology.”1 This places magic among the oldest fields of human interest. Feared or worshiped, magic is a concept of great significance in the development of human culture and society.
The medieval understanding and treatment of magic was a result of continuous development of ideas and theories originating centuries ago in the minds of their ancient predecessors. Classical, Germanic and Celtic cultural legacies interconnected in later minds and created a nebulous cloud full of beliefs, supernatural creatures and magical practices.
“The idea of occult powers and processes within the natural order was firmly established and variously developed in philosophical and scientific writings from antiquity through the early modern era.”2 The extensive amount of literary material from ancient Greece and Rome ensured a transmission of beliefs and ideas from the classical period onwards. The Germanic and Celtic literary sources are rather scarce but their message was conveyed through folk tradition, so the pagan ritual survived in memories and practices of common people. Later on all of these sources intervened with the Christian tradition and ritual creating a specific and complex combination typical of the Middle Ages.
1 Saunders, 16 2 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 816 4
The classical period seems to be the era most open to ambivalence and diverse interpretations of enigmatic occurrences taking place in the world.
Therefore the classical texts conveyed in them a message of diversity of magic and the supernatural, of benevolent as well as malevolent sides of things, and of the crucial importance of the intention. The structure of the Graeco-Roman pantheon of gods itself suggests a complex structure of beliefs and rituals.
These deities are surrounded by various spirits, demigods and daimons whose presence proposes perplexities in creation of any rules, but at the same time it demonstrates the variability and the potential freedom of beliefs. “The daimons are not inherently demonic: the term may refer to a good or malevolent spirit, a god, or the soul, and it figures prominently in the philosophical discussions of divinity.”3 This shows the ambivalence in the perception and the approach towards the supernatural world that differs from the one of the later periods of human history, where the educated class calls for more strict distinction between good and evil and the creation of categories for the various instances of it. Although the small folk would always remain more „open-minded‟, even in times of the sharpest discord between religious authorities and pagan traditions.
With the rise of Christianity, the Bible became one of the most important sources of widespread beliefs. It contains a whole spectrum of supernatural beings and marvellous events, presenting the reader with the deeds of the saints and with all the miracles facilitated by God. There is a strong presence of magic, but the Bible has a strict attitude towards it and places magic on the
3 Saunders, 24 5 opposite pole of the moral scheme, denouncing it as evil and contrasting it with
God‟s will. What might have been viewed as ambivalent in the classical period is explicitly evil in the Bible. Many supernatural instances are polarised in the
Christian view. The divination gains a stamp of inappropriate probing of God‟s intentions and stands in opposition towards miraculous revelation usually mediated by God‟s servants. But the disapproval of magical practice by the authority did not discourage the wide public from seeking forbidden wisdom and power. Corinne Saunders is referencing in her book Bronislaw Malinowski‟s essay where “he argues that, like religion, magic enjoys explanatory power and offers to fulfil desire. At the same time, like science, magic includes a set of theoretical principles and rules concerning rituals.”4 Therefore magic can be viewed as a mean of wish-fulfilment, the attempt to attain an unprecedented power, which was always one of the strongest human desires, and it supposedly abides by a certain kind of rules that can be learned and thus open the door to exploitation.
Therefore once the course of time reached the Middle Ages people possessed a complex and combined view of the supernatural. The notion of power was diffused between divine and magical, people recognized the natural, healing and protective magic as well as the malevolent and dangerous variety of it. They were limited by the Church in many respects on one side and they had the freedom and power of their own desires on the other.
The question of rationality of the belief in the existence of magic is not possible to discuss here in depth, and it is not in the competence of the author
4 Saunders, 18 6 to draw any conclusions about the existence or non-existence of any such thing as magic; but it is important to note that the medieval mind was for one equipped with different knowledge than today‟s mind is, and their conceptions and thinking differed in many respects. It is obvious that what, especially in medicine, was once believed to posses supernatural power is today viewed through the scientific scope and its supposedly miraculous powers can be explained in scientific terms. Also other events and instances can be explained and proved to be lacking any supernatural essence in the same manner.
Nevertheless the importance of magic for the ancient societies as well as for the people in the Middle Ages is demonstrated in the many laws and sophisticated descriptions of magical practices found in official records, chronicles, and important books of authoritative value. From the 9th century on the law books described various practices connected with magic that were not allowed and were punishable by the law, for example by the Trial of Ordeal.5 The existence of handbooks, manuals, guidelines, and other sources describing various rituals, lists of ingredients for remedies, and other seemingly magical procedures suggest perpetual interest in this field. One can trace such “literature” throughout the history of humankind. Ancient Egyptians as well as medieval herb-women were interested in the power of nature and cosmos and especially in tapping this kind of source. The universality of the belief in supernatural power of any origin shows undisputable importance of this phenomenon. There is no point in asking whether the magic truly exists or existed at any point in history. The important fact is that all the evidence gathered by historians and
5 Saunders, 70 7 anthropologists points to the fact that people believed (and some of them still believe today) in the existence of something beyond the veil, something that is not of human origin, something mysterious and supernatural; and it is of crucial importance to bear this in mind when analyzing and discussing the topic.
“Wearing a gem or an herb to ward off evil influences might seem futile to some observers, but those who credited the gem or herb with occult powers were ascribing rationality to the practice.”6
Despite the evident link between the term „magic‟ and the cultural practices, literary descriptions and other externalizations of things beyond natural reality, the actual use of the term is rather limited and this concept is being expressed in different terms as well. More frequent than „magic‟ are the terms „enchantment‟, „sorcery‟, „witchcraft‟ or „nigromancy‟. “Native vernacular terms such as sorcellerie and wiccecraeft, had meanings that overlapped yet differed from that of magia.”7 In every conception there is something similar, but often the words chosen reflected the purpose and the character of described action.
The meaning of the word “magic” is also inconsistent and there has never been a uniform understanding of it. It is essential to point out that because most of the definitions and debate in the Middle Ages stems from literary material it inherently comes from more or less educated or clerical level of society which puts into question the perception of this phenomenon by the commons. Richard Kieckhefer cites Aron Gurevich on this matter:
To the majority of the population the difference between amulets,
6 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 824 7 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 834 8
which were strictly forbidden by the clergy, and holy relics was not
too clear...; the border dividing Christian magic from what was
condemned as maleficium was indefinite and surely unclear to the
parishioners, and concludes that: “It could be argued that „magic‟ must simply be recognized as chiefly a term of literate discourse.”8 Nevertheless the actual level of difference of both conceptions is obscure. It can be argued that there was a sufficient diffusion of cultural awareness that ensured at least some level of common understanding of such a phenomenon, even if the illiterate did not have to dispose of specific terms, they could at least have the cognitive understanding of “magic”. Kieckhefer also argues that the question is not whether the widespread knowledge differed from those of social elites, but to what extent “the articulated understanding of magic found in educated circles rests on an understanding of magic that was „common‟, or widely shared.”9
8 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 832-3 9 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 833 9
3 Arthurian Romance
The legend of King Arthur and his court was gradually developed by many authors, eventually establishing itself in the tradition of courtly romance in the second half of the twelfth century10 and appearing in almost all European languages. His fame was sustained and nurtured by the medieval chroniclers and later on by writers of prose and poetry; therefore it is a collaborative work, a mass of stories created over centuries by many authors, drawing on various sources and constituting a world of its own. It is considered “the largest body of vernacular literature ever devoted to a single subject.”11
Sir Thomas Malory‟s work is the one that provided probably the most unified collection of Arthurian legends in the English-speaking world and to whom this tradition owes its survival. He drew on multiple sources, he translated a major part of the book from French, and he added his own stories and remodelled some of the texts, and thus created a unique text that revived the interest in Arthurian legends in 15th century England. For today‟s readership it is his name that is connected with the Arthurian legacy most often. Despite the fact that his book is scorned for many imperfections or even errors by some critics it is a remarkable achievement. Malory is “the prose-writer whose language has given new life to a dying tradition.”12
Chronicles in the Middle Ages were considered a serious matter and aimed to record historical facts, even though some of these have proved to be
10 Lacy, 59 11 Lacy, 133 12 Loomis, Arthurian, 550 10 doubtful or entirely fictitious. The important part played by these chronicles was their respectability in the Middle Ages. Many medieval authors claimed to draw on previous works and originality was not of any great concern. More important was the authority found in the older texts and tradition which especially the
British were keen on. W. Lewis Jones writes: “In the reign of Elizabeth herself, the heightened patriotic feeling of the day was a potent stimulus to all who sought to discover material for, and to reconstruct from it, the history of their country.”13 This illustrates the atmosphere in which the great king Arthur was exactly what was needed to support the patriotic pride.
The Arthur of Geoffrey of Monmouth or Layamon was Britain‟s epic hero, fearless warrior and a king full of prowess. That was just the material that could be further exploited for the purposes of satisfying the changing character of the readership. As a consequence of the rise of the medieval romance genre, the traditional legends full of brute force, manly actions and battles became obsolete and did not satisfy the audience anymore. The change lay in demand for a wider variety of themes exploited in literature. People “wanted glamour, love, courtliness, magic.”14 And so the Arthur of popular tradition and chronicles became the “new” romantic hero. But because of this transformation, he also lost some of his exceptionality, as he was suddenly accompanied by other characters of equal prestige and virtue. The interest shifted from the heroic king toward courtly knights of great prowess and outstanding reputation. It is no longer only Sir Gawain and Sir Kay, but the reader meets Tristram, Perceval and Lancelot followed by many others whose stories compose the bulk of the
13 Jones, 118 14 Lacy, 2 11 new romances. The romantic authors were concerned with “knight-erranty and courtly love.”15 The concept of chivalry was prominent in the romantic ideals and thus represents the most important aspect of the stories. King Arthur became the icon arching over the whole scene. He conquered the lands, created an unprecedented kingdom and then let the other chivalric heroes roam it and seek adventures while he guarded Camelot and kept uniting the idea of the Round Table.
The landscape also changed. It was no longer geographically bound. The court of King Arthur welcomed every possible hero, legendary or new, and took its adventures into many real places as well as those that have never existed.
