Symbolism in Arthurian Legends Bachelor’S Diploma Thesis

Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

English Language and Literature

Pavla Sassmannová

Symbolism in Arthurian legends Bachelor’s Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: prof. Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc., M.A.

2019

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

…………………………………………….. Author’s signature

Acknowledgement I would like to thank my supervisor prof. Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc., M.A. for her patience with me and also for her immensely useful recommendations and her guidance. Table of Contens

Introduction ...... 2 1. Arthurian Legends ...... 4 1.1. History of Arthurian legends ...... 4 1.2. Selected authors ...... 7 1.2.1. Nennius ...... 8 1.2.2. Chrétien de Troyes ...... 8 1.2.3. Geoffrey of Monmouth ...... 10 1.2.4. Thomas Malory ...... 12 1.3. Selected works ...... 14 1.3.1. Historia Brittonum ...... 14 1.3.2. Le Morte d’Arthur ...... 15 1.3.3. Avalon High ...... 17 2. Symbolism ...... 18 3. The relics from historical point of view ...... 21 3.1. Excalibur ...... 21 3.2. The Holy Grail ...... 23 3.3. The Round Table ...... 25 4. Religion ...... 28 4.1. Christianity ...... 29 4.2. Paganism ...... 31 5. The Relics from religious point of view ...... 34 5.1. Excalibur ...... 34 5.2. The Holy Grail ...... 35 5.3. The Round Table ...... 38 Conclusion ...... 41 References ...... 43 Summary ...... 45 Resumé ...... 46

Introduction

Arthurian legends are well known all around the world and they were and still are an inspiration for artists in many various fields throughout the centuries. They can be found in paintings or sculptures but as well in music or architecture. This is mainly because the legends are an unlimited source of religious motives, courageous adventures, and above all, symbols which can be interpreted in thousands of different ways and there still can be found more. Each artist is able to find something new that has never been talked or written about and that catches their eye and the eyes of their audience in the period in which the artist lives and creates. As it is typical for art, in each period of time, artists put emphasis on different parts of the legends and looked at them from different points of view which are exactly what makes every story so unique.

In some periods, authors focused on the chivalry of the knights or the good will of the king. In other periods, they focused on different symbols and their interpretation in various ways. That is also what this thesis is about.

There has always been a contradiction between the point of view of a historian,

Christian, and Pagan and as usual, there is more than one way how to interpret any kind of story or some of its components. The symbols which are the main focus of this work are The Holy Grail, The Round table, and King Arthur’s sword Excalibur. They are examined from a historical point of view and also from a religious point of view with emphasis on Christianity and Paganism.

The main aim of this thesis is to show that all three relics can be and also are viewed from different points of view when it comes to history and religion and that it is important to never forget that every story or its part can mean something different for each person on the planet.

This paper is divided into five main chapters which are then also divided into subchapters with more detailed information on certain topics.

The first chapter introduces Arthurian legends and their importance in literature and then briefly continues with its rich history. There are also introduced some of the most significant authors of the legends throughout history, for example, Geoffrey of

Monmouth or Thomas Malory and their contributions to the legends which were important for the development and spreading of the legends to other countries. Some of the most significant works are also mentioned, for example Le Morte d’Arthur, and also one of the modern adaptations of the legends called Avalon High that shows a different approach to the legends which is more appealing to a younger audience.

The second chapter explains what symbolism is and where its origins lays as well as why it is such an important part of art and literature. It also describes the importance of it in the legends.

The third chapter then describes the three relics (Excalibur, The Holy Grail, and The

Round table) and their importance and symbolism from the historical point of view.

There are also contained nuances in different stories from various authors.

The fourth chapter briefly introduces the concept of religion and then explains more about Christianity and Paganism as they are important for the final part of this thesis.

And finally, the fifth chapter explains the symbolism of the three relics from the religious point of view. It focuses on the differences between and also similarities in the points of view of Christianity and Paganism.

This thesis may also serve as a base for further research on the differences in perceptions of symbolism of the relics in different religions as well as in history.

1. Arthurian Legends

Norris J. Lacy in his Arthurian Handbook says that the Arthurian legend is the most secular British myth which was created on the basis of just a little amount of facts, some even uncertain, and managed to become a story known all over the world (271)

It is said that some books and stories will live forever and without no doubt the

Arthurian legends belong to them. There have been many works written about this topic and surely many will be in the future because the magical thing about these legends is that they seem to be an inexhaustible source of inspiration. Every person who has ever read them perceived them in a different way than the others. That is the charm of every literary piece. There are endless possibilities of how to perceive or interpret them.

The legends despite being several centuries old are still as appealing as they were at the time of their creation. They are also not limited only to literature. They almost seem to be living their own life when it comes to spreading to various branches of art.

Nowadays we can find the legends almost everywhere. They can be found, of course, in literature but as well in sculptures, movies or even computer games.

Although some historians argue about the origins of the legends and also about King

Arthur as they are still not sure whether he was a real person or whether he is just an invented literary character the fact is that this story has always been familiar to readers and writers and it will probably be in the following centuries as well.

1.1. History of Arthurian legends

The history of Arthurian legends is almost as rich as the history of mankind. It almost seems that the legends have always been there. There are so many stories from various authors which were created throughout several centuries and also several countries even though one could think that the legends come only from Britain.

The origins were discussed many times in the history and they probably will be again as well as the question whether Arthur was a real person or not. The only thing historians agree on is that he could have existed but it is not certain.

Nowadays, after so many centuries with so many authors writing about these legends and King Arthur himself, we have many sources of information at our disposal.

Unfortunately, not all of them can be trusted and if there are some true facts they may be hidden between invented things so it is immensely difficult to determine what is true and what is not. Thus, the historians cannot pinpoint the exact time when the legends came into existence. However, they are fairly sure the legends have a Celtic origin and the first mentions are said to be from around the fifth century.

King Arthur was mentioned by name in literature for the first time in Nennius’s

Historia Brittonum, but he is not called a king there but just a mere warrior fighting alongside the kings.

Next significant work where Arthur was mentioned was Historia Regum Brittaniae written in Latin by Geoffrey of Monmouth. This work was based on Nennius’s and it could be considered a biography of King Arthur as Monmouth focused more on Arthur and his life and by that he managed to create the beginning of the story of the legend.

Even William Lewis Jones says in his King Arthur in History and legend that the success of Monmouth’s work was unparalleled until the age when people started printing books. (85) But this success was not limited only to Latin speakers, his work was also translated into English and French. That is how the stories spread through

England and France where they turned to be very popular.

A French poet was also significant to the evolution of the legends. Chrétien de

Troyes introduced the concept of the Holy Grail as some kind of a cup used by Jesus during the Last Supper. De Troyes also changed the focus of the stories. They were no

5 longer focused on Arthur and his life but mainly on other characters and their lives and adventures.

In the 15th century Thomas Malory came with his retelling of the legends called Le

Morte d’Arthur which is one of the most significant works ever written about this topic.

