Botanic Gardens and Scientific Organizations to 18701

Tropical Biology and Research Institutions in South and Southeast Asia since 1500: Botanic Gardens and Scientific Organizations to 18701

DAVID G. FRODIN 2

ABSTRACT: Tropical biological stations have become in the last half-century a well-established phenomenon. They are, however, but a modem manifesta tion of a long tradition ofinstitutionalized study oftropical biological diversity, an approach gradually adopted by Europeans as one response to the needs and challenges of a new environment. This paper describes the growth of early in stitutions in South and Southeast Asia (and Mauritius), particularly botanic gardens, learned societies, and scientific surveys, and examines their relative successes and failures in relation to their geographical and political circum stances. The interaction among the Dutch, French, and British spheres is ex amined in relation to the appearance ofnew ideas. It is concluded that although all these powers were from time to time innovative, the British and Dutch, though in different ways, became the most successful in their lasting influence on pure and applied tropical science. The British network, internally strong and effectively worldwide by the nineteenth century, was notable for its breadth but featured less autonomy for individual units; the Dutch, fortunately situated in Indonesia and heir to an autonomous biological tradition, established in Bogor the beginnings of what became after 1870 a major biological (and, indeed, academic) center.

TROPICAL BIOLOGY IS now fashionable. Trop Trelease and McLean (1919), Hill et al. ical biological stations have become numer (1925), and Treub (in Dammerman 1945: 59). ous, not least in the Americas (Castner 1990), These scientists enjoyed tropical sojourns reflecting the growth of interest in tropical ranging from a few months to many years or field biology since World War II. This has even, like Melchior Treub, an entire career. been associated with revolutions in transpor As Holttum (1970) noted, many themes in tation and technology, and changes in ap tropical biology are founded upon their ac proaches to the study of organismal biology. tivities. Some, including Joseph Banks; Fritz However, these stations also represent a re Junghuhn, Heinrich Zollinger, Alfred Russel alization of calls, beginning in the 1930s, Wallace, Julien Harmand, and Alfred B. for more on-site research by writers such Meyer and, in the first half of the twentieth as Worthington (1938), Symington (1943), century, Lajos Biro, Evelyn Cheeseman, Honig and Verdoorn (1945), Verdoorn Lilian S. Gibbs, Ernst Mayr, and Paul (1945), Comer (1946), and Richards (1952). Richards, carried out work on their own or These writers were influenced by leading as members of oceanic or inland expeditions. late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Others, increasingly after the middle of the workers, such as Solms-Laubach (1884), nineteenth century, were formally attached to Haberlandt (1893, 1910, 1926), Massart local research institutions. (1895, 1896, and in Honig and Verdoorn Although the Amazon may symbolize 1945:231-240), Willis (1901), Hill (1915), the wonders of tropical life, it was in South and Southeast Asia that the study of tropical biology in a modem sense really began [Manuscript accepted 15 January 1998. (poivre 1771 [see Grove 1995:215]). This 2 Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom. paper traces the origin, development, and 276 Botanic Gardens and Scientific Organizations to 1870-FRODIN 277 progress of biological centers from the six at Leiden University, surely stimulated the teenth to the mid-twentieth century, and the nascent Dutch commercial and scientific in reasons for the ascendancy of a few to inter terest in the Asian tropics. As the Dutch in national prominence. terest developed and Dutch residencies were established in India from late in the sixteenth century' onward, the work of Garcia da Orta and l'Ecluse was further advanced by Jan ORIGINS OF MODERN BOTANICAL GARDENS Huygen van Linschoten, the first Dutch resi European biological studies in South and dent in Goa and Cochin (1583-1589), and, Southeast Asia were for 250 years from the later, by Jacob Bondt (Bontius), resident in beginning of the sixteenth century largely Jakarta (Batavia) from 1627 until his death concerned with the identification, exploita in 1631 as physician to Governor Jan Pie tion, and transport of crops and other natu terszoon Coen. ral products of high market value. These In the decades to come, the United East included, among others, spices, plumes, sea India Company, chartered in 