Environmental Ethics − Professional Issues Based On: Lawrence M

Home , Descriptive ethics, Ethical egoism, Psychological egoism

ETHICS, PROFESSIONALISM AND CRITICISM OF THE SOURCES Professional Ethics Course

MIMA LECTURE

Information about the course:

http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/cd5590 Gordana Dodig-Crnkovic http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/ethics/

Department of Computer Science and Electronics [Website provides ethics resources including case studies and Mälardalen University contextualised scenarios in applied/professional ethics, working examples of applied ethical problems used in teaching to highlight 15 August 2007 relevant ethical principles, materials on informed consent, confidentiality, assessment, privacy, trust and similar. ]

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CONTENT

– Identifying Ethical Issues Identifying Ethical Basic Moral Orientations Ethical Relativism, Absolutism, and Pluralism Issues Immanuel Kant The Ethics of Duty (Deontological Ethics) Utilitarianism Rights Justice The Ethics of Character: Virtues and Vices Egoism Moral Reasoning and Gender Environmental Ethics − Professional Issues Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D. − Criticism of the Sources Director, The Values Institute − Conclusions University of San Diego

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Ethics and Morality Ethics and Morality Etymology

The terms ethics and morality are often used Morality and ethics have same roots, mores which interchangeably - indeed, they usually can mean the means manner and customs from the Latin and same thing, and in casual conversation there isn't a etos which means custom and habits from the Greek. problem with switching between one and the other. However, there is a distinction between them in Robert Louden, Morality and Moral Theory philosophy!

5 6 Ethics and Morality Ethics and Morality

Strictly speaking, morality is used to refer to what we Morality: first-order set of beliefs and practices about would call moral standards and moral conduct while how to live a good life. ethics is used to refer to the formal study of those standards and conduct. For this reason, the study of Ethics: a second-order, conscious reflection on the ethics is also often called "moral philosophy." adequacy of our moral beliefs.

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ETHICS SOCIETY VALUES

Philosophers commonly distinguish: descriptive ethics, the factual study of the ethical standards or principles of a group or tradition; ETHICS normative ethics, the development of theories that systematically denominate right and wrong actions; applied ethics, the use of these theories to form LAW MORAL judgments regarding practical cases; and meta-ethics, careful analysis of the meaning and justification of ethical claims

Source: www.ethicsquality.com/philosophy.html

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Identifying Moral Issues Ethics as an Ongoing Conversation

Moral concerns are unavoidable in life. They are not always easy to identify and Professional discussions of ethical define. issues in journals. We come back to ideas again and again, finding new meaning in them.

See http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/ethics.htm

11 12 The Focus of Ethics Ethics as the Evaluation of Other People’s Behavior

Ethics as the Evaluation of Other Ethics often used as a weapon People’s Behavior Hypocrisy – We are often eager to pass judgment on others Possibility of knowing other people Ethics as the Search for Meaning and The right to judge other people Value in Our Own Lives The right to intervene Judging and caring

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Ethics as the Search for Meaning What to Expect from Ethics and Value in Our Own Lives Identificationa and description of an issue Positive focus Explanation Aims at discerning what is good Support in deliberation Emphasizes personal responsibility for one’s own life

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The Point of Ethical Reflection Basic Moral Orientations Ethics as the evaluation of other people’s behavior

Ethics as the search for the meaning of our own lives

17 18 On what basis do we make moral On what basis do we make moral decisions? (1) decisions? (2)

Divine Command Theories -- “Do what the The Ethics of Natural and Human Rights -- Bible tells you” or the Will of God “...all people are created ...with certain

Utilitarianism -- “Make the world a better place” unalienable rights”

Virtue Ethics -- “Be a good person” Social Contract Ethics

The Ethics of Duty -- “Do your duty” Moral Reason versus Moral Feeling

Immanuel Kant’s Moral Theory Evolutionary Ethics

Ethical Egoism -- “Watch out for #1”

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Utilitarianism Divine Commands (Consequentialism)

Being good is equivalent to doing Hedonistic utilitarianism: Seeks to whatever the Bible--or the Qur’an or reduce suffering and increase pleasure some other sacred text or source of or happiness Epicurus revelation--tells you to do. Epicurus (341-270 BC) Greek (341-270 BC) “We count pleasure as the originating principle and the goal for the blessed life”. (Letter to Menoeceus) “What is right” equals “What God tells Frances Hutcheson (1694-1747) Irish me to do.” “The action is best, which procures the greatest happiness for the greatest number; and that worst, which in like manner, occasions misery.” (An Inquiry Concerning Moral Good and Evil, 3.8) John Stuart Mill Bentham’s Utilitarian Calculus 1806-1873 Mill’s Utilitarianism “Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote [general] happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of [general] happiness. (Utilitarianism, 2) http://www.utilitarism.net/ (in Swedish) 21 22 Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

The Ethics of Duty Virtue Ethics (Deontological* Ethics)

One of the oldest moral theories. Ethics is about doing your duty. Ancient Greek epic poets and playwrights Homer Cicero (stoic): On duties (De Officiis) and Sophocles describe the morality of their http://www.stoics.com/cicero_book.html heroes in terms of virtues and vices. Medieval philosophers: duties to God, self and others - cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, Marcus Tullius Cicero Plato Kant: only moral duties to self and others (106 - 43) BC temperance, and justice. Even accepted by Plato (427-347 BCE) early Christian theologians. Samuel von Pufendorf (1632-1694): moral duties spring from our instinctive drive for survival – we should be sociable in order to survive. Aristotle: The Nichomachean Ethics Intuitionism: we don’t logically deduce Morality is a matter of being a good moral duties, we know them as thy are! person, which involves having virtuous character traits. For each duty there is a corresponding virtue. Immanuel Kant Aristotle (384-322 BCE.) 1724-1804 Seeks to develop individual character 23 * ‘deon’ = duty 24 Immanuel Kant’s Moral Theory Ethical Egoism

Says the only person to look out for is yourself Human reason makes moral Ayn Rand, The Ethics of Selfishness demands on our lives Well known for her novel, especially Atlas Shrugged

The categorical imperative: Act Ayn Rand sets forth the moral principles so that the maxim [determining of “Objectivism”, the philosophy that holds motive of the will] may be that man's life--the life proper to a rational capable of becoming a universal being--as the standard of moral values. law for all rational beings." It regards altruism as incompatible with man's nature, with the requirements of his survival, and with a free society. We have moral responsibility to Immanuel Kant shrug - To raise (the shoulders), especially as a gesture of doubt, disdain, or develop our talents 1724-1804 indifference

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The Ethics of Rights The Ethics of Rights

The most influential moral Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) notion of the past two centuries right from nature implies a liberty to Established minimal conditions protect myself from attack in any way of human decency that I can. Thomas Hobbes Human rights: rights that all humans (1588-1679) supposedly possess. John Locke (1632-1704) principal natural rights: life, health, natural rights: some rights are liberty and possessions. grounded in the nature rather than in governments. moral rights, positive rights, legal rights, civil rights John Locke (1632-1704) 27 28