After the invention of the printing press, the stories quickly spread to whole Europe and Malory’s work became widely read and studied. Despite some criticism about the content of the stories, Le Morte d’Arthur is, according to Lacy, the greatest work written about Arthurian Literature and also a source of inspiration for many writers in the following years (131).

The legends were not as popular in the following centuries as they were before, but they never fully disappeared. Among artists who created works about the legends in these centuries are, for example, Edmund Spencer, William Morris and Alfred

Tennynson.

Edmund Spencer was an English poet born in the middle of the 16th century whose most famous work is an epic poem called The Faerie Queene. Spencer uses an allegory to describe virtues and to portray this allegory he uses the knights from Arthurian legends and also King Arthur himself. Arthur represents the ideal knight who inspires all the other knights to be like him.

William Morris was a man with many different talents born in the first half of the

19th century. He was a writer, painter, designer and he was also interested in politics.

One of his most famous works is a poem called The Defence of Guenevere. It is about

Guenevere’s memories even though we can encounter her name for the first time approximately in the middle of the poem. It is narrated by her and it brings up a question if she really was unfaithful to her husband.

Alfred Tennynson was an English poet as well. He wrote Idylls of the King which is a collection containing twelve poems about King Arthur and also his Knights of the

Round Table. Tennynson describes Arthur’s effort for creating a better woeld and also his inability to do so due to many reasons.

The Legends became once again popular in the 20th century due to many literary adaptations as well as the film ones. During the second half of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st, there were many adaptations including some which are meant for a younger audience. A number of these adaptations are done according to Malory’s legends but some of them offer us a new point of view. The history of the legends is rich but the contents of them and the thoughts behind them as well are much richer and they are also a source of inspiration to us all.

1.2. Selected authors

There were and still are many authors writing about the Arthurian legends. Each of them focused on different parts or components of the legends, but they all have one thing in common and that is the enchantment that drew them all into this magical story and encouraged them to write so many interesting stories not only about King Arthur and the Knights of The Round Table but as well about other, seemingly less significant characters or even about relics and their magical properties.

Many of these authors were forgotten but their stories were not. Other stories have uncertain origin or the authors are due to some reasons questioned but then there are authors who, according to historians, are rightfully assigned to their works.

1.2.1. Nennius

W. L. Jones said that “[t]he oldest historical document in which Arthur is mentioned by name is the famous Historia Brittonum ascribed to Nennius” (14)

There may have been other mentions of some kind of a “leader” with the same qualities and abilities as King Arthur has but Nennius was the first one to assign a name to this character.

There is not much information about Nennius but the historians are fairly certain that he was a Welsh monk who lived in the eighth and ninth century and apart from his native language Welsh and knowledge of Latin, which seems to be from his studies in the church, he was also able to understand Old English and Irish which could help him when he wrote Historia Brittonum. This knowledge also supports the theory that

Nennius had access to old sources from the fifth, sixth or seventh century because even

Jones mentions that different parts of Nennius’s work could have been written earlier and Nennius only added some other parts and compiled it into one work as we know it now. (14)

1.2.2. Chrétien de Troyes

There is not much information about the life of this French writer. Information we have is from the author himself. He often wrote about his life in the introductions or even in the notes of his own works.

Most probably, he was born between the years 1130 and 1135. De Troyes himself wrote in his work Erec et Enide that he came from the city of Troyes which is located eastwards from Paris and from the river Seine. This piece of information seems to be

8 true because he wrote his works in the dialect of west Champagne, which is a region in

France.

During his life he worked as a poet at the court of Henry I, count of Champagne and some of his works were even commissioned by Henry’s wife, comtesse de

Champagne, Marie.

Some of his works represent the best-regarded literature in the Middle Ages. He focused on Arthurian literature and his best works are Erec et Enide; Cligès; Lancelot, ou Le Chevalier à la charrette (this was the first work ever to describe a love involvement between Guinevere, Arthur’s wife, and Lancelot, Arthur’s knight); Yvain, ou le Chevalier au lion; and Perceval, ou Le Conte du Graal. All of these works were written between 1160 and 1190 and had a basis in Celtic mythology which was connected to the everyday life of the 12th century. He also composed two lyric poems about the Arthurian legends.

But “[i]n terms of their contribution to our knowledge of Arthur, the most striking fact about Chrétien’s romances is that, unlike the chronicles, they present the King as a secondary character” (Lacy et al. 69). Usually, most authors write about the King’s adventures but this French writer decided not to. He put Arthur in the background of his stories and focused on other characters, their lives and adventures. This is what makes his works more appealing because it is something different, new, and something that has not been done before.

De Troyes was also the first author to introduce The Holy Grail as a cup which was used by Jesus during the Last Supper. But his works did not focus only on Arthurian literature. “Chrétien mentions other works. They include a lost vernacular rendering of

Ovid’s Art of Love, The Amores, and Cures for Love and two Ovidian tales” (Chrétien,

2000, p. 9) He also wrote about Tristan and Isolde and many others but unfortunately, a

9 number of his works was lost. Also, even though he was primarily a poet, his works were not only epic he wrote several lyrical compositions as well.

The work of de Troyes is as well significant for studying the social and cultural phenomena of Arthurian times because the society and common people’s lives are described there. The author himself had never been to England, but he was able to precisely describe its countryside and towns (as well as places in other countries) due to his thorough studies. For example in the novel Cligès, the main hero is from

Constantinople but then moves to Arthur’s realm and then to contemporary Greece and

Germany. That confirms that De Troyes had extensive knowledge and used it for increasing credibility of his works.

1.2.3. Geoffrey of Monmouth

One of the best known authors of Arthurian legends is Geoffrey of

Monmouth. He was an English author with the place of birth which was probably at

Monmouth in Wales around the year 1100. Despite being fairly certain about his place of birth, it is difficult to say whether he was a descendant of Welsh or Breton families who lived there as well. Being “[a] cleric, he was teaching at Oxford between 1129 and

1151 and was consecrated bishop of St. Asaph in Wales” (Lacy et al. 36)

Unfortunately for us, only three of his works survived up until now. All three of them are in Latin and all three of them are about Arthurian motives.

The first is called Prophetiae Merlini, in English Prophecies of Merlin.

Monmouth took a young seer from Nennius’s Historia Britonum where this child was called Ambrosius and connected it to name Myrddin from a Celtic legend which he translated to Latin as Merlin. Martha Bayless says that “the shape of the story, and

Merlin’s connection with Arthur, are Geoffrey’s invention”. Monmouth knew about

Merlin only that he was a prophet and what his name was when he wrote about him in

Historia. Later, when he wrote his third known work, he learnt more about Merlin, his life and history.

Later he took Prophecies of Merlin and integrated it into another of his works,

Historia Regum Britanniae, written in 1136, which is in English called History of the

Kings of Britain. This work is the most significant of his creations. It could also be called a biography of King Arthur as Monmouth talks about his life in great detail including Guinevere or the Knights of the Round Table.

