Soil Aspects ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF PROPOSED SRI RAMESHWARA LIFT IRRIGATION SCHEME
VOLUME – I
October 2007
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 8
Soil Aspects ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF PROPOSED SRI RAMESHWARA LIFT IRRIGATION SCHEME
VOLUME – II
October 2007
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 9
Soil Aspects
Ch apter No. Content Page No. I QUESTIONAIRE i to xix II Executive Summary I to XIV
Chapter III - Salient Features
Paragraph No. Content Page No. 3.0 Introduction 1 3.1 Location and Accessibility 1 3.2 Topography 1-2 3.3 Drainage 2 3.4 Climate and Rainfall 2 3.5 Geology and Soils 2-3 3.6 Population 3 3.7 Land use and Socio-economic Aspects 4 3.8 Cropping pattern 4 3.9 Hydrological aspects 4
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Content Page No. 3.1 SRLIS – Gross Command Area Details 3 3.2 Population as per 2001 census 3 Summarized Salient Features of 3.3 Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme 5-7
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Content 3.1 Location map of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme 3.2 Location map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme 3.3 SOI topomap of command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme 3.4 Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme
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Soil Aspects
Chapter IV - Soil Quality Assessment
Paragraph No. Content Page No. 4.0 Introduction 8 4.1 Soil Water – A Dynamic Solution 8-9 4.2 Soil Management and Micronutrient Needs 9 4.3 Changes in Soil Acidity 9-10 4.4 Soil Moisture 10 4.5 Fertilizer Applications 10-11 4.6 Scope of Study 11-12 Study Area 4.7.1 Location and Accessibility 4.7.2 Physiography and Drainage 4.7.3 Climate, Rainfall and Hydrological Aspects 4.7 12-16 4.7.4 Geology 4.7.5 Soil Types 4.7.6 Land Use Pattern 4.7.7 Cropping Pattern 4.8 Objectives 16 4.9 Materials and Methods 16 Soil Analysis 4.10.1 pH and conductivity 4.10.2 Soil Colour 4.10.3 Organic Carbon 4.10.4 Exchangeable Potassium and Sodium 4.10.5 Exchangeable Calcium and Magnesium 4.10.6 Available Phosphorus 4.10 4.10.7 Chloride 16-24 4.10.8 Cation Exchange Capacity 4.10.9 Calcium Carbonate 4.10.10 Exchangeable Sodium percentage 4.10.11 Particle Size Distribution 4.10.12 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) 4.10.13 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen 4.10.14 Salinity Results 4.11.1 Soil pH 4.11.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) 4.11.3 Salinity 4.11.4 Colour of the Soil 4.11.5 Exchangeable Calcium 4.11.6Exchangeable Magnesium 4.11 24-27 4.11.7 Percent Organic Carbon 4.11.8 Exchangeable Sodium 4.11.9 Exchangeable Potassium 4.11.10 Percent Chlorides 4.11.11 Available Nitrogen (%N) 4.11.12 Available Phosphorous 4.11.13 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR)
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Soil Aspects
Discussion 4.12.1 pH 4.12.2 Electrical Conductivity 4.12.3 Soil Colour 4.12 4.12.4 Organic Carbon 28-34 4.12.5 Available Phosphorus 4.12.6 Exchangeable Sodium 4.12.7 Exchangeable Potassium 4.12.8 Available Nitrogen 4.13 Particle Size Distribution 34 4.14 Textural Class 35 4.15 Water Holding Capacity (WHC) 35 Salinity 4.16 35-38 4.16.1 Salinity Causing Factors 4.17 Fertility Status of the Soils 38-39 4.18 Nutrient index 39-40 Estimation of Soil Loss 4.19.1 Erosion Index (EI 30 ) Values on Storm Basis 4.19.2 Soil Erodibility Factor (K) 4.19.3 Nomograph Method 4.19.4 Determination of LS 4.19.5 Evaluation of Cropping Management 4.19 40-47 Factor (C) 4.19.6 Evaluation of Support Practice Factor (P) 4.19.7 Soil Erosion 4.19.8 Soil Conservation Practices 4.19.9 Soil Conservation Practices for Catchment Area Treatment Soil and Water Conservation Measures for 4.20 Rameshwara Catchment Area 48-49 4.20.1 Gully plugging Soil Conservation Practices for the Ghataprabha 4.21 50-55 River at Rameshwara Catchment Area
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Soil Aspects
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Content Page No. 4.1 Quality Problems Related to Agricultural Activities 16 4.2 Details of Soil Sampling Sites at Command Area 21-22 Analytical Methods Used for Physico Chemical 4.3 23 Analysis of Soil Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Soil at 4.4 24 Command Area Rate of Infiltration under different land use pattern 4.5 40 in the Ghataprabha River Basin 4.6 Estimation of Soil Loss in Watersheds of the RLIS 44 4.7 Erodibility Index 45 Suggested Erosion Reduction Percentages for 4.8 47 Various Mitigation Measures 4.9 Specifications for Gully Plugs 48 Soil conservation Measures and Practices 4.10 Recommended for the Ghataprabha River at 50 Rameshwara Catchment Area Micro-Watershed of Rameshwara Catchment 4.11 51-54 Area and Treatment Plan 4.12 Cost Estimates as per Soil Treatment Methods 55 Area and Cost Estimate for Catchment Area 4.13 55 Treatment
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Content 4.1 Soil sampling points of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme 4.2 Seismic map of India as per IS 1893-2002 4.3 Seismic Zoning map of India 4.4 Seismic zones of India
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Soil Aspects
Chapter V - Water quality Assessment
Paragraph No. Content Page No. 5.0 Introduction 56-57 5.1 Water Requirement for Irrigation 57-59 5.2 Surface Irrigation 59 5.3 Ground Water Management 59-60 5.4 Management Measures for Irrigation Water 60 5.5 Pollutant Transport from Irrigated Lands 61 5.6 Fertilizer Contamination of Water 61-62 5.7 Irrigation Methods and System Designs 62 5.8 Changes in River Hydrology 63 5.9 Water Application and Drainage 63 5.10 Objectives 64 5.11 Scope of the Study 64-65 Study Area 5.12.1 Location and Accessibility 5.12.2 Physiography and Drainage 5.12 65-67 5.12.3 Climate, Rainfall and Hydrological Aspects 5.12.4 Geology Materials and Methods 5.13.1 pH 5.13.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 5.13.3 Turbidity 5.13.4 Alkalinity 5.13.5 Total Hardness 5.13.6 Calcium Hardness 5.13 67-73 5.13.7 Magnesium Hardness 5.13.8 Chloride 5.13.9 Sulphate 5.13.10 Phosphate 5.13.11 Nitrate 5.13.12 Fluoride 5.13.13 Sodium and Potassium 5.13.14 SAR, RSC and Percent Sodium 5.14 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 74-76 Ground Water 5.15.1 pH 5.15.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) 5.15.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 5.15.4 Total Hardness 5.15 5.15.5 Calcium Hardness 77-88 5.15.6 Fluorides 5.15.7 Chlorides 5.15.8 Sodium 5.15.9 Potassium 5.15.10 Sulphates
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Soil Aspects
5.15.11 Phosphates 5.15.12 Nitrates 5.15.13 Turbidity 5.15.14 Colour 5.15.15 Alkalinity 5.15.16 Salinity 5.15.17 Percent Sodium 5.15.18 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) 5.15.19 Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) Surface Water 5.16.1 pH 5.16.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) 5.16.3 Total dissolved solids (TDS) 5.16.4 Hardness 5.16.5 Fluorides 5.16.6 Chlorides 5.16.7 Sodium 5.16.8 Potassium 5.16 88-95 5.16.9 Sulphates 5.16.10 Phosphates 5.16.11 Nitrates 5.16.12 Turbidity 5.16.13 Colour 5.16.14 Alkalinity 5.16.15 Dissolved oxygen (DO) 5.16.16 Percent Sodium SAR and RSC 5.16.17 Salinity 5.17 Conclusion 96-97 Hydrogeological Conditions 5.18.1 Granites, Gneisses and Schists 5.18 97-98 5.18.2 Deccan Traps 5.18.3 Laterites and Alluvium Ground Water Resource Status 5.19.1 Groundwater Condition 5.19.2 Ground Water Estimation 5.19 98-101 5.19.3 Ground Water Resource Estimation Methodology-1997 5.19.4 Assessment of Non-Command Area 5.20 Assessment of Command Area 101 5.21 Categorization of Watersheds 102 Assessment of Ground Water Potential 5.22.1 Ground Water Potential 5.22.2 Ground Water Recharge 5.22.3 Water Table Fluctuation Method (WTF) 5.22.4 Water Level Fluctuation 5.22 102-109 5.22.5 Specific Yield 5.22.6 Aquifer Area 5.22.7 Normalization of Monsoon Rainfall Recharge 5.22.8 Recharge Assessment based on
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Rainfall Infiltration (RIF) Method 5.22.9 Rainfall Infiltration Factor 5.22.10 Recharge from other sources 5.22.11 Return flow from Ground Water Irrigation 5.22.12 Return Flow from Surface Water Irrigation 5.22.13 Seepage from Canal 5.22.14 Seepage from Tank/ Pond/ Reservoirs 5.22.15 Seepage from Water Conservations Structure 5.22.16 Allocation for Domestic & Industrial Purposes 5.22.17 Computation of Unaccounted Natural Discharge Ground Water Resource Categorization 5.23 109-115 5.23.1 Belgaum District Categorization of Areas based on the level of 5.24 Ground Water Development 116-117 5.24.1 Belgaum District Hydrological Characteristics 5.25.1 Transmissivity (T) 5.25.2 Specific Yield (Sy) 5.25 5.25.3 Specific capacity (C) 118-125 5.25.4 Infiltration Rate and Hydraulic Conductivity 5.25.5 Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Content Page No. Analytical Methods Used For Physico-Chemical 5.1 70-71 Analysis of Ground and Surface Water Samples Details of Ground Water Sampling Sites at 5.2 72 Command Area Details of Surface Water Sampling Sites at 5.3 73 Command Area Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Ground 5.4 74 Water at Command Area Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface 5.5 75 Water at Command Area Standards for Physical and Chemical 5.6 76 Parameters in Drinking Water 5.7 Salinity in Ground Water 86 Irrigation Water Quality Parameters of Ground 5.8 88 Water Irrigation Water Quality Parameters of Surface 5.9 92 Water 5.10 Classification of Salinity of Water 93-94
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Soil Aspects
5.11 Salinity in Surface Water 94 Comparative Assessment with Standards 5.12 95 Prescribed by BIS for Drinking Water 5.13 Number of Villages / Watershed Code 109 General Description of Ground Water 5.14 112 Assessment Units of Belgaum District Groundwater Resource Potential of Belgaum 5.15 112 District as on 31.03.04 Stage of Ground Water Development of 5.16 113 Belgaum District as on 31.03.04 Categorization for Ground Water Development 5.17 114 of Belgaum District as on 31.03.04 Taluk Wise Ground Water Resources 5.18 Categorization of Belgaum District as on 114 31.03.04 Status of Ground water in Belgaum District as 5.19 on 31.12.1999 as Per GWEC Methodology, 115 1997 Categorization for Ground Water Development 5.20 117 of Belgaum District (as on 1999) Aquifer Parameters for different wells in 5.21 119 Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Area Hydraulic Properties of Soils in selected 5.22 122 locations of the study area Preliminary Yield Test (PYT) and Aquifer 5.23 123-125 Performance Test (APT) Results
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Content 5.1 Water sampling points of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme 5.2 Status of Groundwater utilization of Belgaum District 5.3 Status of Groundwater utilization of Gokak, Ramdurg and Soudatti taluks of Belgaum District
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Chapter VI – Ambient Air quality and Noise Levels assessment
Paragraph No. Content Page No. 6.0 Introduction 126-127 6.1 Sensory Recognition 127 6.2 Physical Measurement 127 6.3 Impact on Plants, Animals and Buildings 127-128 Natural Contaminants 6.4.1 Aerosols 6.4.2 Dust 6.4 6.4.3 Smoke 128-130 6.4.4 Mists 6.4.5 Fog 6.4.6 Fumes Materials and Methods 6.5 6.5.1 Criteria Used For Selection of Ambient Air 131 Quality Stations Ambient Air Quality Studies 6.6.1 Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) 6.6.2 Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter 6.6 131-135 (RSPM) or (PM 10 ) 6.6.3 Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2) 6.6.4 Nitrogen Oxides (NO x) Noise and its Measurements 6.7.1 Noise Pollution Hazards 6.7.2 Noise Pollution Rules 2000 6.7 6.7.3 Decibel 135-140 6.7.4 Sound Pressure level 6.7.5 Weighted Decibels 6.7.6 Measurement of Noise Levels Results and Discussion 6.8 6.8.1 Ambient Air Quality Status 140-143 6.8.2 Noise Level Survey 6.9 Recommendations 144
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Content Page No. 6.1 Sources of Atmospheric Dust 130 Sampling Stations for Air and Noise Quality 6.2 135 Studies 6.3 Results of Ambient Air Quality Studies 142 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) 6.4 142 and WHO Recommendations Noise levels (dB) at Pumping Station and Canal 6.5 143 site
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Soil Aspects
Chapter VII - Biodiversity & Ecological Assessment
Paragraph No. Content Page No. 7.0 Background 145 7.1 The Ghataprabha River 145 7.2 Location and land use 145-146 7.3 Climate 146 7.4 Topography 146 7.5 Flora 146-148 Trees found in Agricultural and Horticultural 7.6 148-149 gardens 7.7 Exotic Flora 149 Fauna 7.8 7.8.1 Domestic animals 149-154 7.8.2 Wild animals 7.9 Approach and Methodology 154 7.10 Approach 154 7.11 Methodology 154 Phyto-sociological Survey of the Study Area 7.12.1 Qualitative observations 7.12 7.12.2 Quantitative survey 154-156 7.12.3 Screening literature for species status 7.12.4 Faunal diversity in the region Observation and discussion 7.13.1 Overview of Forests resource of the Study Area 7.13 7.13.2 Composition and the condition of the 156-158 forest 7.13.3 Natural regeneration of the forest of the region 7.14 Key features of the study area 159 Bio-diversity Aspects of Flora in the Study Area 7.15.1 Plant species richness 7.15 159-161 7.15.2 Overall Species density and diversity 7.15.3 Shrubs, Herbs and climbers 7.15.4 Conservation status of plants Biodiversity Aspects of Fauna in the Study 7.16 161-165 Area
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Soil Aspects
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Content Page No. Key feature of sampled locations of the project 7.1 159 area Tree species density and diversity in proposed 7.2 160 project area List of plant species as under IUCN/Red Data 7.3 161 Book category in the study area Mammal’s species recorded for the proposed 7.4 162 project area Bird’s species recorded for the proposed 7.5 163 project region 7.6 Butterflies recorded for the project area 164 Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes recorded for 7.7 164-165 the region
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Chapter VIII - Remote sensing
Paragraph NO. Content Page No. 8.0 Introduction 166 8.1 Location and Extent 166-167 8.2 Land Use / Land Cover 167-168 Description of different land use / land cover classes 8.3.1 Built-up Land 8.3 168-171 8.3.2 Agriculture Land 8.3.3 Wasteland 8.3.4 Water Bodies 8.4 Slope Characteristics 171-172 Hydrogeomorphology 8.5.1 Linear Ridge 8.5.2 Pediment 8.5.3 Valley 8.5 8.5.4 Pediplain Shallow Weathered 172-174 8.5.5 Pediplain Moderate Dissected 8.5.6 Channel Island 8.5.7 Plateau Slightly Dissected 8.5.8 Valley Fill 8.6 Ground Water Prospects 175 8.7 Lithology 176 8.8 Drainage and Watershed 176-178
LIST OF TABLES
Table NO. Content Page No. Land use / Land cover of Sri Rameshwara Nala 8.1 168 Command Area Categories of slopes and corresponding contour 8.2 171-172 spacing on 1:50,000 scale Hydrogeomorphological units of Sri Rameshwara 8.3 173 Nala Command Area Ground Water Prospects of Sri Rameshwara Nala 8.4 175 Command Area Lithology of Sri Rameshwara Nala Command 8.5 176 Area Watershed Details (up to Watershed) of Sri 8.6 177 Rameshwara Nala Command Area Watershed code of Sri Rameshwara Nala 8.7 178 Command Area Sub-watersheds of Sri Rameshwara Nala 8.8 178 Command Area
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Soil Aspects
LIST OF TABLES
Table NO. Content 8.1 FCC of Peninsular India 8.2 FCC of the Project site 8.3 FCC of the project site Location map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift 8.4 Irrigation scheme SOI topomap of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift 8.5 Irrigation scheme Base map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation 8.6 scheme Land use/Land cover map of Command area of Sri 8.7 Rameshwara Lift Irrigation scheme Slope map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift 8.8 Irrigation scheme Hydrogeomorphology map of Command area of Sri 8.9 Rameshwara Lift Irrigation scheme Groundwater prospects map of Command area of Sri 8.10 Rameshwara Lift Irrigation scheme Lithology map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift 8.11 Irrigation scheme Drainage map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift 8.12 Irrigation scheme Sub-watershed map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara 8.13 Lift Irrigation scheme Micro-watershed map of Command area of Sri Rameshwara 8.14 Lift Irrigation scheme
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Chapter IX – Socioeconomics