1602, was fa shells, wood and wood products, rattan, vorable to the study of natural history over sugar, stimulants, and medicines. In South and beyond commercial needs. This reflected and Southeast Asia, these were most often a concern on the part of the recently formed handled through the factories or trading Dutch state for "careful observation and stations of chartered companies or related management ... of the natural world" agencies operating with the support of met (Grove 1995: 127). Botanically this was rec ropolitan governments. Attached to many ognized through a charter directive calling factories or official residences, especially for attention to all kinds ofplants, not merely those of the Dutch, were gardens where new the tradeable ones (de Wit 1949: lxxvi). The or interesting plants were grown and ob Company itself maintained gardens; that in served. Their curators were usually medically Cape Town was described by Karsten (1951). qualified company or government officials. With support from the universities, particu These stations, as well as voyages of ex larly in Leiden and Amsterdam (where a bo ploration, added greatly to Western knowl tanical garden was founded in 1682), the edge of tropical Asian plants and animals, Dutch were able to lay a foundation for but the information was often haphazardly scholarly knowledge of the natural world of documented, with an emphasis on curiosities. tropical Asia. Jacob Bondt's six-part work on The earliest important botanical work, based medicinal and other plants appeared in 1658 upon observations in his garden near Goa, as Historiae naturalis et medicae Indiae ori was Coloquios dos simples by the Portuguese entalis libri sex, and over the next decades, Garcia da Orta (1563; revised in 1567 with resident Company officials prepared system subsequent reissues and translations to 1605). atic botanical and zoological works of fun The 1567 edition, in Latin, was by the Flem damental importance. These included Paul ish botanist and traveler Charles de l'Ecluse Hermann, a physician in Ceylon in the 1670s; (Carolus Clusius), a man of unusual insight Hendrik van Rheede, with three terms and contacts (de Wit 1949: lxxvii, Grove (1663-1667, 1670-1677, 1685-1691) in 1995: 77). Publication of this, as well as Malabar (now in the modem Indian state l'Ecluse's own works (notably Rariorum of Kerala); and especially George Rumpf plantarum historia [1601] and Exoticarum (Rumphius), ultimately "first merchant" (ad libri decem [1605], the latter incorporating a ministrator) in Ambon (Moluccas) for almost final version of Garcia da Orta's work), 50 years from 1653. Rheede also set up at through the renowned Antwerp firm of Cochin a "laboratory" for pharmaceutical Plantin-Moretus ensured a wide circulation. manufacture, and Hermann was, after his These, together with l'Ecluse's foundation Company service, professor of botany and directorship of the Leiden Botanic Garden director of the botanical garden at Leiden from 1590 and, soon after, his professorship University (1680-1695). 278 PACIFIC SCIENCE, Volume 52, October 1998

Other scholars in Company service in 1760s (Bastin 1990: 9). Yet there were few cluded the Germans Andries Cleyer and En significant developments save for the forma gelbert Kaempfer. Cleyer, a correspondent of tion of the Bataviaasche Genootschap and Rumphius, was Company pharmacist and visiting scientists and expeditions. Beyond garden designer in Batavia for over 20 years the Dutch sphere, there was little organized from 1666 (with two terms in the Company's activity in Southeast Asia until the nineteenth Japanese factory in Deshima off Nagasaki century. A Spanish garden at Manila and in the 1680s) and was the probable sponsor the visit to the Philippines in 1792 by the of Der orientaliseh-indianisehe Kunst- und Malaspina voyage of circumnavigation left Lust-Gartner (1692) by his gardener, Georg no lasting developments; indeed, after 1815 Meister. Kaempfer, a physician, is most and until the mid-nineteenth century, those noted for his work in Japan, where he spent islands were isolated from the main currents 2 years (1690-1691) in Company service and of European botany. later wrote Besehrijving van Japan (1729), Eventually, an increasing economic inter published after his death. In Amsterdam, est in sugarcane, tobacco, coffee, and other those actively interested in Asian natural plantation crops, along with food staples history included Jan and Caspar Commelijn, such as manioc (Manihot utitissima) and Maarten Huydecoper van Maarseveen (also breadfruit (Artoearpus altitis), stimulated a director of the Company), and, later, scientific inquiry. Tree