The last of the three surviving works is a poem called Vita Merlini, in English

Life of Merlin. In this piece, Monmouth continues to tell his tale about Merlin. This time he knew more about the man he based his character on and that proved to be a problem.

He tried to follow information about Merlin from his Historia, but he was not very successful and there are some factual differences as he knew more about Merlin at the time of writing Vita Merlini.

Monmouth’s work is significant in a special way. He took a story, retold it, changed some things and added some and that is how he created one of the most read works in Europe in the Middle Ages which also changed the character of European literature. Many of the following writers built their stories on information from

Mounmouth’s work. “[He] influenced writers such as Wace, who based his Roman de

Brut (1155) on the History of the Kings of Britain” (Bayless). Although some of the historical facts are not correct and it is more of a fiction than a chronicle, it is still a formidable piece which influenced many others throughout following decades and centuries and it deserves to be read and remembered.

1.2.4. Thomas Malory

Thomas Malory is, together with Geoffrey of Monmouth, one of the most well known authors of Arthurian legends. He wrote Le Morte d’Arthur which is a collection of stories which are a source of inspiration and information for many writers who came in years and centuries after Malory.

He was an English writer born at the beginning of the 15th century. But at the time of completion of Le Morte d’Arthur there were many men with the same name so many historians argue which one of them is the one who wrote about King Arthur.

According to an introduction, written by John Lawlor, in Le Morte d’Arthur from 1969, in the 19th century, an American scholar called Kittredge found out and also adeptly convinced other scholars that the Thomas Malory they were looking for is Sir Thomas

Malory from Newbold Revell in Warwickshire (Malory viii). Even though, there are still some historians who may question Kittredge’s Malory, it has been widely accepted and nowadays it could be considered a fact.

In a similar way to acquiring information about Chrétien de Troyes, we can also find out things about Malory’s life from his work. For example, at the end of Le Morte d’Arthur he wrote that he was “a knight prisoner” which suggests that he was imprisoned while writing this work (Ackroyd ix). But that was not the only time he spent in prison. According to records, during his life, he was several times accused of theft, ambush or even rape. But because of his high status, it was fairly easy to get out of this kind of problems and when he could not avoid prison he had at least certain advantages and reliefs in comparison to other prisoners.

Malory lived during the reign of Henry IV when the kingdom was continually in disorder due to rebellions and violence. This is also in some ways reflected in Malory’s work particularly in the way he describes some of the conflicts between characters.

It was a period of frequent battles so it is almost impossible for Malory not to encounter them. Because of his status in society, he “would also have attended jousts and tournaments, where the words of ballads and epics took on a formidable and glamorous life” (Ackroyd vii). That, together with skills like being able to hunt, ride or shoot an arrow and also having gone to war, would immensely help him while writing because he would know what it is like to be a knight and what this kind of like could include.

As was already mentioned, he wrote at least some portion of Le Morte d’Arthur in prison. That also influenced the atmosphere and there is a certain sadness that can be felt from the work. He finished it either in 1469 or 1470 and soon after that he died in

1471. There is no information about how he died nor even when, but he was buried in the Greyfriars Church by Newgate which is close to the famous jail so it may suggest that he was a prisoner at that time once again (Ackroyd ix).

He left behind Le Morte d’Arthur which was printed in 1485 by William Caxton who changed the name from original The Hoole Book of Kyng Arthur and of His Noble

Knyghtes of the Rounde Table to Le Morte Darthur and up until the first half of the 20th century it was the only version available. A new manuscript was found at Winchester in

1934 by Eugene Vinaver who edited it and printed it 13 years later (Lacy et al. 128).

Malory’s work is important not only as a literary masterpiece but as well because it represents the author’s experiences, ideas and imagination which inspired many authors in history and many will surely be inspired in the future.

1.3. Selected works

As was already mentioned in this thesis, some of the stories about King Arthur have uncertain origin or were even lost throughout the centuries. However, there are still many preserved for us to enjoy and gain inspiration from. Each is unique and added to the legends something new. It does not matter if it is a new point of view, new characters or a completely different plot, it is what makes the work different and worthy of attention.

The legends were not written about only in the Middle Ages and the following centuries. There are still new works being created even now. That does not include only literature but also other branches of art, for example, sculptures, architecture, or movies and TV series.

1.3.1. Historia Brittonum

Historia Britonum, or in English History of the Britons, is the work where King

Arthur was mentioned by the name for the first time. It is a compilation of stories and also a small amount of information about history. This work is often ascribed to

Nennius, a Welsh monk who wrote it in the ninth century but it is said that he just put together all the things he could find. This theory is supported by the way in which the work is written as it is quite disorganized.

There is also more than one version available to us, and they differ one from another which implies that the original could have been changed by authors in later decades or centuries.

As for the content of the book, “[t]he quasi-historical part of the work contains much the fullest notice of Arthur’s military exploits to be found in any chronicle before

14 that of Geoffrey of Monmouth” (Jones 14). Nennius concentrated on the twelve battles of Arthur’s army, and he put special emphasis on Arthur’s fights and his victory where he single-handedly defeated 960 men. It is difficult to believe that Arthur could have done that but sometimes the number of defeated men was assigned to the leader of the army. That leads us to another interesting thing which is that Arthur is not called a king but instead it is said that he fought with the kings which may suggest that he was only some kind of a commander of the army.

Due to the high number of incredible heroic stories that cannot be realistic, the book is not a reliable source of historical events but here and there may be found some pieces of information that are true.

1.3.2. Le Morte d’Arthur

Le Morte d’Arthur was written by Sir Thomas Malory in the second half of the

15th century. It was inspired by works, mainly French ones, from previous centuries but it is not just a compilation of works written by others. Malory managed to create something special that inspires many authors even today.

This work was created in 1469 or 1470 probably while Malory was imprisoned because he wrote at the end of the work that he was a “knight prisoner” (Ackroyd ix).

It was printed by William Caxton in 1485 and up until the 20th century, it was the only version available. But in 1934 Eugene Vinaver found a manuscript at

Winchester. He also edited it and then published it in 1947 (Lacy et al. 128).

The original name of the version printed by Caxton was The Hoole Book of

Kyng Arthur and of His Noble Knyghtes of the Rounde Table but Caxton decided to change it to Le Morte Darthur.

Both versions are assigned to Malory, but they differ in many things. The manuscript is in some parts more detailed than Caxton’s version, for example. Another difference is the language. Caxton is more sophisticated in his expressions whereas the manuscript seems to have no scruples about calling things as they are.

The very existence of the manuscript brings a discussion about which version is the one written by Malory and which one was edited. Many scholars argue about the one true version but the fact is that it is almost impossible to discover what happened in the 15th century and we may also doubt the authenticity of the author himself.

As for the content of Le Morte d’Arthur, judging just by the name, a reader might come to a conclusion that the book is only about Arthur, his life, his heroic deeds, and his death. But the opposite is the truth as the work brings an unexpectedly rich and varied picture of many romantic stories written in the style of chivalric romance.