Paragraph No. Content Page No. 9.0 The Settings 179-180 9.1 The study location 180 9.2 Salient features of the site 180-181 9.3 Submersion details of the project 181-184 9.4 Socio-Economic appraisal of the project area 184 General profile of the villages 9.5.1 Geo-political features of the villages 9.5.1a Aralimatti 9.5.1b Venkatapur 9.5.1c Kuligod 9.5.1d Kowjaligi 9.5.1e Kulguddi 9.5.1f Mannekeri 9.5.2 Demographic and household composition 9.5.3 Transportation facilities existing in the project area 9.5.4 Educational facilities in the project area 9.5.5 Health facilities in the villages of the project 9.5 184-197 area 9.5.6 Basic amenities in the villages of project area 9.5.7 Communication facilities in the villages of project area 9.5.7a Post and telegraph facilities 9.5.7b Telephone connections 9.5.8 Trade and commerce scenario in the villages of the project area 9.5.8a Existence of commercial banks 9.5.9 Land use pattern and cropping pattern in the villages of project area 9.5.10 Livestock possession in villages of project area Farmer profile and perception on Rehabilitation and Resettlement programme in the Project area 9.6.1 Farmers profile of the project area: classified by religion and caste 9.6.2 Farmers profile in the project area: Occupation Pattern 9.6.3 Farmers profile of the villages in the project 9.6 area: income level 197-206 9.6.4 Farmers having access to PDS facilities in the Project area 9.6.5 Farmers in the Project Area: Type of family and Age pattern 9.6.6 Farmers in the project area: Gender composition 9.6.7 Farmers in the project area: Education status
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9.6.8 Land holding details of farmers in the project area 9.6.9 Land submersion details of the farmers in the project area 9.6.10 Livestock owned by the farmers in the project area Perception of the farmers towards Rehabilitation and Resettlement (R and R) policy in the project area 9.7 9.7.1 Sources of information of awareness about 207-209 proposed project among households 9.7.2 Extent of information among the farmers towards land affected under proposed project Nature of complaints forwarded by the farmers in the project area 9.8.1 Response from the agencies towards complaints received from farmers 9.8.2 Apprehensions of farmers towards proposed project 9.8.3 Area proposed for R and R programme in the project area 9.8.4 Awareness about legal acquisition of 9.8 209-214 properties among farmers in the project area 9.8.5 Satisfaction of families towards R and R policy implementation in the project area 9.8.6 Some suggestive measures expressed by farmers in the project area 9.8.7 Agency preferred for implementation of R and R policy 9.8.8 Benefits expected and problems expressed by families in the project area Issues emerging from the perception of the farmers 9.9 215-217 during survey 9.10 Socio-economic analysis of R and R policy 217-218 The broad contours of the proposed rehabilitation scheme - The concept 9.11.1 The problems 9.11.2 The strategy 9.11.3 Resettlement centres 9.11.4 Pattern of settlement 9.11.5 Civic amenities 9.11 9.11.6 Other facilities 219-232 9.11.7 Transport assistance 9.11.8 Concession of stamp duty 9.11.9 Construction of houses 9.11.10 Rehabilitation 9.11.11 Action plan 9.11.12 House sites and proposed land layout 9.11.13 The basis
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Soil Aspects
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Content Page No. Salient features of the Sri Rameshwara Lift 9.1 181 Irrigation Scheme Villages benefited from the scheme: estimated 9.2 182-183 area and population Land and residential sites affected under Shri 9.3 183 Rameshwar Lift Irrigation Scheme Proposed canal network and its estimated 9.3.1 183-184 length (in km) Population and Housing composition in the 9.4 187 villages of project area SC/ST Population in the villages of project 9.4.1 189 area Transportation facilities existing in the villages 9.5 191 of project area Educational facilities existing in the villages of 9.6 192 project area Health facilities existing in the villages of 9.7 194 project area Basic amenities existing in the villages of 9.8 195 project area Livestock possession existing in the villages of 9.9 197 project area Population and sample farmers covered in the 9.10 198 project area Farmers classified by religion and caste in 9.11 199 villages of project area Occupation Profile of farmers in the project 9.12 200 area Farmers classified by income groups in the 9.13 201 villages of project area 9.14 Farmers having access to PDS 202 Farmers in the project area: type of family and 9.15 203 age pattern Farmers in the Project area: Gender 9.16.1 203 composition 9.16.2 Farmers in project area: Education status 204 Land holding details of the families in the 9.17 205 project area Land submersion details of the farmers in the 9.18 206 project area Live Stock possession among farmers in the 9.19 206 project area Sources of information about project 9.20 207 awareness among farmers Extent of information among the farmers in the 9.21.1 208 project area
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Soil Aspects
Nature of ambiguity about proposed project 9.21.2 209 among the farmers in the project area Nature of complaints forwarded from the 9.22 209 families in the project area Response from the agencies towards 9.23.1 210 household complaints Apprehension of the farmers in the project 9.23.2 210 area Agencies opted for R and R implementation 9.24 213 among the families in project area Perceptions and problems expressed by the 9.25 214 farmers in project area Prevailing market prices for land and house in 9.26 218 the project area (in rupees) Estimation of area and cost for rising main in 9.27 218 the project area Estimation of area and cost for Pump house 9.27a 218-219 and Canal Network in the project area
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Content Page No. 9.1 Gender Composition in project villages 188 9.2 Average family size among project village 188 9.3 Literacy Level - Total, Male and Female 193 population among Project village
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Soil Aspects
Chapter X - Environmental Management Plan Paragraph No. Content Page No. Safeguarding Health of the Labour groups in 10.0 233 the Construction Site 10.1 Ground Water Sources 233-234 10.2 Estimated cost for medical facilities 234-235 10.3 Surface Water Sources 236-239 10.4 Solid Waste Management 240-241 10.5 Management Plan 241 Command Area Development plan 10.6.1 Bio-Drainage to Mitigate Water Logging 10.6.2 Bio-Drainage to Mitigate Salinity 10.6 10.6.3 Conjunctive use of surface and ground 242-245 water to multiple cropping and proper utilization of available area resources 10.6.4 Cost of Command Area Development Catchment Area Treatment Plan 10.7.1 Area for treatment 10.7.2 Habitat development works in Catchment area 10.7.3 Regeneration model – for biodiversity 10.7 conservation 245-248 10.7.4 Natural Forests eco-restoration 10.7.5 Species choice for Reforestation 10.7.6 Measures to rehabilitate the endangered species in the region 10.7.7 Terrestrial weed management 10.8 Canal bank Afforestation 249-250 Restoration and Landscaping of Jack well 10.9 Sites 250-251 10.9.1 Landscaping Agro-forestry 10.10.1 Silvi-Pasture 10.10 10.10.2 Natural Regeneration 251-253 10.10.3 Cost estimates for implementing agro- forestry plan for project affected villages
LIST OF TABLES Table No. Content Page No. 10.1 Estimated cost for setting up medical facilities 234 10.2 Estimated waste water and solid waste generation in a 238 labour camps 10.3 Cost estimates for solid waste management* 241 10.4 The details of Erosion control Measures for sites under 246 catchment Area of Project 10.5 Proposed canal network and its estimated length (in km) 249 10.6 Species for compensatory afforestation 250 10.7 Overall cost for implementing Biodiversity and 253 Ecosystem restoration plans
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Soil Aspects
Chapter XI - Environmental Monitoring Programme Para No. Content Page No. 11.0 Water Resource Monitoring Programme 254 11.1 Surface and ground water quality monitoring 254 11.2 Types of monitoring programme 254 11.3 Significance of key monitoring parameters 254-255 11.4 Objectives of monitoring of surface and ground water status 255 11.5 Establishment of optimal network for ground water monitoring 255 11.6 Sampling scheme for ground water monitoring 255-256 Sampling sites for the purpose of monitoring surface and 11.7 257-260 ground water quality during and after the project period Soil Resource monitoring programme 11.8 261-263 11.8.1 Soil Resource Monitoring Scheme Flora and Fauna Monitoring programme 11.9.1 Objectives of Flora and Fauna monitoring programme 11.9 264-267 11.9.2 Initiatives in RET species conservation 11.9.3 Field data collection format Monitoring Air and Noise parameters 11.10 11.10.1 The sampling frequency of Air and Noise parameters 268-271 11.10.2 Details of sampling sites Overall Cost Estimates for Implementing Environmental 11.11 271-272 Management Plan
LIST OF TABLES Table No. Content Page No. Details of Sampling Sites at Command Area 11.1 256 (Ground Water) Details of Sampling Sites at Command Area 11.2 256 (Surface Water) 11.3 Details of Soil Sampling Sites at Command Area 257 Analytical Methodology to be adopted for Water 11.4 257 Parameters Report format for Analytical Results of water 11.5 260 Sample parameters 11.6 Soil resource monitoring locations 261 11.7 Analytical Methods for soil Analysis 262 Details of In-situ and ex-situ sites for the purpose 11.8 266 of monitoring Biodiversity 11.9 In-situ information sheet related to RET species 267 Ex-situ information sheet related to RET species 11.10 267 conserved in Field Gene bank 11.11 Location for air and noise monitoring 268 Parameters and methods used for air and noise 11.12 269 monitoring Item wise budget for the Environmental monitoring 11.13 272 programme
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Soil Aspects
Chapter XII – Annexure and Appendix
LIST OF ANNEXURES
Content Page No. Annexure No. Overall species Density and Diversity of Sri I 273-274 Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Tree species Density and Diversity of Command area II 274 of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation project Species Density and Diversity of project site Sri III 275 Rameswara Lift Irrigation project Species Density and Diversity of Riparian vegetation IV 275 of Sri Rameswara Lift Irrigation project Plant Species scientific & common name, family and V 276-278 habitat of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Project area
LIST OF APPENDI X
Appendix No. Content Page No. Aralimatti - Land affected under proposed project: 1.1 survey number hissa number, extent of area in acres 279 and name of Khathedar/s Venkatapur - Land affected under proposed project: 1.2 suvey number, Hissa number, Extent of area in acres 280-281 and Name of Khathedar/s Mannikere: Land affected under proposed project: 1.3 survey number, hissa number, extent of area in acres 282-284 and name of Khathedar/s Kalliguddi: Land affected under proposed project: 1.4 survey number, hissa number, extent of area in acres 284 and name of Khathedar/s Koujalgi: Land affected under proposed project: 1.5 survey number, hissa number, extent of area in acres 285-291 and name of Khathedar/s Kulgod: Land affected under proposed project: survey 1.6 number, hissa number, extent of area in acres and 292-294 name of Khathedar/s
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Soil Aspects
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SITE ASSESSMENT OF RIVER VALLEY AND HYDROELECTRIC PROJECTS
I. General Information
A. Site Information
1. Existing project / Proposed Project/ Proposed Project – Expansion project/ modernization Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation project: Scheme , Near Aralimatti Village, Gokak Taluk, Belgaum District 2. If existing/Expansion/Modernization Project, whether environmental NA clearance has been obtained.
B. Geographical Location
Village/s District/s Tehsil/s State/s Aralimatti Village Belgaum Gokak Karnataka
16 0 19’ 30” N C. Latitude
75 0 04’ 15” E D. Longitude
E. Elevation above Mean Sea Level 539 m
F. i. Total Area proposed for the project (in ha.) 13800
ii. Forest area (in ha.), if any Nil
G. Nature of Terrain i) Catchment area undulating terrain ii) Command area undulating terrain
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Soil Aspects
H. Technical Classification of soil: (Loam, Sandy etc., / aerial extent (ha))
II. Existing land usage of the proposed project site area (ha) Main Canal Town Resettl Submergence Others Total structure network ship ement (i) Agriculture a. Irrigated 5.0 --- 378.0 ------383.0 b. Un-irrigated (ii) Homestead ------(iii) Forest ------(iv) Grazing ------(v) Fallow ------(vi) Water Bodies ------(vii) Marshes ------(viii) Others (pl specify) ------(ix) Government land ------Total 5.0 --- 378.0 ------383.0
III. Alternate sites considered from the environment angle Aralimatti is the alternate sites considered for the proposed project based on environmental angle.
IV. Reason for selecting the proposed site from the environment angle
Site is suitable for Jack well construction near Aralimatti Village.
V. Details of site
A. Seismicity
1. Whether the proposed dam site fall in seismically active area
NO
If yes (As per IS 1893 part I 2002)
2. What is the estimate of seismic hazard? ---- NA
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Soil Aspects
3. What models used for estimate? ---- NA (a) Determistic seismotictonic approach ---- NA
(b) Combined seismotictonic probabilistic approach ---- NA
4. Result of prediction ---- NA
B. Landslide Prone zone:
1. Is the proposed project in the landslide prone zone NO
2. If Yes
(a) Geomorphological condition: NA
(b) Degree of Susceptibility to mass movement: ---- NA
3. Whether any major landslide occurred in the past : ---- NO
4. If yes,
(a) Frequency of occurrence / decade : ---- NA (b) Area affected (ha) : ---- NA (c) Population affected (Nos.) : ---- NA
C. Flood / Cyclone / Droughts
1. Is the area prone to flash flood? NO
2. If yes
(a) Frequency of occurrence / decade : ---- NA (b) Area affected (ha) : ---- NA (c) Population affected (No’s) : ---- NA
3. Is the area prone to cyclone? NO
4. If yes (a) Frequency of occurrence / decade : ---- NA (b) Area affected (ha) : ---- NA (c) Population affected (No’s) : ---- NA
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Soil Aspects
5. Whether there is any relation between cyclone occurrence and flash flood?
6. If yes, provide details : NA NO
7. Is the area prone to droughts?
Yes
8. If yes (a) Frequency of occurrence / decade : 5 - 6 years (b) Area affected (ha) : ----- (c) Population affected (Nos.) : -----
Sites likely to be sub-merged:
1. Mineral bearing
Reserves (million tonnes) Sl. No. Name of the mineral Indicated Proven 1 No Mineral deposits -- --
2. Archaeological sites / monuments
Sl. No. Sites/monuments Antiquity 1 Nil ----
3. Place of worship Local deity: Non-permanent structure
Period of Sl. No. Place construction 1. Nil 2. 3.
4. Agricultural land Nil
5. Population likely to be affected 65
VI. Objective of the project
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Soil Aspects
A. Irrigation (ha) 13800
B. Power generation (MW) NA C. Drinking water supply (cum) 1.0
D. Industrial water supply (cum/day) Nil
E. Flood control (area to be protected, in ha) ----
F. Other (pl. specify) ----
VII. Project profile
A. Height of Dam / Reservoir in Mts. –NA- Above mean sea level ---- From existing ground level ---- From deepest foundation level ---- B. Gross storage capacity (M cum) NA C. Catchment area (sq. km) ------D. Submergence area (Ha) ----- E. Command area (Ha) 13800 ha F. Number of turbines ---
G. Capacity of each turbine (MW) ----
H. Length of Main canal (Km) 69
Lined Yes
Unlined NA
I. Length of distributaries (Km)
Lined 102
Unlined ----
J. Cropping Pattern 1. Existing Cropping Pattern
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Soil Aspects
Existing area Productivity Sl. No. Crop (Ha) (Tonnes/Ha) 1 Khariff Hybrid Jowar 10000 ha 1 – 1.3 2 Groundnut 3800 ha 3 – 3.5 2. Proposed pattern Addl. Area Water Sl. proposed to be Productivity Production Crop requirement No. brought under (Tonnes/Ha) (Tonnes) Mcum cultivation (Ha) Khariff 1 Hybrid 10000 6 – 6.3 63000 62.29 Jowar 2 Groundnut 3800 2 – 2.5 9500
K. Rationale for adopting the projected crop pattern
Soil is suitable for growing Jowar, Maize, Wheat, Sunflower and cotton
L. Irrigation intensity (%) 100
M. Water logging (Ha)
1. Area already under water log Nil
2. Area expected to be under water logging after the No completion of the project.
3. Cropping area likely to be affected by water logging due to the project
a. With in the project area. Nil
b. Out side the project area Nil
4. Infiltration rate (cm/hour) (At least for two locations in each of the major soil groups identified)
Major soil group Laterite Alluvial Infilteration Rate 6.8 2.3 18.5 8.6 (cm/hr)
5. Saturated hydraulic conductivity for major soil groups (m/day) using in-situ auger hole/inverse auger hole method depending on depth of water table from the ground level within 2 meter or above 2 meters: 0.0073 to 0.2543 m/day
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Soil Aspects
N. Sedimentation (hectare meter/sq.km/year): - NA
1. Present rate ----- 2. Rate expected after catchment after treatment ----- 3. Empirical estimates ----- 4. Historical observations.