crops, among them Johannes and his son Nicholas Burman were mulberry (Morus alba) for silkworms, black active. The elder Burman edited and saw wood (Albizia lebbek), nutmeg (Myristiea Rumphius' Herbarium amboinense through fragrans) , and teak (Teetona grandis), were the press (1741-1750), and Nicholas, em also grown (Grove 1995: 169). In the second ploying the binomial nomenclature of Lin half of the eighteenth century, however, bo naeus, synthesized knowledge of the tropical tanical gardens were also conceived as having Asian flora in Flora indica (1768). All these amenity value. In tropical Asia, the first rel works, particularly Rheede's Hortus indieus atively spacious establishments were created malabarieus (1678-1703), edited for publica by the French Compagnie des Indes in Mau tion by Arnold Syen (in Leiden) and Jan ritius (lIe de France). The first came into be Commelijn, made their mark upon European ing in 1735 under Governor Mabe de La awareness of tropical forests and environ bourdonnais (founder of the island's sugar ments (Grove 1995). industry) at Pamplemousses near Port-Louis. However, in spite of the publication of Labourdonnais focused upon food crops and Rumphius' and the younger Burman's other useful plants, including the mulberry; it works, the mid- and late eighteenth century was through this garden that manioc reached witnessed a gradual decline of direct Dutch Asia. Another garden was created in 1746 at interest in natural history. When the Com Le Reduit under Labourdonnais' successor, pany faced increasing competition, it became Pierre David, with, from 1753, the aid of the less interested in new initiatives. In Java, later Guiana explorer Jean-Baptiste Fusee however, increasing security laid the ground Aublet. The Crown assumed control of the work for future advances. Private estate island in 1764, and from 1767 the Pample gardens for wealthy and well-connected mousses garden under Comissioner-Inten Company officials and others made their dant Pierre Poivre acquired permanancy. appearance around Batavia, and in the capi There, Poivre successfully introduced the key tal the Company in 1744 under Governor species of spice trees, thus breaking the General Baron Gustaaf von Imhoff reserved Dutch monopoly. In a related development, a large piece of land at Buitenzorg (Bogor), the functions of Aublet were partly assumed 53 km to the south, as gardens and grounds by Poivre's appointments of Philibert Com for their governor's country residence. A merson, a "missionary-naturalist" (in his "hortus medicus" existed for a time in the own words [Grove 1995: 240)) recruited in Botanic Gardens and Scientific Organizations to 1870-FRODIN 279

1768 from Bougainville's expedition, and, as from Poivre's model (Grove 1995: 339). This Commerson's assistant, his nephew Pierre modified Banksian "utility with beauty" Sonnerat. Although in its time short-lived model subsequently was implemented else (Poivre returned to France in 1772 and where in tropical Asia, beginning with Prince Commerson died in 1773), the Pample ofWales Island (Penang) in 1800,-in line with mousses garden realized for the first time in the expansion of primary industry and for the Tropics the now-established institutional estry, with amenity of increasing importance. association of garden and scientists. Pample mousses' development of ornamental horti culture began in 1772 under Jean Nicolas de Cere, a protege of Poivre; in 1775, Cere be THE ROLE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES came director and remained so for 35 years. Concomitant with the development in All this was contemporary with develop Asia of botanical gardens on a larger scale ments at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, was the rise of the learned society. An acad where initially Lord Bute and then, from emy of higher learning was proposed in 1772, Sir Joseph Banks were scientific ad Mauritius (Monnier et al. 1993) around 1770, visers, and later in Bengal. In 1786 concerns and a society came into being in 1801, with similar to those of the French in Mauritius, the present Society of Arts and Sciences along with knowledge of the work of La established under British auspices in 1811 bourdonnais, caused Captain of Engineers (Grove 1995). However, the learned society, and Military Secretary to the Bengal Gov a seventeenth-eentury product of the En ernment Robert Kyd to recommend estab lightenment (Ornstein 1938), first acquired an lishment of a botanical garden at Calcutta, Asian complexion in Batavia and Calcutta. then developing into a major city. The British That in Batavia, the Bataviaasche Genoot East India Company sought advice