And most importantly the medieval romances from the 12th century on procured an eerie atmosphere of mystery, fantasy and magic. The supernatural quality of the events taking place in the stories became the spirit of romance. It was an imaginative device which offered the possibility of the impossible. It created a space where supernatural intervention opposed the reality with marvellous opportunities.
Romances exploited the theme of magic in many ways. The supernatural encounters often served as a form of test of the hero‟s virtues and the adventures were usually of otherworldly origin or were driven by a subtle supernatural intervention. Romance also presents ambivalent images of the use of magic. “It probes too the boundaries between demonic, divine and otherworldly, and between providence, destiny and coincidence.”16 Hence there occur characters whose actions are judged by the reader based on the original
15 Jones, 97 16 Saunders, 16 12 intention and result of those actions rather than on the means of their conduct.
It is also interesting to note that in medieval romance the images of humans conjuring dangerous demons are not present. The magic of romance rather tends to be focused on more practical and physical subject-matter. The material ends are sought when the characters of romance put magic into their service.
The desired effects are usually connected with knowledge and divination, healing, protection, shape-shifting or control of human emotions (love-spells).
Due to his sources and contemporary literary practice, Malory follows the romantic course but he is proven to be sceptical in his view of the supernatural.
He employs the language and style of chronicles while thematically following the romantic style. The comparison of his texts with the French source texts shows significant simplification of supernatural occurrences. He tends to eliminate the less significant demonstrations of the supernatural, for example by replacing an invisible bridge with an ordinary boat. Roger S. Loomis comments on this issue “ ... it has never been properly explained how it comes about that while in Malory there are fewer marvels and more realistic detail, the feeling of the marvellous is not lessened, but intensified.”17 Despite the more subtle presence of magic and supernatural instances in Malory‟s books, the atmosphere remains intensely otherworldly; and the more the reader is left in doubts, the more opportunity for one‟s own imagination is present. The words
„marvel´ and „marvellous´ indicate the general spirit of the work. The marvel stretches from the impressive physical action of the heroes to supernatural objects and events. “Malory creates a legendary, half-familiar landscape where
17 Loomis, Arthurian, 547 13 the marvellous is possible, where magic arts may be inherited or learned, and where the supernatural may intervene.”18
Despite the supposed scepticism towards magical concepts, the natural magic, enchantment and supernatural powers are treated with credibility and their function in the narrative of Le Morte d‟Arthur is indispensable. Objects such as stones and plants are credited with occult powers. The „vertu´ of the stone in Dame Lyonesse‟s ring gives Sir Gareth´s armour marvellous powers:
“And thus at every course that he rode to and fro he changed his colour ... .”19
It is accepted within the stories that such powers can be invested in almost anything and that they might be bestowed upon humans as well. Such investment of powers and magical abilities might be of various origins. Sir
Gawain receives “such a grace and gift that a holy man had given to him” and thus he possesses three times his strength at every noon and seems “a fiend and none earthly man.”20 Marvellous creatures also appear in the narrative. The
Questing Beast21 that can never be caught symbolizes the endless nature of the quest. Especially frequent are giants and dwarfs.
Dream visions and prophecies are another major theme in this romance world. No matter if great prophecies of Merlin or more subtle, odd knowledge of other characters, the concept of divination is one of the most characteristic features of romance literature in general.
“While the possibility of magic remains a constant in the Morte, the
18 Saunders, 235 19 Malory, vol. 1, VII.28, 287 20 Malory, vol. 2, XX.21, 500 21 Malory, vol. 1, I.20, 46 14 treatment of the supernatural shifts.”22 Malory‟s books can be figuratively divided into several parts. In the first part the destiny manifests itself in
Arthur‟s prophetic dreams and the books are dominated by Merlin and his prophecies which heighten the sense of destiny hovering over the lives of the characters, once dark and menacing, once verging on divine providence. After
Merlin‟s disappearance from the scene the books become dominated by a collection of female enchantresses, among them Morgan le Fay or the Lady of the Lake, and various more or less supernatural adventures experienced by the knights. Then follows the story of The Holy Grail and the emphasis shifts toward explicitly Christian supernatural where the battle between good and evil intensifies. Towards the end there is again a shift toward the hovering sense of destiny and the supernatural forces intrigue the fall of king Arthur‟s court.
Malory‟s text tends to cut clear boundaries between individual sections.
He does not strive to achieve any specific unity of the text or it is simply given by the character of the progress of his writing about which historians have but little information. This discontinuity of Malory‟s text happens to be one of the sore spots for critics. But as John Lawlor stresses in his Introduction to the version of Le Morte d‟Arthur edited by Janet Cowen: “We must, however, remind ourselves that there is no one version of Arthurian material toward which all others must aspire.”23 Therefore the fact that the Morte is a collection of loosely connected parts rather than a unified storyline should not be perceived as a flaw in comparison with other works concerning Arthurian legends. One part intertwines with others in limited manner, but this is not to
22 Saunders, 236 23 Malory, xi 15 say that individual books or parts of the work do not connect with each other.
The character of King Arthur, as well as many references to previous or future events, give the text the correspondence essential for understanding of the work as a compound entity. The specific narrative pattern also contributes to the sense of unification despite the many smaller inconsistencies and imperfections.
His “abruptly divided clauses, some of them strikingly brief and compact, and all of them spoken rather than written”24 represent his peculiar style.
And Sir Launcelot awoke, and went and took his horse, and rode
all that day and all night in a forest, weeping. And at the last he
was ware of an hermitage and a chapel stood betwixt two cliffs;
and then he heard a little bell ring to mass, and thither he rode
and alighted, and tied his horse to the gate, and heard mass.25
Malory‟s text might be less coherent in the structure than other Arthurian texts, but the important fact remains: it is the most compound version of the
Arthurian legends, it is a place where all the great heroes meet and where all the individual storylines are found together.
3.1 Natural Magic
The marvellous power of nature is something that has always fascinated people. Even when explained by laws of physics, the power and energy residing in nature is still awe-inspiring. In the Middle Ages, nature was still full of
24 Loomis, Arthurian, 550 25 Malory, vol. 2, XXI.10, 524 16 unexplained mysteries and it provided peoples‟ minds with foundations for many beliefs, superstitions and expectations. This is not to say that medieval people did not know how to exploit what was offered. The knowledge of certain natural laws allowed people to accommodate their lives to these. The tides were known to be affected by the Moon and astrology was a popular field of study, even though only rarely supported by the religious authorities for its implication in divination.
Because the medieval mind was affected by many centuries of previous development of various beliefs, the people were usually aware of the existence of multiple theories concerning magic; and with that also of the possibility of the multiplicity of its origin and its essence. The claim that some magic could be natural certainly did not spur a consensus among people. Some of them supported the idea as an alternative to the demonic, some “argued that all natural magic was merely demonic magic in disguise.”26 Medieval mind had to tackle with several forces functioning in the world of supernatural: the demonic, the occult powers within nature, and the divine. But as Kieckhefer points out,
“there is nothing conceptually difficult in the basic distinction between appeal to
God, invocation of demons, and exploitation of mysterious powers within nature”27 and therefore the intention of the person employing any kind of supernatural force is the distinctive feature of the act, since everyone is aware of the desired end of his/her endeavour. There was a recognized difference between the „natural‟ and the „supernatural‟ elements in the world. Saunders describes it as a division between “the supernatural (miracles, the demonic, the
26 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 820 27 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 835 17 otherworldly, faery) and the natural (marvels, wonders) which may yet come to be understood.”28 Similarly, Kieckhefer, commenting on the traditional view of the occult natural powers, states that “such phenomena were often called marvels or wonders (mirabillia) rather than magic.”29 This suggest that natural magic enjoyed a different position in the minds of medieval people. It could be as complex as the demonic, but since “the powers it exploited were impersonal ones within the natural order,”30 it was likely to be less fraudulent and less effected by the particular personalities involved; and thus generally neutral in its essence.
The concept of natural magic is inextricably connected with the natural processes and natural resources, and as such it was connected with the everyday experience of the medieval people much more than for example divine miracles. Its most common exploitation was certainly for medicinal purposes. People in the Middle Ages were familiar with an array of rationally justified practices which were more or less proved to be working and could, to a certain degree, be explained. Of course it was not inherent in the notion of rationality to be able to fully articulate all the principles contained in the concept of magic, but the use, fear, promotion and condemnation of magic that were all present amongst people clearly suggest that people “not only assumed it worked but could give … reasonably specific explanations of how it worked.”31
In romances the power of natural magic belongs among the basic attributes of almost all magical practitioners. Their knowledge of remedies,
28 Saunders, 16 29 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 819 30 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 820 31 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 814 18 potions and charms can be exploited in positive as well as negative way.
Various natural objects such as stones, plants or ointments can be invested with both affirmative and dangerous qualities. This becomes most prominent
“in the area of love-magic, which employs natural forces to bind the beloved but strays into the forbidden area of changing destiny.”32 One of the most famous love-potions is administered in the story of Tristram and Isoud. Malory‟s account of the story is subject to simplification in many respects but the core of the story by all means remains intact. The role of the potion here represents the dangerous quality of natural magic (or magic in general) due to its misdirected use, but it is also benign because it was not intentionally misused.
Moreover the potion is only administered after the reader is comfortably accustomed to affirmative character of the relationship between Tristram and
Isoud. Its specified in the narrative that Tristram “cast great love to La Beale
Isoud” on the occasion of their first meeting33, and that she also loved him
“passing well.”34 Nevertheless until he drinks the potion Tristram is aware of his duties and abides by the chivalric code to such an extent that he is willing to fetch Isoud from her homeland and let her be wedded to his uncle, King Mark.
When Isoud‟s father suggests Tristram that he should be the one wedding his daughter, he replies with firm conviction: “„Sir, and I did then I were shamed for ever in this world, and false to my promise.‟”35 His only desire seems to be to bring his uncle a new bride. Right after that follows the scene where they drink the potion made by Isoud‟s mother which causes them to fall madly in
32 Saunders, 118 33 Malory, vol. 1, VIII.9, 317 34 Malory, vol. 1, VIII.11, 322 35 Malory, vol. 1, VIII.24, 345 19 love. This close appearance of such conflicting positions of Tristram supports the benign character of the whole story and excuses the protagonists from the severe condemnation of their adulterous relationship which follows the administration of the potion, because it was never their intention to betray the king; and since humans are susceptible to magic and virtually defenceless against it, they had no power to resist the effect. In order to shift the consequences even more to the area of acceptance, king Mark is presented as a villain conspiring against Tristram rather than a victim of his nephew‟s selfish conduct. Therefore their supernaturally instigated love is more or less justified and the involvement of magic is made of only peripheral significance.