Malory makes us imagine Camelot with the Knights of the Round Table as they set off towards a new adventure, we can also imagine Arthur sitting at the Round Table and listening to the narrations of his knights. There is also the queen torn apart between her love to Arthur and his best knight. And the quest to find the Holy Grail which represents the way to self-knowledge is there as well.

This work brings out a strong interest in the history of Britain as well as in the chivalric romances. It was even translated into several languages. It has also never been out of print which only confirms its popularity and timelessness. Whether it is the 17th century or the 21st, there will always be readers eager to explore the magical world of knights, magicians and heroic adventures.

1.3.3. Avalon High

Avalon High is a novel for young people written by an American author Meggin

Patricia Cabot who specializes in romantic and paranormal fiction for teens and adults. Her most famous work is a series called The Princess Diaries which was later made into two films by Walt Disney Pictures.

Avalon High is one of the modern adaptations of Arthurian legends and it takes place in a high school where a lot of connections to the legends exist, one of them is, for example, similar names.

“Cabot delivers a clever modern take on Arthurian legend, which moves swiftly along to a satisfying, tender conclusion” (Welch) Cabot came up with a story which is in many ways similar to the original legends. There are characters, which are seemingly reincarnations of King Arthur, Guinevere or Lancelot but the author came up with a new twist and completely changed the usual ending of the legends.

That is why new versions of the legends are so important. Authors always come up with something new and unusual what makes their work stand out between the others. Each person has a unique point of view on things and that helps in finding new things to write about.

2. Symbolism

Most people might not even realize that but symbolism is a part of our everyday lives. It is something we usually perceive only subconsciously and we need to focus on it when we want to study it.

“Spelt with a small initial letter the word ‘symbolism’, like the words

‘romanticism’ and ‘classicism’, can have an extremely wide meaning” (Chadwick 1)

Symbolism is an artistic and literary movement which originated in France in the second half of the 19th century with Charles Baudelaire’s Les Fleurs du mal, in English

The Flowers of Evil which were influenced by the works of Edgar Allan Poe.

Symbolism had been shaping for some time before there was a definition for it. It was defined by a Greek poet writing in French called Jean Moréas who created a manifesto and published it in a Parisian newspaper in 1886. Moréas wrote about it to point out the differences between a symbolist, which was a new term he introduced to wide society, and a decadent. He also wrote that Symbolism is the successor of movements such as Romanticism or the Naturalist movement and he wanted Symbolism to be seen as an “attempt to give outward form to Ideas” (Chadwick 6). These ‘Ideas’ should be, according to Moréas, pictured in a certain way so it can be perceived by our senses and the form of depiction of these ‘Ideas’ should be subordinate to them.

Symbolism also has units. These units are called symbols and were defined by Henri de Régnier who also said that they can stand alone and that readers do not even have to pay attention to them when they read them, let alone know what the meaning behind them is. Thus Symbolism is an art where an artist expresses his ideas without direct description or without comparing them to other things. He only makes suggestions through symbols and it is up to the reader to try to find or think of an explanation to these symbols (Chadwick 2-3).

Symbols can be specific concrete things but they can also be abstract or general.

That often confuses readers and they might not understand what the intention of the writer was and they can reject the work with the explanation that it is not their cup of tea. But the beautiful thing about symbolism is that one work may be perceived differently by men, women, old, and young. Each person is able to see different things behind the symbols and that is what makes symbolism so unique. One thousand people could read the same text written in symbolism and each of them could understand the symbols in it in a completely different way.

Although literary symbolism is arguably the most known part of Symbolism, there are other parts of art where we can find it. In literature the most important part are usually words but in poetry poets often complement their poems with illustrations or sometimes even with music. Some of the most known writers are Les Poètes maudits, in

English the accursed poets. Paul Verlaine, Charles Baudelaire, or Arthur Rimbaud belonged to this group but there were also others who were not part of the accursed poets such as Gustave Kahn (poet and art critic), Paul Valéry (poet, essayist, philosopher), or Nicolette Hennique Valentin (poet).

In painting, symbolism was widespread as much as in literature, maybe even a little bit more. Painters often used mythology and things they saw in their dreams as the base for their paintings. Some of the most know painters are, for example, Edvard Munch,

Gustave Moreau, and Gustav Klimt.

Even though these two branches of art are the most prominent, Symbolism can be also found in sculptures, music, or even theatre.

According to Alfred North Whitehead, the attitude of mankind towards symbolism is a changing combination of attraction and dislike (Whitehead 47) It is a fact that in some period of time Symbolism was more popular than in others but the truth is that try

19 as we might to get rid of it, symbolism will always be there because it is a part of our way of life. Even our communication is considered symbolistic because language itself is symbolism.

Also, as was mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, symbolism may have a wide meaning but this thesis will be working with it in the broad sense as it suits the purpose of this thesis the most.

3. The relics from historical point of view

As was mentioned before, Arthurian legends have many adaptations from various periods of time. Some of them are almost identical and some of them are completely different. However there are certain things that seem to be unchanged in every single adaptation and those are the main characters, even though they do not necessarily have to be exact imitations, and the relics which accompany every Arthurian story – Arthur’s sword Excalibur, The Holy Grail, and The Round Table. Without them the stories would never be complete as they are crucial components of the stories.

3.1. Excalibur

Excalibur is arguably the most known weapon in world literature and the story behind it does not fall behind as it is as known as the name of the sword. Many little boys like to pretend that they are King Arthur and that they wield the famous sword while fighting against enemies in great battles between the good and the evil.

The story about this sword varies from author to author but there are still some similarities such as the fact that Excalibur belonged to King Arthur.

This sword was mentioned by Geoffrey of Monmouth who was using a different name for it. He called it Caliburn (or Caliburnus). It has many magical properties for example when a king unsheathed the sword his enemies are blinded by a flash of light.

Also the scabbard is magical, whoever owns and wears it cannot be injured.

Even though Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote about such a sword before Thomas

Malory, Malory was the first one to write about the legendary Excalibur, which is an

Old French translation of Caliburn. According to him, Lady of the Lake gave it to

Arthur and after his death the lake was where the sword was placed again so the Lady

21 could take care of it. There is also a second sword which Arthur owned before

Excalibur and this is the famous sword that made Arthur the king when he pulled it out of a stone.

In some adaptations the swords are actually one but most adaptations hold on to

Malory’s version. One of the adaptations, where there is only one sword, is for example a TV series called Merlin where Excalibur is made with the breath of a dragon and it is supposed to be used only by Arthur. Unfortunately, Uther used it first so Merlin took it and threw it into the lake of Avalon until it was needed. When the right time comes

Merlin goes back to the lake to retrieve the sword and, in the same way as it is described in the legend, a hand with it arises from the lake. But after using the sword it needs to be placed where it cannot be used again so Merlin puts in into the stone and only later tells

Arthur about it when he starts to have doubts about himself. Arthur pulls it out of the stone as the only person that can become the greatest king and it boosts his confidence and dispels his doubts. After Arthur’s death, Merlin takes the sword back to the lake and gives it back to the Lady.