from schap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, was Banks (Biswas 1950, Carter 1988), who had founded in 1778 by a well-placed Dutch seen reports of the Pamplemousses garden Company official, Jacob Radermacher, in as and was familiar with the work of Aublet, sociation with Frederik, Baron von Wurmb, Poivre, and Commerson. Moreover, he even and others. In Calcutta, the arrival of the tually bought Aublet's herbarium (Desmond polymath William Jones in 1783 as a judge in 1992, Grove 1995). He was also conversant the Supreme Court provided the catalyst for with the work of a recently established and the formation of the Asiatic Society early successful trial garden in St. Vincent in the in the following year (Desmond 1992). Both West Indies. societies acquired houses, established jour The Calcutta garden accordingly was es nals (the Verhandelingen from 1779 and tablished in 1787 at Sibpur outside Calcutta Asiatick Researches from 1788), and accu on the right bank of the HoogWy, where it mulated collections, although in a tropical or remains to the present day. Although Banks subtropical climate before the advent of air took the view that scientific and agronomic conditioning the preservation of biological studies should be foremost, Kyd was not specimens was problematic (cf. Wallace insensitive to the needs of a growing metrop 1869). Both societies also served as advocates olis and had also advocated the garden as for the natural sciences in the initial years of an amenity. Under Kyd's successor, William their professionalization and helped to bring Roxburgh (1793-1814), these roles were about their official acceptance and support, combined successfully and Sibpur became an although, as already indicated, social and attractive recreational resort as well as a political factors delayed this development in center for botanical research, horticulture, the Dutch possessions. They were regularly and crop and tree trials. At the same time, it consulted by governments and enjoyed offi became a key center for the system of inter cial support. national plant exchange developed by Banks The Asiatic Society, well supported from 280 PACIFIC SCIENCE, Volume 52, October 1998

the start, was until his death in 1794 presided in both Bengal and Java could be regarded as over by Jones, who drew attention to the im more or less comparable. As de Wit has portance of a proper investigation of the In written, "the English interregnum in Java ... dian flora and its resources, as well as oflocal in addition to promoting the natural sciences, agricultural practice. He created the climate had made the Dutch realize that the time in which proposals such as Kyd's could find a honoured tradition of ranking among the hearing (Desmond 1992: 57). The Batavian foremost botanists in tropical Asia had been Society was in its early years less influential. taken from their hands" (de Wit 1949: cviii). Its prime movers, Radermacher and von The Dutch reaction to British rule was Wurmb, died, respectively, in 1783 and 1781, immediate. Their perceived leadership in and save for the work of Francisco Norofia East Indian science was seen as threat (Noronha) in 1786-1787 little was accom ened. Under the stimulus of King Willem I, plished until 1801. A renewed interest in his general secretary Falck, and the first plant introduction on the part of the Dutch Governor-General, Baron van der Capellen, Company was expressed only in 1795; in the new Indies government returned with that year, however, the French took effective specific instructions to develop the pure and control of the Netherlands, and in 1798 the applied sciences. Caspar G. C. Reinwardt was Company itself was dissolved. appointed to prosecute this task as director Continued growth and influence in Cal for agriculture, the arts, and sciences. In 1817 cutta and renewal in Batavia characterized the's Lands Plantentuin (Hortus Bogor the early nineteenth century. The Asiatic So iensis) was established at Buitenzorg (Bogor) ciety in Calcutta acquired a permanent home on Reinwardt's initiative, and in 1820 a in 1808 and in 1817 established a museum Natuurkundige Commissie was organized in encompassing archeology, geology, and zool the Netherlands. Other scientific units fol ogy. In this respect, it took a path pursued lowed in the decades to 1850. by learned societies elsewhere. Official recog This not unnaturally had an effect on the nition of the importance of its collections Batavian Society. Although the members resulted in government assistance from 1841. continued to promote and publish papers in The Society also advocated official surveys, their Verhandelingen, support