The rest of the narrative of the Morte is scattered with the instances of utilization of natural magic, usually in the form of marvellous healing carried out by a female enchantress. When Sir Gareth lies wounded in the castle of Lady
Lynet, she promises him to make him ready for a tournament: “And then she laid an ointment and a salve to him as it pleased to her, that he was never so fresh nor so lusty,”36 and on another occasion Lynet heals Gawain and Gareth after their fight.37 Though not always explicitly said to be magical, the act of healing from the hands of an enchantress always carries a notion of supernatural interference.
Even though the conceptual distinction between the natural, the demonic and the divine powers seems to be rationally justified, the practice often relied upon individual experience and perception. The line between these three concepts was very thin and despite their different causal principles, the form,
36 Malory, vol. 1, VII.26, 282 37 Malory, vol. 1, VII.33, 297 20 the function and the effect of their exploitation might easily blur into each other. This ambiguity infiltrates every aspect of the supernatural, rendering the creation of rules without any exception an impossible effort. The religious authorities had much more specific idea about what was licit and what was not.
They supported the prayers and faith in God‟s mercy, and the attempts of the individuals to avert what was assumed to be God‟s will were perceived with the utmost suspicion and condemnation. Because the boundaries of medieval medicine were quite clear and limited people invited the possibility of a alternative way of protection as well as of the general wish-fulfilment. “If the charms worked, that was more important than how they worked.”38
3.2 Merlin and the Role of Destiny
The origins and the nature of Merlin‟s powers are obscure in the Morte and Malory seems to intentionally avoid any deeper probing of its roots. He demonstrates his ability of rapid movement resembling teleportation when he travels great distances in an instant: “With that Merlin vanished away, and came to King Arthur”39 and “whereof they had great marvel, that man on earth might speed so soon, and go and come,”40 but there is no explanation given nor is there any discussion among the characters. He also possesses the power of shape-shifting: “Right so came by him Merlin like a child of fourteen year of age ... and came again in the likeness of an old man of fourscore year of
38 Kieckhefer, Magic in the Middle Ages, 73 39 Malory, vol. 1, I.9, 23 40 Malory, vol. 1, I.11, 29 21 age.”41 His subtle crafts allow him a little game-playing with the characters, and he often conceals his intentions and tests the knights. When Merlin takes Balin‟s sword after his funeral and sets it in an enchanted pommel that shall be handled only by Lancelot or Galahad, he bids a knight to handle it and laughs at his unsuccessful attempt.42 On another occasion he casts a spell on King
Pellinor that puts him to sleep43 and later uses another enchantment to prevent
Pellinor from seeing Arthur while they pass around him.44
For his diverse abilities he appears sometimes as a powerful practitioner of natural magic, sometimes as an enchanter using marvellous technologies and sometimes as a divine messenger for his striking knowledge of the future which seems to be authorised by God himself: “„ ... but God will have his will.‟”45 His power of divination and the foreknowledge he possesses are the core of his powers and the most characteristic of his abilities.
He appears on the scene naturally without any previous discussion when
Uther Pendragon lusts for beautiful Lady Igraine. Uther‟s despair when he cannot have her inspires one of his men to seek Merlin who shall provide
“remedy” for Uther‟s state. This episode is a perfect example of the main characteristics of the medieval narrative theme of “Priest vs. Magician”. Thomas
McAlindon, while theorizing about magic in medieval narrative, lists some principal forms and characteristics of this theme and states:
The idea that magic is one of chastity‟s worst enemies finds its
most obvious expression in the familiar narrative pattern where
41 Malory, vol. 1, I.20, 47 42 Malory, vol. 1, II.19, 90 43 Malory, vol. 1, I.24, 54 44 Malory, vol. 1, I.26, 57 45 Malory, vol. 1, I.4, 14 22
a man (usually a pagan) finds it impossible to win the body of
a Christian woman and asks a magician to help him to satisfy his
desires. The chaste Christian is miraculously saved from her
enemies.46
King Uther serves as an example of this lusty (pagan) man and his desire for beautiful Igraine cannot be fulfilled because she is “a passing good woman, and would not assent unto the king.”47 Therefore he invites the idea of Merlin helping him to get his own way. He welcomes the help of magic because it represents “man‟s autonomous power of creating desired ends,”48 which characteristic is one of the most powerful enticements for the exploitation of magic. It gives a person an idea of escaping the divine power of destiny. The reason for the Church to oppose such activities becomes obvious once one realizes that it might be viewed as an act of defying God and opposing his will.
“ ... „if king Uther will well reward me, and be sworn unto me to fulfil my desire, that shall be his honour and profit more than mine; for I shall cause him to have all his desire.‟”49 Merlin offers his services to the king for a price arousing wonder and suspicion: “„The first night that ye shall lie by Igraine ye shall get a child on her, and when that is borne, [that] it shall be delivered to me for to nourish.‟”50 This is a borderline characteristic of the “magician”, because medieval churchmen were, at least in principle, supposed to provide guidance, even some sort of leadership, to help and exercise public service for free and without any veil of secrecy and of course without use of magic. This is reflected
46 McAlindon, 126 47 Malory, vol. 1, I.1, 9 48 Saunders, 18 49 Malory, vol. 1, I.1, 10 50 Malory, vol. 1, I.2, 11 23 in the Morte on many occasions when the hero is in distress and seeks help or shelter, the place he directs his steps toward is usually a church, abbey or hermitage. In contrast everything marginal and foreign, everything swathed in mystery, aroused deep suspicion and therefore the magician working in private, serving only his own ends and his clients was often seen as dangerous.
Magicians were not expected to set any moral example or function as leaders, and the private and obscure character of their work and life ignited both fear and marvel. Therefore “magicians in many if not most cultures are feared and distrusted even by those who employ them, and there is little reason for surprise if officialdom casts a suspicious eye on such practitioners.”51 Then the suspicion that their practices involve demon invocation might easily arise. And such a suspicion was the main reason for condemnation of magical practices in medieval society. “When they branded rituals as magical, it was because they saw these rites as relying on demonic causality.”52 Therefore Merlin‟s character arouses biased feelings among the other characters and some of them are aware of the possibility of the demonic intervention which is reflected upon their conduct: “„Beware‟ said the other knight, „of Merlin, for he knoweth all things by the devil‟s craft.‟”53 He is sought for his powers by the king himself and he serves as the head advisor to the crown, but those very same powers make him a suspicious, enigmatic character with unclear intentions.
Some of the kings had marvel of Merlin‟s words, and deemed
51 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 831 52 Kieckhefer, “The Specific Rationality”, 822 53 Malory, vol. 1, III.14, 114 24
well that it should be as he said; and some of them laughed him
to scorn, as King Lot; and more other called him a witch.54
To appropriately conclude the pattern presented by McAlindon, it has to be described how lady Igraine receives the rescue from the defiling act of adulterous intercourse. Here it is not in terms of preventing the events, but more in the act when Uther marries her and reveals to her the true nature of her baby‟s conception. So even though it does not change the simple facts, she is now married to the father of her child and therefore redeeming the previous events. “Then the queen made great joy when she knew who was the father of her child.”55 And Merlin finishes this consecration when he proves Arthur “no bastard.”56
Though the pact with a sorcerer alone would seem as a classic example of condemned witchcraft, the fact that it produced the prophesised greatest king of England provides a redemption; the intention (of Merlin) here justifies the means.
So where the theory normally says that “In this duel there is a clear antithesis between miracle and magic, prophecy and divination, the beneficent wonders of Providence and the silly, immoral or fraudulent marvels of the devil‟s henchmen,”57 there the case of Merlin proves to be much more complicated and biased. Because, as McAlindon also states, the pact stories similar to the one of Merlin and Uther, traditionally served as a demonstration of the Christian
54 Malory, vol. 1, I.8, 22 55 Malory, vol. 1, I.3, 13 56 Malory, vol. 1, I.9, 22 57 McAlindon, 125 25 rejection of fatalism.58 The magician creates an illusion of the inescapability of one‟s doom which eventually leads to the hero‟s voluntary subjugation to the false claims. This traditional view of the magicians as sinister procurers of despair raises doubts about Merlin‟s authority as God‟s servant. But the circumstances of his pact with Uther absolves him from the worst accusations – even though his claim is odd he does not deceit Uther and takes only what they both agreed on and his actions secure the stability of the realm for the future years.
The political motivation might contribute to the overall affirmative attitude towards his character. In her discussion about prohibitions and laws concerning witchcraft, Corinne Saunders states that “Political or religious implications considerably increased the severity with which the practice of magic was treated” and she also describes a case of a certain hermit who was hanged in 1213 for prophesying the end of King John‟s reign.59 This association with historical experience might have contributed to the popularity of Malory‟s work in the 15th century when various accusations motivated by political reasons were common. And also the social taboo of divination was certainly of great interest to the readers. “Attempts to foretell the future could threaten social and religious order, and call into question divine authority.”60 Merlin as the great prophet would certainly faced grave danger as a real person in the medieval society. But on the pages of the Morte he was allowed to attract
58 McAlindon, 130 59 Saunders, 70 60 Saunders, 71 26 positive interest. And because his intentions were good his actions were justified enough to allow the audience to see him as a positive character.
No matter how many enemies assailed him, “ ... Arthur overcame them all, for the most part the days of his life he was ruled much by the counsel of Merlin.”61
Because Merlin intended to help the king, he was tolerated and appreciated.
Arthur is well aware of Merlin‟s contribution: “„Ye know well that he hath done much for me, and he knoweth many things.‟”62 Merlin seems to be indispensable on many occasions, directing the steps of the king and his knights. He often serves as a moral guide for the knights of Arthur‟s realm and an important unifying element of the narrative. He intervenes on many occasions, advising on success or warning from danger. He sometimes dramatically enters the action when for example he gives Balin a horse63 or places Balin‟s sword in a great marble stone to await Galahad.64 Sometimes his character seems crucial for the further development of the story.