Even though different adaptations vary in the number of swords or their abilities the fact is that swords in literature symbolize power and strength of their wielder. In the

Middle Ages, they could also mark the rank of the owners. According to the decorations on the sword itself and also on the scabbard, one could easily find out how much money the wielder had or how high his rank was.

People from lower classes could not wield swords as it was only for knights or royalty. The ability to wield it was a privilege but sometimes people of high social status could easily take advantage of it and do what they wanted at the expense of people from lower classes.

That is, of course, not the case of Excalibur. Even though an interesting thing about this famous sword and also about its wielder is that historians are still not sure whether they existed or not. All research is only based on legends and stories about it but there are no verified historical facts confirming the sword’s existence. Thus we can only presume whether it existed or not.

However there is one certain thing. The sword(s) symbolized the status, power and strength of King Arthur as well as the King himself. When somebody says Excalibur most people immediately think of the legendary King who pulled the sword out of the stone and who had so many amazing adventures. In the legends throughout the centuries, Excalibur has not been just a piece of metal forged into the shape of a sword and given to a king, it has been and still is an important part of literature and history which has influenced and moved many readers all over the world.

3.2. The Holy Grail

The Holy Grail is one of the most known relics in the world. Many people have heard about it throughout the centuries and many have tried to find it. However the question is what the Holy Grail really is?

Although many studied the Grail there are several theories of what the grail could be.

For example according to Laurence Gardner, the Holy Grail is actually the bloodline of

Messiah. At the beginning of the bloodline is Jesus and his brother and the very title of

Gardner’s work (Bloodline of the Holy Grail) implies that Jesus had children. Gardner also explains the origin of the expression the Holy Grail. In the Middle Ages there was a name in French for the line of Messiah called ‘Sangréal’ which originated from ‘Sang

Réal’, which in English means ‘Blood Royal’. The present ‘Holy Grail’ comes from

23 several incorrect interpretations. In English, ‘Sangréal’ changed to ‘San Graal’ which was in the longer version ‘Saint Grail’. (Gardner 1-2)‘Saint’ can be in English substituted by ‘Holy’ so by mistakes in interpretations and by linguistic processes we managed to change ‘Sangréal’, the royal blood, to the ‘Holy Grail’ which no longer directly implies connection to Messiah and his bloodline.

The Grail is often portrayed as a cup or a chalice and the first author to ever write about it in Arthurian literature was Chrétien de Troyes. He described it as a cup which was used by Jesus during the Last supper.

It is arguably one of the most universal symbols in medieval literature. In the course of history, the Grail was depicted in several different forms and it also had several different meanings. In literature it is usually pictured as a continuous fight between the

Good and the Evil.

The Grail belongs to the Christian tradition as much as it does to the Pagan tradition.

And even though those religions see its shape, history, and symbolism in a different way, they have one thing in common. The Grail is never empty. The sole existence of the Grail connects the two religions although they may seem completely incompatible.

The differences between the perception of the Grail between Christianity and Paganism will be discussed further in a later chapter of his thesis.

Many authors in history wrote about the Grail, each of them in their unique style as they had interpreted available information in their own way. As was already mentioned in the chapter about symbolism each person sees and interprets things differently and due to that amazing works of literature come into existence.

There are many studies and interpretations of the story about the Holy Grail. Some are more credible than others but the others may be in turn more engaging for the readers. And not only for the readers. Nowadays, with modern technology many movies

24 about the theme of the Holy Grail arise. For example a movie called The Da Vinci Code from 2003 which is based on a novel by Dan Brown. The main plot corresponds with the theory mentioned before about the bloodline of Messiah and Jesus. A symbologist

Robert Langdon investigates a murder which happened in the Louvre. He is caught in the middle of a battle between two organisations. Langdon explores the history of the bloodline of Jesus and in the end finds out that his companion is actually a descendant of Jesus and Mary. Dan Brown continued in the work of Laurence Gardner who wrote about the ‘Sangréal’ or the ‘Blood Royal’ in English and made it more accessible and attractive to poeple who may not have been interested in such a topic before.

Apart from The Da Vinci Code, there are many others dealing with the legend of the

Holy Grail, for example a documentary from 2007 called The Lost Tomb of Jesus, an adventure novel The Quest from 1975, or Monty Python and the Holy Grail also from

1975 which is a comedy film.

We may never know for sure what the original Grail was or where it came from but it is an important relic from legends and as such it will always be studied and adapted in an attempt to solve the mystery around it.

3.3. The Round Table

The Round Table is the last of the three relics discussed in this thesis. It is also a well known artefact which is an inseparable part of the legends as it plays a significant role in them.

A Norman poet, Robert Wace was the first one to ever mention the Round Table in

1155 in his Roman de Brut as a very important part of Arthurian legends. He also inspired another poet called Layamon who was from Britain to write about it in English.

The work was called Brut and it contains approximately 16 thousand verses about

Britain’s history. This mention had a great influence on spreading the legends in Britain and on their development as well even though the most famous work about Arthurian legends in Britain was Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur.

The Round Table was supposedly made by Merlin for Uther Pendragon who gave it to king Leodengras. Leodengras then gave it to King Arthur as a wedding gift when

Arthur chose Guinevere as his wife. The table was big enough to accommodate many knights although there is no definite number as the records about it vary. According to

Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur one hundred and fifty knights could sit there (Malory 114) but according to others the number of seats at the table is the same as the number of apostles and one of the seats belongs to Judas.

Its name comes from its unusual shape which was round. Up until then, the tables which kings shared with the others were rectangular to show the king’s superiority to others. However this table was different and its shape represented the ideology of King

Arthur, which was that at the table they were all equal so an opinion of a knight was on the same level as an opinion of the King.

This explanation why the table is round sounds very peaceful and ideal for governance of the realm but there are also some theories according to which the meaning behind the table was not as peaceful as it may seem at first sight. With a rectangular table, one always knows his social position but with round table and its peaceful ideology it is not so simple to see at first sight. The theory about the table is that a person is always seated opposite their enemy so even though all of the people seated there were Arthur’s knights. At least one of them was not as loyal as the others.

This theory is also supported by the fact that Arthur is betrayed by a friend, knight, or a

26 seemingly loyal subject in every adaptation of the legends as well as by the theory about

Judas and his seat which will be discussed further later.

Also the shape of the table was not the only interesting thing about it. At each seat there was a name written in gold letters on the table so each knight always sat on the same seat which was marked as theirs.

In the course of time, the Round table became a symbol of Arthur’s court where he decided about all affairs in the kingdom. Arthur later decided to build a new residence and named it Camelot. The Table was moved there and Camelot became the seat of the whole court and also the base from which the knights departed on their expeditions.

Camelot, as the residence of King Arthur, is also one of the most searched for places of the Arthurian legends. There are several theories where it could have stood, for example Cadbury, Caerleon, or Winchester where there are castles which correspond with the description of Camelot from the legends.