was building including the Survey of Bengal instigated by for a separate scientific society. In 1850 this Governor-General Lord Minto in 1807. In came into being as the Natuurkundige Java, the Batavian Society experienced a Vereeniging (Koninklijke from 1860), and the modest revival following the settlement in Batavian Society withdrew from the natural 1801 of the American naturalist Thomas sciences (but retained its arts and ethno Horsfield as a military medical officer. In graphic collections, now the basis of the 1803, this Society was able to persuade the Muzium Pusat in central Jakarta). Institu Dutch authorities to support Horsfield's tional development in India was slower, with work in botanical exploration and materia significant developments not taking place medica (Bastin 1990: 9-10). A more marked until after 1850. The Asiatic Society thus renewal followed the advent of British rule in provided one of the few regional sites for the Dutch possessions and the arrival of zoological studies until establishment of the Stamford Raffles (Bastin 1990 :46). In 1814, Indian Museum in Calcutta in 1866. This the Society was granted use of part of the museum, first advocated by the Society in newly completed social club Harmonie. 1856, then took over all their remaining col Throughout his time in Java, Horsfield regu lections, apart from geological specimens, larly reported on his travels and surveys, which went to the Geological Survey (estab which by his departure in 1818 had become lished in 1850). Although their· Journal con the most extensive essayed there. In 1812, his tinued to publish scientific papers for several work was officially acknowledged by Lord more decades, the Society, like its Batavian Minto (Bastin 1990: 41). counterpart, ftom then increasingly focused Thus, by 1816 development of the sciences on the humanities. Botanic Gardens and Scientific Organizations to 1870-FRODIN 281

BOTANICAL GARDENS AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS nished lasting contributions to pure and AFTER 1800 applied science (Holtum 1970). All were comfortably situated in secure environments Botanical Gardens that facilitated research. By contrast, pro posals for a second botanic garden in Manila The success of the East India Company were not realized until 1858 and on an un garden near Calcutta inspired the formation satisfactory site, and the French foundations of gardens elsewhere. The first was a short in Saigon (1865) and, later, Hanoi did not lived undertaking at Penang (Prince ofWales continue as scientific establishments. The first Island), the first of the British "Straits Settle botanic garden in China was established in ments," founded under William Roxburgh, Hong Kong under British rule only in the superintendent in Calcutta, in 1800, primar late nineteenth century; plans in 1888 by the ily as a spice garden. This was discontinued first administrator of the colony of British in 1805. A second, formerly native royal New Guinea, William MacGregor, for a garden at Bangalore in southern India was similar establishment in Port Moresby never acquired in 1803, but returned to the local came to fruition, substantially delaying local ruler in 1810 (Desmond 1992: 106). In 1819, scientific development (Frodin 1990). The a proposal by George Govan to convert a realization that New Guinea was itself a former pleasure garden at Saharanpur north center of crop diversity with an independent of Delhi into a botanical garden specializing agricultural history came only well into the in subtropical and temperate crops and other twentieth century (Diamond 1997: 98-100, plants was approved by the Company; this 303). remains in use today as a horticultural sta Until the advent of zoological museums, tion (Desmond 1992: 112). In 1822, a second marine stations, and higher scientific schools Penang garden came into being under (all developments from after 1870), the suc Nathaniel Wallich, Roxburgh's successor as cessful botanical gardens were the only in superintendent at Calcutta, and in the same stitutional centers in tropical Asia for bio year a first garden was founded in Singapore. logical studies, inevitably more botanical than In both Penang and Singapore, Wallich zoological. Extensive collections of living had had the backing of Raffles, but following material, notably in Bogor, were built up; the latter's final recall continuing support preserved specimens and samples were accu was not forthcoming and the gardens were mulated as local interest in identification, accordingly closed, in 1826 and 1829, re classification, and description of the flora de spectively. The current Botanic Gardens in