Evolutionary Ethics Moral Reason versus Moral Feeling

Human social behavior is an extended development Morality is strictly a matter of rational of biological evolution. judgment: Samuel Clarke (1675-1729) Evolutionary ethics: moral behavior is that which tends to aid in human survival. Since time of Plato: moral truths exist in a spiritual realm. Samuel Clarke Darwin: Origin of Species focuses on the evolutionary (1675-1729) mechanisms of nonhuman animals. Moral truths like mathematical truths Biologists and philosophers of nineteenth century are eternal. attempted to frame morality as an extension of the Morality is strictly a matter of feeling evolutionary biological process. (emotion): David Hume (1711-1729) Problem of the theory: what is progress? What is We have a moral sense good? Any signs of moral improvement since Plato? David Hume (1711-1729) 29 30 Classical Ethical/Cultural Relativism Ethical Relativism, The Greek Skeptics (1) Absolutism, Xenophanes (570-475 BCE) and Pluralism “Ethiopians say that their gods are flat-nosed and dark, Thracians that theirs are blue-eyed and red-haired. If oxen and horses and lions had hands and were able to draw with their hands and do the same things as men, horses would draw the shapes of gods to look like horses and oxen to look like ox, and each would make the god’s bodies have the same shape as they themselves had.” Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D. Director, The Values Institute The historian Heroditus(484-425 BCE) University of San Diego “Everyone without exception believes his own native customs, and the religion he was brought up in, to be the best.” 31 32

Classical Ethical/Cultural Relativism The Greek Skeptics (2) Later Ethical Relativism (1)

Sextus Empiricus (fl. 200 CE) French philosopher Michael de Montaigne (1533-1592): Gives example after example of moral standards that differ from one society to another, such as attitudes Custom has the power to shape every possible kind of about homosexuality, incest, cannibalism, human cultural practice. Although we pretend that morality is a sacrifice, the killing of elderly, infanticide, theft, fixed feature of nature, morality too is formed through consumption of animal flesh… custom.

Sextus Empiricus concludes that we should doubt the Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) existence of an independent and universal standard of morality, and instead regard moral values as the result “fashion, vogue, custom, and law are the chief of cultural preferences. foundation of all moral determinations”

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Later Ethical Relativism (2) Insights of Ethical Relativism

The fact of moral diversity Ethical relativism has several important insights: The fact of moral diversity We should not pass judgment on practices in The need for tolerance and understanding other cultures when we don’t understand We should not pass judgment on practices in them other cultures when we don’t understand them Sometimes reasonable people may differ on Sometimes reasonable people may differ on what’s morally acceptable what’s morally acceptable

35 36 Ethical Relativism: Limitations Ethical Relativism: Overlapping Cultures, 1 Presupposes an epistemological solipsism*

Ethical relativism Is unhelpful in dealing with overlaps of cultures--precisely where we need help. suggests that we let – Commerce and trade each culture live as –Media it sees fit. – World Wide Web This is only feasible when cultures don’t [*Solipsism - belief in self as only reality: the belief have to interact with that the only thing somebody can be sure of is that he one another. or she exists, and that true knowledge of anything else is impossible]

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Ethical Relativism: Ethical Relativism: Overlapping Cultures, 2 Overlapping Cultures, 3

The challenge of the coming century is The actual situation precisely overlapping in today’s world is cultures: much closer to the – Multinational corporations – International media--BBC, diagram at the right. MTV, CNN – International sports-- Olympics –World Wide Web

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Ethical Relativism: Ethical Relativism: Our Global Village, 5 A Self-Defensive Position

What if our world was a village Ethical relativism maintains that we of 100 people? – 58 would be Asians, 15 Europeans, 13 would come from cannot make moral judgments about the Western Hemisphere, 12 would be Africans other cultures – 70 would be non-white – 67 would be non-Christian (33 Christians; 18 Moslems; 14 The corollary of this is that we are Hindus; 6 Buddhists; 5 atheists; 3 Jews; 24 other.) – 16 would speak Chinese; 8 English; 8 Hindi; 6 Spanish; 6 protected in principle against the Russian; and 5 Arabic. judgments made by other cultures – 50 % of the wealth would be held by 6 people. – 70 could not read and – only one would have a university education.

41 42 http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/103/3areaoutline.htm How Much Dressed? Naked? How Much Dressed? Naked?

Rembrandt Monk Reading, 1661

Fencer – protective suit Taliban law requires women in Apollo Belvedere 320 BCE Afghanistan to wear a chador or burqa that covers the face and entire body.

Leonardo da Vinci Holbein’s Family 1528 Dieric Bouts - Madonna and Child Lady with an Ermine 1483-90

From the solitude of the Holy Cross Abbey in Virginia, a monk works on the Internet, A proper dress? Amazonian 21th century indigenous woman 43 44 with child Nuns uniforms

Arguments Against Ethical Relativism Ethical Objectivism

There Are Some Universals in Codes of Behavior across Cultures The view that moral principles have objective validity whether or not Three core common values: people recognize them as such, that – caring for children is, moral rightness or wrongness does Plato (427-347 BCE) – truth telling (trust) and not depend on social approval, but on – prohibitions against murder such independent considerations as whether the act or principle promotes The society must guard against killing, human flourishing or ameliorates abusing the young, lying etc. that are at its human suffering. own peril. Were the society not to establish What is moral depends on the fabric some rules against such behaviors, the of human nature. Immanuel Kant 1724-1804 society itself would cease to exist. 45 46

Ethical Absolutism/Universalism Ethical Absolutism

Ethical Absolutism: Absolutism comes in many Morality is eternal and unchanging and holds for all versions--including the rational beings at all times and places. In other divine right of kings words, moral right and wrong are fundamentally the Absolutism is less about same for all people. (Morality is considered different what we believe and more than mere etiquette). about how we believe it Common elements: There is only one correct answer to every moral – There is a single Truth problem. A completely absolutist ethic consists of – Their position embodies that Louis XIV absolute principles that provide an answer for every (1638 – 1715) possible situation in life, regardless of culture. truth Louis the Great, The Sun King

47 48 Ethical Absolutism Ethical Pluralism (1)

Ethical absolutism gets some things right Combines insights of both relativism and – We need to make judgments absolutism: – Certain things are intolerable – The central challenge: how to live together with differing and conflicting values But it gets some things wrong, including: – Our truth is the truth – Fallibilism: recognizes that we might be mistaken – We can’t learn from others – Sees disagreement as a possible strength

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Ethical Pluralism (2) Ethical Pluralism (3)

Moral pluralists maintain that there are moral Pluralism is the cultural manifestation of truths, but they do not form a body of ethical individualism; it is implied by the coherent and consistent truths in the way that one finds in the science or mathematics. respect for the human being, for what it Moral truths are real, but partial. Moreover, means to be human. they are inescapably plural. There are many moral truths, not just one–and they may We have differing moral perspectives, conflict with one another. but we must often inhabit a common world.