O. Length of river course which is likely to dry up due NA to impoundment (km)
P. In case of project where flow of water will be reduced due to withdrawal of Water in between head tunnel and tail race tunnel NA 1. Length (meter) 2. Flow rate in river (cumecs) NA
VIII Please indicate the area earmarked of the following (in Ha) A. Dam Structure NA
B. Pen Stocks Fore bay/Surge shaft ----
C. Power/Pump House and Rising Main 22.5
D. Town Ship (Ha) ----
E. Submergence (Ha) -----
F. Main canals (ha)) 207.0
G. Distributary canal 153.0
H. Approach Road (ha) 20.24 I. Green Belt --- J. Recreational facility for tourist activities Nil K. Botanical garden for conservation of rare Nil and endangered spices of flora ----- L. Others (Please specify)
Total (Ha) 402.74
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Soil Aspects
IX. Whether any of the following exist within 7 Km. of the project site. If so, please indicate aerial distance from the periphery of submergence of the site and the name of the site
Sl. Aerial Distance Particulars Name No. (in Km) 1 National Park Nil Nil 2 Sanctuary/Tiger reserve/Elephant Reserve Nil Nil Core Zone & Buffer Zone of Biosphere 3 Nil Nil Reserve 4 Habitat for migratory birds Nil Nil 5 Lakes/reservoir/Dams Nil 6 Stream/Rivers Nil Nil 7 Estuary/Sea Nil Nil 8 Mountains/Hills Nil Nil 9 Archaeological sites Nil Nil Archaeological sites listed in notification 10 Nil Nil Within submergence area 11 Defence Installation Nil Nil 12 Industries/Thermal power Plants Nil Nil Municipal Corporation/Municipal 13 Council/Nagar panchayat (by whatever Nil Nil name it is known in the state) 14 Mangroves Nil Nil 15 Airports Nil Nil 16 Railway lines Nil Nil 17 National Highways Nil Nil
X. Description of the vegetation (a) within project site (b) within 7 Km from the peripheral of project site under following headings
(a) Within project site (b) within 7 Km
A. Agricultural crops : Jowar, Maize, Wheat & Sugarcane
B. Commercial crops : Cotton, Sunflower Cotton, groundnut C. Plantation : Coconut garden Grapes
D. Natural Vegetation : Scrub/ open forest Scrub/ open forest /Forest Type
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Soil Aspects
E. Grass lands ------
F. Endangered species ----- 4 G. Endemic species ------H. Other (Please specify) ------
XI. Description of fauna within 7 km under following headings A. Rare and endangered species : Nil B. Species which require management : Nil C. Species of economic significance : Nil D. Species of special interest to local population or tourists : Nil E. Aquatic fauna of commercial/recreational value and migratory : Nil fish Species along with their spawning ground:
XII. Raw materials used during construction
List of Means of construction Sl Quantity Source of transportation materials to be No. (Tones/months) material (source to storage used at all stages site) with justification of construction Peak Average 1 Cement 4.0 3.5 Gokak and By Lorries & Tractors 2 Stone 15000 13000 Muduvalu (Temporary Sheds) 3 Sand 12000 10000 4 Others (Pl. Specify) ------
XIII In case of stone quarries details of site & surroundings be provided Stone quarry – Nil XIV Meteorological Data (annual average to be obtained from IMD) (Seasonal ---- Monitored Data) A. Temperature (in o C) 1. Maximum: 42 oC 2. Minimum: 15 o C 3. Mean: 25 o C
B. Mean Rainfall (in mm): Min : 503 and average 50 rainy days C. Wind Speed (Km/Hr)
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Soil Aspects
1. Maximum: 10 2. Minimum: 0.5 3. Mean: 5.25
D. Humidity – less 20% during summer and 85% during monsoon .
E. Cloud Cover (i) All Clouds --- (ii) Low Clouds ---
XV Water Balance
A. Lean season flow (Cumec) 1. At the dam / Reservoir site NA 2. At the periphery of sub mergence NA (Major streams only)
3. 1 Km Down stream of dam/ reservoir hydel project NA
B. Water required (Cumec) Nil 1. Power Generation
2. Irrigation (M) 62.29
3. Drinking water (cum) 1.0
4. Industrial water Nil 5. Others (Pl specify) ----
C. Ground Water potential in command area: - Details of Groundwater potential is given in the water quality report by Department of Environmental Sciences, Bangalore University, Bangalore.
D. Ground Water Quality Refer Ground water studies report by Department of Environmental Sciences, Bangalore University, Bangalore. (Water samples were taken 10 minutes after the starting of pumping for the tube wells in each of the soil groups).
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Soil Aspects
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 40
Soil Aspects
Parameters 1. Electrical conductivity (conductivity meter): 95-3150 µmhos/cm
2. pH --- 6.52 to 8.55
3. Residual Sodium Carbonate (meq/l) -- (-117) to (-6.8)
4. Heavy metals (only if industrial effluent is discharged in project
area) - NA
E. Groundwater withdrawal rate/recharge rate – 0.004 to 0.028 m 3/s
F. Provide the average value of the following based on analysis of
pumping test (at least two tests for each of identified litho logical
zone)
1. Transmissivity (Sq. Meter/day) - 56.716
2. Storage coefficient --
3. Lithology of the testing site: See detailed report
XVI competing water use downstream (Cum /day)
Present Sl. Addition proposed Total Usage consumption No Surface Ground Surface Ground Surface Ground 1 Irrigation ------62.29 M ----- 62.29 M ----- 2 Industry ------
3 Drinking ------1.0 ----- 1.0 ----- Others (please 4 ------specify) Total ------63.29 M ----- 63.29 M -----
XVII Physico Chemical analysis of raw water to be used at project town ship at intake point Refer: Detailed report in chapters by Dept. of Environmental Science, Bangalore University, Bangalore.
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Soil Aspects
XVIII Physico Chemical analysis of treated water to be used in project township --- NA
XIX Waste water management: –
A. Waste water Treatment plan : - Primary Treatment B. Composition / Characteristics of discharge before & after treatment
Items Units Composition Before After Removal efficiency of Septic tank & 1. Domestic Suspended solids will be Soak pit wastewater 50% and small amount of BOD 2. Chlorination --- Removal of Pathogens
C. Daily discharge (cum/day) from different sources: –
1 Domestic 12.0 2 Other 2.4 3 Total 14.4
D. Quantity of Recycled – Nil
(In %) ----- (In Cum/ day) -----
E. Details of recycling mechanism ---- Nil
F. Mode of Final Discharge / exposal – Septic tank and Soak pit
Sl No. Mode length (in M) Quantity (in Cum / day) 1 Open channel Nil 2 Pipe line Nil Others (pl Specify) Septic tank and Soak Pit 3 (2.4 cum/day) TOTAL 14.40
a. Point of final discharge: –
Sl. Final Point Quantity discharged (in Cum / day) No 1. Agriculture land ----- 2. Fallow land 12.0
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Soil Aspects
3. Forest land ----- 4. River ----- 5. Lake ----- 6. Estuary ----- 7. Sea ----- Total 12.0
Lean season flow rate in case of river / stream: –
Cum / Sec NA
b. Down Stream users of water: –
1 Human Gokak 2 Irrigation 3 Industry Ramdurg & 4 Others (pl. specify) Soudatti TOTAL G. Analysis of river water 100 mts up stream of discharge point and 100 mts downstream of discharge point: –
XX Solid waste: – Quantity A. Debris (tonnes) arising out of construction 1.50 Lakhs Tonnes Excavated materials is reused B. Sewage (tonnes) 0.1 tonnes /month C. What are the possibilities of recovery and recycling of waste ----- D. Possible uses of solid waste 1. Excavated earth is used for casing in embankment
H. Method of disposal of solid waste: – Quantity (TPM) 1. Landfill ------2. Recovery ------3. Downstream users ------
XXI Noise level during construction
A Source Jack well site B Level at source 81.6 dB(A) C Level at project boundary (dB) 71.8 dB(A) If the source is within forest area / D NA sanctuary etc
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Soil Aspects
E Impact of noise on wild life habitat NA Abatement measures The workers at the F construction site are provided with ear plugs
XXII. Pollution sources
At a distance of Within 7 Km Around the 7 Km from the In the in the stretch periphery Source periphery of catchment in which the of sub sub mergence area river is likely mergence Zone to dry 1. Industry Nil Nil Nil Nil 2. Municipal waste/ Nil Nil Nil Nil sewage 3. Mining Nil Nil Nil Nil 4. Beneficiation Nil Nil Nil Nil plants 5. Tail pond dams Nil Nil Nil Nil 6. Run off from Nil Nil Nil Nil as ponds 7. Others (please Nil Nil Nil Nil specify)
XXIII Atmospheric emissions incase of DG sets A. Flue gas characteristic
Sl. No Gas Charact eristics (in µg/m 3) 1 SPM 83.3 2 SO 2 2.0 3 NO 2 1.7 4 CO ----
XXIV Storage (of inflammable / explosive / hazardous/ toxic substances)
Maximum Physical & Consump Source Means of Sl No. of Dia Qty at any Name Ht Chemical tion (in of Transport No Storage mtr point of composition TPD) Supply ation time (TPD) NA
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Soil Aspects
XXV Occupational Health
A What are the major occupational health & safety Respiratory problems, hazards anticipated giddiness due to inhalation of dust and particulate matter. B What provisions have been made/ proposed to Primary health centres be made to conform to health / safety are available in the near requirements by village. Periodic health checkup should be conducted and proper treatment should be given. C Details of personal protective equipment Helmets, Gum boots, provided / to be provided to the workers Hand gloves, Dust mask, Dresses etc., should be provided D Is the area prone to diseases like malaria/ Filaria etc NO
XXVI Catchment Area
A. Total Catchment area (ha): NA
B. Monuments in the catchment area
C. Sites of Cultural importance in the catchment area ---- Nil
D. Sites of religious importance in the catchment area (Major) 1. 2. E. Other river valley projects in the catchment area ------Nil
F. Major development projects located in the catchment area
1. Industry - Nil 2. Mining - Nil 3. Roads - Nil 4. Railways - Nil 5. Thermal power plant - Nil 6. Others (Pl Specify) - Nil
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Soil Aspects
G. Catchment area treatment plan :-
Area to be treated (ha) Sl. Outlay Years High Erodability Very high Erodability No. (Rs. Lakh) Direct Indirect Direct Indirect Erodability <8 1 2006 96.98 4.907 (Moderately Erodable)
XXVII. Green belt (other than catchment area)
A. Total area of project / township (in ha) ----
B. Area already afforested (for existing projects), in ha Nil
C. Area proposed to be afforested (in ha) 159 D. Width of green belt (minimum in mts) 1. Periphery of the reservoir NA
2. Canal Bank 15 m
3. Township NA
E. Trees planted & proposed Nos
1. Planted Nil
2. Survival rate NA 30600 3. Proposed
4. List of species 24
XXVIII Construction phase
A. Estimated duration of construction (in months) 36
B. No. of persons to be employed for construction
Total From a ffected population Others 1. Peak 250 ---- Local people 2. Average 150 ---- Local people
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Soil Aspects
C. Details of site and area where migrated labourers will be temporarily settled Majority of the labourers are local people. For migratory labourers temporary sheds are build near the construction site.
D. What provision has been made for the sewage treatment for the construction workers?
To prevent health hazards due to open disposal of waste, soak pit will be constructed and DDT is applied to avoid mosquito breeding.
E. How the fuel (kerosene / wood, etc.,) requirement of labour force will be met to avoid cutting of trees from the adjoining areas. Kerosene is distributed by public ration depots.
F. Measures of health care with emphasis on protection from endemic diseases. Public Health Centers at Koujalgi will be informed and health checkup camps can be arranged for periodical health checkup of the labourers at the worksite.
XXIX. Human Settlement
Aerial distance from the periphery of the reservoir Up to 2000m from 2000m to 5000m from 5000m to 10000m 5000m to periphery of the periphery of the from the periphery 10000m Reservoir reservoir of the reservoir Population ------Number of ------Houses Present occupational ------pattern
Rehabilitation & Resettlement Plan
A. Village(s) affected by the project: a) Fully submerged ---- Nil.
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Soil Aspects
b) Partially submerged ------.
Average Sl. Villages Population Occupation Income per No. annum Tribal Mixed Others Tribal Others Tribal Others Tribal Others 15000- 1 Nil Nil Nil Nil 20 --- Farmers ---- 30000 (BPL)
B. Population to be displaced
Families Sl. Name of Land oustees Homestead Land and Homestead No. Village only oustees only only Tribal Others Tribal Others Tribal Others At Pump House 1 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 3 Families (Near Aralimatti)
C. Rehabilitation Plan for oustees:
R & R process is initiated as per resolution of National Policy, 2003
D. Details of site where the people are proposed to be resettled:
1 Aralimatti 2 Venkatapura No resettlements since 3 Kalliguddi settlements are not going to be 4 Mannikeri affected 5 Kuligod 6 Kowjaligi
E. Compensation package with full details: No tribal population (tribals and others, separately)
F. Agency / Authority responsible for their resettlement:
Karnataka Neeravari Nigam Ltd
G. Whether the cost of Rehabilitation measure is included in the project cost?
Yes √ No
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Soil Aspects
H. If not, how the expenditure on rehabilitation measure is to be met?
I. Expenditure on Environmental Measures
A. Capital cost of the project (as proposed to the funding agency/financial Institutions)
(Rs. Crores) 226.20 (As per KNNL)
B. Cost of environmental protection measures (in Rs.)
Sl. Recurring Cost Capital Cost Environmental Segments No. per annum (Rs. in Lakhs) 1 Catchment area treatment ---- 100.00 2 Restoration of project site ---- 10.00 3 Restoration of canal site ---- 122.40 Cost of rehabilitation including ---- 4 1035.20 land acquisition 5 Health delivery system ---- 16.00 6 Conservation of flora & fauna ---- 15.00 7 Drainage ------Environmental Monitoring (Soil, ---- 8 90.00 Water, Air and Noise) 9 Solid Waste Management ---- 27.35 10 Compensatory afforestation ---- 4.60 Marking of submersion area ---- 11 ---- boundary Others (Green belt & Agro- ---- 12 168.95 forestry management) R and R package for affected ---- 13 5.00 families Total ---- 1594.50
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Soil Aspects
Chapter II
Executive Summary
2.0 Introduction Sri Rameshwar Lift Irrigation scheme is proposed at Aralimatti village in Gokak taluk of Belgaum district in Karnataka state. The Government of Karnataka proposed the project during 2002, in response to the representations made by the people of the villages from Ramdurga, Gokak and Saudatti taluks of the Belgaum district. In order to explore the possibilities of providing protective irrigation and drinking water to these chronically drought affected villages, the Government of Karnataka considered recommendations of the Sri B C Angadi committee for implementation of Sri Rameshwar lift irrigation scheme by allocating 2.2 TMC of water from the Ghataprabha river, a tributary of Krishna river basin.
The proposed project is expected to benefit more than 30 villages, spread over three taluks of Gokak, Ramdurga and Saudatti of Belgaum district. The gross command area of the project is 18,022.73 hectares, with net irrigated area accounting for 13,800 hectares, to achieve an 100% cropping intensity during Khariff season. The total estimated cost of the project is Rs. 226.20 crores.
The proposed irrigation scheme utilizes 2.2 TMC of water, which is inclusive of 0.30 TMC for drinking purposes from the Ghataprabha river to create gross command area of around 18,000 ha. This command area forms a part of Ghataprabha sub-catchment in the main Krishna river, above the confluence of Bhima catchment of Krishna basin.
In General, the area covered under Sri Rameshwar Lift Irrigation scheme presents a gently undulating landscape with a linear belt of hills, running in almost east-west direction dividing the region into two parts. The region has gentle easterly slope forming largely a plain interspersed with isolated low hills. The irrigation scheme is located at 522 meters above MSL, and the mean rainfall of the area is around 503 mm with 50 rainy days in a year. The region is
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Soil Aspects characterized by general dryness except during monsoon season. The summer between March and May is driest period of this region, dusty and very hot, with maximum temperature going up to 42 OC, and during winter temperature falls to 18 o C. Further, humidity varies from 20% during summer to 85% during monsoon period.
The project envisages the construction of concrete Jack well along with main canal, distributaries, besides lateral and field channels.
2.1 Land Use Pattern Land use pattern has a significant influence on the quality and quantity of runoff available from it. It plays an important role in determining the various hydrological phenomena like Infilteration rate, overland flow, evaporation and interception. There are four different types of land uses in the Ghataprabha river basin.
Agricultural land covers about 42.8% of the total catchment area. Generally, the type of land use is governed by social and socio-economic factors besides characteristics of the soil. In this case, except in the western part of the basin, other parts are known for agricultural production. A part of the catchment area remains as barren/fallow land. This is due to the lack of water supply either by rainfall or irrigation. Fallow lands can be brought under irrigation by providing small irrigation tanks or by exploring the ground water availability in the region. Shrubs species such as Canthium parviflorum , Cassia auriculata , Toddalia aculata , Calotropis gigantia , etc., which are characteristics of scrub forests, are widely distributed in Belgaum and Gokak taluks of the proposed project. This class of land is used intensively through establishment of reseeded and high yielding pastures. It’s most important features are relatively shallow nature of soil with less than 30% gravels and slopes not exceeding 25-30%. The forest cover of the catchment is 13.8%. The wet deciduous forest occurs in the west zone of the Kolhapur and Sindhudurg districts of Maharashtra. The main tree species observed in the catchment area are Tectona grandis , Dalburgia latifolia , Artocarpus heterophyllus and many species of Bamboo. Most
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Soil Aspects of the notified forests have been degraded partly due to anthropogenic pressure, irregular rainfall and climate aberrations.
2.2 Water Quality From the detailed analysis of ground and surface water samples in Rameshwara Lift Irrigation site, it is concluded that, the water quality of the samples analysed is exceeding the BIS limits prescribed in some cases. From the results obtained, it is observed that, the various parameters such as total hardness, Calcium hardness, Sodium, Fluoride and Sulphates are at higher concentrations than the BIS permissible limits, which has the potential to affect human health adversely.
The quality of water (surface and ground water) for irrigation is quite suitable. The ground water quality in the command area varies from place to place and with depth of water table. In general the ground water of the region is safe for irrigation purpose. The quality of irrigation water primarily depended on its silt and salt content.
On the basis of water quality analysis, it can be concluded that both surface water as well as ground water quality in the command area is generally satisfactory except in some samples and both the types of water can be used for irrigation without resulting in any type of adverse impacts on the soil, as well as on the ground water quality of the area.
The command area lies in Belgaum district around Ghataprabha river covering parts of Gokak, Ramdurg and Saudatti Taluka. The irrigated patches in the command area by well irrigation are to be about 3 to 5% covering nearly 100 acres. It may be seen that the ground water potential is limited. The ground water table is regularly under observation in the command area of Ghataprabha river, and it is noticed that the water table varies from 6m to 12m.
After extensive studies of flow pattern, quality of water and rainfall pattern of surrounding area, provision of irrigation facility during Rabi to Gokak Taluka and Khariff to drought prone Ramdurga and Soudatti Taluka. The present project appears to be ideally suited to overcome the problem. The Ghataprabha river
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Soil Aspects water contains high chloride and sodium. As per the studies and field investigations the necessity of fertilizers will be less, when the Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Project is put into use.
2.3 Soil Quality The major soil groups found in the catchment area are Laterite soils (coarse shallow soil, 22.3%, and medium deep soil, 21.40%), Coarse shallow black soil, (10.70%) and Medium black soil (45.80%).