veloped. Results were published in the jour Singapore were founded under private aus nals of local learned societies, and as com pices in 1859, becoming a government insti munications improved, their reputation was tution in 1875, and the Waterfall Gardens in spread by scientific travelers, some (particu Penang were established in 1884. The foun larlyafter 1850) with academic connections. dation of's Lands Plantentuin in Bogor (the It was's Lands Plantentuin at Bogor that present-day Kebun Raya Indonesia) has al came to enjoy the closest academic links, and ready been mentioned; and in 1821, botanical through them contacts with "general" as op activities in present-day Sri Lanka were un posed to systematic botany (Went and Went der Alexander Moon moved from the old, 1945). Its founder, Reinwardt, had early in small Dutch garden in Colombo to the cur his career held a chair at the former univer rent spacious site in Peradeniya near Kandy. sity of Harderwijk in the Netherlands (Sirks Development of Pamplemousses in Mauri 1915); in 1822, he was appointed to a pro tius continued; during the nineteenth century fessorship at Leiden University. His succes it became primarily a "pleasure" garden and sor, Carl Blume, enhanced its scientific repu is still world-renowned (Owadally 1988). tation through his Catalogus (1823) and Of these gardens, those at Bogor, Per Bijdragen tot de flora van Nederlandsche Indie adeniya, Singapore, and Calcutta have fur- (1825-1826) before returning to Europe in 282 PACIFIC SCIENCE, Volume 52, October 1998

1826. They were aided by two Kew-trained sciences in general, nor could its director gardeners, W. Kent and J. Hooper, and the focus entirely on observation and collecting garden was developed as an amenity as well during his official tours. In April of 1820, as for trials and organized collections (trials accordingly, a separate but relatively inclu were moved to a separate, nearby site in sive Natuurkundige Commissie (Natural 1876). Although without a director for over Sciences Commission) was organized in the 40 years after 1826 (beginning with the Netherlands under the particular initiative of financial stringency resulting from the Java C. J. Temminck, a zoological contemporary Wars and largely coinciding with the era of of Reinwardt and first director of the present the Kultuurstelsel) and for most of that time Rijksmuseum voor Natuurlijke Historie in subordinated to the Palace guard, develop Leiden. Large parts of the East Indies re ment continued, particularly from 1831 un mained poorly described; moreover, Hors der Hooper's successor, Johannes Teysmann. field had taken all his collections to England, Teysmann, curator until 1869 (the two final so that little material was available to Dutch years under a restored directorate), greatly scientists. enriched the living collections; under him The remit of the Commission was to carry were established a library (1842), a herbar out topographical, geological, and biological ium (1844), and the Cibodas mountain gar surveys of the Dutch Indian possessions. Al den (1864). In these projects and others, he together, 13 members and several artists and was aided by Justus Hasskarl (1838-1843, technical staff were employed over the 30 1845-1846), Simon Binnendijk (from 1850), year life of the Commission. Five people and Sulpiz Kurz (about 1859-1864). were on average in post at anyone time, In the late 1850s Willem de Vriese, Rein either in Indonesia or in Europe. But, of the wardt's successor at Leiden, visited the Gar full members, nine died in the field. Although dens and other parts of current-day Indo most died from disease (one was murdered in nesia, mostly in company with Teysmann; the Chinese rebellion of 1832), a contributing this would prove valuable for the future factor was "stress," with its inevitable strain following the return of more "liberal" ten on one's immune system. Entering the Trop dencies in the Netherlands. By contrast, the ics, young men worked themselves to ex Banks-inspired "Kew system" with which haustion, thus never fulfilling their early Pamplemousses, Sibpur, Peradeniya, and promise. The most poignant of these were Singapore were associated was relatively self Heinrich Kuhl and Johan van Hasselt, contained, with few if any academic links; friends who departed for Java at the end of because of size and geographical extent the 1820, but who died in 1821 and 1823, re Kew system was arguably "self-sustaining." spectively; they share a common grave in the With the growth of more specialized pro Kebun Raya. fessionalisms in the latter part of the century, With the support of Reinwardt, Blume, the "Kew system" would