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Ethical Pluralism (4) Ethical Pluralism (5) Ethical pluralism offers three categories to describe actions: For each action or Prohibited: those actions which are not seen policy, we can place as permissible at all it in one of three – Absolutism sees the importance of this regions: Tolerated: those actions and values in which – Ideal--Center legitimate differences are possible – Permitted--Middle – Relativism sees the importance of this • Respected Ideal: a moral vision of what the ideal society • Tolerated would be like – Prohibited--Outside

53 54 Five Questions Immanuel Kant THE ETHICS OF DUTY What is the present state? (Deontological* Ethics) What is the ideal state? What is the minimally acceptable state? How do we get from the present to the minimally acceptable state? How do we get from the minimum to the ideal state?

55 * ‘deon’ = duty 56

Living by Rules Categorical Imperatives

Always act in such a way that the maxim of your Most of us live by rules much of action can be willed as a universal law of humanity. the time. --Immanuel Kant Some of these are what Kant called Categorical Imperatives.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

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The Ethics of Respect (1) The Ethics of Respect (2)

One of Kant’s most lasting Respect has become a fundamental contributions to moral philosophy was his moral concept in contemporary West emphasis on the notion of respect – There are rituals of respect in almost all (Achtung). cultures. Two central questions: – What is respect? – Who or what is the proper object of respect?

59 60 Kant on Respect Kant on Respecting Persons

Kant brought the notion of respect “Act in such a way that you always treat (Achtung) to the center of moral humanity, whether in your own person or philosophy for the first time. in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as To respect people is to treat them as ends an end.” in themselves. He sees people as autonomous, i.e., as giving the moral law to themselves. The opposite of respecting people is treating them as mere means to an end.

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Treating People as Ends in Using People as Mere Means Themselves

The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiments What are the characteristics of treating – More than four hundred people as ends in themselves? African American men infected with syphilis went Not denying them relevant untreated for four decades information in a project the government called the Allowing them freedom of choice Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male. – Continued until 1972

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What Is the Proper Object of Additional Cases Respect? Plant Closing For Kant, the proper object of respect is Firing Long-Time Employees the will. Hence, respecting a person Medical Experimentation on involves issues related to the will-- Prisoners knowledge and freedom. Medical Donations by Prisoners Other possible objects of respect: – Feelings and emotions Medical Consent Forms – The dead – Animals – The natural world

65 66 Self-Respect Self-Respect

Is lack of proper self-respect a moral Aristotle and Self-Love failing? – What is the difference between self-respect and self-love? Clearly, there is at least a difference in the affective element. The Deferential* Wife – See article by Tom Hill, “Servility and Self- Respect”

*Deferential = Respectful, considerate 67 68

The Kantian Heritage The Kantian Heritage What Kant Helped Us to See Critique of Kant´s Deontology Clearly The Neglect of Moral Integration The Admirable Side of Acting from Duty – The person of duty can have deep and – The person of duty remains committed, not conflicting inclinations and this does matter how difficult things become. not decrease moral worth—indeed, it The Evenhandedness of Morality seems to increase it in Kant’s eyes. – Kantian morality does not play favorites. Respecting Other People The Role of Emotions – The notion of treating people as ends in – For Kant, the emotions are always themselves is central to much of modern suspect because they are changeable. ethics.

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The Kantian Heritage The Kantian Heritage Critique of Kant´s Deontology Conclusion

The Place of Consequences in the Overall, after two hundred years, Kant Moral Life remains an absolutely central figure – In order to protect the moral life from in contemporary moral philosophy, the changing of moral luck, Kant held a one from whom we can learn much very strong position that refused to even when we disagree with him. attach moral blame to individuals who were acting with good will, even though some indirect bad consequences could be foreseen.

71 72 Basic Insights of Utilitarianism Utilitarianism The purpose of morality is to make the world a better place.

We should do whatever will bring the most benefit to all of humanity.

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The Purpose of Morality Fundamental Imperative

The utilitarian has a simple answer to The fundamental imperative of the question of why morality exists at utilitarianism is: all: Always act in the way that will produce – The purpose of morality is to guide the greatest overall amount of good in people’s actions in such a way as to the world. produce a better world. Consequently, the emphasis in utilitarianism is on consequences, not intentions. (At times, the road to hell is pawed with good intentions) 75 76

The Dream of Utilitarianism: The Emphasis on the Overall Bringing Scientific Certainty to Good Ethics

Utilitarianism offers a powerful vision of Utilitarianism is a demanding moral the moral life, one that promises to reduce position that often asks us to put or eliminate moral disagreement. aside self-interest for the sake of the – If we can agree that the purpose of morality is to make the world a better whole. place; and – It always asks us to do the most, to – If we can scientifically assess various maximize utility, not to do the minimum. possible courses of action to determine which will have the greatest positive – It asks us to set aside personal interest. effect on the world; then – We can provide a scientific answer to the question of what we ought to do. 77 78 Standards of Utility: Jeremy Bentham Intrinsic Value 1748-1832 Many things have instrumental value, that is, they have value as means to an end. However, there must be some things Bentham believed that which are not merely instrumental, but we should try to have value in themselves. This is what we increase the overall call intrinsic value. amount of pleasure in What has intrinsic value? Four principal candidates: the world. – Pleasure - Jeremy Bentham – Happiness - John Stuart Mill – Ideals - George Edward Moore – Preferences - Kenneth Arrow

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John Stuart Mill Pleasure 1806-1873

Definition: The Criticisms enjoyable feeling we – Came to be known Bentham’s godson experience when a as “the pig’s Believed that state of deprivation philosophy” is replaced by happiness, not – Ignores spiritual pleasure, should be the fulfillment. values standard of utility. Advantages – Could justify living – Easy to quantify on a pleasure – Short duration machine or “happy – Bodily pill”

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Happiness Ideal Values

G. E. Moore suggested that we should strive to maximize ideal Advantages Disadvantages values such as freedom, – A higher standard, – More difficult to knowledge, justice, and more specific to measure beauty. humans – Competing The world may not be a better – About realization of conceptions of place with more pleasure in it, goals happiness but it certainly will be a better place with more freedom, more knowledge, more justice, and G. E. Moore more beauty. 1873-1958 Moore’s candidates for

83 intrinsic good remain difficult 84 to quantify. May this help? Lets make everyone Preferences happy! Kenneth Arrow, a Nobel Prize winning Stanford economist, argued that what has intrinsic value is preference satisfaction.

The advantage of Arrow’s approach is that, in effect, it lets people choose for themselves KENNETH J. ARROW what has intrinsic value. Stanford University It simply defines intrinsic value Professor of Economics (Emeritus) as whatever satisfies an agent’s preferences. It is elegant and pluralistic. Happy pill as a universal solution? 85 86

The Utilitarian Calculus What do we calculate?