There is a certain round table in Winchester which could be the Round Table but historian found out in the 20th century that it was reconstructed in the 13 century when there was huge interest in the legends. However the painting on it is from 16th century and the ‘King Arthur’ pictured there is actually Henry VIII.

The Round Table may be just another in line as well as Excalibur or Camelot which may have not been real at all but legends live when people believe in them so this legend will surely continue living as well. It is also because there is no proof of its existence but at the same time there is no proof of the opposite that not only historians will study the legends and historical documents to find out whether it was real or not.

4. Religion

According to William E. Paden, the term religion comes from the Latin word

‘religio’ which in ancient times meant sacred respect or piousness and even then there was a discussion what the real meaning of the word was. (Paden 21).

Religion influenced culture and history of many nations and although it can be found all over the world it does not include every person. About fifteen percent of people do not recognize any kind of religion and there are also four percent which are against it.

It is immensely difficult to define religion so there are many definitions of it but while trying not to be too narrow whey are often too general. Also just the sole existence of so many different types of religion proves that the word ‘religion’ is more of a collective name that we use to cover all the other names of individual types of religion.

In general, every kind of religion has something people believe in. It can be a symbol, concept, or some kind of god. Apart from symbols, religions have holy places or sculptures. There are also rituals or services and many religions require a certain kind of behaviour from its followers. The problem is that the rules about rituals and behaviour can be interpreted in a wrong way which can lead to disastrous results such as wars.

Also, different religions usually have different opinions about how the world and life on it were created which can also lead to conflicts with other religions or even with scientists who study the origins of the world and evolution of different species.

There are many religions, the most known in western countries are probably

Christianity, Islam, or Judaism but there are many more in the rest of the world such as

Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, or Hinduism, all of them in Asia. But also religions of indigenous people or traditional African religions exist as well.

4.1. Christianity

Christianity is arguably one of the most well known religions in the whole world.

With over 2.1 billion followers it is also the biggest one. It is spread mainly in Europe, both North and South Americas, Australia and South Africa. Even though nowadays the number of followers in the West is decreasing, the number in Africa, Asia, or Latin

America is increasing (O’Calaghan 36).

The base of this religion is the life of Jesus of Nazareth (called Christ) and also his teachings. Both are recorded in the New Testament which is the second part of the

Bible.

Christianity is a monotheistic religion as Christians believe in only one god.

Although it may seem that there are three of them as there is the Trinity which is represented by Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. However all of them are representations of

God who is divided into 3 persons which are all equal so it still counts as one for

Christians.

The main text of this religion, the sacred text, is called the Bible and as was already mentioned it contains a part called the New Testament which is further divided into 27 books which recount the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth but also the beginning of Christianity as faith in Jesus Christ. This testament was written in the Greek language and later translated to many others.

The other part of the Bible is the Old Testament which Christianity shares with

Judaism. It is older and longer than the New Testament. Even though it is shared by two religions there seems to be a contradiction when it comes to the length and name of this text. There are also other texts used by different branches of Christianity but the main one is still the Bible which is used by everybody.

There are also several important figures. Apart from God and Jesus, there is also

Mary, Mother of Jesus, and his twelve apostles who were chosen by Jesus himself and who also have their own part about them in the New Testament.

Christianity is a religion with many branches and different variations. The three main branches are Roman Catholicism (led by the Bishop of Rome), Protestantism (distanced from Catholicism in the 16 century), and Eastern Christianity (including Eastern

Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy).

The followers of Christianity also believe in a concept called the original sin. That insinuates the moment when the first people, Adam and Eve, disobeyed God and this sin has been passed down ever since. Therefore all people need to be redeemed.

This religion does not cherish only various texts, figures, or branches. Christians also have important places, celebrations, and symbols. Some of the most important places are Bethlehem, where Jesus was supposedly born, Jerusalem, where Jesus was crucified,

Rome, which used to be the centre of Christianity but that was then moved to

Constantinople, and Vatican, which is a small independent state located in Rome where the Pope resides (Johnoson). There are also some journeys for pilgrims such as the route to Santiago de Compostela but nowadays it does not serve only to Christians but to many others as it is also kind of a tourist site.

As for the celebrations, the most important are probably the celebrations of Easter and Christmas. Jesus was born at Christmas and he was crucified and resurrected during

Easter so these two holidays are very important to Christians and they celebrate them through several services in churches and also rituals and traditions which can be done at home.

The most important symbol in Christianity is arguably the cross. There are many various versions as some of them carry historical value and some are connected to

30 various places in the world. Then there is also the white dove, which usually represents love or peace, and candles representing Jesus as the Light. These symbols can be found separately, for example on the walls, made of wood, metal or other materials but they can also be found in coloured or stained glass of the churches. It is a usual decoration which is popular not only among Christians because of its symbolism but also among many tourists or artists because the stained windows are usually very beautiful and even non-Christian can be enchanted by them.

Christianity has been here for a very long time. In some periods more popular than in others but that does not change the fact that it is a part of the history of mankind and it will continue to be a part of it in the future as well.

4.2. Paganism

The word paganism sometimes brings negative reactions from people but that is usually because they do not know what to imagine under this term. It is true that nowadays paganism is known and spread but it is not as well known or as wide spread as for example Christianity or other big religions. That can cause problems such as misunderstandings because people have wrong information or they are not informed at all.

Paganism comes from the Latin word ‘paganus’ which is in English something like rural. This word was first used by early Christians to describe the religion of people practising polytheism which means that they believe in more than one god or goddess.

As Owen Davies says in his book called Paganism: A Very Short Introduction, the important piece of information is that people practicing this religion did not say about themselves that they were pagans until the 20th century. The concept known to us today

31 was created by the Christian Church (Davies 1). Early Christians labelled everything that was different from what they believed in and the terms paganism and pagan were used in a pejorative way to emphasize that Christianity was, according to Christians, superior to any other religion.

But the so-called pagans had various beliefs and rituals. What we know about them is from the Christian clergymen who wrote about them in their works. The only exceptions are Roman and Greek authors who wrote about these things themselves.

Also, many texts which were written about paganism are not from the times they are written about. It is usually a retrospective written after the pagans were forced to become Christians.

There are many different religions which belong to Paganism so it is really difficult to define them all. But they do have something in common. There are many gods or no god at all. There is not only one text that the followers of this religion would follow.

There is a female who represents the divinity. There are also some branches which believe exclusively in one male god but they do not refuse to acknowledge the existence of other gods, as monotheistic religions usually do.

As was already mentioned, there are many religions belonging to Paganism so it is almost impossible to know each of them but some of the most popular ones are for example Celtic, ancient Egyptian, Norse, Greek, or Roman. All of the mentioned were well known in history and some of their legends are even in the school curriculum as part of obligatory knowledge for schoolchildren.

Even though each of the religions in Paganism is different they share some of the rituals or celebrations although the versions of them may vary. In general, there are two main types, daily spirituality and big collective celebrations. The first type is executed

32 by one person alone or for example with other family members, the second type is then more complicated and there is more people.