All that did Merlin, for he knew well that and King Lot had been
with his body there at the first battle, King Arthur had been slain,
and all his people destroyed.65
So despite the threatening possibility of magic being connected with demons,
Merlin is globally perceived as a character with positive intentions and therefore accepted as belonging on the side of “the good”.
In this sense his power of divination seems to be legitimate and authorised by God himself. This is further reflected upon the nature and
61 Malory, vol. 1, III.1, 92 62 Malory, vol. 1, I.10, 24 63 Malory, vol. 1, II.16 64 Malory, vol. 1, II.19 65 Malory, vol.1, II.10, 75 27 treatment of his prophecies and his presenting of God´s will: “ ... „it is time to say „Ho!‟ for God is wroth with thee.‟”66 He resembles a divine messenger who has the power of knowledge but who does not intend (or is not allowed) to intervene. This notion corresponds with the usual approach of the authorities toward the probing of divine plans that can be summarized as “study was licit, intervention was not.”67 Therefore especially astrology was allowed as long as one did not cross a crucial boundary. The ultimate manifestation of the subordination to destiny is Merlin's prediction of his own death: “So on a time he told King Arthur that he should not dure long, but for all his crafts he should be put in the earth quick.” As a reader might question this logic, Arthur does too: “Ah, since ye know of your adventure, purvey for it, and put away by your crafts that misadventure,” but Merlin responds with a fatalistic “„Nay, it will not be,”68 and thus renders magic a subordinate instance to God‟s will. He becomes the „victim‟ of his own crafts. This fact further supports the argument that
Merlin is God‟s servant and not involved with the Devil, because he accepts his
“shameful death”69 with unavoidable certainty instead of active attempt to prevent this destiny, which he would certainly do if he were a malevolent sorcerer with no regard for God‟s will.
Even though the methods of enacting God‟s will are facilitated by magic, the final result is positive. Merlin confers the shape-shifting ability on Uther, allowing his non-ethical conduct but the result is the birth of Arthur whose person is definitely presented as approved by God and whose goodness is
66 Malory, vol. 1, I.17, 40 67 Saunders, 106 68 Malory, vol. 1, IV.1, 117 69 Malory, vol. 1, I.21, 48 28 undisputed. “The idea that Merlin enacts divine providence in setting Arthur on the throne is underlined by an emphasis on the observation of Christian ritual.”70 Uther swears upon “the four Evangelists,”71 Merlin requires Arthur to be christened by a „holy man‟,72 the sword in an anvil that can only be pulled out by the “rightwise king born of all England” appears in London on Christmas because Merlin predicts that Jesus will show a miracle to reveal the new king, 73 and Uther‟s death, upon which he confirms Arthur‟s right to the throne, is presented as God‟s will: “„There is no other remedy, but God will have his will‟.”74 Therefore they “all see that it is God‟s will that [Arthur] shall be [their] king.”75
The same pattern can be traced in the story of Galahad‟s conception.76
Sir Lancelot on his adventures comes to the Castle of Corbin ruled by King
Pelles. Instead of Merlin the scene is here dominated by an enchantress Brisen, who offers King Pelles her services. She tricks Lancelot into coming to the
Castle of Case where he hopes to be united with Guinevere, but where instead he is offered enchanted wine and in combination with other subtle crafts of
Brisen he believes to sleep with Guinevere who is in fact Lady Elaine, King
Pelles‟s daughter. This whole scheme is orchestrated on Pelles‟s wish because he
knew well that Sir Launcelot should get a child upon his daughter,
the which should be named Sir Galahad, the good knight, by
70 Saunders, 237 71 Malory, vol.1, I.2, 11 72 Malory, vol.1, I.3, 14 73 Malory, vol.1, I.5, 16 74 Malory, vol.1, I.4, 14 75 Malory, vol. 1, I.8, 20 76 Malory, vol. 2, XI.2-3 29
whom all the foreign country should be brought out of danger,
and by him the Holy Grail should be achieved.77
But because of his love for Guinevere, Elaine had to be disguised as her to fulfil the prophecy. Once again magic was used as an essential mean of fulfilment of the destiny. The whole story is also accompanied by various instances of divine approval. For instance King Pelles is said to be in Joseph of Arimathea‟s bloodline, strongly connecting himself and Galahad especially with a character associated with the Holy Grail in the Christian tradition. Also upon Lancelot‟s coming to Corbin, there comes a dove with a golden censer and with her a beautiful girl appears holding the Holy Grail and a marvellous feast is set in front of them.78 The same scene repeats when Sir Bors visits Corbin and sees
Galahad, and the girl with the Grail speaks to him:
„Wit you well, Sir Bors, that this child is Galahad, that shall sit in
the Siege Perilous, and achieve the Sangrail, and he shall be much
better than ever was Sir Launcelot du Lake, that is his own
father.‟79
This revelation has a miraculous potential and the sudden appearance and disappearance seems in this context more divine that magical. Therefore this episode is yet another example of cooperation of magic and destiny. The prophecies can only be fulfilled with the aid of magic.
Merlin prophesies the greatness of Arthur and other knights on one hand but on the other he also seals their endings in less favourable prophecies that
77 Malory, vol. 2, XI.2, 191 78 Malory, vol. 2, XI.2, 190 79 Malory, vol. 2, XI.4, 195 30 often include treachery and misfortune. Therefore the majority of Merlin‟s prophecies carry a notion of fatalism, because they seem to come true no matter what, with the good parts as well as the bad ones. He regrets the unfortunate development but does not provide even the slightest suggestion that there might be another way. These prophecies are often preceded by a seemingly just reason for the destiny falling upon the characters. Not only
Balin‟s close death,80 but also his great misfortune on the journey is prophesised by Merlin. When Balin is not able to prevent the death of a certain lady, Merlin comes as a sad executioner and reveals the forthcoming punishment:
Because of the death of that lady thou shall strike a stroke most
dolorous that ever man struck, except the stroke of Our Lord, for
thou shalt hurt the truest knight and the man of most worship
that now liveth, and through that stroke three kingdoms shall be
in great poverty, misery and wretchedness twelve year, and the
knight shall not be whole of that wound for many years.81
Despite the fatalistic character of the prophecies, people do not give up the chance to affect the course of their lives. Arthur tries to avoid his own death by killing the babies born in May “for Merlin told King Arthur that he that should destroy him should be born in May-day.”82 But almost as a proof of the inescapability of God‟s will Mordred miraculously survives. But the lords of
Arthur‟s country are very disturbed and angry because their children were
80 Malory, vol. 1, II.9, 74 81 Malory, vol.1, II.8, 71-2 82 Malory, vol.1, I.27, 58 31 slaughtered in vain. The danger of foreknowledge becomes obvious because
Arthur acts only because Merlin tells him that: “„Ye have done a thing late that
God is displeased with you, for ye have lain by your sister, and on her ye have gotten a child that shall destroy you and all the knights of your realm.‟”83
In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight the same fear of impending death makes
Gawain accept the magic girdle as the only possible salvation – a decision that brings more harm than benefit, as Arthur‟s attempt to save himself does.
On another occasion Merlin scolds King Pellinore because he refused help to lady Elaine who then killed herself. “And that penance that God hath ordained you for that deed, that he that you shall most trust to of any man alive, he shall leave you there ye shall be slain.”84 Merlin again presents God‟s punishment for violating knightly rules and his prophecy is fulfilled as any other. King Pellinore reacts to Merlin‟s words with a hypothesis that such a prophecy can be prevented: “Me forthinketh, that this shall me betide, but God may fordo well destiny.”85 This episode echoes Sir Gawain and the Green Knight where the enactment of free will is what in fact saves Gawain from terrible death.86 The act of defiance epitomizes the Christian opposition toward fatalism. Pellinore accepts the possibility of a punishment awaiting him but suggests that God has the power to change what was predicted. Hence he probably does not believe
Merlin to such an extent that he would accept his words as equal to God‟s. The predicted destiny is nevertheless fulfilled. But still, the possibility of an
83 Malory, vol. 1, I.20, 47 84 Malory, vol.1, III.15, 115 85 Malory, vol.1, III.15, 115 86 McAlindon, 136 32 untruthful authorization of the prophecies remains among the ambiguities encompassing Merlin‟s character.
In the same manner of defiance Arthur ignores Merlin‟s warning that Lancelot will love Guinevere “and she him again”87 and in spite of the usual trust in
Merlin‟s powers he marries her anyway.
The trust that it will be God who will have the final word in deciding human fate despite any prophecy is also characterized by Balin. His response to every warning and prediction is always the same: “„I shall take the adventure ... that
God will ordain me.‟”88 The whole story of Balin and Balan is shadowed by misfortune and tragic prophecies, and the fulfilment of these dark predictions shows the inevitability of destiny.
Despite the fact that Merlin is presented as a wise man and even functions as a moral guide and always comes to announce God‟s punishment for rash actions of the knights, he is eventually unable to counter with his own desires and lusts and fulfils the tragic prophecy about his own end. He falls in love with Nimue and “he [is] assotted upon her, that he [may] not be from her.”89 She learns the magic craft from him but is unable to be rid of him as he follows her everywhere, and thus uses these powers to trap him under an enchanted stone where she leaves him.90 Therefore in contrast with his great powers, his supernatural origin and his important role in the lives of many
Arthurian heroes, he is defeated by profoundly human emotions, and unable to control his sexual desire, he follows the path of his destiny to his early grave.
87 Malory, vol. 1, III.2, 93 88 Malory, vol. 1, II.2, 63 89 Malory, vol. 1, IV.1, 117 90 Malory, vol. 1, IV.1, 118 33
But of course the destiny does not disappear with Merlin. The whole narrative is filled with anonymous prophecies and adventures awaiting each hero. Before Lancelot encounters a dragon he reads letters inscribed on a tomb prophesying his killing of the dragon and fathering of Galahad:
HERE SHALL COME A LEOPARD OF KING´S BLOOD, AND HE
SHALL SLAY THIS SERPENT, AND THIS LEOPARD SHALL
ENGENDER A LION IN THIS FOREIGN COUNTRY, THE WHICH
LION SHALL PASS ALL OTHERS.91
This kind of prophetic inscription suggest some supernatural or divine intervention. The prophecy is always intended for a particular person and awaits the moment the knight takes up the adventure and finds his destiny.