Math and ethics finally Hedons/dolors defined in terms of merged: all consequences – Pleasure must be measured and weighed! – Happiness – Ideals Units of measurement: – Hedons: positive – Preferences – Dolors: negative

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How much can we quantify? What do we calculate?

Pleasure and preference satisfaction For any given action, we must calculate: are easier to quantify than happiness or ideals – How many people will be affected, negatively (dolors) as well as positively Two distinct issues: (hedons) – Can everything be quantified? – How intensely they will be affected The danger: if it can’t be counted, it doesn’t – Similar calculations for all available count. alternatives – Are quantified goods necessarily – Choose the action that produces the commensurable? greatest overall amount of utility Are a fine dinner and a good night’s sleep (hedons minus dolors) 89 commensurable? 90 “…the problems of three little people don’t Criticisms of Utilitarianism amount to a hill of beans in this crazy 1. Responsibility world.” Utilitarianism suggests that we are Utilitarianism doesn’t responsible for all the consequences of always have a cold our choices. and calculating face— The problem is that sometimes we can not we perform utilitarian foresee consequences of other people’s calculations in actions that are taken in response to our everyday life. own acts. Are we responsible for those actions, even though we don’t choose them or approve of them?

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Criticisms of Utilitarianism Criticisms of Utilitarianism 2. Integrity 3. Intentions

Utilitarianism often demands that we Utilitarianism is concerned almost put aside self-interest. Sometimes exclusively about consequences, not this may mean putting aside our own intentions. moral convictions. – There is a version of utilitarianism Integrity may involve certain identity- called “motive utilitarianism,” conferring commitments, such that developed by Robert Adams, that the violation of those commitments attempts to correct this. entails a violation of who we are at

our core. 93 94

Criticisms of Utilitarianism Criticisms of Utilitarianism 4. Moral Luck 5. Who does the calculating?

Historically, this was an issue for the By concentrating exclusively on British in India. The British felt they consequences, utilitarianism makes wanted to do what was best for India, but the moral worth of our actions a that they were the ones to judge what that matter of luck. We must await the was. final consequences before we find out if our action was good or bad. – See Ragavan Iyer, Utilitarianism and All That

Typically, the count differs depending on This seems to make the moral life a who does the counting matter of chance, which runs counter to our basic moral intuitions.

95 96 Criticisms of Utilitarianism 6. Who is included? Concluding Assessment When we consider the issue of consequences, we must ask who is Utilitarianism is most appropriate for policy included within that circle. decisions, as long as a strong notion of fundamental human rights guarantees that it will not violate rights of minorities, otherwise it is Classical utilitarianism has often claimed possible to use to justify outvoting minorities. that we should acknowledge the pain and suffering of animals and not restrict the calculus just to human beings.

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Rights: Rights Changing Western History

Many of the great documents of the last two centuries have centered around the notion of rights. – The Bill of Rights – The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen – The United Nation Declaration of Human Rights

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Human Rights Human Rights

After the King John of England Among rights of Magna Carta were the right violated a number of ancient laws of the church to be free from and customs by which England had governmental interference, the rights of all been governed, his subjects forced free citizens to own and inherit property him to sign the Magna Carta, or and be free from excessive taxes. It Great Charter, which enumerates established the right of widows who what later came to be thought of as owned property to choose not to remarry, human rights. and established principles of due process and equality before the law. It also contained provisions forbidding bribery

101 and official misconduct. 102 Rights: Justifications for Rights A Base for Moral Change

Many of the great movements Self-evidence of this century have centered around the notion of rights. Divine – The Civil Rights Movement Foundation – Equal rights for women Natural Law – Movements for the rights of indigenous peoples Human Nature – Children’s rights – Gay rights

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Self-evidence Divine Foundation

“We have granted to God, and by “We hold these Truths to be self- this our present Charter have confirmed, for us and our Heirs evident, that all Men are created equal, for ever, That the Church of that they are endowed by their Creator England shall be free, and shall with certain unalienable Rights, that have her whole rights and liberties inviolable. We have granted also, among these are Life, Liberty and the and given to all the freemen of our Pursuit of Happiness.” realm, for us and our Heirs for Declaration of Independence ever, these liberties underwritten, to have and to hold to them and July 4, 1776 their Heirs, of us and our Heirs for

105 ever.” 106 The Magna Carta, 1297

Universal Declaration of Human Rights-related Questions Rights

Article 1. Freedom of Speech All human beings are born free and Death Penalty equal in dignity and rights. They are The Disappeared endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards Economic & Social Rights one another in a spirit of Terrorism & Anti-Terrorism brotherhood. Corruption

http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html

107 108 Natural Law Natural Law Human Nature

According to natural law ethical Arguments for natural rights theory, the moral standards that that appeal to human nature govern human behavior are, in involve the following steps: some sense, objectively derived from the nature of human beings. – Establish that some characteristic of human nature, such as the ability to make free choices, is essential to human life.

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Natural Law Two Concepts of Rights Human Nature The distinction depends on the – Establish that certain empirical conditions, such as the absence of obligation that is placed on those physical constraints, are necessary who must respect your rights. for the existence or the exercise of Negative Rights that characteristic; – Obliges others not to interfere with your exercise of the right. – Conclude that people have a right to Positive Rights those empirical conditions. – Obligates others to provide you with positive assistance in the exercise of that right.

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Positive Rights Negative Rights Positive rights impose on others a specific obligation to do something Negative rights simply impose on to assist you in the exercise of your others the duty not to interfere with right your rights. – The right to life, construed as a positive right, – The right to life, construed as a negative obliges others to provide you with the basics right, obliges others not to kill you. necessary to sustain life if you are unable to provide these for yourself – The right to free speech, construed as a – The right to free speech, construed as a negative right, obliges others not to positive right, obligates others to provide you interfere with your free speech with the necessary conditions for your free speech--e.g., air time, newspaper space, etc. 113 – Welfare rights are typically construed as 114 positive rights Positive Rights: The Limitations of Rights Concept Critique

Who is obligated to provide positive Rights, Community, and assistance? Individualism – People in general

– Each of us individually Rights and Close Relationships – The state (government)

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The Limitations of Rights Concept The Limitations of Rights Concept Contradicting rights: Athos and Contradicting rights: Athos and Women Women Greek public community is indignant An official response to the declaration at the decision recently taken by the was immediate: governmental Dutch court and at the resolution of spokesman told European human European parliament. rights activists that the right of the In January, a Greek law that allows Athos monastery republic not to let monks from the Athos Monastery not women to the Holy Mount was to let women to the Holy Mount was confirmed in the treaty of Greece-s officially declared in court as incorporation into the European

contradicting human rights. 117 Union. 118

Concluding Evaluation Personal Integrity vs Public Safety

Rights do not tell the whole story of ethics, especially in the area of personal relationships.

Rights are always defined for groups of people (humanity, women, indigenous people, workers etc).