Pagans usually celebrate solstice, equinox, the season of fertility, the season of first harvest or the All Soul’s Day. All of their rituals, traditions, and celebrations are connected with nature and different stages of life. Different stages and cycles are what symbolism of paganism is based on.

Paganism, in a similar way as Christianity, has gone through periods of time when it was not popular and also when it was but the main thing is that it has not been lost up until now and will not be even in the future.

5. The Relics from religious point of view

The fact that different religions have different points of view on basically everything is well known. But the fact that it includes also the three most important relics from

Arthurian legends may not be as known. As usual, every coin has two sides and the same also applies for the relics. Christians tried to prove their superiority over the other religions but in literature and especially in symbolism, the same rules as for the real world do not apply. Symbolism is unique because readers can choose their own interpretations of the symbols (relics).

What may seem at first sight as typically Christian symbol may actually be an important symbol for Pagans as well. The symbol is the same just the point of view and its interpretation are different so even though the religions are completely different they still have something in common.

5.1. Excalibur

Excalibur, as the legendary sword of King Arthur, is one of the most important symbols in the Arthurian legends.

A sword is a weapon with humble origins but it is the most important weapon for a knight as well as it is a symbol of the knight’s strength and power. A sword symbolizes a person of noble birth and also connects the knight with Christianity. It is long and straight and due to its shape it could also be used as a cross during prayers so only by its shape we can connect it with Christianity.

The stories about this legendary sword vary. In some version it is given to Arthur by the Lady of the Lake, in others he has to pull it out of a stone. The Lady of the Lake should arguably be connected to Paganism as Christians do not believe in supernatural

34 occurrences and a hand in the middle of the lake holding a sword is definitely one of them. For Christians, supernatural occurrences happen only when there is Devil, God, or a saint present and Arthur is neither of them. Pagans on the other hand are in connection with nature and they celebrate during natural phenomena such as equinox or solstice. A supernatural element of a story, such as a goddess in a lake, corresponds more with Pagans than Christians. Also the place where the sword comes from is more important to Celts as rivers or lakes were important places for them.

Excalibur also has a twin in Pagan mythology, a blade called Caliburnus which was first mentioned by Geoffrey of Monmouth.

From the Christian point of view, pulling Excalibur out of stone may represent some kind of a parallel to Christianity as a trial. Only the one true king may pull the sword out and by that he proves that he is worthy of being a king and ruling in the real. The parallel here is that when people want to go to heaven they have to prove they are worthy of it so they go through some kind of a trial as well.

As was already mentioned, the shape of a sword may resemble a cross used for prayers but as well the cross where Jesus suffered. It is a symbol of faith and the already mentioned prayer.

In the end, there are many ways to interpret a symbol and each reader can choose their way of interpretation which suits them the most.

5.2. The Holy Grail

The points of view on the Holy Grail of Christians and Pagans differ a lot but we can still find some similarities in them. Because of evolution of both religions and also because both are further divided, the points of view may vary according to the religion,

35 part of the religion, and also according to a period of time as opinions of all people, not only believers, changed a lot due to different regimes, movements, and also the amount of knowledge they had at their disposal.

In Malory’s version of the legends to find the Holy Grail is an important feat as chivalrous behaviour is associated with Christianity. Only a person who has not done anything that could be considered a sin and, at the same time, a person that is pure can be successful in the Quest for the Holy Grail. In Le Morte d’Arthur this person is Sir

Galahad whose father was Lancelot. Even though Lancelot may have been noble and pure before he committed a sin when he fell in love with Guinevere and that is the reason why he could not be the one achieving in the Quest. That is certainly a reference to the Christian concept of how the world works.

Peter Ackroyd who retold Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur also considers Sir

Galahad pure enough to be able to finish the Quest and he also says that “[knighthood] was, in one sense, another form of baptism” (Ackroyd x). It is understandable as

Ackroyd remains true to the original legend written by Malory that their opinions are at least similar if not the same. These two versions imply that Christianity is strongly connected to knights and therefore also to the Holy Grail and the quest for it.

Also when Malory writes about the moment when the Grail appeared in front of

Arthur and that due to being worthy he and his knights were able to see the Grail with the blessing from the Holy Ghost. This experience is something that every Christian wants and so the King and his knights became symbols for medieval life of Christians.

The shape of the Grail differs in many adaptations of the stories and also in many historical studies. As was already mentioned, Laurence Gardner wrote about the

Grail as the bloodline of Messiah and therefore Jesus. Da Vinci Code also follows this theory with an engaging story. But there are many other theories. For example Wolfram

36 von Eschenbach says that the Grail was actually one of the gemstones on the Devil’s crown and when he fought against God the stone came loose and fell down to the Earth where it was made into a chalice which is also quite an important object in Christianity as it is a symbol marking God’s favour.

Therefore from Christian point of view, the Holy Grail in the legends symbolizes a pure heart and sinless life, which is what all Christians aim for. When somebody in the legends successfully undergoes the Quest for the Holy Grail they are of the purest heart and deserve to be in God’s good graces.

In paganism the nature of the Grail is a little bit different. We find the first mentions of the Grail in the work by Chrétien de Troyes where he describes it as a cup that Jesus uses during the Last Supper. Even though Jesus is obviously a Christian figure, de Troyes based the cup on old Celtic texts he found.

In almost every old culture, there is an object similar to the Holy Grail. For example in Greek or Roman mythology there is a miraculous horn. But Roger Loomis argues that there was a mistake in translation of the Arthurian legends and that there was one word for ‘body’ and ‘horn’ in Old French. Therefore the ‘horn’ as it has been wrongly translated could actually be the ‘body’, in figurative sense the body of Christ so we get to Christianity again. However at the same time he mentions that in almost every mythology, including Celtic, there was some king of a cauldron with the powers to feed the starving ones or sometimes also bring people from death. He also says that if

Chrétien de Troyes really had at his disposal some old text, the Grail in there must have looked like the mentioned Celtic cauldron. Due to this reasoning, de Troyes could be the one who initiated the change of the Grail from Celtic myth to Christian symbol

(Loomis 60-62).

The story about the Grail written by de Troyes describes a gold bowl decorated with gemstones which is more of a reference to paganism than to Christianity as was already discussed. The Christian Grail is usually a cup in the legends.

Even though the Pagan and Christian versions of the Grail differ they still have something in common and that is that the Grail is never empty. As a Celtic cauldron it is full of food which never runs out and as a Christian chalice it is full of the blood of

Jesus and has the power to heal injuries. Also the shape of the Grail is not accidental. A circle is in Paganism the symbol of eternal life, there is neither beginning nor the end of it. It is also the shape of women’s womb which symbolizes new life.

Due to the existence of this relic a combination of seemingly incompatible worlds came into existence. Many authors inspired by the stories of the Holy Grail took the Celtic world with its characters and moved it to Arthur’s court.