in part be found and Temminck, the Commission persevered wanting; in particular, the first inspector in spite of its losses in men and material. general ofthe Indian Forest Service, organized Successive members toured Java, Sumatra in 1864, was Dietrich Brandis, a German (1827 and 1833-1835), the Moluccas, Timor with no prior connections to the "Kew circle." and New Guinea (1828-1829), Borneo (1836-1837 and again in the 1840s), and north Sulawesi and the Moluccas (1840 The Natuurkundige Commissie in the Dutch 1843). Their collections formed the basis for Indies (I820-1850) Temminck's Rijksmuseum as well as the core Reinwardt had set up's Lands Plantentuin of's Rijks Herbarium, established in 1829 in on his own initiative as part of his overall Brussels under Blume's direction, but re program for agricultural and scientific devel moved to Leiden at the outset of the Belgian opment of the Dutch territories. It did not, rebellion of 1830. All the collections, with however, have a mission over the natural their numerous primary types, remain of Botanic Gardens and Scientific Organizations to 1870-FRODIN 283 great importance to the study of Malesian approach to topographical and biological biodiversity. In addition, some scientific di survey in the Dutch East Indies would not rection was given to's Lands Plantentuin, return until after 1870. In the intervening including formation of a systematic arrange 20 years, organized Dutch scientific work ment for the living collections, still one of its was at a relatively low ebb and as much, if important features (de Wit 1949: cxi). not more, work was done by outsiders. These Nevertheless, the losses and apparent included French, British, and United States paucity of results resulted in a review by the world voyages through 1842 and, most fa Indies Governor-General in 1836. Over the mously, Alfred Russel Wallace between 1854 previous decade, the Dutch had suffered re and 1862. verses, including the Java War of 1825-1830, the failure of a settlement in New Guinea, The great tropical biological centers of the secession of Belgium in 1830, and the Asia of the late nineteenth and early twenti Chinese rebellion in Java in 1832. Under eth centuries were largely based on botanical Governors-General Du Bus (successor to van gardens established over the previous century der Capellen in 1826 and an architect of or more by various European powers with an the Kultuurstelsel) and Merkus, a more con economic and later also a direct and indirect servative political climate ensued, reflecting social interest in plants, plant products, and metropolitan trends, that lasted until the forests. The gardens in turn reflected ob 1860s. Two Commission members, the bota servations and small-scale trials made in the nist Pieter W. Korthals and the zoologist sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The ef Salomon Muller, were seconded to Europe fective participation and lasting reputation of to help Temminck work up the accumulated the different powers in tropical Asian pure collections. The major result was the 3 and applied biology in this formative era are volume Verhandelingen over de Natuurlijke more or less directly related to their maritime Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Overzeesche history, as well as to their level of botanical Bezittingen (1839-1847) edited by Temminck. awareness and corresponding interest in Its first volume, by Muller, contains his first documentation. Both these factors strongly ideas on Malesian zoogeography, a forerun favored the Dutch in the seventeenth and ner of those of Wallace and later more fully eighteenth centuries, enabling them to obtain developed in German (1846). It was, how a position of botanical leadership in which ever, far from comprehensive in its coverage; they took some pride. Local establishments, in botany, Korthals preferred detailed studies however, remained small and inland explo with the result that relatively few plant fami ration generally limited. An increasing inter lies were published. est in bulkier plantation crops, such as cane The 1840s were, as elsewhere, a time of sugar, prompted an interest in larger trial increasing specialization. This was turned to grounds, for which the French, in control of good effect by the geologist C. A. L. M. Mauritius from 1722, were well placed. Suit Schwaner in Borneo, in his posthumously able land was first developed in 1735, and published book, Borneo (1853), and by the under Pierre Poivre from 1767 to 1772 there polymath Frans Junghuhn, the "Humboldt came into being the first known association of Java" (Sirks 1915), who explored the of domain, grower, and