Laterite soils include both coarse shallow soil and medium deep soil. These deep soils are found on undulating rolling plains to gently sloping topography occupying areas, in parts of Belgaum district coming under the dry agro-climatic region. The laterites are found under heavy rainfall and high temperature conditions, resulting in intensive weathering, leaching of bases and silica. They are acidic in reaction and low in cation exchange capacity. The rate of infiltration for this type of soil is found to vary between 9 cm/hr and 12.6 cm/hr, depending upon the land use pattern. The crops grown in these soils are jowar, groundnut, pulses, sunflower, linseed and other millets. Under irrigation, the crops grown are paddy, sugarcane, chilly, turmeric and vegetables.
Coarse Shallow black soils are found on undulating ridges in the Deccan hard rock region occupying areas in the north and northwest parts of Belgaum and Kolhapur districts. They are shallow with depths less than 23 cm, dark grayish brown, and dark brown to dark reddish brown in colour and calcareous, with gravels, clay loam to clay in texture. This soil is neutral to weakly alkaline and have moderate to high water holding capacity with high cation exchange capacity. The infiltration capacity of the soils range from 1.2 cm/hr to 10.8 cm/hr and they are very susceptible to erosion. The crops grown under rainfed conditions in these soils are jowar, bajra, millet and pulses. However, crop yield is poor owing to shallow rooting depths and scanty rainfall.
Medium black soils occur usually on very gently sloping midlands of the Deccan traps and on the schist, limestone and shale regions of the Belgaum district. They are moderately well drained with low permeability. The infiltration rate
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Soil Aspects observed for this type of soil varies from 0.6 cm/hr to 4.2cm/hr, the composition of the clayey soils is mainly, montmorillonite. Because of this, indiscriminate use of water may lead to the development of salinity and water logging problems. The crops grown in these soils under rain fed conditions are jowar, wheat, millet, cotton, sunflower, tobacco, groundnut, ginger, linseed, chilly, grams and other pulses.
2.4 Noise and Air Quality Regular monitoring of ambient levels of air pollutants essentially requires well designed sampling sites. Besides regular and frequent sampling is also necessary for realistic and precise measurement, for the evaluation of the air quality. Regular ambient air quality monitoring helps not only in evaluating status of air quality in the area but also in evaluating the responses of flora, fauna and humans to the prevailed levels of pollutants. During the present impact assessment study, Respirable Dust Sampler was activated in the selected areas to derive pollutant concentrations encountered at ambient level. Monitoring at each location was carried out continuously for 8 hours, for estimating the primary parameters such as Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM),
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2) and Oxides of
Nitrogen (NO x).
The results obtained in the study were compared with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for both annual and 24 hours sampling. The results also agree well with those published by the Central Pollution Control Board under the National Ambient Air Monitoring Programme. In the canal area also, the level of pollution is not significant. From the study, it can be concluded that there will be no such adverse effects on the human beings and other living organisms due to the construction activities at the pumping stations and at canal site. However, the workers at site should be protected from the source of air pollution, by undertaking appropriate health and safety measures once the construction work begins.
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Soil Aspects
The presence of SPM and RSPM in the water growing point gives an indication of the prevailing background concentration in this tropical climatic region. The levels of SO 2 and NO x are also within the permissible limits. The results of analysis clearly indicate that at most of the points sampled, the levels of pollutants comparatively are not significantly higher except at the Jack well site.
It was noticed that the sound is basically generated due to various construction activities. In the proposed pumping station and canal areas the values are within in the limits. In general, the noise levels obtained as of now are less and well within the stipulated standards.
2.5 Bio-diversity aspects of Flora There were a total 101 plant species recorded all along the river, project site, catchment and command area of proposed irrigation project. Of these, 43 were trees, 19 shrubs, 31 herbs and 7 are climbers. The trees and herbs contribute a very high percentage to floral density. The survey team has come across more tree species than other life form such as herbs, shrubs.
The dominant tree species were Azadirictha indica, Acacia nilotica, Chloroxylon switinia, Pongamia pinnata, Terminalia sp., Tamarindus indica, Mangifera indica etc., in the proposed project area. The dominant herb species recorded belong to Anclographis, Amaranthus, Croton, Tephlrosia, Oxalis, Hemidesmus, Evolvolus, Tridax , etc. The species richness indicates the deep concern among farming community to maintain tree species. The sampled area also harbors few rare and threatened species such as Santalum album and Gloriosa superba .
The observations along the river and catchment area revealed that a number of factors such as fuel wood and fodder extraction, overgrazing, successive fire incidences, encroachment of river stretch, are substantially contributing to the degradation of the ecosystem, leading to endangering native flora and fauna in the region.
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Soil Aspects
2.5.1 Biodiversity aspects of Fauna The population sizes of the faunal species observed is limited in number and most often only a few individuals belonging to deer, rat, wild dog were seen during the survey. However, faunal species such as birds were visually observed and their individuals were counted and recorded during the survey programme, which were further crosschecked with the available literature for the region. Although there are no specific studies for the region under survey, we have scrutinized the Belgaum Forest Division Working Plan for the faunal diversity of the Reserve Forests of the region.
A few animals observed and recorded during the survey work have commonality in respect of their occurrence in similar ecosystems of the region. However with the anticipated increase in water spread area following the commissioning of the project, the existing animals in the forests will not be tempted to migrate to other areas, but rather tend to congregate around within the remaining catchment and the newly created command area to make their lively hood. This is because of the water and food availability. Further it is evident that the avi-faunal diversity and density will increase with the spread of the river water at the catchment area. On the whole, the possible loss of a few animals if any, is insignificant because the size of the wildlife population residing here is rather small and their mobility is only towards water source from the catchment area. Probably there is possibility of increase in population as plenty of water is available. The most commonly found reptiles are, species of Geckos and garden and monitor lizard. The river stretch studied presented a freshwater condition, soft and alkaline in nature with poor nutrient status and is essentially free from pollution.
The damage mitigation measures such as compensatory afforestation plan, Biodiversity Management plan, Canal bank afforestation Catchment area treatment plan, Command Area Development Plan and Restoration and landscaping of Jack well site area have been outlined in the report. For every issue dealt with, cost estimates and implementing agencies have been mentioned. Optimal integration of the project can be met by manageable links for funding, training, operation, and monitoring.
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Soil Aspects
2.6 Socio-Economic assessment The population data for selected villages in the project area shows that Koujalgi is the biggest village with a population of 9227, followed by Kuligod with more than 5000 population. Other four villages have moderate population ranging from 1123 in Kalliguddi to 1790 in Mannikeri. The demographic pressure in the study area indicates that all six villages are thinly populated and density of population varied from 2.95 persons per ha of land in Aralimatti, to almost one person per ha of land in the rest of villages.
The sex ratio between female and male population among six villages shows that in each village it is distinctly different e.g., gender composition in Aralimatti and Kalliguddi indicates that female population is higher than male population (i.e., there are 1099 female for 1000 males in Kalliguddi and it is 1050 in Aralimatti). It is also observed that female population in the other four villages is also quite significant as it ranges from 951 females per 1000 males in Koujalgi, to 995 in Venkatapura village.
The total extent of land to be acquired for construction of delivery chamber, pump house and jack well is 5 ha, while for raising main 17.50 ha is required. For the construction of main canal, 207.0 ha land is required, whereas for distributaries and laterals, 153.0 ha is required. Together 383 ha of land has to be acquired. Under the proposed project, the land and households situated in six villages such as Aralimatti, Venkatapura, Kalliguddi, Mannikere, Kuligod and Koujalgi are affected on account of construction of rising main, whereas the land required for other purposes belongs to several villages.
Provision for Rs. 9.50 Crores has been made payment of compensation to land losers as per the prevailing market value. Also, for the construction of 10 cross roads that are likely to be affected on account of project work, provision for Rs. 50.0 Lakhs has been made.
Among six villages, the farmers losing dry land vary from 61% in Koujalgi to 42% in Mannikere. This is followed by extent of wet land affected due to proposed
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Soil Aspects project, which varied from 41% in Venkatapura to 30% in Koujalgi and Kalliguddi. The garden lands affected by project accounts for as high as 18% in Mannikere to 9% in Koujalgi and Kalliguddi. To conclude, Koujalgi and Aralimatti are the two villages losing maximum area.
Altogether, about 13 families are going to be affected by the present project and the extent of houses and sites they lose is 13 and 11 respectively. Provision for compensation towards the acquisition of houses and sites has been made taking into consideration the prevailing market value, which works out to around Rs. 36.0 Lakhs. Besides a provision for Rs. 5.0 Lakhs has been made towards R and R to the 13 affected families.
Therefore, the total amount to be reserved for the purpose of affected land losers and affected families is around Rs. 10.50 Crores.
The income level of the respondents in project area has been classified into six groups and the income is generated from four major occupations, such as farming, wage labour, business and service sector, and various combinations of these major occupations. The farmers in the project area have been classified into six income groups such as Below Poverty Line (BPL) (less than Rs.10,000 per year), slightly higher than BPL (between Rs. 10,000 and 25,000); medium income level (between Rs.25,000 to 50,000); slightly higher than medium income level (between Rs.50,000 to 1.0 lakh); higher income group (between Rs.1.0 lakh to 2.0 lakhs) and slightly higher income group (more than Rs. 2.0 lakhs). Based on these six income group farmers have been classified into three class income level such as, low income level (BPL and slightly higher than BPL), middle income level (by considering two medium income groups) and high income level by clubbing higher income groups. • In Aralimatti, 17% of farmers belong to below poverty income, and farmers in this group are occupied with wage labour, followed by 14% who are slightly above poverty line of income, and 37% of farmers are in middle income group and around 16% of farmers in high income group (Rs. 1 lakh to 2 lakhs, and more than Rs. 2 lakhs of income per annum).
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Soil Aspects
• In Venkatapura, the income pattern among sampled farmers is similar to Aralimatti, as 34% of farmers belong to low income group, followed by 36% having middle income and 30% farmers belonging to high income group. • The income level of farmers in Kalliguddi village indicates that more than 75% of the farmers are in the income group of low and middle, with a few farmers belonging to high income group. • In Mannikere, distribution of farmers across income group is very specific, as more than 60% are in high income group, followed by 25%, in slightly middle income group and very few are in low income group. • In Kuligod, more than 40% of farmers are in middle income group, and more than 30% are in low income group. • In Koujalgi, farmer’s distribution across six income groups is significant, and around 30% of farmers belong to low, middle and high income groups respectively. • The land required for canal network is distributed in a number of villages and as such exact demarcation of land losers has not been attempted in this case. However, the necessary compensation to be provided to the affected land losers in these villages has been worked out.
Most of the farmers in the project area have offered suggestions to speed up acquisition of land and completion of various works under the project. More than 80% of the farmers in all the six villages have expressed that for those loosing small extent of land under the proposed project compensation in terms of cash returns must be given. They do not appear to be satisfied with the status of work and its progress in the project area, as they are looking for quick completion of irrigation project, as this was planned, long ago. But, few farmers are however aware that area taken for drawing pipeline and service road will not be given back and compensation will be provided for the extent of land affected. Apart from this, local people have also suggested local leaders to organize a meeting with Revenue Authorities and Irrigation Department to decide on the compensation package for loosing agricultural land and a few residential sites.
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Soil Aspects
It is significant that very few families have opted for political leaders, Panchayat and private agencies to take up compensatory programme. In Koujalgi, most of the farmers preferred irrigation department to be involved in implementation of compensation package.
Various problems expressed amongst sampled farmers in the project area towards compensatory package implementation, socio-economic and other problems are of personal nature. Some of the common problems expressed uniformly across six villages are slow implementation of project, providing irrigation benefit to all farmers in these six villages, adequate compensation package for agricultural lands etc. Most of the farmers however, have expressed their concern over the inadequacy of compensation package for agricultural lands, and more importantly on the re-investing problems of such amounts received as compensation. Some of the benefits anticipated by the farmers in the project area are; effective implementation of compensation programme, followed by employment generation, income generating activities, infrastructure facilities, institutional, technical advancement and socio-economic development. However many farmers have opted for more than one benefit, accruing from the proposed project.
2.7 Environmental Management Plan Although agriculture is usually associated with its positive impacts on human life, irrigation practices may be associated with adverse impacts on environmental conditions, which may eventually curtail the sustainability of irrigation projects. For this reason, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has been recognized as an integral part of the early planning studies of irrigation projects in order to identify any expected negative impacts and suggest the necessary mitigation plans to curb these impacts. We have prepared mitigation plan for Command and Catchment area treatment plan, Canal afforestation plan and restoration plan of water diversion site, etc.
The project area exhibits a varied ecosystem ranging from lakes, semi-arid agro-ecosystems to scrub forest types. Sufficient field data have been collected and analyzed to outline the management strategy as a part of
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EMP issues to safeguard the project environs. The management plan of action includes issues regarding soil, water, air and noise quality, flora and faunal management and rehabilitation aspects. The action plan for the execution of environmental management and monitoring plan have also been drawn up.
Generally environment management needs to pursue both short and long term goals for the recognition of problems and solutions through evaluation and analysis. The management strategy of the project proposed to be follow is area specific and small in size and very favorable for paying attention to the issues connected to canal afforestation, command area and catchment area treatment, etc. In this regard, enough prerequisite data has been collected and analyzed for the wellbeing of the affected people, and at the same time to protect the environs of the project area. Important maps related to the project area have been prepared to organize the collection of field data and physical parameters of the project area.
2.7.1 Strategies to be adopted for Eco-enhancement of the Project It is suggested that consultants/experts should be involved in the monitoring of environmental components, at least once in three months during the construction stage. The consultants should be drawn from reputed organisations with sound knowledge of the subject. They should work in co-ordination with the Government departments such as Forests, Agriculture, Watershed, etc. The KNNL has been requested to prepare a bar chart indicating the activities envisaged and provide them to the experts, and concerned Government agencies to ensure that the habitat disturbed on account of construction activities is protected from further degradation.
Nursery of native plants for canal bank afforestation should start concurrently along with the construction activities or even before, for better results. The carrying capacity of the catchment area needs to be worked out with due attention to eco-enhancement and efforts to protect the same from any natural/man-made disturbances should be undertaken.
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Soil Aspects
Any Development activity beyond the proposed construction target in the project environs should be permitted on a moderate scale, with due care to safeguard the natural beauty of the area. Temporary roads for the movement of vehicle is to be kept ready only during the construction phase and this must be followed by asphalted roads with proper drainage facilities before the completion of construction phase. The aim of the afforestation programme should be to protect and enhance the biodiversity of the area. Only native plants of the catchment area should be preferred over exotic plantation, with a view to protect and propagate the local fauna.
Finally, the various stake holders involved in the entire project involving Government departments and consultants/experts should work together in complete coordination to execute plans to improve the aesthetic atmosphere of the project at every stage of the project development.
Monitoring programmes have been suggested to keep a constant examination on all the water and soil quality parameters which are well known to have adverse impact on water and soil quality besides agriculture productivity. Thus, we have provided detailed monitoring plan for the proposed project.
The overall cost for implementation of project under Environmental Management and Monitoring Programme as envisaged in this report works out to Rs. 554.30 lakhs. The total cost towards the compensatory package programme is Rs. 1040.20 lakhs.
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Soil Aspects
Chapter III Salient Features of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme
3.0 Introduction In response to the representations made by the people of the villages viz., Hulkund, Kalliguddi and Chippalkatti, etc., of Ramdurg taluk in Belgaum district, the Government of Karnataka decided to explore the possibilities of providing protective irrigation to these chronically drought affected villages. Later, Government of Karnataka having realized the felt needs of the people of the region, planned for the only possible alternative, i.e., irrigation by drawing water from Ghataprabha river by means of a lift scheme. Accordingly, the Committee headed by Shri B.C. Angadi considered the necessity and proposed Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme by allocating water of 2.2 TMC as part of Revised Scheme ‘A’ Master Plan in 2002. Since it is proposed to pump water from Jack well, there will be no submergence or displacement of either the structures of any kind or the habitations of any size and hence, no relocation or rehabilitation required. Also, the area under consideration is constantly under drought threat, no other alternative than the proposed scheme exists, land / soil is very fertile, people are diligent and aware of efficient use of water, the Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation is bound to boost the agricultural scenario and would add to the State / National economy.
3.1 Location and Accessibility Aralimatti, a small village in Gokak Taluk, Belgaum District is the intake structure, which is located towards north of Koujalgi in Gokak Taluk and its command area has been distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti Taluks of the Belgaum district. The nearest town and nearest railway station are Gokak and Ghataprabha respectably which come within reach of residents throughout the year.
3.2 Topography The area covered under Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme presents a gently undulating landscape with a linear belt of hills running in almost east-west
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Soil Aspects direction dividing the region into two parts. The region has gentle easterly slope forming largely a plain interspersed with isolated low hills. The river Ghataprabha flowing in E-W direction forms the major valley flanked on either side by plains resulting in shallow broad valley. The conspicuous rocky hills near Hulkund form a chain and the highest point is 723 m above MSL about 1.5 km SSE of Mannikeri village. This chain of hills is dissected by Hulkund halla about 0.5 km SW of Hulkund village. The elevation of river bank at Aralimatti is 522 m.
3.3 Drainage The drainage pattern is parallel to sub-parallel draining into Ghataprabha river. This command area forms a part of Ghataprabha sub-catchment in main Krishna above the confluence of Bhima catchment of Krishna basin. Ghataprabha river is originating in Sundergad of Western Ghats. Major tributaries joining it are Temraparani near Shedihal, Hiranyakeshi in Chikodi taluk and Markandeya near Gokak town.
3.4 Climate and Rainfall The climatic condition is healthy, agreeable and characterized by general dryness excepting during monsoon season. The summer season between March and May is dry, dusty and very hot with humidity of less than 20 %. maximum temperature falls to 18 0 C. Generally, humidity is normally higher (up to 85%) during monsoon period from June to September. Most of the rainfall is received during southwest monsoon period with August being the wettest month. As per the records of gauging station at Kuligod, the average annual rainfall is 503 mm. On an average, there are about 50 rainy days in a year.