119 120 Introduction Justice All of us have been the recipients of demands of justice. – My 6 year old daughter protesting, “Daddy, it’s not fair for you to get a cookie at night and I don’t.” All of us have also been in the position of demanding justice. – I told the builder of my house that, since he replaced defective windows for a neighbor, he should replace my

121 defective windows. 122

Conceptions of Justice Distributive Justice

Distributive Justice The central question of distributive – Benefits and burdens justice is the question of how the Compensatory/Recompensatory benefits and burdens of our lives are Justice to be distributed. – Criminal justice – Justice involves giving each person his or her due. – Equals are to be treated equally.

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Goods Subject to Distribution Subjects of Distribution

What is to be distributed? To whom are good to be distributed? – Income – Individual persons – Wealth – Groups of persons – Opportunities – Classes

125 126 Basis for Distribution Strict Egalitarianism

On what basis should goods be Basic principle: every person should distributed? have the same level of material – Equality goods and services – Individual needs or desires Criticisms – Free market transactions – Unduly restricts individual freedom – Ability to make best use of the goods – May conflict with what people deserve

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The Difference Principle The Difference Principle

More wealth may be produced in a system where those who are more Each person is to have an equal right productive earn greater incomes. to the most extensive total system of Strict egalitarianism may discourage equal basic liberties compatible with maximal production of wealth. a similar system of liberty for all.

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The Difference Principle The Difference Principle

If it is possible to raise the position of If a system of strict equality maximizes the least advantaged further by the absolute position of the least inequality of income and wealth, then advantaged in society, then the the Difference Principle prescribes Difference Principle advocates strict inequality up to that point where the equality. absolute position of the least advantaged can no longer be raised.

131 132 Critics of the Difference Principle (DP) Welfare-Based Approaches

Strict egalitarians: DP don’t treat anyone differently Seeks to maximize well-being of Utilitarians: DP doesn’t maximize utility society as a whole Libertarian: DP infringes on liberty Utilitarianism through taxation, etc. Desert-based theorists: argue DP to reward hard work even when it doesn’t help the disadvantaged. Does not provide sufficient rewards for ambition

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Desert*-Based Approaches Desert*-Based Approaches

Distributive systems are just Distribution is based on: insofar as they distribute incomes – Actual contribution to the social according to the different levels product earned or deserved by the – Effort one expend in work activity individuals in the society for their – Compensation to the costs productive labors, efforts or Seeks to raise the overall standard of contributions. (Feinberg) living by rewarding effort and achievement May be applied only to working

desert - förtjänst; förtjänt lön, vedergällning adults * 135 136 according to one's deserts efter förtjänst

Libertarian Principles Libertarian Principles

1. People own themselves. 4. It is relatively easy to acquire absolute 2. The world is initially un-owned. rights over a disproportionate share of the world. 3. You can acquire absolute rights over a disproportionate share of the world, if 5. Therefore: Once private property has you do not worsen the condition of been appropriated, a free market in others. capital and labor is morally required.

Will Kymlicka, Contemporary Political Philosophy

137 138 John Stuart Mill Early feminist critique of liberal distributive structures

Mill in The Subjection of Women (1869):

Principles associated with liberalism require equal political status of women Try to run “Wealth Distribution”, a model that simulates the distribution of wealth. http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/models/WealthDistrib 139 140 ution

Introduction The Ethics of Character: Virtues and Vices Concern for character has flourished in the West since the time of Plato, whose early dialogues explored such virtues as courage and piety*. Plato (by Michaelangelo)

141 142 * fromhet

An Analogy from the Criminal Two Moral Questions Justice System

The Question of Action: • As a country, we place our trust for just decisions – How ought I to act? in the legal arena in two places: – Laws, which provide the necessary rules The Question of Character – People, who (as judge and jury) apply rules judiciously – What kind of person ought I to be? • Similarly, ethics places its trust in: Our concern here is with the question of – Theories, which provide rules for conduct character – Virtue, which provides the wisdom necessary for applying rules in particular instances

143 144 The Seven Essential Virtues Virtue Defining “Moral IQ”

Strength of character Empathy (habit) Wisdom* Involving both feeling, Conscience Courage* knowing and action Self-Control Temperance* Seeks the mean between excess and Respect Justice* deficiency relative to us Tolerance Integrity Dynamic balance Fairness Secure desirable Responsibility Aristotle (by Michaelangelo) behavior Kindness Honesty

145 146 *Aristotles cardinal virtues

Virtues (1) Virtues (2)

Sphere of Deficiency Mean Excess Sphere of Existence Deficiency Mean Excess Existence Arrogance Proper Self-Love Conceit Attitude toward Sense of Attitude toward Servility Belittling Self- Proper Pride Egoism our Accomplishment self Self-deprecation Disappointment righteousness Self-Respect Narcissism own good deeds Humility Vanity Attitude toward Pity Attitude toward Anger Revenge the Ignoring them Callousness Compassion “Bleeding offenses of Forgiveness Grudge suffering of Being a Doormat Heart” others Understanding Resentment others Attitude toward Self- Suspicion Attitude toward good Gratitude Over the satisfaction Admiration Envy Envy deeds of Admiration indebtedness achievements of Ignoring them Complacency Emulation others others Competition Regret, Attitude toward Indifference Toxic Guilt Attitude toward Remorse our Remorselessness Scrupulosity death Cowardice Courage Foolhardiness Making Amends own offenses Downplaying Shame and danger Self-Forgiveness Attitude toward Temperance Lust Attitude toward Indifference Loyalty Obsequiousness our Anhedonia our friends own desires Moderation Gluttony Attitude toward Exploitation Respect Deferentiality other people

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Two Concepts of Morality Rightly-ordered Desires and the Goals of Moral Education In a simplified scheme, we can contrast two approaches to the morality. Moral education may initially seek to control unruly – Restrictive concept: desires through rules, the formation of habits, etc. • Child vs. adult Ultimately, moral education aims at forming and • Comes from outside (usually parents). cultivating virtuous conduct. • “Don’t touch that stove burner!” • Rules and habit formation are central. – Affirmative concept: • Adult vs. adult • Comes from within (self-directed). • “This is the kind of person I want to be” • Virtue-centered, often modeled on ideals.

149 150 Virtue As the Golden Mean Virtue and Habit

Strength of character (virtue), Aristotle suggests, For Aristotle, virtue is something that is practiced and involves finding the proper balance between two thereby learned—it is habit (hexis). extremes. This has clear implications for moral education, for – Excess: having too much of something. Aristotle obviously thinks that you can teach people – Deficiency: having too little of something. to be virtuous. Not mediocrity, but harmony and balance.

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Two Types of Egoism Egoism Two types of egoism: – Psychological egoism • Asserts that as a matter of fact we do always act selfishly • Purely descriptive – Ethical egoism • Maintains that we should always act selfishly

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Analyzing the psychological egoist’s Psychological Egoism: claim A Common and Widespread Belief

Folk psychology The psychological egoist – There is a widespread belief that people are just out for claims that people always act themselves selfishly or in their own self- Social Darwinism: everyone is just trying to interest. survive.