scientist. Poivre's island in the 1830s and 1840s and later wrote domain also became under his successor a definitive four-volume topographical, Java, Nicolas Cere the first "pleasure garden" in zijne gedaante, zijn plantentooi en inwendige the Asian maritime world, a reflection of de bouw (1853-1854). But these came too late to veloping local as well as metropolitan sensi save the Commission, which was terminated bilities toward the environment (Grove 1995). in April 1850. The low level of results had It was thus comparable with European es surely taken its toll; in addition, Junghuhn tablishments such as in Paris or at Kew near was inclined toward a single-minded in London, then also recently founded. This dependence (de Wit 1949). An integrated "new garden idea" made its way into British 284 PACIFIC SCIENCE, Volume 52, October 1998 territory at Calcutta in 1786-1787, thence in English for both scientific and popular through other parts of South and Southeast audiences, who brought lasting fame to the Asia; topographically the best sites were region's animal and insect life. However, Buitenzorg (Bogor) (1817), Peradeniya although Wallace's work was largely extra (1821), and Singapore (1859). institutional, the future largely would lie in These gardens did not necessarily achieve new or renewed institutions. a Poivre establishment model from the be ginning. Sustainability in the form of official institutionalization of practical and intellec LITERATURE CITED tual resources developed slowly though not necessarily behind similar developments in The principal sources for this survey have the metropolitan sphere. Again, government been Desmond (1992) on the history of bot policies and personalities played a key role. any in India, Sirks (1915) on the history of In Indonesia, the state, relatively autono biology in Indonesia, and de Wit (1949) on mous, was always Java-centric and this the history of systematic botany in Malesia. served to concentrate resources. In pure and For Mauritius, I have drawn much on Owa applied biology and natural history Bogor dally (1988) and Grove (1995). thus became a natural center in spite of early difficulties. Links with metropolitan uni BASTIN, J. 1990. The natural history re versities were established at the same time, searches of Thomas Horsfield (1773 which boded well for the future. 1859). Oxford University Press, Singa Establishments in British territories all be pore. [Historical introduction and bibliog came part of the world-wide "Kew system" raphy, 1-97] (Brockway 1979, McCracken 1997). Al BISWAS, K. 1950. The original correspon though this could draw upon a wide range of dence of Sir Joseph Banks relating to the expertise, much of it in fact Scottish, it had foundation of the Royal Botanic Garden, relatively few university connections. The Calcutta, and the summary of the 150th Calcutta garden, in terms of resources the anniversary volume of the Annals of the most nearly comparable with Bogor, was not Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta. J. R. well placed for some kinds oftrials, but being Asiatic Soc. Bengal Monogr. Ser. 9. close to the Himalayas and other relatively BROCKWAY, L. 1979. Science and colonial temperate areas, it played an important role expansion: The role of the British Royal in horticulture. However, although of great Botanic Gardens. Academic Press, New importance as a city amenity and close to a York. learned society, its location was less salubri CARTER, H. 1988. Sir Joseph Banks, 1743 ous than that of Bogor; thus in time it failed 1820. British Museum (Natural History), to attract associated institutions, including London. specialized educational establishments (al CASTNER, J. 1990. Rainforests: A guide to though its staff were long involved in local research and tourist facilities at selected college teaching). Zoological studies were tropical forest sites in Central and slow to develop, because of the difficulties of South America. Feline Press, Gainesville, preservation of specimens and, until after the Florida. mid-nineteenth century, a lesser role in the CORNER, E. J. H. 1946. Suggestions for bo colonial economic and social environment. tanical progress. New Phytol. 45: 185-192. Early local progress centered mainly on DAMMERMAN, K. W. 1945. A history of the learned societies and, in Indonesia, the the Visitors' Laboratory ("Treub Labo Natuurkundige Commissie; much, however, ratorium") of the Botanic Gardens, continued to be done by outsiders. Although Buitenzorg, 1884-1934. Pages 59-75 in Commission member Muller effectively es P. Honig and F. Verdoorn, eds. 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