The winds are generally light with slight increase in the force observed during late summer and monsoon season. The area comes under northern dry zone of ten fold Agro-climatic zone of Karnataka.
3.5 Geology and Soils The geological formations found in the area are the rocks belonging to Kaladgi series of Pre-cambium age over laid by the Deccan traps. The oldest member of the series, the Quartzite/Sandstone is seen occupying the hills near Hulkund.
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Soil Aspects
These form the ridges because of their compaction and resistance to weathering. They are horizontally bedded, highly joined and crumbled mass is seen strewn along the flanks of the hills. Occurring next in succession are the dolomites and variegated limestones with intercalations of shale spread out in the eastern part. These rocks are almost horizontally bedded with very low dip angles, soft, friable and susceptible to weathering and hence have been eroded away forming the plains. They are overlaid by the basaltic rocks of Deccan Traps. The basalts are usually resting horizontally, fine grained and highly jointed. Excepting the top portion, which is sometimes amygdaloidal with vesicles being filled up with secondary mineralization, the basalt is massive, hard, compact and fine-grained.
Major part of the command area is covered by medium black soils popularly known as Black Cotton soil. They are moderately well drained, low permeable soils. The lower regions of the hills (i.e., the pediment zones) have red gravelly soils. They have good drainage as well as permeability. In general, the soils of the region are suitable for all kinds of crops.
Table 3.1. SRLIS - Gross Command Area Details Taluk Under Contour Area (in Ha) Gokak 640 6968.11 660 777.56 Ramdurg 640 2857.14 660 4816.09 Saudatti 660 2603.84 Total 18022.73
3.6 Population The population as per 2001 Census is as follows: Table 3.2. Population as per 2001 Census Taluk Name Total Population Total SC Total ST Gokak (11 villages) 33760 4900 299 Ramdurga (13 villages0 26289 2599 555 Saudatti (4 villages) 6062 362 26 Total 66111 7861 880
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Soil Aspects
3.7 Land use and Socio-economic Aspects Major part of the command area is agriculture lands that are cultivated in both seasons – Kharif and Rabi. Apart from the cultivable land, land along the natural stream courses is covered with weed growth, the slightly elevated mounds have sparse scrub cover and the land close to the pediment region of the hills is stoney waste, devoid of any vegetative cover.
3.8 Cropping pattern The general cropping pattern is growing cereals, oil seeds and fibre crops during Kharif season and pulses and jowar during Rabi season. The cereal crops include maize, jowar and bajra. The oil seeds include soyabean and groundnut. The pulses are red gram and green gram. The fibre crops include jute and cotton, which extend into rabi season. Recently the farmers have started the cultivation of sugarcane along the Ghataprabha River by lift irrigation.
3.9 Hydrological aspects The scheme is proposed to lift 2.20 TMC of water during Khariff period from Ghataprabha River in Krishna Basin near Aralimatti village in Gokak Taluk, Belgaum District. The catchment area upto the lift point is 6400 sq. km. Since it is a Lift Irrigation Scheme, only minimum flows has been considered at the CWC Gauge and discharge site at Gokak falls on Ghataprabha River, which is on the upstream side of the proposed scheme. The month-wise requirement of the scheme is 5.70 Mcum (2.20 cumecs) during June, 14.56 Mcum (5.62 cumecs) during July, 20.73 Mcum (8.00 cumecs) during August 10.44 Mcum (4.03 cumecs) during September and 8.13 Mcum (3.14 cumecs) during October. Water requirement can be available at 75 % dependability during all the months except during June, where it can fulfill around 50 % dependability.
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Soil Aspects
Table 3.3. Summarized Salient Features of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme 1.0 Name of the Project Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme 2.0 Type of Project Irrigation Near Aralimatti Village, Gokak Taluk, 3.0 Location Belgaum District a) Name Ghataprabha 3.1 River Basin b) Basin ----- c) Located in ----- 3.2 River Ghataprabha 3.3 Location of State District Taluka a) Headwork Karnataka Belgaum Gokak b) Command Area Karnataka Name of the village near the Aralimatti 3.4 Headwork a) Longitude 75 0 04’ 15” E Location of b) Latitude 16 0 19’ 30” N 3.5 Head Works c) Lies in Earthquake 2 Zone no. Project area Degree Sheets 47P/3 and 47P/4 3.6 Reference to Index Plan Enclosed Approachable by asphalted road (8 km) Access to the Barrage/Lifting site from Kuligod, Gokak Taluk, Nearest 3.7 (Project) Railway Station–Ghataprabha and the Airport – Belgaum a) Downstream Projects 4.0 Irrigation Projects under Nil construction and existing b) Minimum proposed flow in the 2.06 cum/sec (average) river for maintaining ecology 5.0 Estimated Life of Project (years) 100 Irrigation a) Gross Command Area 18022.73 ha b) Irrigable Command Area 13800 ha i) Kharif 100 % Kharif ii) Rabi ----- iii) Gross 13800 ha Irrigable Area iv) District 6.0 Belgaum Benefited c) Area under Irrigation Venkatapura, Radderhatti, Yadwad, Koujalgi, v) Taluks and Gokak Timmapur, Mannikeri, Villages (12 Villages: Kalliguddi, Hanamasagar, (29 villages: 5930.81 ha) Budni Buzurg, 13,807.56 ha) Dhavaleshwar, Yaragudri, Kulliguddi
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Soil Aspects
Hulkund, Bhagojikoppa,
Ramdurg Chippalkattti, Hosalli, Bijaguppi, Chikoppa (13 villages: (K.S.), Gudagoppa, 5883.02 ha) Hirekoppa, Kasba Chandargi, Komatakoppa, Murakatnal, Sidnal, Kunnal Saudatti Mellikeri, Dasnal, Itnal, (04 villages: Mugalihal 1993.73 ha) 7.0 Flood Control Not Applicable 8.0 Navigation Not Applicable 9.0 Water Supply 0.30 TMC Project a) Irrigation ----- 10.0 Performance 11.0 Hydrology See paragraph 3.9 of current chapter 11.1 Catchment Area at Headwork 6400 Km 2 Catchment area classification 11.2 Moderate according to mode of precipitation 11.3 Precipitation (mm) 503 mm Annual yield calculated at the No storage is proposed proposed site (Mcft.) a) Maximum ---- 11.4 b) Minimum ---- c) Average ---- i) 50 July, August and September d) Dependable (%) ii) 75 June and October 11.5 Climate Data (Command) Generally Dry except during monsoon Name of stations and period of Kulliguddi, 1972-2002 11.6 record a) Air Temperature 18 – 42 0 C (0C) 11.7 Data b) Humidity (%) 20 -85 % c) Wind Speed 0.5 - 10 Km/hr (Km/hr) 11.8 Utilization within the State Full 11.9 Share of other States Nil a) Upstream Not Applicable Utilization Command b) Downstream 11.10 Utilization projects (under Nil construction and existing) Proposed 11.11 a) Irrigation 2.2 TMC per year (water allotted) Utilization 11.12 Design flood at Dam (Cumec) Not Applicable 12.0 Reservoir Not Applicable 13.0 Land and Property submerged Not Applicable
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Soil Aspects
14.0 Head Works ---- 14.1 Barrage Nil 14.2 Intake Channel 275 m long intake channel Length of Rising 17.500 Km Main Delivery RL 620m, 640 m and 660 m Area under Lift 13800 ha (net irrigable) Maximum Discharge 8.0 Cumecs Static Head 134.50 without losses Total Head including 14.3 Details of Lift 158.50 m with losses losses Number of rows of Single row with 2.20 m diameter at starting pipes with diameter and 1.50 m diameter at tail end of rising main. Type of pump with Vertical Turbine, 2550 HP HP Number of pumps 8 Nos. Canal System 171 Km – total canal network 15.0 (102 Km – distributory and lateral) 15.1 Main Canals 69 Km 15.2 Purpose of Canal Irrigation a) Flow Yes b) Lined Yes c) Discharging 15.3 Type Capacity of channel Above 5 Cusecs above which lining is proposed d) Type of Lining Concrete a) Length (Km) 69 Km b)Full Supply Level 660 m at head (EI-m) c) Fully Supply 1.44 m maximum Depth (m) d) Bed width 3.00 m maximum e) Side Slope 1.5 H : 1 V f) Bed Slope 1 in 2500 t o 3000 g) Maximum 15.4 Design Data discharging capacity 3.80 at Head / (m 3/s) h) Total number of 224 Canal structures i) Gross Command 18022.73 ha Area (GCA) ha j) Culturable Command Area 13800 ha (CCA) 1.50 without drinking water 15.5 Benefit – Cost Ratio 1.944 with drinking water 16.0 Total cost of the Project Rs. 226.20 Crores
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Soil Aspects
(Excluding the EMP cost)
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Soil Aspects
Chapter IV
SOIL QUALITY ASSESSMENT
4.0 Introduction The present day agricultural practices with emphasis on higher production yields, using improved seed strains and large inputs of chemical fertilizers together with state of the art agricultural technologies, have certainly helped the country, to attain a degree of self-sufficiency in total food production. However as the major nutrients needed for agricultural growth are supplied continuously through large scale application of chemical fertilizers, the soil micronutrients, which have an equally vital role in agricultural production, continue to get depleted over the years. The constant deficiency of soil micronutrients, with rather limited incidental addition by way of agricultural practice, has led eventually to an imbalanced nutrient status in the soil. The massive application of chemical fertilizers and the very limited utilization of the wholesome organic manures have further aggravated the nutrient profile of the soil environment. To sustain, therefore the yield levels of different crops and maintain the soil nutrient status at an optimal and healthy level over long periods. It becomes very important to investigate and understand any emerging nutrient deficiencies in the soil regime – particularly the micro and secondary nutrients – which should enable to adopt suitable ameliorating technologies. This apart, toxicity aspects of some nutrients either due to continuous submergence or resulting from pollution, could also pose problems during agricultural operations. Hence, recognition, monitoring and alleviating the micro- and secondary nutrient deficiencies if any, is a vital necessity. In view of these, it is imperative to study in depth, the Physico- chemical and nutrient status parameters of the soil regime in a given area, and utilize the data and information thus generated towards evolving a pragmatic programme of agricultural management for the benefit of the community.
4.1 Soil Water – A Dynamic Solution Two major concepts concerning soil water emphasize the significance of this component of the soil, especially in relation to plant growth.
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Water is held in the soil pores with varying degrees of tenacity depending on the amount of water present and the size of the pores. Together with its soluble constituents, including nutrient elements (e.g., calcium, potassium, nitrogen, and phosphorous), soil water makes up the soil solutions, which is the critical medium for supplying nutrients for growing plants.
When the soil moisture content is optimum for plant growth the water in the large and intermediate pores can move in the soil and can be used by plants. The movement can be in any direction, either downward in response to gravity, or upward as water moves to the soil surface to replace that lost by evaporation and also in any direction towards plant roots as they draw and absorb this important liquid. Although some of the soil moisture is removed by growing plants, some remain in tiny pores and in thin films around soil particles. The soil solids strongly attract this soil water and consequently compete for it with plant roots. Thus, not all soil water is available to plants. Depending on the soil, type as much as one fourth to two thirds of the moisture may remain in the soil after the plants have wilted or died for lack of water.
4.2 Soil Management and Micronutrient Needs Although the characteristics of each micronutrient are quite specific, some generalizations with respect to management practices are possible. In seeking the cause of plant abnormalities, one should keep in mind the conditions under which micronutrient deficiencies or toxicities are likely to occur. Sandy soils, mucks, and soils having very high or very low pH values are suspect. Areas of intensive cropping and heavy macronutrient fertilization may be deficient in micronutrients.
4.3 Changes in Soil Acidity In very acid soils, one might expect toxicities of iron, manganese and deficiencies of phosphorous and molybdenum. These can be corrected by liming and by appropriate fertilizer additions. Calcareous soils may have deficiencies of iron, manganese, zinc, and copper and, in a few cases, toxic quantities of molybdenum. No specific statement can be made concerning the pH value most
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Soil Aspects suitable for all the elements. However, medium-textured soils generally supply adequate quantities of micronutrients when the soil pH is held between 6 and 7. In sandy soils, a somewhat more acid reaction may be justified because the total quantity of micronutrients is low, and even at pH 6.0, some cation deficiencies might occur.
4.4 Soil Moisture Drainage and moisture control can influence micronutrient solubility in soils. Improving the drainage of acid soils will encourage the formation of the oxidized forms of iron and manganese. These are less soluble and, under acid conditions, less toxic than redued forms. Moisture control at high pH values can have opposite effect. High moisture levels maintained by irrigation may result in the chemical reduction of high-valence compounds, the oxides of which are extremely insoluble. Flooding a soil will favor the reduced forms, which are more available to growing plants. Poor drainage also increases the availability of molybdenum, in some soils, to the point of producing plants containing toxic levels of this element.
4.5 Fertilizer Applications The most common management practice to overcome micronutrient deficiencies is the application of commercial fertilizers. The materials are most commonly applied to the soil, although in recent years foliar sprays and even seed treatments have been used. Foliar sprays of dilute inorganic salts or organic chelates are more effective than soil treatments where high soil pH or other factors render the soil-applied nutrients unavailable. Treating seeds with small dosages (20-40g/ha) of molybdenum, has had satisfactory results on molybdenum deficient acid soils.
Micronutrients are becoming increasingly important to world agriculture as crop removal of these essential elements increases. Soil and plant tissue tests confirm that these elements are limiting crop production over wide areas and suggest the attention to the importance of micronutrients will likely increase in the future. In most cases, soil management practices that avoid extremes in soil pH and optimize the return of plant residues, will minimize the risk of
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Soil Aspects micronutrient problems which can be solved only by the application of micronutrient fertilizers. Such materials are becoming common components of fertilizers for field and garden use and, are likely to become even more important in the future.
Chemical fertilizers play a major role in supplementing the soil’s ability to provide both macro- and micronutrients for crops. There are a large variety of fertilizers on the market today to satisfy the demands of the farmers, gardeners and home owners. The choice of the fertilizer to use in a given situation will be determined by a number of factors, including the soil’s ability to provide its nutrients and the crop’s need for them. In an increasingly competitive world, the costs of the fertilizers applied to the land and the value of increased yields that the fertilizers applied to the land and the value of increased yields that the fertilizers help produce play a major role, in determining the kind and amount of fertilizers to be applied. Also, the effects of the fertilizers on soil properties (such as pH) and on crop quality must be considered.
It is important that excessive use of fertilizer be avoided, not only because of the potential for waste of the plant nutrients, but also because of the potential to damage environmental quality.
4.6 Scope of Study The soil is a primary recipient, intended or otherwise, of many of the waste products and chemicals used in modern society. Once these materials enter the soil, they become part of a vibrant intricate cycle that affects all forms of life. At least a general understanding of the pollutants themselves, their reactions in soils, and available means of managing, destroying, or inactivating them is essential. Six general kinds of pollutants commonly reach the soil. Firstly there are the thousands of pesticides formulations, most of which are used for agricultural purposes. Secondly there is a group of inorganic pollutants, such as mercury, cadmium, and lead. Thirdly are the organic wastes, such as those from concentrated feedlots and food-processing plants as well as municipal and industrial wastes, some of which may be added to soils.
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Soil Aspects
A prime reason for studying soils is to obtain a general concept as to what they are and how they can and should be used. Such a concept is essential for understanding how soils can serve the farmer. It is also a requisite for determining how best to conserve soils for future generations.
4.7 Study Area 4.7.1 Location and Accessibility The intake structure is located near Aralimatti, a small village in Gokak Taluk, Belgaum District. It is located towards north to Koujalgi in Gokak Taluk and the command area is distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti Taluks of the Belgaum district. The nearest town is Gokak at a distance of 45 Km, which is approachable throughout the year and Ghataprabha is the nearest railway station. The details regarding the site chosen for study is provided in Table 1.
4.7.2 Physiography and Drainage The major part of the of the command area is almost a gentle undulating landscape with a linear string of hills running in almost east- west direction dividing the region into two halves. The region has gentle easterly slope forming largely a plain interspersed with isolated low hills. The drainage pattern is parallel to sub-parallel draining into Ghataprabha River. This area forms a part of Ghataprabha sub-catchment in main Krishna above the confluence of Bhima catchment of Krishna basin. Ghataprabha River originates in Sundergad of Western Ghats. Major tributaries joining it are Tamraparani near Shedihal, Hiranyakeshi in Chikodi taluk and Markandeya near Gokak town.
Density of the network varies widely between 0.5km/sq.km to 2.5km/sq.km. It is observed that the less resistant rocks confined in the western part of the catchment has the higher drainage density than that of the flat areas in the central part.
4.7.3 Climate, Rainfall and Hydrological Aspects The climatic condition on the whole is healthy, agreeable and is characterized by a general dryness, excepting monsoon season. The summer between March and May is dry, dusty and very hot, with maximum temperatures reaching up to
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42 0 C. December to February is the cold season when the minimum temperature falls to 18 0C. Generally humidity varies from less than 20% during summer to 85% during monsoon. June to September is the period during which humidity is normally higher. Most of the rainfall is received during southwest monsoon period, with August being the wettest month. As per the records of gauging station at Kuligod, the average annual rainfall is 503 mm. On an average there are about 50 rainy days in a year. The winds are generally mild with slight increase velocity observed during the late summer and monsoon. The area comes under northern dry zone of ten fold Agro-climatic zone of Karnataka.
4.7.4 Geology Geomorphologically the catchment is relatively flat and gently undulating with isolated hillocks intervened by valleys. The catchment is somewhat oval in shape. The relief of the basin varies between 682m and 1039m.