It does not really matter what the Grail looks like, if a person finds it they become enlightened and the adventures they have to go through to find it are just to prove that they are worthy.

5.3. The Round Table

As was already mentioned, the first record on the Round Table was in the work of

Robert Wace called Roman de Brut but that was not the last mention of it. The Round

Table together with the Holy Grail and Excalibur form an impressive group of relics which are known all around the world.

A table in a shape of a circle or ellipse does not have a front or sides and therefore all people seated there are considered equal by all means. There is no seat which would

38 be more privileged than the others which also might have a calming effect on all participants of the discussion. And therefore the discussion leads to a positive result.

The Round Table might be understood as an imaginary centre of the Arthurian world. It is a place which attracts various knight and at the same time it is a neutral place where the main heroes can rest, gain new knowledge, or learn new abilities. In a certain sense, it could remind us of paradise.

The Table has similar meanings in both religions, Christianity and Paganism, as it is a symbol of equality. In the eleventh century, the Saxons used a table which had a shape of a circle. However they did not completely realize the importance and symbolism of the shape. As we already know the circular shape of the table symbolizes that all of the people seated at the table are considered equal and therefore they can express their opinions freely but of course also politely as it was suited for people with high social status. The shape also represents the circular shape of the world, the trails of planets and stars in the sky. The original table was meant for 12 people and it also represented an astrological symbol. Twelve knights as twelve zodiac signs, circular shape as the circle of life which was mentioned before. These facts refer to Paganism, which is connected to nature and natural phenomena.

From the point of view of Christianity, the equality is important as well. The equal position of all present at the table might refer to the Last Supper where Jesus sat with his apostles. Even though the shape of the table there was not circular the meaning is the same and that is equality. The twelve seats can also be interpreted from the Christian point of view. They can be seen as the seats of the apostles of Jesus. There is also a theory about the table and that is that a person is always seated opposite their enemy or in the case of Jesus and Christianity, a traitor. In some versions of the legends, the Holy

Grail is placed in the middle of the table and by that it consecrates the table by which

39 the table ‘changes’ into an altar and in a symbolic way substitutes the table from the

Last Supper.

In the end, these are just a few of possible interpretations of the meanings and it is up to the reader to choose what they believe in and what is most important to them.

Conclusion

The aim of this thesis is to introduce the concept of Arthurian legends together with the concept of symbolism and its meaning when talking about the most important relics of the legends. The thesis contains the history of the legends together with an introduction of selected authors and works which can help in portraying the legends through the course of history and in portraying the topics the authors focused on. Then there is an explanation of what symbolism means and when it originated which is later followed by the meanings of the three most important relics from the point of view of historians, Pagans and Christians.

All of the components mentioned above are crucial for understanding that there is more than one version of the legend. The legends have been here for centuries and during the whole time they were constantly evolving which also influenced not only their content but also the readers’ perception of them.

Each adaptation of the legends is unique because every author perceives and understands the legends in a different way, which influences the style of their work but at the same time the readers’ perception as well.

Symbolism is important in every literary work as it challenges not only the author to come up with the symbols but mainly the readers to have open minds and be ready to think about the stories they read because they may contain more than can be seen at first sight.

Every author mentioned in this work was crucial for the evolution of the legends from unknown stories to the legends known all around the world and therefore it is important to mention their contribution in this work. The origins of the legends lay somewhere in the 5th, 6th, or 7th century and Nennius as the first one to use the name

Arthur used them to create his Historia Brittonum. After Nennius came Goefrrey of

Monmouth who based his work on Nennius’s and managed to create a beginning of the story of the legend. There were many other after Monmouth but one of the most important is Thomas Malory whose work is an inspiration for writers even today. In his

Le Morte d’Arthur he created many new stories and characters which were important for development of the legends.

Not only different authors and work influence the legends. They are also influenced by different perception which is unique to every person. Therefore symbols like

Excalibur, The Holy Grail, and The Round Table are discussed here from three main points of view which are history, Christianity and Paganism. All of them were and are crucial for development of the legends so there are described differences and similarities among them but mainly between the two religious points of view.

The legends have been studied by a lot of people through the course of time. Each study was different as the authors focused on different things. It has also been studied from the points of view which are mentioned in this thesis, history, Christianity and

Paganism, but the contribution of this work is in its combination of the points of view as well as comparing them and contrasting them while focusing only on the three relics.

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Summary

The aim of this thesis is to introduce Arthurian legends and the symbolistic meaning of their most important relics which are Excalibur, The Holy Grail, and The Round

Table. The thesis focuses on symbolism from the point of view of history, Christianity and Paganism which are also briefly described. Historical point of view is described to trace the evolution and changes of the legends. Points of view of Christianity and

Paganism are compared and contrasted to explain the different meanings of the relics in the two religions mentioned or indicated in the stories.

The first chapter briefly introduces the Arthurian legends and their history. It also describes selected authors of the legends and their influence on them. The last part of the first chapter describes selected works about the legends and their changes in the course of time.

The second chapter explains the term symbolism and describes its origins and importance in art. There are also mentioned several authors creating works belonging to

Symbolism.

The third chapter describes the origins and history of the three selected relics which are Excalibur, the Round Table, and the Holy Grail.

The fourth chapter pays attention to Christianity and Paganism. It explains their history and also mentions some of the most important symbols and sacred places important to believers.

The last chapter discusses the three relics from the point of view of religion. It explains differences between and similarities in the meanings in Christianity and

Paganism

Resumé

Cílem této práce je představit Artušovské legendy a symbolistické významy jejich nejdůležitějších relikvií, které jsou Excalibur, Svatý Grál a Kulatý stůl. Práce se soustředí na symbolismus z pohledu historie, křesťanství a pohanství, přičemž obě náboženství jsou krátce představena. Historický úhel pohledu je popsán, aby mapoval evoluci změn legend. Úhly pohledu křesťanství a pohanství jsou srovnávány a dávány do kontrastu, aby se vysvětlily rozdílné významy relikvií, které byly zmíněné či naznačené v legendách a které se liší v obou zmíněných náboženstvích.

První kapitola krátce představuje Artušovské legendy a jejich historii. Také popisuje vybrané autory legend a jejich vliv na ně. Poslední část první kapitoly popisuje vybraná díla na téma legend a jejich změny v průběhu času.

Druhá kapitola vysvětluje význam slova symbolismus a popisuje jeho původ a důležitost v umění. Také je zde zmíněno několik autorů, jejichž díla se řadí do symbolismu.

Třetí kapitola popisuje původ a historii tří vybraných relikvií, tedy Excalibru,

Kulatého stolu a Svatého Grálu.

Čtvrtá kapitola se věnuje křesťanství a pohanství. Vysvětluje jejich historii a také zmiňuje některé z nejdůležitějších symbolů a posvátných míst důležitých pro věřící.

Poslední kapitola probírá relikvie z náboženského pohledu. Vysvětluje rozdíly mezi jednotlivými významy v křesťanství a pohanství a také jejich podobnosti.