The same pattern applies for oral prophecies transmitted from generation to generation or created within the time span of the book (although time and space is rather relative in romantic fiction) which are also intended for particular knight and often concern some malevolent powers that has to be defeated by a chivalrous hero of great virtues.
The entire narrative is veiled with a sense of predestined action, whether it is spoken aloud in the form of prophecy or it is only hinted in the atmosphere and circumstances of a situation, the reader can sense a supernatural orchestration on almost every page. The situation when Sir Gawain and his two companions find three ladies waiting for them in the middle of the forest with
91 Malory, vol. 2, XI.2, 190 34 an adventure prepared for each of them92 is only a sample of higher narrative structure that interconnects all the episodes into one predestined adventure.
3.3 Sorcery and Enchantment
After the disappearance of Merlin form the narrative, the power of overarching destiny eases off in the sense that the stories are now more concerned with the celebration of the adventures, tournaments, physical accomplishments and courtly love.
Magic takes up a role of an adventurous encounter which serves as a test of the chivalric virtues and eventually validates or refutes the qualities of a particular knight.
With the exception of Merlin the field of practice in the Arthurian narratives is dominated by female enchantresses. Malory never explicitly identifies the origin of any such enchantress as otherworld but for example the
Lady of the Lake who resides in an underwater cave in a “fair place as any on earth, and richly beseen”93 and who gives Arthur the Excalibur is obviously firmly connected with the Otherworld. Nevertheless the origins of their powers remain strongly obscure. They are as ambiguous as Merlin‟s character for their actions are positive as well as negative depending upon the crucial difference in their motivation and intention.
The powers of the sorceresses include shape-shifting, illusion, natural magic, foreknowledge and the practice of „nigromancy‟, “the term most often
92 Malory, vol. 1, IV.18, 147 93 Malory, vol. 1, I.25, 55 35 employed in romance to suggest illicit magical arts.”94 Saunders assumes the definite attitude toward the term as having a Latin origin and thus not suggesting the aid of the dead, as the modern term „necromancy‟ is understood to signify.95 Malory seems to apply the term in the same spirit, thus differentiating the good and evil kind of enchantment. Its potential demonic nature sets it to the outermost margins of acceptability of magical practice.
Although the authors of romances usually do not portray humans as actively involved in conjuring demons or in explicit cooperation with them. Malory is no exception; his depiction of the various practices is even more obscure due to his aforementioned simplification of the supernatural elements in the Morte.
The magical powers of women represent the counterbalance with male physical strength. Where men can defend themselves and carry their will through with physical force, there women can either depend on them or use supernatural kind of force.
3.3.1 Nimue
One of the female enchantresses appearing in Malory‟s narrative is “the chief lady of the lake”96 called Nimue. She is sometimes confused or blended with the Lady of the Lake who gives Arthur the Excalibur, but Malory strictly differentiates these two characters. Nimue (or Niniane) enjoys an expanded field of activity in the Morte since Malory creates unique passages not found in his sources.97 The character of Nimue is in the Arthuriads primarily connected
94 Saunders, 154 95 Saunders, 154 96 Malory, vol. 2, XXI.6, 519 97 Holbrook, “Nymue” 36 with Merlin. Being his lover and the cause of his disappearance is her notoriously known role. But it is important to examine her character in full scope, for she is by no means generally represented as a malevolent character in the Arthurian legends.
One of the important innovations of Malory is the characterisation of
Nimue‟s relationship with Merlin not as bind by love, but rather as Merlin‟s lustful platonic affection on one side and Nimue‟s fearful tolerance of his advances on the other. As S.E. Holbrook points out, Malory‟s Nimue is merely an object of Merlin‟s sexual desire and not an equal partner in a romantic relationship and “we must admit that the traditional fatal love has diminished into patent lechery.”98 “And he was assoted upon her, that he might not be from her” and “always Merlin lay about the lady to have her maidenhood.”99
In this light the act of Merlin‟s entrapment under a stone can be viewed as done in self defence, “for she afeared of him because he was a devil‟s son, and she could not beskift him by no mean.”100 Merlin would not let her alone and therefore once she had learned all his crafts there was no other way how to be rid of him. Somewhat benign intention is reflected upon the fact that she used rather nonviolent means for Merlin‟s elimination. She did not try to kill him or cause him unnecessary harm. He is not said to suffer any pain. The effect of
Malory‟s treatment of their relationship is that the reader‟s sympathy is thrown upon Nimue and her actions correspond with the medieval romantic ideal of protection of woman‟s chastity. Moreover when one considers the role of
98 Holbrook, 770 99 Malory, vol. 1, IV.1, 117-8 100 Malory, vol. 1, IV.1, 118 37 destiny in this story, the inevitability of the course of events, Nimue merely epitomizes an instrument of higher power and not an active executioner of free will.
She appears in the Morte on several other occasions which all advance the positive, benign perception of her character. She first enters Malory‟s narrative at the time of the celebration of Arthur‟s wedding with Guinevere.
“Right so as they sat there came running in a white hart into the hall, and a white brachet next him, and thirty couple of black running hounds ... anon came in a lady on a white palfrey.”101 This eerie scene so typical of the medieval romances introduces Nimue as an anonymous lady crying for help only to be kidnapped by a stranger knight in the next moment. Sir Pellinore sets forth to rescue her and needless to say succeeds in his quest. This introduction places Nimue into a submissive position, merely providing the knight with an opportunity to prove himself, but on the way back to the court she proves to be a wise and resourceful woman. When she falls from her horse she does not abase herself with lamenting but stoically announces “„Alas sir, mine arm is out of lith, wherethrough I must needs rest me,‟”102 and when Pellinore wants to ride after dark she warns him not to, which advice eventually results in their discovery of an enemy plot to poison Arthur. And finally when they pass around a lady and her lover who both died because of Pellinor‟s reluctance toward the lady‟s cry for help, Nimue gives Pellinore a sober advice to bury the knight‟s body and to bring the lady‟s head to the court. So although she is in need of physical saving she establishes herself as a fairly brave and able woman.
101 Malory, vol. 1, III.5, 98 102 Malory, vol. 1, III.14, 113 38
This resourcefulness of hers manifests itself in her following appearances in the narrative. She becomes the one who saves men and women and who does “great goodness unto King Arthur and to all his knights through her sorcery and enchantments.”103 She takes over Merlin‟s position of an advisor and a protector of Arthur‟s wellbeing. On one occasion she uses her learned crafts to save Arthur from being slain by Accolon.104 On another occasion, using her power of foreknowledge, she saves Arthur from the “great sorceress”
Annowre who tries to behead him for not complying with her desire for him.105
She also establishes herself as a patron of love when she absolves Guinevere from the accusation of poisoning a knight.106 By defending Arthur‟s queen, she helps the whole court and saves his marriage.
The most profound of Malory‟s unique narrative inventions concerning
Nimue‟s character is represented by the story of Gawain, Ettard and Pelleas.107
Pelleas is a good knight of prowess and he is madly in love with Ettard who utterly despises him. Gawain promises to help Pelleas, but instead acts treacherously and seduces Ettard. Pelleas decides to lie in his bed and await death after he discovers Gawain‟s betrayal. Here Nimue suddenly enters the scene and warrants that “he shall not die for love.”108 She decides to punish
Ettard for her merciless conduct and by an enchantment she makes her fall in love with Pelleas until nearly out of her mind, and after the fashion of Merlin, she presents her action as “the rightwise judgement of God,” placing herself in
103 Malory, vol. 2, XVIII.8, 387 104 Malory, vol. 1, IV.9, 131 105 Malory, vol. 2, IX.15,407-9 106 Malory, vol. 2, XVIII.8, 387 107 Malory, vol. 2, IV.22 108 Malory, vol. 2, IV.22, 157 39 the role of the executioner of divine will. She also rids Pelleas of his love for
Ettard and by her enchantment he hates her as much as he loved her before, for which he thanks “Our Lord Jesus” rendering this act of magic approved by
Christian community. Eventually Pelleas becomes her husband and Nimue is further on described as his loving wife. “And so he lived to the uttermost of his days with her in great rest.”109 This role of hers is also Malory‟s unique invention.110
The character of Nimue proves that magic can have positive use and can be appreciated. Despite her unfortunate involvement in Merlin‟s destiny, her love for King Arthur and her helpful interventions serve as a kind of redemption from her “sin”. She proves that the intention is the crucial part of the magical practice. Her positive role in the whole Arthuriad is most heightened in the scene of her final appearance where she accompanies mortally wounded Arthur on his last voyage. She appears in the company of Morgan le Fay, the notorious
“villain” of the Arthurian legends. She represents a counterbalance to Morgan‟s negative presence. With Nimue as her antithesis Morgan remains in her negative position which could be otherwise diminished by her original role of the healing goddess of Avalon described by Geoffrey of Monmouth.
By placing Nimue in the ship as well as Morgan, Malory extends
both the influence of good and the influence of evil, of creation
and of destruction, into Arthur‟s departure.111
109 Malory, vol. 2, XXI.6, 519 110 Holbrook 111 Holbrook, 776 40
Therefore the initial bias surrounding Nimue is almost forgotten by the end. She replaces Merlin in the role of magical practitioner aiding Arthur‟s court and her primary power resides in foreknowledge. She is the avatar of female power and an important representation of the positive side of magic.
3.3.2 Morgan le Fay
Classical stories of great heroes would probably not work without the presence of the “nemesis”. The balance in the world order has always been sustained by the presence of both positive and negative forces, and at the same time constantly threatened by their unceasing war. Morgan le Fay is the
“nemesis” of the Arthurian legends. In the period dominated by courtly romances she becomes the archenemy of all the positive values and virtues of the Arthurian characters, and in this sense she represents only a shadow of the archetypal figure of the ancient Celtic goddess. Morgan enjoys quite a diversity in her character throughout the literary tradition.