The geological formations found in the area are the rocks belonging to Kaladgi series of Precambrian age overlaid by the Deccan traps. The oldest member of the series, the Quartzite/ Sandstone is seen occupying the hills near Hulkund. These form the ridges because of their compaction and resistance to weathering. They are horizontally bedded, highly jointed and crumbled mass which is seen strewn along the flanks of the hills. Occurring next in succession, are the dolomites and variegated lime stones with intercalations of shale spread out in the eastern part. These rocks are almost horizontally embedded with very low dip angles, soft, friable and susceptible to weathering and hence have been severely eroded forming the plains. They are overlaid by the basaltic rocks of Deccan traps. The basalts are usually resting horizontally, fine grained and highly jointed. Excepting the top portion, which is sometimes amygdaloidal with vesicles being filled up with secondary mineralization, the basalt is massive, hard, compact and fine grained.
4.7.5 Soil Types The major soil groups found in the catchment are, Laterite soils (coarse shallow soil, 22.3% and medium deep soil, 21.40%), Coarse shallow black soil, (10.70%), Medium black soil (45.80%).
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Laterite soils include both coarse shallow soil and medium deep soil. These deep soils are found on undulating rolling plains to gently sloping topography occupying areas in parts of Kolhapur districts coming under the dry agro climatic region. The laterites are found under heavy rainfall and high temperature conditions, resulting in intensive weathering, leaching of bases and silica. They are acidic in reaction and low in cation exchange capacity. The rate of infiltration for this type of soil is found to vary between 9 cm/hr and 12.6 cm/hr, depending upon the land use pattern. The crops grown in these soils are jowar, groundnut, pulses, sunflower, linseed and other millet. Under irrigation, the crops grown are paddy, sugarcane, chilies, turmeric and vegetables.
Coarse Shallow Black soils are found on undulating ridges in the Deccan hard rock region occupying areas in the north and northwest parts of Belgaum and Kolhapur districts. They are shallow with depths less than 23 cm, dark grayish brown, and dark brown to dark reddish brown in colour and calcareous, with gravels clay loam to clay in texture. This soil is neutral to weakly alkaline and have moderate to high water holding capacity with high cation exchange capacity. The infiltration capacity of the soils range from 1.2 cm/hr to 10.8 cm/hr and they are very susceptible to erosion. The crops grown under rainfed conditions in these soils are jowar, bajra, millet and pulses. However, crop yield is poor owing to shallow rooting depths and scanty rainfall.
Medium Black soils occur usually on very gently sloping midlands of the Deccan traps and on the schist, limestone and shale regions of the Belgaum districts. They are moderately well drained with low permeability. The infiltration rate observed for this type of soil varies from 0.6 cm/hr to 4.2cm/hr, the composition of the clayey soils is mainly, montmorillonite. Because of this, indiscriminate use of water may lead to the development of salinity and water logging problems. The crops grown in these soils under rain fed conditions are jowar, wheat, millet, cotton, sunflower, tobacco, groundnut, ginger, linseed, chilly, gram and other pulses.
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4.7.6 Land Use Pattern Land use pattern has a significant influence on the quality and quantity of runoff available from it. It plays an important role in determining the various hydrological phenomena like Infilteration rate, overland flow, evaporation and interception. There are four different types of land uses in the Ghataprabha river basin.
Agricultural land covers about 42.8% of the total catchment. Generally, the type of land use is governed by social, and socio-economic and characteristics of the soil. Here except in the western part of the basin, other parts are known for agricultural production. A part of the catchment area remains as barren/fallow land. This is due to the lack of water supply either by rainfall or irrigation. Fallow lands can be brought under irrigation by providing small irrigation tanks or by exploring the ground water availability in the region. Shrubs are widely distributed in Chandgad and Gadhinglaj taluks and covers 33.05% area of the basin. This class of land is used intensively through establishment of reseeded and high yielding pastures. Its most important features are relatively shallow soils with less than 30% gravels and slopes not exceeding 25-30%. The forest cover of the catchment is 13.8%. The wet deciduous forest occurs in the west zone of the Kolhapur and Sindhudurg districts of Maharashtra. The main tree species in the forest are teak, rose, jackfruit, bamboo etc. most of the notified forests have been degraded partly due to irregular rainfall and climate aberrations.
4.7.7 Cropping Pattern The general cropping pattern consists of growing cereals, oil seeds and fiber crops in the Khariff season and pulses and jowar during Rabi season. The cereal crops include maize, jowar and bajra. The oil seed crops are soyabean and groundnut. The pulses are red gram and green gram. The fiber crops include jute and cotton, which extend till Rabi season. Recently the farmers have started the cultivation of sugarcane along the Ghataprabha River by lift irrigation. The general water quality problems associated with agricultural activities is discussed below (Table 4.1).
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Table 4.1. Quality Problems Related to Agricultural Activities Source Impact Irrigation and insufficient Increase of dissolved solids drainage, Seawater Salinity (Chloride, Sodium, intrusion or saline Sulphate, etc.) upcoming saline seeps Feedlots, Wastes, Pathogenic microorganisms Sanitary Quality Livestock grazing (virus, bacteria, protozoa) Feedlots, Land Presence of nitrate, Soil Nutrient management, Inorganic acidification, Diffuse Enrichment fertilizers pollution of nitrates Presence of Boron, Irrigation and drainage, Selenium, Arsenic, Toxic Elements Land management Molybdenum, Copper, Nickel, etc. Applied pesticides and Diffuse pollution of Pesticides crops, Spills or leaks from pesticides, Point source storage facilities pollution
4.8 Objectives The objectives, under the proposed study are: To study the soil characteristics, including Physico-chemical and biological parameters. To assess the soil fertility status with respect to nutrient index and, To overview the cropping pattern and, to estimate the soil loss.
4.9 Materials and Methods Standard techniques of soil survey (Jackson and Black, 1965 & 1982) were used to obtain qualitative and quantitative data on the soils. Various soil quality parameters viz., pH, electrical conductivity, chloride, available calcium and magnesium, phosphorus, exchangeable sodium and potassium, available nitrogen etc., were determined employing standard methods of analyses (Jackson and Black 1965, 1968, 1982).
4.10 Soil Analysis Investigation of the physical and chemical properties of the top layer of soil are essential to establish the important factors of water retention in the study area. Standard procedures of National Bureau of Soil Survey, Bangalore and Jackson and Black (1965, 1968 and 1982) were employed for analysis of soil study
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Soil Aspects parameters. The methodology adopted for studying the various soil parameters are discussed below. (Table 2)
4.10.1 pH and conductivity The soil samples collected from the field were dried by spreading out on a plastic tray under a shady area. Coarse aggregates, stones and pieces of roots, leaves and other un-decomposed organic materials were removed and large lumps of moist soil were broken by hand. Samples were mixed during drying process to complete exposure of fresh surfaces. The dried soil samples were crushed thoroughly using pestle and mortar and finally sieved through a 2 mm sieve. Crushing was continued, until the soil retained on the sieve contained no aggregates. Any material larger than 2 mm was discarded; samples were allowed to dry, and stored in plastic bags. They were graded into stones (>2mm) and soil (<2mm). Field fresh soils were stirred with distilled water (1:5) and the pH and conductivity were determined using digital pH meter (model EUTEOH CYBERSCAN 510) and digital conductivity meter (SYSTRONICS Conductivity/TDS Meter 308).
4.10.2 Soil Colour The different colored soils collected from the study area were subjected to analysis and identification, by visual methods and interpreted. Soil colour varies from region to region. Soil derives its colour from the parent material, and besides the colour may also vary due to, i.Soil forming process ii. Moisture content and drainage capacity and iii. Nature and amount of organic matter, and mineral content.
4.10.3 Organic Carbon Organic matter (OM) in the soil was oxidized with a mixture of potassium dichromate (K 2Cr 2O7) and concentrated H 2SO 4, in accordance with the standard procedure. Excess dichromate was determined by back titration against ferrous sulphate (FeSO 4.7H 2O) or ferrous ammonium sulphate (FeSO 4.
(NH 4)2SO 4.6H 2O).
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4.10.4 Exchangeable Potassium and Sodium The term available potassium (K) conventionally refers to exchangeable + water soluble K. The exchangeable K constitutes the major portion of available K, and this along with Ca and Mg was determined, using a neutral ammonium acetate
(N NH 4Oac) extract of soil. The extraction was carried out by continuous shaking followed by filtration. The Potassium and Sodium were estimated by flame photometry.
4.10.5 Exchangeable Calcium and Magnesium Exchangeable Ca and Mg were determined in ammonium acetate extracts of soils (obtained as above under K), by direct titration with standard EDTA solution. The amount of organic matter dissolved was usually too small to affect the colour change of the indicator. This procedure permitted the determination of calcium and magnesium in the same solution.
4.10.6 Available Phosphorus The Phosphorus content of soils samples was determined as available phosphorus, which was extracted from soil using extraction solvent of dilute acid ) (0.002N H 2SO 4 in the ratio of 1 (soil): 200 (H 2SO 4)]. The sample was thoroughly mixed by shaking for at least half an hour, and the solution was filtered through Whatman filter No. 42. The concentration of phosphorus was determined following the method given for the determination of inorganic phosphorus in water (Trivedi and Goel, 1987).
4.10.7 Chloride Mohr’s titration method was used to estimate the chloride content of the soil samples after extracting through suitable solvent. The method depends upon the formation of a sparingly brick red of silver chromate (AgCrO 4) precipitate at the end point during sample titration against standard silver nitrate (AgNO 3) solution in the presence of potassium chromate (K 2CrO 4) indicator.
4.10.8 Cation Exchange Capacity The cation exchange capacity was measured at a standard pH 7.0, which was done by passing a solution of ammonium acetate (buffered at pH 7) through the
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Soil Aspects soil to replace all the exchangeable cations by ammonium ions. The amounts of displaced cations were determined by standard chemical methods and the sum total of the same represents the cation exchange capacity of the soil. Alternatively, the soil was washed out with the surplus ammonium acetate, then the exchangeable ammonium was displaced by another suitable cation, and it was measured by standard analytical procedures.
4.10.9 Calcium Carbonate An aliquot of the soil sample was extracted with 1 N HCl and a rapid titration method was followed, using bromothymol blue as indicator; and the calcium carbonate value was determined using the formulae.
4.10.10 Exchangeable Sodium percentage Exchangeable sodium percentage was estimated by calculation, using Na, Ca and Mg values.
4.10.11 Particle Size Distribution Particle size distribution was done using test sieves of different sizes and was done mechanically by air drying the soil samples and crushing gently in a pestle and mortar and were sieved in sieves of different size viz., 2mm, 0.2 mm, 0 .02 mm and 0 .002 mm.
4.10.12 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) Sodium absorption ratio was also estimated by calculation method, using above obtained Na, Ca and Mg, values.
4.10.13 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen The total Kjeldahl nitrogen was estimated by Kjeldahl digestion method. The soil samples were digested through Micro Kjeldahl apparatus, and the final volume of the digest was made up to 250 ml in a volumetric flask, after several decantations with the portions of the distilled water and was titrated with 0.01 N
HCl. Simultaneously a blank was run and % N 2 was estimated using the formula: %N = ((a -b) X N of HCl X 1.4) / S
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Where a = ml of HCl for sample B = ml of HCl consumed for blank S = weight of the soil taken.
4.10.14 Salinity The salinity of the soils samples were estimated using the values of EC,
Chlorides, CaCO 3, Ca, and Mg. Saline soils were identified by the presence of white encrustations of salts on the surface of the land. The chemical nature of saline soils was mainly determined by the types and amounts of salts present in them. The amount of soluble salts present controls the osmotic pressure of the soil solution.
The details of the sampling sites at the study area, analytical methods employed and the results obtained for the Physico-chemical analysis soil samples were tabulated in the Table 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 respectively.
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Table 4.2. Details of Soil Sampling Sites at Command Area Sl. Elevation Soil Vegetation No Location Latitude Longitude (m) Type GOKAK TALUK 1 Venktapura E 75 0 05 ' 26.1 " N 16 0 17' 10.0 " 595 Grey Sugarcane, Jowar 2 Kollugodu E 75 0 04 ' 56.2 " N 16 0 14' 53.3 " 619 Grey Sugarcane, Jowar, Maize Basappa Mallapa Shetar, 3 E 75 0 04 ' 32.4 " N 16 0 13' 37.7 " 617 Grey Sugarcane, Maize, Bananna Koujalgi 4 Koujalgi E 75 0 04 ' 31.0 " N 16 0 13' 38.5 " 605 Grey Sugarcane, Jowar 5 Redrahatti E 75 0 05 ' 28.8 " N 16 0 12' 24.2 " 623 Black Jowar 6 Meresab Honnur E 75 0 04 ' 00.3 " N 16 0 12' 03.6 " 626 Grey Jowar 7 Koujalgi, Roadside E 75 0 04 ' 47.3 " N 16 0 11' 24.2 " 641 Grey Jowar Anand Yellapa Adimani, 8 E 75 0 05 ' 37.2 " N 16 0 10' 46.4 " 625 Grey Grapes, Wheat, Jowar Koujalgi, Roadside 9 Sidramaiah, Kalligudi E 75 0 06 ' 21.9 " N 16 0 11' 21.2 " 633 Black Wheat , Maize 10 R.K.Sambal, Kalliguddi E 75 0 06 ' 03.6 " N 16 0 10' 08.9 " 654 Black Jowar, Sugarcane Krishnappa Venkappa 11 E 75 0 07 ' 18.9 " N 16 0 08' 56.8 " 628 Grey Maize, Wheat Heregudre, Hulkunda Ramappa Hanumappa 12 E 75 0 08 ' 53.5 " N 16 0 11' 03.3 " 610 Black Cotton, Sunflower, Jowar Hannegeri, Hulkunda Ramappa Hanumappa, 13 E 75 0 09 ' 57.5 " N 16 0 08' 27.7 " 617 Grey Sugarcane, Wheat Chipalkatti Between Hulkund & 14 E 75 0 09 ' 12.7 " N 16 0 08' 43.9 " 638 Grey Wheat , Maize Chipalkatti, Roadside 15 Mannikeri Manthose E 75 0 04 ’ 08.2 ” N 16 0 10’ 03.5 ” 626 Black Wheat, Maize, Sunflower Gurusidappa Lakshmappa Dalwagi, 16 E 75 0 05 ’ 06.4 ” N 16 0 10’ 17.9 ” 644 Black Grapes, Wheat Roadside b/w Manikere & Kuligodi SAUDATTI TALUK Dasanala Cross, Road 17 E 75 0 02 ’ 43.5 ” N 16 0 08’ 36.2 ” 614 Grey Maize, Sugarcane side 18 Mallikere Thota E 75 0 03 ' 58.9 " N 16 0 07' 47.7 " 629 Grey Sugarcane, Wheat
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Mallikere Roadside, 19 E 75 0 05 ' 10.7 " N 16 0 08' 15.2 " 666 Grey Sugarcane, Jowar BagojiKoppa 20 Chowraddi, BagojiKoppa E 75 0 06 ' 13.3 " N 16 0 07' 42.7 ” 645 Grey Sunflower, Maize Gurupadappa 21 Guruningappa Gondhi, E 75 0 06 ' 12.8 " N 16 0 07' 11.6 " 668 Grey Maize, Wheat Hirekoppa 22 Chikoppa, Road side E 75 0 06 ' 56.8 " N 16 0 06' 25.3 " 674 Black Maize, Sunflower RAMDURGA TALUK Onion, Brinjal, Chilly, 23 Murkattnal E 75 0 06 ' 55.7 " N 16 0 04' 54.2 " 648 Grey Sunflower 24 Hosur E 75 0 09 ' 52.5 " N 16 0 06' 13.9 " 620 Grey Wheat, Maize, Sunflower
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Table 4.3. Analytical Methods Used for Physico Chemical Analysis of Soil
Sl. No. Parame ter Method 1 pH Electrode method 2 Conductivity Electrode method 3 Organic carbon Walkley & Blacks Method
4 Average P 2O5 Spectrophotometer
5 Exchangeable Calcium EDTA method 6 Exchangeable Magnesium EDTA method 7 Exchangeable sodium Flame photometer 8 Exchangeable Potassium Flame photometer
9 Exchangeable sodium percentage By calculation 10 Particle size distribution Sieve method 11 Textural class Pycnometric method 12 Sodium Absorption Ratio By calculation 13 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen Micro Kjeldahl (Source: Jackson and Black 1965 & 1982)
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4.11 Results Table 4.4. Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Soil at Command Area
Total Available Mg Ca %Na % K Available %Organic %Organic N Sl. PH EC Alkalinity % Cl Phos SAR meq/100g meq/100g meq/100 g meq/100g Potassium Carbon Matter Kg/ha No meq/100g phorus 1 7.06 43.5 6.8 27.8 1.7 0.02 4.51 0.47 436.8 0.15 0.26 8.6 1.08 617.79 2 6.95 332 10.8 36.6 1.8 0.04 2.83 0.48 448.8 0.8 1.38 10.5 0.58 639.74 3 7.83 331 11.0 36.8 0.5 0.04 2.23 0.37 345.6 0.2 0.34 11.9 0.46 498.62 4 7.66 276 6.0 23.6 0.7 0.03 0.60 0.32 297.6 0.65 1.12 15.4 0.16 520.58 5 7.21 60.5 1.2 45 0.6 0.03 0.53 0.41 386.4 2.1 3.62 10.5 0.11 595.84 6 7.19 60.6 7.0 28.4 0.5 0.03 0.16 0.53 492 0.45 0.78 7.6 0.04 404.54 7 7.59 56.8 8.8 36 0.9 0.04 3.58 0.52 484.8 0.6 1.03 22.0 0.76 627.20 8 7.72 283 8.6 25.6 0.6 0.03 1.53 0.62 583.2 9.85 16.98 20.2 0.37 520.58 9 7.89 319 16.6 28.2 0.6 0.05 4.43 0.48 448.8 5.7 9.83 12.4 0.93 526.85 10 7.62 108 5.2 26 0.6 0.04 0.84 0.48 448.8 0.05 0.09 32.0 0.21 592.70 11 7.55 95 22.0 16.6 0.8 0.05 1.34 1.55 1449.6 1.15 1.98 183.6 0.31 508.03 12 8.11 219 9.0 22.8 0.9 0.07 6.05 0.53 496.8 0.9 1.55 12.2 1.52 573.89 13 7.74 816 5.2 26 0.9 0.10 6.13 0.46 427.2 0.9 1.55 5.3 1.55 580.16 14 7.56 456 6.6 38.2 1.1 0.05 3.30 0.41 384 0.65 1.12 29.7 0.70 633.47 15 7.32 46.7 13.4 18.8 0.5 0.04 0.51 0.29 276 7.85 13.53 188.6 0.13 611.52 16 7.7 74.1 9.4 15.8 0.5 0.04 0.67 0.38 360 0.7 1.21 186.9 0.19 592.70 17 6.81 199 7.4 22 0.4 0.06 0.59 0.26 244.8 0 0.00 67.3 0.15 580.16 18 6.85 37.5 4.8 31.6 0.5 0.05 0.19 0.39 364.8 0.35 0.60 12.7 0.04 595.84 19 7.27 251 8.0 37.3 0.5 0.03 0.35 0.34 321.6 0.7 1.21 76.3 0.07 580.16 20 8.02 73.2 8.6 21.8 0.7 0.05 0.42 0.96 895.2 0.7 1.21 34.1 0.11 589.57 21 7.82 90 13.5 19.8 0.6 0.05 0.64 0.44 412.8 0.35 0.60 60.5 0.16 460.99 22 7.57 78.1 6.2 23.6 0.6 0.04 0.18 0.31 285.6 0.75 1.29 15.9 0.05 539.39 23 7.85 292 12.8 30.4 0.7 0.04 0.99 1.19 1116 1.45 2.50 11.9 0.21 545.66 24 7.73 71.6 5.4 40.8 0.6 0.03 0.28 0.83 772.8 0.2 0.34 27.3 0.06 595.84
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4.11.1 Soil pH: pH of soil mainly depends on the soil water ratio. From the Table 3, pH of the soil samples in the study area ranged between 6.81 to 8.11. The lowest pH value of 6.81 was found in Dasanala Cross, Road side and the maximum pH of 8.11 was found in Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri agricultural land of Hulkunda village.
