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New Woman:” Femininity and Feminism in the Ladies' Journal (Funü Zazhi) 《婦女雜誌》, 1915-1931

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New Woman:” Femininity and Feminism in the Ladies' Journal (Funü Zazhi) 《婦女雜誌》, 1915-1931 Troubling the "New Woman:” Femininity and Feminism in The Ladies' Journal (Funü zazhi) 《婦女雜誌》, 1915-1931 Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Joshua Adam Hubbard, M.A. Graduate Program in East Asian Studies The Ohio State University 2012 Thesis Committee: Ying Zhang, Advisor Martin Joseph Ponce Christopher A. Reed Copyright by Joshua Adam Hubbard 2012 Abstract During the early 1920s, New Culture intellectuals frequently deployed the "new woman" trope as the personification of an idealized modernity, constituted in relation to its Confucian, traditional, other. Though this discourse is often cited in historical scholarship, the origins of the Chinese "new woman" preceded the advent of the New Culture Movement, and her sociocultural meanings often exceeded descriptions espoused by affiliated male intellectuals. Emerging from the women's education movement of the late Qing period (1644-1912), the "new woman" remained a highly contested representation of conflicting visions of Chinese modernity throughout the early twentieth century. This work demonstrates the instability and adaptability of the "new woman" trope through a case study of the most widely circulated women's periodical in Republican China, The Ladies’ Journal (Funü zazhi). An examination of The Ladies' Journal suggests that prevalent discourses of the "new woman," much like the goals of the broader women's movement, shifted with China's sociopolitical landscape through the periods of the early Republic (1915-1918), the New Culture Era (1919-1925), and the early Guomindang (Naitonalist Party) state (1926-1931). This work troubles definitions of "feminism" rooted in the politics of the recent West. Though many men and women in Republican China proposed methods of improving gender relations, these figures rarely embodied the ideals of Western-oriented feminists of the late twentieth century. Rather than deem these historical figures as less than feminist based on present notions, this work notes the complexities and particularities of "feminism (funü zhuyi)" in Republican China. ii Acknowledgements I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Professor Ying Zhang, whose guidance has played an immeasurable role in shaping my academic development. I also would like to thank my thesis committee members, Professor Martin Joseph Ponce and Professor Christopher A. Reed, for their insightful comments and suggestions. iii Vita May 2006..........................................................B.A. History, Lee University July 2006 to August 2007.................................Cooperative Teacher, SIAS International University September 2007 to May 2008...........................Academic Team Member, EF: English First - Shanghai May 2010..........................................................M.A. History, Marshall University June 2011 to August 2011.................................International Chinese Language Program (ICLP), National Taiwan University June 2011 to present..........................................FLAS Fellow, The Ohio State University Fields of Study Major Field: East Asian Studies iv Table of Contents Abstract...............................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgements............................................................................................................iii Vita.....................................................................................................................................iv List of Images.....................................................................................................................vi Introduction: The "New Woman" and the Women's Press in China...................................1 Chapter 1: The "New Woman" of the Early Republic, 1915 - 1918.................................16 Chapter 2: The "New Woman" of the New Culture Era, 1919 - 1925..............................33 Chapter 3: The "New Woman" of the Guomindang State, 1926 - 1931...........................53 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................71 Bibliography......................................................................................................................74 v List of Images Image 1.1: November 1915 Front Cover...........................................................................28 Image 1.2: July 1915 Front Cover.....................................................................................28 Image 1.3: Children's Exercises.........................................................................................31 Image 2.1: Pepsodent Advertisement................................................................................40 Image 2.2: "The English Student" Advertisement.............................................................40 Image 2.3: Conception.......................................................................................................45 Image 2.4: Pregnancy........................................................................................................45 vi Introduction: The "New Woman" and the Women's Press in China In 1918, Hu Shi 胡適 (1891-1962) hailed the arrival of the "new woman" in China. While addressing students and faculty at the Beijing Women's Normal School (Beijing shifan daxue 北京師範大學), Hu depicted an image of modern femininity that stood in opposition to traditional norms. According to Hu, the term "new woman (xin funü 新婦女)" referred to one who wears unusual clothing and lets down her hair...whose views are radical, whose behavior tends to be extreme. She does not believe in religion and does not conform to traditional conventions. She is high-minded and maintains high moral standards 衣飾古怪，披着頭髮...言論很激烈，行為往往趨於極端，不信宗 教，不依禮法，却又思想極高，道德極高.1 In Hu's opinion, only stylish women who resisted tradition could be classified as "new.” For the next several years, Hu and other intellectuals associated with the New Culture Movement (1915-1925) promoted such images of modern femininity in the Chinese popular press.2 As part of their larger project of cultural transformation, these men frequently deployed this "new woman" trope as the personification of an idealized 1 Hu Shi 胡適, Wencun 文存, Vol. 1 (Taipei: Yuandong tushu gongsi yinxing 遠東圖書公司印行, 1953), 662; translation with slight modification from Hu Ying, Tales of Translation: Composing the New Woman in China, 1899-1918 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 208 n. 11. 2 These approximate dates for the New Culture Movement range from the founding of the affiliated periodical New Youth (Xin qingnian 新青年) in 1915 to the May Thirtieth Incident of 1925. See Vera Schwarcz, The Chinese Enlightenment: Intellectuals and the Legacy of the May Fourth Movement of 1919 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986), 4-11. 1 modernity, constituted in relation to a Confucian, traditional, other.3 In reality, the origins of the Chinese "new woman" preceded the advent of the New Culture Movement, and her cultural meanings often exceeded descriptions espoused by affiliated male intellectuals. Emerging from the women's education movement of the late Qing period (1644-1912), the "new woman" bore various signifiers and exemplified differing ideals throughout the early twentieth century. Influenced by dramatic shifts in social and political conditions, Chinese men and women depicted modern femininity in ways that reflected the specific anxieties of their time. This work seeks to complicate scholarly interpretations of the "new woman" in Republican China through a case study of the most widely read women's periodical, The Ladies' Journal (Funü zazhi 婦女雜誌). This contextualized analysis of the journal's content through the periods of the early Republic (1915-1918), the New Culture Era (1919-1925), and the early Guomindang (Nationalist Party) state (1926-1931) will illustrate the significant impact of sociopolitical conditions in shaping shifting conceptions of the "new woman" and the broader women's movement during the Republican period (1911-1949).4 The Women's Press and The Ladies’ Journal In the late Qing dynasty, the campaign to expand women’s education and the ensuing debate fostered a demand for publications addressing women’s issues. To publicize their efforts to establish schools for girls in China, the Women’s Study Society 3 Kristine Harris, "The New Woman Incident," Transnational Chinese Cinemas: Identity, Nationhood, Gender, Sheldon Hsiao-peng Lu, ed. (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1997), 287. 4 The English titles given for Chinese periodicals mentioned throughout this work are not necessarily direct translations of their Chinese titles, but are instead the English titles adopted by the periodicals themselves during their period of publication. For example, some historians have referred to 婦 女雜誌 as Women’s Journal, however the journal itself bore the English title, The Ladies’ Journal. 2 (Nüxue hui 女學會) published Chinese Girls’ Progress (Nüxue bao 女學報) in 1898. Though short-lived, Chinese Girls’ Progress became the first of several women’s periodicals published in Shanghai during the late Qing and early Republican periods. In addition to the increasing popularity of “the woman question (funü wenti 婦女問題)” as a topic of debate, growing numbers of literate women also fueled the demand for women’s periodicals. Between
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