She may be the most beautiful of nine sister fays, or an ugly
crone. She may be Arthur‟s tender nurse in the island valley of
Avilion, or his treacherous foe. She may be a virgin, or a Venus of
lust.112
In the Morte she follows the sinister path. Her character is given human essence with mere hints of a supernatural connections and her magic is learned rather than inherent.
112 Loomis, “Morgain La Fee”, 183 41
In the struggle for power she is the most apt of the female enchantresses. She represents a woman capable of imposing power over men which is most often expressed in the attempt to possess the body of a knight, and due to her crafts she is able to threaten her opponents with physical harm.
The first mention about her in the Morte immediately establishes her as suspicious: “Morgan le Fay was put to nunnery, and there she learned so much that she was a great clerk of necromancy.”113 Which term, as Corinne Saunders puts it, “may signal human practitioners whose arts are extreme, dubious and sometimes villainous.”114 It also suggests her intelligence and determination which later allow her to become such a powerful fiend.
All the later accounts of her conduct depicted in the Morte unavoidably identify her as the villainous enemy whose only purpose in the story is to pose a threat and temptation to the other characters. The list of her “crimes” includes conspiracy, theft, abduction, imprisonment, torture and attempted murder. She does not create an obvious ambivalence in audience‟s perception as Nimue does. She cannot find the redemption of her sins in any positive assistance to the heroes, and thus inevitably occupies the position of an evil adversary.
Morgan attempts to disrupt the stability of Arthur‟s court and in doing so, her character tests the chivalric virtues of the knights. This trickster role is evident in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight where Morgan is revealed at the very end as standing behind the whole scheme that tests Gawain‟s chastity along with the renown of Arthur‟s court. Although this role of hers has been of
113 Malory, vol.1, I.2, 12 114 Saunders, 154 42 a considerable concern among scholars115 for its incidental character.
Nevertheless it serves its purpose of testing Gawain and “however malevolent
[Morgan‟s] initial intent may have been, it has an ultimately salutary effect on
Gawain because it presses him into the discovery of his own humanity.”116
Probably the most painful invasion into the midst of Arthur‟s circle of knights in the Morte is the story of Accolon. Arthur, Uriens and Accolon ride on an adventure which starts, in a romantic tradition, with the hunt of a hart. They reach a water bank where suddenly Arthur espies an approaching ship dressed in silk and without a crew. This eerie scene echoes the supernatural atmosphere of many other stories of sudden appearances such as Gawain‟s
„fortunate‟ discovery of Bercilak‟s castle in the middle of the forest in the time of great need which turns out to be the Green Knight‟s mansion117 The scene becomes even stranger when a hundred torches appear out of nowhere, followed by twelve ladies who welcome King Arthur on the board with no doubt of who he is. They are feasted with all kinds of drinks and food and put into adorned beds. But in the morning, Uriens wakes in Camelot, in bed with his wife Morgan le Fay, whereas Arthur wakes up in prison surrounded by lamenting knights and he is supposed to fight for Sir Damas, “the falsest knight that liveth,”118 in his conflict with Sir Ontzlake, whose champion, by an arrangement of Morgan, happens to be Accolon. Morgan sends Accolon the
Excalibur and its scabbard so he can fight as he “„had promised her when
115 McALindon, 133 116 Williams, 40 117 Weston, 26 118 Malory, vol. 1, IV.7, 126 43
[they] spake together in private.‟”119 Morgan‟s conspiracy to kill Arthur is thus revealed to the reader. The bewildering part of the story is Accolon‟s willing betrayal of his king and conscious cooperation with magic, exemplified by his own words: “„She had made all these crafts and enchantment for the battle.‟”120
Morgan‟s cunning cruelty is expressed in her message to Arthur she sends along with a counterfeit Excalibur via one of her ladies: “„Morgan le Fay sendeth here your sword for great love.‟”121 There is no mistaking in her malevolent intentions. After Nimue intervenes the fight and helps Arthur to win over
Accolon, he reveals to Arthur Morgan‟s intent to kill him because “„King Arthur is the man in the world that she most hateth, because he is most of worship and of prowess of any of her blood,‟” and then to kill her husband Uriens to make
Accolon her new husband and king.122 This outstanding betrayal of Accolon, who knew all of Morgan‟s plans and gave his consent to carry out her will, is, although recognized, excused by Arthur since he is convinced that his sister “„by her false crafts made [Accolon] to agree and consent to her false lusts.‟”123
Arthur‟s opinion on this matter seems to be constant in the narrative. He tends to dismiss the possibility of treacherous friends, of knights failing to aspire to the chivalric code rather than admitting the implications. There is no factual evidence pointing toward the use of enchantment to make Accolon cooperative, but this obscurity and uncertainty is at the same time the perfect opportunity for doubt over his consent.
119 Malory, vol.1, IV.8, 129 120 Malory, vol. 1, IV.8, 129 121 Malory, vol. 1, IV.8, 130 122 Malory, vol. 1, IV.11, 134 123 Malory, vol. 1, IV.11, 135 44
Morgan‟s fatal crime rests in her constant menace to the institution of courtly love. “She had been an enemy to all true lovers.”124 She sends to
Arthur‟s court an enchanted horn that has “such a virtue that there might no lady ... drink of that horn but if she were true to her husband,”125 in order to discover Guinevere‟s unfaithfulness and hurt Arthur. By chance the messenger meets with Sir Lamorak who forces him to deliver the horn to King Mark to test
Isoud. She obviously fails to drink from the horn as well as other ladies at the court. The king would have them all punished, but his barons “would not have those ladies burnt for an horn made by sorcery”126 and therefore Isoud is excused. It is only Morgan‟s reputation as an enemy of all and her suspicious practices that prevent Isoud‟s death. Despite the effectuality of the spell (Isoud was an unfaithful wife) the negative perception of Morgan serves as an excuse for ignoring the results, same as in the story of Accolon.
Morgan‟s attacks are not always explicitly magical. She uses the ladies of her court to lure Lancelot or Tristram into ambush and plots to have them killed by her knights,127 and she sends Tristram to a tournament with a shield depicting Arthur, Guinevere and “„a knight that holdeth them both in bondage and in servage‟”128 – Lancelot. She intends to reveal the truth to Arthur and punish Lancelot for his unreciprocated love. Arthur, reminiscent of her message, later on reminds himself “how his sister was his own enemy, and that she hated the queen and Sir Launcelot”129 and he dismisses the implications once again.
124 Malory, vol. 1, VIII.34, 364 125 Malory, vol. 1, VIII.34, 363 126 Malory, vol. 1, VIII.34, 364 127 Malory, vol. 1, IX.24, 429 128 Malory, vol. 1, IX.42, 464 129 Malory, vol. 2, X.27, 54 45
Throughout the narrative, Morgan applies various kinds of magic. But most of the time she practices the same kind as Merlin or Nimue do. She possesses the power of shape-shifting which demonstrates itself when she turns herself and her men into stones,130 which corresponds with the many shapes Merlin takes up on various occasions. She creates a sophisticated illusion of the ship which is found by Arthur, Uriens and Accolon. She also uses a sleeping-spell upon Lancelot so she can abduct him,131 as Merlin uses the sleeping-spell to save Arthur from Pellinore‟s wrath. She is also a practitioner of natural magic. When Sir Alexander is injured during a fight, she brings him to her castle where she saves him from a certain death with ointments; and later on she also administers to him “such a drink that in three days and three nights he waked never, but slept.”132 But her services come for a price and Alexander is made to agree to a pact in order to be fully healed of his wounds. Alexander learns that saving his life comes in train with an imprisonment; and that Morgan saved him “„for non other intent but for to do her pleasure with [him] when it liked her.‟”133 When compared with the powers of Merlin and Nimue, her intention is once again the only difference in the implications of the use of magic.
Nevertheless, given the obscurity surrounding the origins of everything supernatural in the Morte it is no wonder that in some cases her magic spells seem very ambiguous. The only explicit connection with the devil though
130 Malory, vol. 1, IV.14, 140 131 Malory, vol. 1, VI.3, 198 132 Malory, vol. 2, X.37, 73 133 Malory, vol. 2, X.38, 74 46 appears in the utterance between her and her son Uwain which follows
Morgan‟s attempt to murder her husband Uriens:
„Men saith that Merlin was begotten of a devil, but I may say an
earthly devil bare me.‟
„Oh fair son, Uwain, have mercy upon me, I was tempted with a
devil, wherefore I cry thee mercy.‟134
But given the premeditation of the murder evident from Accolon‟s testimony, the reader can assume it was only an excuse to avoid punishment.
Her other attempt to kill Arthur135 or to discredit his relationship with the queen136 is not even hinted to be driven by the devil.
Merlin is also suspected from cooperation with the devil, but he never does anything to support this claim. On the other hand, Morgan‟s actions full of malevolent intentions and harmful results make it hard to see the shared source of their powers.
The only accountable difference in the magical abilities of Merlin and Morgan seems to be her absence of the power of divination – the power which connects
Merlin so firmly with the divine. In contrast, Morgan‟s powers are never connected with God and she could be even considered an epitome of the illicit pagan tradition. She poses a threat to the characters as well as to the Christian values in general.
The Morgan Le Fay of Malory‟s narrative is a character using magic in her advantage as well as in order to cause harm to her enemies, but these powers
134 Malory, vol. 1, IV.14, 138 135 Malory, vol. 1, IV.15 136 Malory, vol. 1, VIII.34 47 are not what differentiates her from the other practitioners of magic present in the Morte. It is her jealousy, her desire for revenge and her constant animosity toward the others that makes her the number-one enemy. It is not the kind of magic she uses but the attitude and intention of her actions driven by profoundly human emotions that establishes her as the evil “witch”.
3.3.3 Other Characters
Morgan and Nimue are not the only female practitioners of magic appearing in the Morte. Throughout the narrative, various other female enchantresses appear to either pose temptation and threat or to aid the heroes.
Most prominently they serve as instruments for testing the chivalrous virtues of
Arthur‟s men. Their characters are often very ambiguous for their contradictory actions or the means of their conduct.