4.11.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC): Electrical Conductivity, as the measure of current carrying capacity, gives a clear picture of the amount of soluble salts present in the soil. The EC values of the soil samples varied from 37 to 816 µmhos/cm. The highest value of EC (816µmhos/cm) was observed in Chipalkatti village which belongs to farmer Ramappa Hanumappa, whereas the lowest EC value (37µmhos/cm) was noticed in the soil of Mallikere Thota.
4.11.3 Salinity: Based on the electrical conductivity of the soil, soil salinity can be classified into four classes:
Electrical conductivity Approximate salt Water class (µmhos/cm at 25˚ C) concentration Class - I - Low 0 to 250 <0.16 salinity Class - II - Medium 250 to 750 0.16 to 0.50 salinity Class - III - High 750 to 2250 0.50 to 1.50 salinity Class - IV - Very 2250 to 5000 1.5 to 3 High salinity
CI water is considered as safe with without any salinity problems. CII When used for irrigation, moderate leaching is required. CIII and CIV cannot be used on soils with inadequate drainage, since salinity develops.
In the study area, 66% of the soil samples come under the category of Class-I (Low salinity), 29 % of the samples under Class-II (Medium salinity) and
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Soil Aspects remaining 5% of the samples belong to Class-III (High salinity). The high salinity concentration was found in the Agricultural land that belongs to the farmer Ramappa Hanumappa, of Chipalkatti village.
4.11.4 Colour of the Soil: Colour of the soil samples ranged from grey to black. The majority of the soils observed in the study are grey colour.
4.11.5 Exchangeable Calcium: The minimum concentration of exchangeable Calcium was found to be 15.8 in the soil, coming from the agricultural land of Gurusidappa Lakshmappa Dalwagi, Roadside between Manikere & Kuligodi, while the maximum value is 45 (expressed as Ca meq/100g) was found in Redrahatti village. There was a wide variation in the distribution of exchangeable Calcium content in the study area.
4.11.6 Exchangeable Magnesium: The minimum concentration of exchangeable Magnesium was found to be 1.2 meq/100g in the sample from Redrahatti village, and similarly the maximum exchangeable Magnesium value of 22 meq/100g in the sample from Krishnappa Venkappa Heregudre’s land at of Hulkunda village. The exchangeable magnesium value found ranged between 1.2 to 22 meq/100g.
4.11.7 Percent Organic Carbon: Percent Organic Carbon was found to be in the range of 0 to 9.85. The maximum value of 9.85 was found in the agricultural land that belongs to Anand Yellapa Adimani, Koujalgi, Roadside. The minimum value of 0.2 was found in the agricultural land, which belongs to Basappa Mallapa Shetar of Koujalgi and Hosur village.
4.11.8 Exchangeable Sodium: The exchangeable sodium content in the study area ranged between 0.16 to 6.13 meq/100g as observed in Table 3. The minimum exchangeable Sodium value 0.16 was observed in the Meresab
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Honnur agricultural land and the maximum value of 6.13 was observed in Chipalkatti village. 4.11.9 Exchangeable Potassium: The exchangeable K values were found to be in a narrow range and ranged between 0.26 to 1.55 meq/100g. The minimum potassium value was noticed in the sample from Dasanala Cross, roadside, while the maximum value (1.55 meq/100g) was found in the farmer’s land Krishnappa Venkappa Heregudre of Hulkunda village.
4.11.10 Percent Chlorides: The Chloride content of the soil is the measure of salinity of the soil. The Chloride content of the soil ranged between 0.02 to 0.1 mg/100g. The chloride content was taken as major factor for the estimation of salinity of the soil samples. The maximum chloride content was observed in Chipalkatti village where as the lowest chloride of 0.02 mg/100g was observed in Venktapura village.
4.11.11 Available Nitrogen (%N) The available nitrogen ranged between 404.54 to 639.74 Kg/ha and the minimum available nitrogen was found in the agricultural land that belongs to Meresab Honnur. The maximum available nitrogen was found in the Kollugodu village.
4.11.12 Available Phosphorous: Phosphorus is essential for plant growth. It is a component of Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), the two compounds involved in most significant energy transformation in plants. The available phosphorous in the study area varied between 5.3 to 188.6 Kg/ha.
4.11.13 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR): The Sodium Absorption Ratio ranged between 0.04 to 1.55. A minimum SAR value of 0.04 was found in Sample that belongs to the farmer Meresab Honnur and the maximum SAR value was found in sample from Ramappa Hanumappa’s agricultural land at Chipalkatti village.
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4.12 Discussion 4.12.1 pH No other single chemical soil characteristic is more important in determining the chemical environment of higher plants and soil microbes than the pH. There are few reactions involving any component of the soil or of its biological inhabitants that are not sensitive to soil pH. This sensitivity must be recognized in any soil management system. Soil pH is largely controlled by soil colloids and their associated exchangeable cations. Aluminium and hydrogen enhance soil acidity, whereas calcium and other base-forming cations (especially sodium) encourage soil alkalinity. The colloids are also the mechanism for soil buffering, which resists rapid and violent changes in soil reaction, giving stability to most plant-soil systems. Knowing how pH is controlled, how it influences the supply and availability of essential plant nutrients as wells as toxic elements, and also how it affects higher plants and human beings is truly significant, all of which makes pH investigations, worthy objective. pH of soil mainly depends on the soil water ratio. The pH of the soil samples in the study area ranged between 6.81 to 8.11. The results have shown that there was neutral range of soils and also slightly inclined towards alkaline in nature in the study area. All the soil samples shown above pH values of 7.06 are slightly alkaline in nature, and this may be due to high amount of leaching which has led to the leach out of exchangeable anions and are considered as slightly alkaline.
4.12.2 Electrical Conductivity Electrical conductivity, as the measure of current carrying capacity, gives a clear picture of the amount of soluble salts present in the soil. It plays a major role in the salinity of soils. There is a relation between electrical conductivity and salinity, lesser the EC value low will be the salinity value of soil and vice-versa.
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The Electrical Conductivity values of the soil samples vary from 37.5 to 816 µmhos/cm, as shown below.
Sl.No EC values ( µmhos/cm) No. of samples 1 10 to 500 23 2 501 to 1000 1 3 1001 to 1500 0 4 1501 to 2000 and above 0
Electrical conductivity values within 800 µmhos/cm are considered as normal nature of soil, and in the present study about 99 percent of the samples were observed to be in the normal range. While EC values between 800 and 1600 are considered critical for tolerant crops, while EC values ranging between 1600 and 2500 are considered critical for salt tolerant crops, and EC values more than 2500 are not considered safe for most of the crops. In the study area no samples have crossed 1500, and thus almost all the soil samples are found to be suitable for agriculture.
4.12.3 Soil Colour Soil colour is one of the visual judgment through which the soil type can be classified. The soil colour may vary from region to region or spatially. Soil derives its colour from the source of the material. However, the colour may also vary due to,
Soil forming process Moisture content and drainage Nature and amount of organic matter Mineral sources
In the study area, the majority of the soil samples are grey in colour. About 30% of the soil samples in the study area are black and remaining 70% are grey.
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4.12.4 Organic Carbon Soil resource is a major anchor to the all life beings, such as plants, animals and microorganisms in various stages of decomposition process, which gives the end products in the form of organic matter. The organic substances are a major determinant of soil structure, moisture content, pH and the soil nutrient status of the topsoil. The importance of organic matter in the soil is, improved soil structure and fertility status of the soil, which differentiates the soil and other non-fertile soils.
The judicious cycling of agricultural wastes is a sound practice that has characterized successful agricultural systems through the centuries. It is no less important today in view of the high nutrient demands of the crops increasingly needed to feed an ever-growing human population. Farm animal wastes should be recycled to the extent that sound management will permit.
In the study area the amount organic carbon ranged from 0 to 9.85, indicating variable organic matter content and decomposition rates. The percentage of organic matter varied spatially and generally has a higher organic content in the case of thickly vegetated areas as anticipated. The requirement of optimum level of organic matter required by the plants slightly varies between species, as it is not a single nutrient source required for all the plants and for all the soils. The variation is also dependent on soil type, climate, existing plant and animal species.
Classification of Soil Quality on the Basis of Organic Carbon (%) Percentage organic carbon Rating <0.40 Low 0.4 to 0.75 Medium >0.75 High
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In the study area it is noticed that about 50% of the samples contained higher percent organic carbon i.e., more than 0.60 percent organic carbon, which benefits the farmer to get an higher yield of crops.
4.12.5 Available Phosphorus The availability of phosphorus to plant roots has a double constraint: the low total phosphorus level in soils and the small percentage of this level that is present in available forms. Furthermore, even when soluble phosphates are added to soil, they are quickly fixed into insoluble forms that in time become quite unavailable to growing plants. In acid soils, the phosphorus is fixed primarily by iron, aluminium, and manganese; in alkaline soils, by calcium and magnesium. This fixation greatly reduces the efficiency of phosphate fertilizers so that little of the added phosphorus can be taken up by plants. In time, however, this fixed phosphorus can build up and can serve as a reserve pool for plant absorption.
Phosphorus is the second most important macronutrient available in the soil of the biological systems, which covers more than 1% of the dry organic weight. It is a major component of nucleic acids, phospholipids and many phosphorylated compounds. Similarly, it is also a second most limiting factor often affecting plant growth. Chemically, phosphorus exists in the soil in the form of both organic and inorganic forms. Generally plants are dependent on inorganic phosphorus especially in the form of phosphate ions, whereas organic phosphates are also important sources of phosphorus in almost all types of soils. Comparatively however the phosphorus is, required in small quantities; but it may be the most likely limiting element in productivity of the plant. Therefore ecologically it is very much significant.
Sl.No Grade Concentration 1 Low phosphorus Less than 12.4 Kg/ha 2 Medium phosphorus 12.4 to 22.4 Kg/ha
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3 Adequate phosphorus More than 22.4 Kg/ha 4 Abundant phosphorus Still higher
In the study area it is observed that 41% of the soil sample shows low phosphorus content, 16% shows medium phosphorus content and remaining samples contain high phosphorus content. In case of low phosphorus content of the soil in the study area, which can be supplemented by applying phosphorous rich fertilizers as required by a specific crop.
4.12.6 Exchangeable Sodium The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) identifies the degree to which the exchange complex is saturated with sodium. The ESP levels of 15 yield pH values of 8.5 and above. Higher levels may bring the pH to at least 10. It is important to note that sodium has been found partially to take the place of potassium in the nutrition of certain plants. Where there is a deficiency of potassium, native soil sodium or that added in such soil fertilizer as sodium nitrate, may be useful. The exchangeable sodium values in the study area ranged between 0.16 to 6.13 meq/100g. The minimum exchangeable Sodium value (0.16) was observed in the Meresab Honnur agricultural land and the maximum value (6.13) was observed in Chipalkatti village.
4.12.7 Exchangeable Potassium Potassium plays many essential roles in plants. It is an activator of dozens of enzymes responsible for such plant processes as energy metabolism, starch synthesis, nitrate reduction, and sugar degradation. Potassium is extremely mobile within the plant and helps regulate the opening and closing of stomata in the leaves and uptake of water by root cells.
Potassium is essential for photosynthesis, for protein synthesis, for starch formation, and for the translocation of sugars. This element is important in grain formation, and is absolutely necessary for tuber development. All root crops
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Soil Aspects generally respond to application of potassium. As with phosphorus, it may be present in large quantities in the soil and yet exert no harmful effect on the crop.
Potassium increases crop resistance to certain diseases, and by encouraging strong root and stem systems, helps to prevent the undesirable growth of plants, that is sometimes caused by excessive nitrogen. Potassium delays maturity, thereby working against undue ripening influences phosphorous can exert. In general way, potassium exerts a balancing effect on the effects of both nitrogen and phosphorous; consequently it is especially important in a multinutrient fertilizer.
Deficient supply of (K) Less than 113 Kg/ha
Doubtful supply of (K) 113 to 280 Kg/ha
Adequate supply of (K) More than 280 Kg/ha
From Table 3, it is observed that the available potassium in the study area is more than adequate in relation to what the plants may require. The maximum potassium concentration was found to be 1449.6 Kg/ha.
4.12.8 Available Nitrogen Nitrogen is one among the four primary elements essential for the plant tissues. It is the major component of proteins, nucleic acids and chlorophyll. The atmospheric nitrogen gets trapped in the soil during electro and photo-chemical fixation and also by the action of microorganisms. Soil nitrogen is made available through a process of mineralization. The available nitrogen in soil exists in the form of both organic and inorganic forms. However, relatively most of the nitrogen content in organic form is at the most about 90 per cent. Organic content present in the soil decay by microbial activity, during this process all the organic nitrogen gets converted to ammonium, nitrates and nitrites. Nitrogen is having a
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Soil Aspects major role in maintaining the fertility of the soil and nitrogen content in almost all the soils are observed to be very low and is found as nitrates, nitrite and ammonium. Plants are more dependent upon nitrate nitrogen, during the aerobic conditions and ammonia nitrogen during anaerobic conditions.
Concentration of Ammonia Nitrogen in the soil
Sl. No Quantity of nitrogen Rating 1 < 272 Kg/ha Low 2 272 to 554 Kg/ha Medium 3 > 554 Kg/ha High
In the study area most of the soil samples were fertile with medium to high quantity nitrogen content. Soil moisture content is having a major contribution to vary the process and also one of the important factors affecting nitrification. In water logged areas soil suppresses the process of nitrification because of deficient oxygen. However it is totally different in the case of dry soils. As in the case of present study area in the soils however, there will be enough moisture for the process of bacterial metabolism and such soils posses higher rate of biosynthesis of nitrogen which also contribute to fertility of the soil.
4.13 Particle Size Distribution The soil particle size is a major parameter and a relative proportion of the soil particles of various sizes are important physical parameters that emphasize the texture of soil of a particular region. Larger particle size helps in providing the physical support to the plants, while smaller particles encourage the soil to hold water and available nutrients. From the study, it is observed that majority of soil in the command area is coarse sand (0.2 to 2.0mm) in size.
As per the International System of Classification, the range of the particle sizes in the soil is as under:
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Sl.No Category Particle Size
1 Coarse sand 0.2 to 2.0 mm 2 Fine sand 0.02 to 0.2 mm 3 Silt 0.002 to 0.02 mm 4 Clay <0.002mm 4.14 Textural Class Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of clay, silt and sand in a sample of soil. Based on dominancy of the size fraction the soil texture can be classified as various types, such as clay, sandy clay, silt clay etc, whereas the fine particle fraction of the soil is used to describe as loam. Soil texture is an indicator parameter, through which the other soil properties can be studied, but if used alone, it has limited predictive value; viz., ability of a soil to adsorb cations from solution depends on the mineralogy of the clay fraction as well as on the percentage of clay. It also depends on the amount and nature of the organic matter the soil holds. The permeability of soil to water depends on shape, mineral particles and organic matter into structural units with pore spaces between them. Texture does however indicate the ease with which the application of the soil can be recommended. Higher content of clay in soils are often described, as ‘heavy’ and sandy soils are known as ‘light’. But clay soils retain more water against gravity and consequently warm up more slowly in spring. From the study, it is found out that the soil texture in command area is sandy in nature.
4.15 Water Holding Capacity (WHC) Water holding capacity is the amount of water that can be retained by the soil when all the pores in the soil have been filled with water, soil is saturated with water, accompanied by very poor drainage. The water retained at zero bar tension, is rarely utilized by plants as it reduces the respiration rate and creates anaerobic conditions for the roots.
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Soil Aspects
In the study area the soil samples exhibited a significant correlation between the clay content and water holding capacity. WHC was more in the surface soil layer where greater accumulations of organic matter, litter, and root mass etc., existed.