One of the earlier advocates Social sciences of this view was Thomas – Economics: rational agent theory Hobbes, who saw life as Foreign policy “…nasty, brutish, and short.” – Belief that other nations will always act solely in terms of Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) self-interest

155 156 Psychological Egoism What does it mean to be selfish?

What exactly does the psychological egoist If we are selfish, do we only maintain? Two possible interpretations: do things that are in our – #1: We act selfishly, or genuine self-interest? – What about the chain smoker? Is – #2: We act in our self-interest this person acting out of genuine self-interest? – In fact, the smoker may be acting selfishly (doing what he wants without regard to others) but not self-interestedly (doing what will ultimately benefit him).

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Re-conceptualizing Psychological What does it mean to be selfish? Egoism, 1

If we are selfish, do we only do The standard view of human motivation embedded things we believe are in our self- interest? in discussions of psychological egoism sees – What about those who believe egoism and altruism as opposite poles of a single that sometimes they act altruistically? scale: Human Motivation – Does anyone truly believe Mother Theresa was completely selfish? Egoism Altruism Think of the actions of parents. Mother Theresa (1910-1997) Don’t parents sometimes act for The premise is that an increase in egoism automatically results in a the sake of their children, even when it is against their narrow decrease in altruism, and vice versa. self-interest to do so?

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Re-conceptualizing Psychological Re-conceptualizing Psychological Egoism, 3 Egoism, 2 In addition to having two independent axes, we must distinguish between the intentions of actions and their Instead of seeing this one a single scale, we can see egoism consequences. Thus we get two graphs: and altruism as two independent axes: High Intentions Consequences Conceptualizing the issue in Altruism this way allows some actions Strongly intended to help others High beneficial To others to be done both for the sake of others and for one’s own sake, and avoids falling into a false Low High Not Strongly Highly Highly dichotomy between altruism Egoism Egoism intended intended harmful beneficial and egoism. to benefit to benefit to self to self self However, an additional self distinction remains to be draw. Low Highly harmful to others Altruism Strongly intended to harm others

161 162 Re-conceptualizing Psychological Egoism, 4 Ethical Egoism

This double grid suggests that any given action can be ranked according to both: – Intentions – Consequences And that, for each of these two issues, each act can be ranked along two independent axes, concern/consequences for self and concern/consequences for other.

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Ethical Egoism Versions of Ethical Egoism

Personal Ethical Egoism Selfishness is extolled as a virtue – Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness – “I am going to act only in my own interest, and everyone else can do whatever they want.” May appeal to psychological egoism as a foundation Individual Ethical Egoism Often very compelling for high – “Everyone should act in my own interest.” school students Universal Ethical Egoism – “Each individual should act in his or her own Ayn Rand (1905-1982). (born Alice Rosenbaum) self interest.”

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Universalizing Ethical Egoism Altruism Can the ethical egoist consistently will that everyone else follow the tenets of Unselfish concern for the welfare of ethical egoism? – It seems to be in one’s self-interest to be others; selflessness, charity, selfish oneself and yet get everyone else to act generosity. altruistically (especially if they act for your benefit). This leads to individual ethical Zoology. Instinctive cooperative egoism. behavior that is detrimental (harmful) Some philosophers such as Jesse Kalin to the individual but contributes to have argued that in sports we consistently the survival of the species. universalize ethical egoism: we intend to win, but we want our opponents to try as hard as they can!

167 168 Sinking Titanic: Egoism vs. Altruism Egoism, Altruism, and (Even risks in technical systems) the Ideal World Aristotle Tocqueville’s Ideally, we seek a society in Kant “Self-interest rightly understood” which self-interest and regard High for others converge—the green Altruism zone. Egoism at the expense of Self-interest Self-sacrificing others and altruism at the and regard altruism for others expense of self-interest both converge create worlds in which Low High goodness and self-regard are Egoism Egoism mutually exclusive—the yellow Not beneficial Self-interest zone. either to self at the expense or others of others No one want the red zone, which is against both self- Low Hobbes’s interest and regard for others. Drug addiction Altruism Alcoholism, etc. State of Nature, Nietzsche? 169 170

Le Deuxième Sexe - The Second Sex Moral Reasoning and Simone de Beauvoir 1949 Gender Woman as Other – “For a long time I have hesitated to write a book on woman. The subject is irritating, especially to The Kohlberg-Gilligan Debate and women; and it is not new. Beyond Enough ink has been spilled in quarrelling …”

Simone de Beauvoir

171 http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/beav.htm 172

Lawrence Kohlberg Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (Harvard) studied under Swiss psychologist LEVEL STAGE SOCIAL ORIENTATION and philosopher Jean Piaget (1965), who had developmental approach to learning. Kohlberg 1 Obedience and Punishment extended the approach to stages of moral reasoning. Pre-conventional 2 Individualism, Instrumentalism, and Using surveys, Kohlberg presented his Exchange subjects with moral dilemmas and asked them to evaluate the moral conflict. He was able to 3 "Good boy/girl" prove that youth at various ages, as youth Conventional proceed to adulthood, they are able to 4 Law and Order progress up the moral development stages presented, Lawrence Kohlberg 5 Social Contract (1927 - 1987) Post-conventional 6 Principled Conscience

173 174 Gender and Kohlberg’s scale Carol Gilligan

Women are more likely to base their University Professor of explanations for moral dilemmas on concepts Gender Studies, such as caring and personal relationships. Harvard University (1997- present) These concepts are likely to be scored at the In a Different Voice: stage three level. Men, on the other hand, are Psychological Theory and more likely to base their decisions for moral Women's Development, dilemmas on social contract or justice and book 1982. equity. Those concepts are likely to be scored Carol Gilligan, at stage five or six. 1936 - present

175 176

Gilligan’s Critique Introduction Gilligan’s Concept of Voice The metaphor of “voice” in her book In a In light of the differences between the Different Voice scores of males and females on the – Concrete and specific Kohlberg scale, one could draw either of – Allows harmony without imposing sameness two conclusions: – Not competitive or combative but collaborative – Combines both emotion and content – females are less morally developed than males, or – Voices may be described in a wide vocabulary that has nothing to do with right or wrong, true or – Kohlberg’s framework is biased against false women. – Voices may be different without excluding one another. 177 178

How do we understand Gilligan’s How do we understand Gilligan’s claims? claims?