The first obviously ambivalent character appearing in the narrative besides Nimue is the Lady of the Lake. Merlin brings Arthur to the lake, where
Arthur is “ware of an arm clothed in white samite, that held a fair sword.”137
The positive character of the received sword Excalibur is undisputed, but the
Lady herself represents an otherworldly character of obscure origins and most importantly with mysterious intentions: “„ ... and I will ask my gift when I see my time.‟”138 These intentions later on become the reason of her ambiguous reception. She enters the adventure of Balin and demands either his head or the head of a lady present at Arthur‟s court, because both were responsible for death of her one of her relatives. Arthur refuses to grant her such a gift even
137 Malory, vol. 1, I.25, 55 138 Malory, vol. 1, I.25, 56 48 though he promised to reward her for the Excalibur. The whole situation becomes even more complicated when Balin, knowing that she is responsible for his mother´s death, acts out his long sought revenge: “„Evil be you found; ye would have my head, and therefore ye shall lose yours,´ and with his sword lightly he smote off her head before King Arthur.”139 This situation presents a duel between Balin‟s chivalric responsibility and the supernatural forces personified in the character of the Lady of the Lake.
He justifies his act to the king with a claim that “„ ... by enchantment and sorcery she hath been the destroyer of many good knights‟”140 Although she is supposedly liable for death of many, she is also a victim of injustice. Balin‟s action displeases the king and he is banished from the court.
The events preceding the appearance of the Lady of the Lake at the court introduce another enchantress (whose head the Lady asks along with
Balin‟s), send by the Lady Lile of Avelion. She comes to Arthur‟s court seeking for a “passing good man of his hands and of his deeds, and without villainy or treachery, and without treason”141 so he can draw a sword attached to her by an enchantment. This situation resembles a traditional adventure testing the virtue of a knight, but above that it is a complicated play of wills. The lady is proved by Merlin to be “the falsest damosel that liveth”142 because she came to the court with the intention to find a knight who would draw the sword and kill her brother with it. She was not a victim but a cunning conspirator obtaining the enchanted sword from Lady Lile and using it for her personal revenge,
139 Malory, vol. 1, II.3, 65 140 Malory, vol. 1, II.3, 65 141 Malory, vol. 1, II.1, 61 142 Malory, vol. 1, II.4, 66 49 knowing that the knight that retrieves the sword “shall be destroyed by that sword.”143 Nevertheless Balin does not succumb to the grim prophecy of his destruction and with the same determination to rely upon God‟s will that
Gawain shows in his adventure with the Green Knight144 he accepts the adventure. But unlike Gawain, who proves that “he was not the victim of an unalterable fate, and that magic is not an omnipotent force,”145 Balin becomes a victim of a tragic destiny full of seemingly chivalrous actions which in spite of the good intention cause immense destruction. By his chivalric opposition to the supernatural forces which seem to control his steps he epitomizes the Christian opposition toward fatalism.
Morgan le Fay is not the only character posing a direct threat to the heroes of Arthurian romances. Especially due to their recurring desire to possess the physical bodies of men, many enchantresses appearing in medieval romances represent the malevolent face of magic. On one occasion Morgan and three other enchantresses abduct Lancelot and try to compete, unsuccessfully, for his affection.146 Another time, Lancelot suffers the advances from the enchantress Hellawes, who claims to love him and tries to possess his body at all costs. She seems to be a powerful practitioner of „nigromancy‟ since she controls a group of ghostly knights who threaten Lancelot at the Chapel
Perilous.147 The grimly atmosphere of this adventure strongly suggests a demonic intervention. In the end she challenges Lancelot to kiss her, but he
143 Malory, vol. 1, II.5, 67 144 Weston, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight 145 McAlindon, 9 146 Malory, vol. 1, VI.3 147 Malory, vol. 1, VI.15 50 does not submits to her temptation and thus saves his life, because Hellawes admits that: “„ ... and thou hadst kissed me thy life days had been done ... ‟”148
On yet another occasion, King Meliodas in led by an enchantment into a castle and held there as prisoner by an enchantress that supposedly loved him for many years.149
Not even Arthur is spared the amorous advances from a dangerous enchantress. The “great sorceress” Annowre schemes for his death after he refuses to give himself to her. Beside the customary testing of chivalric virtues, this situation also allows the negative forces to be pitted against the positive ones represented by Nimue who helps Arthur escape the treacherous snare. As a symbol of her victory, she hangs Annowre‟s head from her saddle as she rides away.150
The common denomination of all those stories is the malevolent intention of the enchantress who aims at the destruction of a good knight who does not succumb to her temptation. But not all of the enchantresses in the Morte represent strictly evil force. The character of Brisen who orchestrated the conception of Galahad is an example of such ambiguity. On the first occasion she is only an agent working for a greater plan authorised by God and thus the means of her conduct are excusable. But the second time she tricks Lancelot into sleeping with Elaine151 she does that only to satisfy Elaine‟s wish to be united with her beloved. There is no greater purpose in the enchantment. It almost looks like Elaine made a pact with Brisen to gain herself a chance to be
148 Malory, vol. 1, VI.15, 223 149 Malory, vol. 1, VIII.1 150 Malory, vol. 1, IX.15 151 Malory, vol. 2, XI.8 51 with Lancelot. This corporal and utterly personal motivation along with the devastating consequences152 diminishes Brisen‟s previously tolerable character.
The majority of the characters connected with the practice of magic are explicitly described as inflicting others with the consequences of their conduct, either good ones or bad ones. But given the obscurity of the practice of magic, some characters might be only hinted to possess supernatural powers or, as
Queen Guinevere herself, might only be suspected from it. Guinevere obviously comes under suspicion for her relationship with Lancelot. He is said to stand above all other knights in his prowess, strength and honour, and susceptible only to “treason or enchantment.”153 His relationship with the queen is strikingly discordant with the chivalric responsibility and virtuous character of the rest of his life and therefore it is no wonder that some of the characters question the nature of their relationship: “„But it is noised that ye love Queen Guenever, and that she hath ordained by enchantment that ye shall never love none other but her ... ‟”154 Lancelot replies to this with unruffled disinterest in people‟s talk, but also with statement especially incongruent with his future behaviour: “„ ... ;and as for to say for to take my pleasance with paramours, that will I refuse in principle for dread of God; for knights that be [adulterous] and lecherous shall not be happy ne fortunate ... ‟”155 A desirable explanation of this contradiction between his statements and his actions, as well as the overall justification, could be found in the concept of magic. Even though this suspicion of
152 Guinevere banishes Lancelot from her court which drives him mad for two years 153 Malory, vol. 1, VI.1, 194 154 Malory, vol. 1, VI.10, 211 155 Malory, vol. 1, VI.11, 212 52
Guinevere is never given any real grounds, the idea is implanted in the minds of the characters as well as the readers.
The narrative of the Morte introduces a vast range of characters and environments which are all bound together by an ungraspable net of supernatural elements. Magic is used by humans for good as well as for evil purposes depending upon the intention of the particular practitioner. Some characters are more ambivalent then others. Some work for greater good and the others for personal benefit. What connects them is the desire to alter the reality of their lives, and what divides them is the intended result of their endeavour. They share the effort to exploit supernatural power, but diverge in desired goals.
3.4 The Grail Quest
The magic in the Morte is an ambiguous concept, dividing the practitioners between benevolent and malevolent, but also making them belong to both groups because of their varying ambitions and motivations. The origins of their powers are obscure and sometimes seemingly otherworldly, but their essence is usually embedded in the human world and they are concerned with the realities of human life.
In the quest for the „Sangrail‟ the human and otherworldly magic are replaced by miracles, divine visions and fundamentally demonic occurrences.
The chivalric adventure, so far concerned with proving the knightly prowess, is replaced by a test of far more abstract virtues, particularly of chastity. The landscape shifts into allegorical world beyond physical reality of the previous
53 parts. “Within the actively Christian world of the Quest, knights become caught up in a constantly re-enacted struggle of good and evil,”156 as it is when
Galahad fights with two knights that wounded Melias, that are said to signify
“the two deadly sins.”157
The adventures are all deeply symbolic. The schism between good and evil, God and the devil is represented also as a conflict between Christianity and the pagan tradition. Percival encounters a lion and a snake fighting each other and decides to help the lion, the “emblem of New Testament,”158 because it is
“of gentler nature than the serpent”159 and he kills the snake. As he rests afterwards he has a dream where two ladies approach him each riding on one of the beasts. The one riding on a lion warns him about upcoming fight and the one sitting on a snake scolds him for killing her „serpent‟ and requires him to compensate his action and become her lover. Percival refuses and she leaves with a mysterious threat. When he wakes up he encounters a priest who explains the significance of Percival‟s dream:
She which rode upon the lion betokeneth the new law of holy
church, that is to understand, faith, good hope, belief, and
baptism ... And she that rode on the serpent signifieth the old law,
and that serpent betokeneth a [devil].160
This represents the clash between beneficent religion and treacherous old traditions full of temptation and devil‟s work as it was perceived by the Church.
156 Saunders, 253 157 Malory, vol. 2, XIII.14, 261 158 Saunders, 254 159 Malory, vol. 2, XIV.7, 284 160 Malory, vol. 2, XIV.7, 285 54
The presence of demons, angels and Christ himself is imminent and physical. There is no obscurity that surrounds the supernatural in the previous parts of the Morte. The clear difference between the characters of demons and angels replaces the obscure and unclear classification of the supernatural inhabitants of the pagan mythology. The ambiguous magicians and human enchantresses are replaced by the saints and demons which occupy the opposite sides of the power scales. “Within the landscape of the Grail, heaven and hell are near and materially manifest.”161 For example when Galahad opens a tomb and a demonic man-shaped creature comes out with “so foul a smoke” and talks to him openly: “Galahad, I see there environ about thee so many angels that my power may not dere thee.”162 Similarly, in one of Lancelot‟s adventures “an hideous figure and horrible” is “conjured on that book” by a priest, exorcised and forced to tell a story of a dead man lying in the chapel. It later disappears with “a great tempest.”163
The familiar pattern of an enchantress offering a temptation which occurs many times elsewhere in the Morte, is here transformed into truly devilish snare that has a potential to bring an eternal damnation to the knight.
The abiding by Christian ritual seems to be crucial during these encounters.