First of all there are historical differences in Traditionally the roles of females and males. – Males take care of the “foreign affairs” – Females give birth to children – Males protect family from the outside threat – Females traditionally take care of family – Protective function is realized through groups – Females traditionally dominate the private of males – military and other societal sphere with close (short-range) relationships organizations – Females have developed perseverance and – Males dominate official (public) sphere patience – Males as a group have developed strength

179 180 How do we understand Gilligan’s How do we understand Gilligan’s claims? claims? Plato: Meno

SOCRATES: (…) By the gods, Meno, be generous, and With the advent of industrial revolution, and tell me what you say that virtue is; (…) MENO: (…) Let us take first the virtue of a man--he welfare state where all children are given should know how to administer the state, and in the education, and physical strength has no administration of it to benefit his friends and harm his enemies; and he must also be careful not to suffer dominant role, women have entered the harm himself. A woman's virtue, if you wish to know public sphere traditionally dominated by about that, may also be easily described: her duty is males. to order her house, and keep what is indoors, and obey her husband. Every age, every condition of life, Female professionals have encountered a young or old, male or female, bond or free, has a different virtue (…) culture that was historically male territory. It caused cultural shock.

181 182

How do we interpret Gilligan’s The Separate but Equal Thesis claims?

Four possible positions about female Separate but equal: Men and women have vs. male moral voices: different but equally valuable moral voices Criticisms: Separate but equal – Reinforces traditional stereotypes Superiority thesis – Hard to retain the “...but equal” part Integrationist thesis – Suggests that men and women have nothing to learn from one another, since each has its own Diversity thesis exclusive moral voice – Devalues men with a “female voice” and women with a “male voice” 183 184

The Superiority Thesis The Integrationist Thesis

Superiority thesis Integrationist thesis – Women’s moral voices are superior – Only one moral voice, same for both men and Criticisms women – Equal rights for men and women? – Morality is androgynous – Inversion of traditional claims of male superiority Criticisms – Exclusionary – Loses richness of diversity – Demands that one side of the comparison be the – Tends to assimilation in practice, reducing other loser voices to the voice of the powerful majority

185 186 Exclusive Models of Internal Gender The Diversity Thesis Diversity – Suggests that there are different moral voices Traditionally, we have thought of gender – Sees this as a source of richness and in exclusionary terms growth in the moral life – The more masculine a person is, the less – External diversity feminine that person is • Different individuals have different, sex-based moral voices – The more feminine a person is, the less • Males with female voices and females with male voices are admitted masculine that person is – Internal diversity • Each of us have both masculine and feminine moral voices within us • Minimizes gender stereotyping 187 188

Exclusive Models of Internal Gender Sandra Bem Scale Diversity

In this model, which is the most common traditional model, an increase in masculinity is bought at the price of a decrease in femininity, and vice versa. 189 190

Conclusion Sandra Bem Scale “The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury)

Thinking about gender in Sandra Bem’s Kohlberg – Gilligan controversy is but a framework allows us to to appreciate beginning of a long process of re- both the feminine and the masculine thinking position of women in a post- moral voices within each of us and to modern society. avoid traditional stereotypes. The end of industrialist era and the emergency of new information technology results in conditions that even more favor female professionals.

191 192 The Earth ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS "We have not inherited the Earth from our fathers. We are borrowing it from our children."

Native American saying

193 194

Environmental Ethics and Philosophy Values, Rights, and Obligations Are There Universal Ethical Principles?

Universalists: Plato, Kant believe that fundamental Moral agents. Some philosophers believe principles of ethics are universal, unchanging and eternal that only humans are moral agents Relativists: Sophists- everything contextual. Believe Moral subjects. Children are considered that moral principles are always relative to a particular person moral subjects not moral agents Nihilists: Schopenhauer- arbitrary survival. Claim Inherent, instrumental value that the world makes no sense at all and that everything is completely arbitrary Non-living things, do they have value? Utilitarians: Bentham - greatest good for greatest number of people

195 196

Modernism and Postmodernism Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives

Individual beliefs towards ecology Descartes, Bacon: hope for universal depend on ethical perspectives laws of morality Most people have set of core values or Derrida, Lyotard, Foucalt: beliefs Environmental ethics is arbitrary and Environmental concerns are a source shifting and that there is no universal for comparisons among different values philosophy and perceptions

197 198 Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives

Domination Stewardship

Responsibility to manage our Interpretation of some religious values has lead in past to anthropocentric (human- ecosystem. To work together with centered) ecological principles which believe human and non-human forces to that humans are the focus of creation sustain life Current movement in religious organizations to fight for ecological concerns

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Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives Worldviews and ethical perspectives

Biocentrism (life-centered), Animal Rights, and A comparison Ecocentrism (ecologically-centered)

Biocentrism: biodiversity is the highest ethical value Philosophy Intrinsic Value Instrumental Value Role of humans in nature Anthropocentric Humans Nature Masters

Animal rights supporters focus on the individual Stewardship Humans & Nature Tools Caretakers

Ecocentrism: whole is more important than individual Biocentric Species Abiotic nature One of many animal Animal rights Individuals Processes Equals Ecofeminism Ecocentric Processes Individuals Destroyers Ecofeminist Relationships Roles Caregivers Warren, Shiva, Merchant, Ruether, and King A network of personal relationships

201 202

Environmental Racism Environmental Justice

Unequal distribution of hazardous waste based on Combination of civil rights and race Black children 2-3 times more likely to have lead environmental protection that demands poisoning a safe, healthy life-giving environment for everyone Dumping Across Borders

Most people of low socio-economic Toxic colonialism: targeting third/fourth world position are exposed to high pollution countries for waste disposal Polluting industries move to poor countries levels Environmental Justice Act (1992)

203 204 Is Nature Fragile or Resilient*?

Nature seen as powerful in past

Nature seen as a delicate balance as technology increases our ability to disrupt

*resilient - som har lätt för att återhämta sig (komma igen) 205 elastisk, spänstig, 206

207 208

Science as a Way of Knowing A Faustian Bargain?

Technology can create power to save and destroy life Dr. Faustus sold his soul to the devil in exchange for power and wealth (youth)

209 210 Management Theory and the Environment

Anthropocentric Theories –Ethics – Economic – Corporate Social Responsibility •Stakeholder •Normative • Social Contract Green Management Theories – Ecocentricism – Adjusted Stakeholder – Sustainablity – Resource Based Theory

211 212

Global Environmental Ethics Environmental Ethics and Business

Western Society - Objectifies Nature – Locke - “Something in a state of nature has no economic value and is of no utility to the human race” Ethics - a concern with actions and practices directed to improving the welfare of people.

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Economic Fundamentalism and Corporate Social Responsibility Ethics

The corporate social responsibility of a business By doing socially responsible things, is to increase profit. - M. Friedman businesses better human life. Hopefully ..good ethics is good Those things that cannot be traded on the market have no value. business. Where does the environment fit in these definitions for environmental ethics? Is this true? Will people and corporations do environmentally responsible things on their Is enlightened self interest a good way? own? What happens if they do? 215 216 Incorporating Environment into Green Management Theories Management Theory

Environmental Ethics is a starting point Ecocentricism views industrial relationships in – Expanding ethics to include nature. a cycle, and a whole set of philosophies. – What is the difficulty in doing this? How radical is this? – What does the Biocentric ethic say (Goodpaster?) Sustaincentric - going beyond sustainability of Biocentrism “development that meets the needs of the – Natural objects have intrinsic value and morally present without compromising the ability of considerable in their own right. future generations to meet their needs. – Deep Ecology nature has an ethical status at least – Human and economic relationships inextricably equal to humans. linked with natural systems.

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Current Environmental Conditions Major Causes of Environmental Degradation

Half the world’s wetlands were lost in the last 100 years. Population Growth Land conversion and logging have shrunk the world’s forests by as much as 50%. More than 6 billion people now occupy the Earth, Nearly three-quarters of the world’s major adding about 85 million more each year. marine fish stocks are overfished or are being In the next decade, most population growth will be in harvested beyond a sustainable rate. the poorer countries - countries where present populations already strain resources and services. Soil degradation has affected two-thirds of the world’s agricultural lands in the last 50 years. 219 220

Human Dimensions of Environmental Resource Extraction and Use Science

More than 1.3 billion people live in acute poverty, with an income of less than $1 per day. These Burning of fossil fuels people generally lack access to an adequate diet, Destruction of tropical decent housing, basic sanitation, clean water, rainforests and other education, medical care, and other essentials. biologically rich Four out of five people in the world live in what landscapes would be considered poverty in the U.S. or Canada. Production of toxic The world’s poorest people are often forced to meet short-term survival needs at the cost of long-term wastes sustainability.

221 222 Environmental Science What ought I to do?

Environment - the circumstances and Intention Action Consequence conditions that surround Intention Action Consequence an organism or a group of organisms Environmental science - the systematic study of our environment and our Duty place in it Deontological Ethics

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What ought I to do? http://www.envirolink.org/

- Agriculture - Air Quality - Climate Change - Ecosystems - Energy - Environmental Disasters - Environmental Economics - Environmental Education - Environmental Ethics - Environmental Legislation and Policy Intention Action Consequence - Ground Pollution - Habitat Conservation - Human Health - Natural History - Oceans - Outdoor Recreation - Population - Sustainable Business - Sustainable Development - Sustainable Living Consequentialist Ethics - Transportation Consequentialist Ethics - Urban Issues - Vegetarianism - Waste Management - Water Quality - Wildlife

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Ethics Contexts PROFESSIONAL ETHICS Industry (Other firms) Clients Profession Consumers (Societies) Interdisciplinary collaboration between professional disciplines and ethicists (philosophers) Engineering firm

Engineer Colleagues Family Teaching for students whose primary (Private Sphere) subject area lies outside philosophy and religious studies. Managers Global environment Society/Nature 227 228 Research Ethics Committee University of Mälardalen What is Professional Ethics?

Ethics committee decision making There are many ways to introduce applied/professional ethics with different focus: Research ethical issues of MDH, advisory committee:

Pragmatic http://www.mdh.se/namnder/fet/lankar/ Embedded http://www.mdh.se/namnder/fet/ledamoter.shtml Theoretical Emerging Issues Decision-making (policy-making) body in Uppsala http://www.epn.se/

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Approach 1 Approach 2 Pragmatic Embedded

Ethical issues are introduced via a consideration of their Ethical concerns are presented holistically, as an practical consequences. Consequences are defined integral part of some broader area of concern such in relation to: as:

• The framework of rules and procedures defined by • Fitness for Practice.

regulatory bodies charged with the task of raising or • Professionalism. maintaining professional standards. The embedded approach places an emphasis on the • Research Ethics Committees and the factors that sense of professional identity. influence their deliberations

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Approach 3 Emerging Professional Issues Theoretical

This approach focuses on the understanding of ethics theory. Professional ethics introduces new issues and concerns The ethics of life-like situations are presented in terms by seeking to guide and shape graduate behaviour of the application of different ethical theories. as a way of meeting public expectations with regard to professional conduct and accountability.

233 234 Professional Ethics Primary Objectives CRITICISM OF THE SOURCES 1. To help professionals make choices that they can live Academic Honesty with, and by reducing the emotional and psychological stress caused by moral indecision and confusion.

2. To ensure that the professional acts in a way that serves the best interests of society in general and their service-users in particular. - IDE perspective and policy

3. To ensure that the professionals acts in a way that serves the best interests of their chosen profession.

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What is cheating? Consequences

Plagiarizing - copying, paraphrasing and All suspected cases will be reported to self-plagiarizing the disciplinary committee Unauthorized co-operation The teacher is not allowed to haggle or Joyriding or taking advantage punish! Fabrication Warning or suspension from classes Un-authorized aids IDE practice is a zero tolerance against academic dishonesty

237 238

Rules Concluding Comments ”Individually” means by one single person Be prepared to describe carefully how you solved the assignment The names on the cover are the names of those who made the assignment Use references to everything that is not your own present work! When in doubt – ask teacher Read http://www.mdh.se/ide/utbildning/cheating

239 240 Conclusion World seen in different light “The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury)

Two processes go on concurrently – Females being a part of the public world for almost a century gradually win strong positions and take part in defining of the “rules of the game”. That improves the conditions for new generations of women professionals to come. – Female as a part of scientific establishment contribute with new insights in classical scholarship that will in the long term radically What if we could see in any wavelength of the electromagnetic change our ideas (a critical mass of women is far spectrum, from gamma-rays to radio waves? How would the from achieved yet) world appear to us?

241 242

Images of the sun Images of the moon

RADIO ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE RADIO ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE

INFRARED X-RAY INFRARED X-RAY 243 244

Images of galaxy M81 World as seen in the light of different models

An example: one country has started war on the other. What are the possible “optics” we RADIO ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE can use to analyze the problem from the ethical point of view?

Virtue Ethics – The leader of one country was very bad character. Leader of the other was very good. Which one is which depends usually on the side in the war. INFRARED X-RAY

245 246 http://hea-www.harvard.edu/CHAMP/EDUCATION/PUBLIC/multiwavelengthphotos_pics.html World as seen in the light of different World as seen in the light of different models models Duty Utilitarian Ethics – In a war, defending your country/fighting for your – The country have to be helped, pacified, civilized. country is seen as a highest duty. – The total benefit from the point of view of the one who sets the rules and counts benefits is obvious. Egoism – In egoist perspective war can be used to gain huge benefits. Rights – As a rule in a war human rights are violated. If you focus on that aspect of the problem you may get Feminist ethics the different picture. – Feminist claim wars are male business

247 248

World as seen in the light of different References models Justice – The distribution of wealth/natural resources can be Basic material: a central issue in a war and so also in ethical – http://ethics.acusd.edu/presentations/Hinman/theory/relativism/ analysis of it. – http://ethics.acusd.edu/socialethics/ – MORAL PHILOSOPHY THROUGH THE AGES, James Fieser, Mayfield Publishing Company, 2001 Divine Command – Very often a war can be seen as a clash between Additional resources: different religions. Each side fights with the divine – http://www.prs.heacademy.ac.uk/projects/ethics/ support. (So it was even in ancient Greece) – http://ethics.acusd.edu/relativism.html

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