Perceval is lured into a pavilion under the pretense of protection from the scalding hot temperatures and the temptress gives him an enchanted drink that makes him burn with love and lust towards her. But as he catches a glimpse of the hilt of his sword and makes a sign of a cross upon his forehead “the
161 Saunders, 254 162 Malory, vol. 2, XIII.12, 257 163 Malory, vol. 2, XV.2, 291-293 55 pavilion [turns] up-so-down, and then it [changes] unto a smoke, and black cloud ... .”164 Perceval as a remorseful Christian begs God for forgiveness and even cuts his leg with a sword as a penitential act. He is then told by a „good man‟ that the temptress was “the master fiend of hell, the which hath power above all devils” and she is also connected to the woman riding the serpent that appeared in Perceval‟s dream.165 The same ritual, the signing of the cross, saves Bors from similar encounter with fiendish temptresses.166 The illusion in both cases disappears in horrific scene.
The divine usually manifests itself in the narrative in a form of a voice that conveys a message from heaven. The dream visions are also a form of communication. They instruct and explain without the taboo of divination and false prophecy.
The narrative shows the clear distinction between the good and evil agents. In the authorized Christian understanding, “True agency was either covertly demonic or legitimately divine.”167 But even within this system exist characters and situations that require more than just one-sided explanation. As the reader learns from the text, the marvellous sword which has an outstanding history inextricably connected with the Biblical characters and events, and which is destined to be worn by Galahad, was made by King Solomon, a known practitioner of natural magic.168 So Galahad is connected by his lineage with natural magic which he steers into perfection by his healing abilities. Also the sword which is drawn by Galahad from a marble stone appearing in Camelot
164 Malory, vol. 2, XIV.9, 289 165 Malory, vol. 2, XIV.10, 290 166 Malory, vol. 2, XVI.12, 320 167 Bailey, 386 168 Malory, vol. 2, XVII.5, 338 56 before his joining of the company of the Round Table,169 is the one that Merlin has put into the stone after Balin‟s death.170 Here the line between the work of the magician is hardly distinguishable from the actions of the saint in its effect.
The difference lies in the causal principle they invoke – the demon or the divine. The situations in the Morte do not correspond with ideal Christian system, where the miracles of the saints are “set against the work of magicians.”171 The incidents taking place in the Morte rather reflect the unclear classification of the supernatural within the common medieval population. The magical ritual does not differ from the religious in function but rather in the
“rational assumptions.”172 Because for the lay medieval mind the relevant difference was made not between „religion‟ and „magic‟ but between „miracle‟ and „magic‟,173 the various instances of the supernatural occurring in the Morte can be viewed as different only in their intended result.
169 Malory, vol. 2, XIII.5, 245 170 Malory, vol. 1, II.19, 90 171 Saunders, 46 172 Kieckhefer, 824 173 Kieckhefer, 821 57
4 Conclusion
The concept of magic has been an important cultural phenomenon for thousands of years. The mystery inherent in the element of magic has aroused curiosity and interest in people for its possible power to heal, curse, satisfy desire or carry out revenge of previously unimagined proportions.
In the medieval society its existence was rationalized and its laws compiled into charms, manuals, superstitions and beliefs deeply rooted in the folk tradition. The function and role of magic was described and discussed in many non-fiction books, primarily clerical treaties devoted to demonization of magic. However the concept also influenced the authors of fiction who employed the supernatural elements in their stories. The role of magic as a literary device seems to be constant in the romantic literature; it is an instrument enabling the author and the audience to probe the area of the impossible, irrational or morally damnable. It allows the characters to behave immorally and still keep their appearance as good Christians, because there is a non-rational concept rendering the situations publishable.
The border between magic and divine miracle blurs in the medieval romance. It reflects the actual situation in the medieval society where authorities tried to create clear boundaries between magical illusions and God‟s divine power and where, despite the fear of the possible demonic origins of magic, the folk tradition, practice and experience disabled any such attempts to be entirely successful.
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The literary landscape allow the characters of magicians to be perceived in the terms of their actual actions and to base the judgement of their character upon their intentions rather than in the reflection of cultural prejudice which automatically considered any practitioner of magic dangerous and in imminent cooperation with demons. Despite the attempt of Christian authorities to classify all magic as utterly demonic, in the Morte their workings are allowed to be perceived as helpful. In the world of romance, a magician can be king‟s personal adviser and protector as well as an enchantress can be a beloved wife.
People were usually aware of the existence of multiple theories concerning magic; and with that also of the possibility of the multiplicity of its origin and its essence. Natural magic enjoyed a different position in the minds of medieval people than its demonic variation for its beneficent results connected with medicine. In romances the power of natural magic belongs among the basic attributes of almost all magical practitioners and marvellous healings are often described. This application of magic is part of a larger positive „campaign‟ of the supernatural and shows the significance of the intention.
The narrative of the Morte is pregnant with prophecies and destined futures. The characters create a link between magic and destiny. Merlin enables
Uther to conceive Arthur with Igraine and Brisen helps facilitates the birth of
Galahad. The concepts are interwoven and dependent upon each other. The cultural taboo of divination is here belittled and used as a power invested in the characters by God. Even though the methods of enacting God‟s will are facilitated by magic, the final result is positive. The narrative shows examples of
59 enacting of free will but also the overriding power of destiny which eventually proves to be unalterable.
The most common purpose of magic in the narrative is to test the chivalric virtues of the knights. By the characters of female enchantresses, the
Christian values and the good name of Arthur‟s knights are tested. Their motivation is often malevolent and their actions threaten the very existence of the heroes, but in the end the scene usually proves the virtues of the knight.
The most obvious example of such character is Morgan le Fay. But also positive characters appear. Nimue is a bit ambivalent in her actions but benevolent in the core. She represents the positive side of magic and her good intentions override the stereotype of evil temptress.
The part of the narrative dedicated to the Grail Quest introduces a supernatural world of Christian doctrine, occupied by angels and demons. The test of chastity becomes more important than any other. The physical accomplishments of the knights are no longer so opulent and most of them fail the quest for their earthly shortcomings. The characters of human enchantresses are replaced by demonic embodiments of the devil. Symbolism and allegory replaces the romantic realities of the previous parts and renders any magical acts the working of the devil. This part pits the whole concept of magic against the divine power leaving no place for ambivalence.
Nevertheless the use of magic as a narrative concept gives writers space for experiments with the imagination as well as with the boundaries of morality.
The characters of the Morte represent the possible good that magic can bring.
The practitioners are allowed in the narrative to prove that it is only their
60 intention that decides whether they employ magic in a harmful or helpful way, and characters of the knights are shown to recognize the possible positive value of magic.
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Works Cited
Primary Sources
Malory, Thomas, Janet Cowen, and John Lawlor. Le Morte D'Arthur. Volume I.
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1969. Print.
Malory, Thomas, Janet Cowen, and John Lawlor. Le Morte D'Arthur. Volume II.
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1969. Print.
Secondary Sources
Bailey, Michael D. “The Disenchantment of Magic: Spells, Charms, and
Superstition in Early European Witchcraft Literature.” The American
Historical Review 111. 2 (2006): 383-404. JSTOR. Web. 25 May 2012.
Holbrook, S.E. “Nymue, the Chief Lady of the Lake, in Malory‟s Morte Darthur.”
Speculum 53. 4 (1978): 761-777. JSTOR. Web. 27 May 2012.
Jones, William Lewis. King Arthur in History and Legend. Cambridge: University
Press, 1914. Print.
Kieckhefer, Richard. Magic In The Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
2000. Print.
---. “The Specific Rationality of Medieval Magic.” The American Historical
Review 99. 3 (1994): 813-836. JSTOR. Web. 25 May 2012.
Lacy, Norris J., Geoffrey Ashe, and Debra N. Mancoff. The Arthurian Handbook.
2nd ed. New York: Garland Publishing, 1997. Print.
Loomis, Roger Sherman, ed. Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages:
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A Collaborative History. Oxford: Clarendon Press, c.1959. Print.
---. “Morgain La Fee and the Celtic Goddesses.” Speculum 20. 2 (1945): 183-
203. JSTOR. Web. 9 November 2011.
McAlindon, T. “Magic, Fate, and Providence in Medieval Narrative and Sir
Gawain and the Green Knight.” The Review of English Studies 16. 62
(1965): 121-139. JSTOR. Web. 9 November 2011.
Saunders, Corinne. Magic and the Supernatural in Medieval English Romance.
Rochester, NY: D.S.Brewer, Cambridge, 2010. Print.
Weston, Jessie. L. Trans. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. In Parentheses,
1999. Web. 26 May 2012.
Williams, Edith Whitehurst. “Morgan La Fee as Trickster in Sir Gawain and the
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Resumé
Účelem této práce je analýza charakteru a významu konceptu magie ve středověkých artušovských romancích. Práce se soustředí na dílo Thomase
Maloryho Smrt krále Artuše, na němž ilustruje jednotlivé příklady vyobrazení magie. Hlavní část této práce se věnuje analýze konceptů osudu a proroctvím diskutovaných primárně v souvislosti s postavou Merlina. Dále se pak věnuje konceptu čarodějnictví, ilustrovaném především na ženských postavách
čarodějek artušovských příběhů. Nakonec se také věnuje příběhu svatého grálu.
Analýzou jednotlivých nadpřirozených praktik zobrazených ve zdrojovém textu se tato práce snaží obhájit klíčový význam a rozlišující podstatu záměru provozovatelů magie pro vyhodnocení charakteru daných praktik.
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Résumé
The aim of the thesis is to analyze the character and the significance of the concept of magic in the medieval Arthurian romances. The thesis focuses on Thomas Malory‟s Le Morte d‟Arthur, upon which the various depictions of magic are exemplified. The main part of the work in dedicated to the analysis of the concepts of destiny and prophecy, discussed mainly in the connection with the character of Merlin; to the concept of sorcery and enchantment exemplified especially upon the various characters of female enchantresses of the Arthurian romance; and to the story of the Grail Quest. By the analysis of various supernatural practices depicted in the source text the thesis tries to argue the crucial importance and differentiating quality of the intention of the practitioners upon the evaluation of the character of the practice.
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