4.16 Salinity A saline soil contains sufficient soluble salt and exchangeable sodium to interfere with the growth of most crop plants. Saline soils are formed wherever soil and hydrological conditions favour the accumulation of soluble salts in the root zone. Historically it is the man-induced salinity which results from the inadequate provision or management of irrigation and drainage systems that is of great concern.
Salts accumulate in some surface soils of arid and semiarid regions, because there is insufficient rainfall to flush them from the upper soil layers. The salts are primarily chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium. The source of these soils is the weathering of rocks, and minerals, rainfall, ground waters, and irrigation. Once deposited or released in the soil, the salts are brought to or near the surface by upward-moving water, which then evaporates leaving the salts behind. Unfortunately, high levels of these salts cannot be tolerated by most crop plants, a fact that severely limits the use of some salt-affected soils. The results indicate that, about 66% of the soil samples are having low salinity, 29% medium salinity and 5% shows low salinity. The data obtained reveals that salinity is not a major problem in the command area.
4.16.1 Salinity Causing Factors The various natural factors affecting salinity are meteorological, drainage pattern, agricultural practices and soil characteristics.
Climate: Climate is the most important factor responsible to change and formation of saline soils in a specific region. They mainly occur in regions with arid and semi-arid climate, where low rainfall found and transport the
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Soil Aspects
soluble salts formed during weathering. Arid climate is commonly characterized by maximum evaporation rates, which leads to more and more concentration of salt in the soil surface. Whereas in the humid regions the soluble salts formed due to weathering process are transported downwards to the ground water regime and, streams finally reach the oceans. Therefore saline soils are non-existent in humid regions except when the soil has been subjected to seawater inundation, as in river deltas and near the sea, whereas in the arid regions, leaching and transportation of salts will be very poor, unlike in the case of humid regions.
Controlled Drainage : This is another important contributing factor, during the formation of saline soils, having a direct connection with the deeper ground water table or low permeability of soils. The depth of the water table often depends upon the topography of the land. In the case of arid regions of low rainfall area, the surface drainage ways are poorly developed, and this leads to drainage basins without outlets to permanent streams. The salty drainage waters enter from the higher lands of the basin leading to increase in the ground water level to the soil surface on the low lands.
Low Permeability of Soils: Poor drainage impacts on the downward movement of water. The low permeability of soil is mainly because of unfavorable soil texture (very fine) or it could be also due to the presence of hard layers in the form of clay pans, caliches layer or a silica hard pan, as a result of ploughing with heavy tillage equipments.
Irrigation Practices: This is another important factor which has a bearing on salinity of the region. Expansion of irrigation activities has become one of the key strategies to achieving higher food production. In India the net irrigated area has increased from 20 million hectares (1950) to more than
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45 million hectares, at present. This extended irrigation activities have been achieved through transported water. Irrigation practice also improves the ground water table and when the ground water table is within 2 m of the surface, it contributes significantly to increase the salinity of the soil due to capillary rise of water and its evaporation from the soil surface. In most of the canal irrigated areas, the problems of salt accumulation is a matter of serious dimension. From the analysis of the soil samples, it is inferred that the salinity problem does not seem to exist in the present area as only one sample showed marginally higher salinity value.
4.17 Fertility Status of the Soils Based on the results and nutrient indices, it is possible to classify nutrient status of the particular area and classify each nutrient level i.e., low, medium or high based on a rating chart, which was made use of while rating the soil analysis results, as follows: Rating Chart for Soil Test Values and their Nutrient Indices 1. Soil pH Acidity Neutral Alkaline Range Below 6.0 6.0-8.0 Above 8.0 Soil Reaction Index I II III 2. Electrical Conductivity Normal Critical Injurious Range (µmhos/cm) Below 1000 1000-2000 Above 2000 Salt index I II III 3. Organic Carbon Low Medium High Range (%) Below 0.5 0.5-0.75 Above 0.75 Nutrient index I II III 4. Available Phosphorus (By Bray’s method)
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Low Medium High Range (Kg/ha) Below 22 22-54 Above 54 Nutrient index I II III 5. Available Potash Low Medium High Range (Kg/ha) Below 123 123-296 Above 296
Nutrient index Range Remarks (OC, P, K) I Below 1.67 Low II 1.67-2.33 Medium III Above 2.33 High Nutrient index I II III
OC – organic carbon; P - Available phosphorus; K - Available potash
The nutrient index values were evaluated for the soil samples analyzed using the following formula:
4.18 Nutrient index = [(1x No. of samples in low category) + (2 x No. Samples in medium category) + (3 x No. of samples in high category)] / Total number of samples. The values are:
Characteristics Nutrient index Remarks Organic carbon (OC) 2.08 Medium Available Phosphorus (p) 2.125 Medium Available potash (K) 2.91 High
From the overall results of physico-chemical analysis of the soil samples, it is noticed that the soil pH values range between 6.81 and 8.11 and most of the values belong to soil reaction index I and II, which shows that the soils of the study area are under the neutral range. The electrical conductivity of the soil
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Soil Aspects samples were observed to be in the range between 37and 816 µmhos/cm. Based on the rating chart of soil tests, all the soil samples belong to normal i.e., salt index I, where-as organic carbon content of soil samples were observed to range from 0 to 9.85 percent. As per the nutrient index, the organic carbon in soil samples is at higher level. However, the available phosphorus values are in low range.
The rate of infiltration of soils for different Land use pattern in the study area is given below.
Table 4.5. Rate of Infiltration under different land use pattern in the Ghataprabha River Basin Time in Rate of infiltration cm/hr minutes Barren Agriculture Shrubs Forest 10 6.3 6.8 9.6 10.3 20 3 4.4 5.9 8.0 30 1.6 3.3 4.5 6.9 40 0.9 2.7 4.0 6.1 50 0.5 2.4 3.7 5.6 60 0.5 2.3 3.4 5.3
4.19 Estimation of Soil Loss A number of methods for assessing soil loss have been developed. They range from simple, qualitative models to elaborate watershed simulations. Qualitative models rely on subjective evaluation of a series of criteria. Watershed simulation models are often very theoretical. Several empirical models also are available and most models are best suited for estimating erosion from very large areas (more than 1 sq mile) and lack the precision for use on small sites such as construction sites. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is given by,
A = R x K x LS x C x P ------Eqn (1)
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Where, A = Soil loss (tons /ha) R = Rainfall and runoff erosivity index K = Soil erodibility factor LS = Slope-Length factor C = Cover management factor P = Conservation practice factor.
4.19.1 Erosion Index (EI 30 ) Values on Storm Basis The rainfall erosion index (R) is a measure of the erosive force and intensity of rain in a normal year. The two components of the factor are the total energy E and the maximum 30-minutes intensity (I 30 ) for all the storms in an area during an average year. Values of R have been computed for the various regions in India and abroad from rainfall records and probability statistics, and hence R should not be considered as a precise factor for any given year or location.
The energy of the rainstorm is a function of the amount of rain and all the storms component intensities. Median raindrop size increases with the rain intensity and terminal velocities of free falling water drops increases with increased drop size. Since the energy of the given mass in motion is proportional to velocity-squared, the rainfall energy is directly related to rain intensity. The relationship in metric units is expressed by the equation, where KE is the kinetic energy in metre tones / ha-cm and the rainfall intensity in cm /hr.
KE = 210.3 + 89 log I ------Eqn (2)
The index values (EI 30 ), for each storm was determined. The product term EI was expressed as:
EI 30 = (KE x I 30 ) / 100 ------Eqn (3) Where,
EI 30 is the erosion index
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KE is the total storm kinetic energy in tonnes – m/ha
I30 is the maximum 30 minutes intensity of rainstorm. The monthly, seasonal and yearly EI values will be determined by adding the storm EI values for that length of period.
4.19.2 Soil Erodibility Factor (K) The soil erodibility factor K is a measure of the susceptibility of soil particle detachment and transport by rainfall and runoff. Texture is the principal factor affecting K, but structure, organic matter and permeability also contribute to K values ranging from 0.45 to 0.59. The value of K for different watersheds coming under Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme (RLIS) is given in Table 5.
4.19.3 Nomograph Method The United States Department of Agriculture (1978) has suggested a Nomograph and the following equation for the determination of soil erodibility for soils containing less than 70% silt and very fine sand:
100K = 2.1M 1.14 x 10 -4 (12-a) +3.25 (b-2) +2.5(c-3) ------Eqn (4)
Where, K is the soil erodibility factor, M is the particle size parameter which is equal to percent silt + very fine sand (100% clay), ‘a’ is the percentage of organic matter content, ‘b’ is the soil structure and ‘c’ is the profile permeability class.
The preferred method for determining K values is the nomograph method. Use of the nomograph requires a particle size. The soil samples collected from the field were characterized carefully for estimating, the K values.
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Soil Aspects
4.19.4 Determination of LS Since the LS factor has a considerable effect on predicted erosion, care in figuring values for the factor, is warranted. In particular, results of the soil loss calculation will be more accurate if the USLE is individually applied to portions of a site with similar slopes (similar gradient and length) and summing the individual soil loss estimates. Slope gradient is the field or segment slopes, usually expressed as percentage. The topographic component, LS, was evaluated by using the contour length method for large watersheds. LS was calculated base on the following equation
LS = (L) m / 22.1(0.065 + 0.0454S + 0.0065 S 2) ------Eqn (5) Where, LS = Average length slope component L = Slope length in meters S = Average watershed slope in percent and m = Exponent (m= 0.2 if slope < 1%)
4.19.5 Evaluation of Cropping Management Factor (C) The cover factor C is defined as the ratio of soil loss from land under specified crop or mulch conditions to the corresponding loss from tilled, bare soil. In the USLE, the C factor reduces the soil loss estimate according to the effectiveness of vegetation and mulch, at preventing detachment and transport of soil particles. On activity sites, recommended control practices include the seeding of grasses and the use of mulches. These measures are often considered “temporary” -they are designed to control erosion primarily during the activity period. Permanent landscaping may be added later, or temporary erosion control plants may be left as a permanent cover. Any product that reduces the amount of soil exposed to raindrop impact will reduce erosion.
The cropping management factor, C is computed as follows:
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C= Σn Ci Ai / A ------Eqn (6) Where, C is the cropping management factor for the watershed Ci is the cropping management factor for crop i, Ai is the drainage basin area growing crop i with a particular management level, n is the number of land use areas in the watershed, and A is total watershed area. 4.19.6 Evaluation of Support Practice Factor (P) The erosion control practice factor P is defined as the ratio of soil loss with a given surface condition to soil loss with up and down hill plowing. Practices that reduce the velocity of runoff and the tendency of runoff to flow directly down slope reduce the P factor. In agricultural uses of the USLE, P is used to describe plowing and tillage practices. In activity site applications, P reflects the roughening of the soil surface by tractor treads or by rough grading.
In computing the P factor, land cover conditions are considered depending upon the cultivated and uncultivated area of the watershed. In addition, slope is also considered as a key factor in assigning the value. For the study area, a P factor considered is 0.6 for terraced agricultural land having slope lass than 2% and for the rest of the land having a slope more than 2%, a value of 0.5 is assigned.
The soil loss estimated for the watershed covering under Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme is tabulated in the Table 4.6.
Table 4.6. Estimation of Soil Loss in Watersheds of the RLIS Watershed R K LS C P A(Tons/ha) 4D7C5A 1.57 0.58 0.2 0.22 0.6 2.40 x 10 -3 4D7C5A 2.18 0.58 0.592 0.13 0.5 0.0486 4D7C7A 2.46 0.58 0.447 0.065 0.5 0.0207 4D4C7A 2.46 0.58 0.133 0.065 0.6 7.40 x 10 -3 4D7C7G 5.82 0.59 0.135 0.028 0.5 6.40 x 10 -3
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4D7C7G 5.82 0.59 0.117 0.028 0.6 6.74 x10 -3 4D7C8A 5.24 0.45 0.024 0.085 0.6 2.88 x 10-3 4D7C8A 1.5 0.5 0.034 0.22 0.6 3.52 x 10-3 4D7C8C 1.59 0.5 0.538 0.22 0.5 0.0464
Table 4.7. Erodibility Index Erodibility Index ( R x K x LS) / T 3.99 6.21 4.86 4.2 5.23 4.95 Average 4.907
Estimated potential soil erodibility is 4.907 (Table 4.7), which is less than 8. Therefore it is inferred that this is a moderately erodable land.
4.19.7 Soil Erosion Soil erosion is the removal of surface material by wind or water. When raindrop falls on a soil surface the soil particles are splashed, and higher is the velocity of impact, greater is the amount of soil splashed. Drop impact is more effective when a thin film of water covers the soil surface and the maximum dispersion of soil particles occur when the depth of water is about the same as diameter of raindrop. The detached soil particles are then carried further either by runoff or wind. The whole process is known as erosion. For effective soil conservation practices the following baseline information is needed;
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Assessment of the extent of the soil and nutrient losses and sediment transports in various environments. Land use planning details as they can provide important information on the effects of changes in land use and implementation of different soil conservation measures on soil losses and sediment yields. A better understanding of the soil erosion processes the dynamic and relative importance of the single processes and their interactions.
4.19.8 Soil Conservation Practices The actual art of soil conservation is concerned with keeping the soil intact and maintaining the soil nutrients at a certain desired level. This includes the following basic principles: Protection of soil from the impact of rainfall. Increase the infiltration of rainwater. Prevention of water from concentrating. To increase the size of soil particle. By reducing wind erosion of soil by growing vegetation cover. By growing strips of stubble or other plants. For example, some plants which yield hydrocarbons grow well in arid regions. These include Jatropha , a plant which produces sap like diesel oil and is a milky weed. The Central Arid Zone Research (CAZRI) Institute at Jodhpur is conducting experiments with such varieties. In over-grazed land fodder trees should be grown like Su-babul, which in irrigated land yield enough green fodder per acre to nourish six cows. Grazing animals should be kept in enclosures. By stubble mulching or trash farming, in which chopped crop residue is spread and ploughed into the soil to produce improved tilth in the surface soil. By growing intermittent vegetal shelter belts. Surface soil erosion and sand storms leading to sand casting of crop lands can be controlled by
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creating shelter belts which tend to break the wind and form barriers to check sand movement. By stabilizing sand dunes i.e., to stabilize the soil in arid regions, land should be fairly levelled.
4.19.9 Soil Conservation Practices for Catchment Area Treatment Adoption of appropriate soil and water conservation practices is considered to be the only way of conserving and improving our resources and environment. Large scale soil and water conservation activity in India began in 1951. Till the end of the sixth five year plan, nearly Rs. 22,000 million was spent on improvement of about 29.3 m ha of the land with various soil and water conservation measures. The suggested erosion reduction percentages for various mitigation measures is given the Table 4.8.
Table 4.8. Suggested Erosion Reduction Percentages for Various Mitigation Measures Percent reduction in Mitigation measures erosion (percent) Vegetative measures Seed and fertilizer application 25 Jatropha & other Legume plants 28 Wood chip mulch, seed, & fertilize 37 Straw mulch, seed & fertilize 43 Netting in aspen blanket, seed & 56 fertilize Asphalt & mulch 57 Mulch and net, seed & fertilize 58 Sod 60 Physical measures Road tread surfaced 20-25
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Road grade 5% or less 2 Rip rap fill 50 Road partially closed (no maintenance) 75 Road permanently closed (obliterated) 95 Buffer strips along water course 10-15 Filter windrows (slash or baled straw) 35-40 at bottom of fill slope
4.20 Soil and Water Conservation Measures for Rameshwara Catchment Area Some of the methods suggested for soil conservation for Rameshwara catchment area and other details are provided below.
4.20.1 Gully plugging This prevents the eroding and down-cutting of gully beds while they encourage the deposition of silt load and create a micro-environment for the establishment of vegetative covers. Gully plugs act as grade stabilization structures. The specification for gully plug are as follows (Table 4.9).
Table 4.9. Specifications for Gully Plugs Slope of Width of Type of Vertical gully bed gully bed (m) Location gully plug interval (m) (off) Upto 4.5 Gully bed Brush wood Upto 3 Gully bed & 4.5 – 10.5 Earthen 2.25 to 3.0 ride branch 0-5% At the 7.5 to 15.0 confluence of Sand bags 2.25 to 3.0 two gullies Upto 4.5 Gully bed Brush wood Upto 3.0
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10-20% Earthen and 4.5 to 6.0 Gully bed Bet 1.5 to 3.0 side branch
The gullies would be treated with engineering/mechanical as well as vegetative methods. Check dams are recommended for some areas to promote growth of vegetation that will consequently lead to the stabilization of the slopes area and prevent further deepening of gullies and consequent erosion. For controlling the gullies, the erosive velocities are reduced by flattening out the steep gradient of the gully. This is achieved by constructing a series of check dams which transform the longitudinal gradient into a series of steps with low risers and long flat treads. Different types of check dams would be required for different conditions comprising different materials, depending upon the site conditions and by using the locally available materials. This is often the most acceptable soil conservation measures that can easily established and should form a dense thicket near the ground level when planted in close vicinity. The following materials are recommended for the purpose.
Brushwood check dam Dry rubble stone masonry (DRSM) Check dams with stones available at the site Combination DRSM and crate works – for moderate to deep gullies with stones available at sites.
The advantage of brushwood check dam is that they are quick and easy to construct and are inexpensive as they are constructed by using readily available materials at the site. In addition to the vegetative measures used for stabilization of gullies, temporary or permanent mechanical measures are used as supplementary measures to prevent the washing away of young plantations by large volume of run offs. The gullies get stabilized over a period of time with the establishment of vegetative cover. With passage of time mechanical structures weaken and vegetative measures get strengthened.
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The drainage basin of the river, usually referred to as catchment area needs some kind of treatment in the overall interest of the development of the area extending along the river with a view to improve land management through biological and engineering measures, with the objective to arrest erosion of soil and improve its vegetation, and control overgrazing by cattle.
The catchment area treatment involves intensive and highly technical operations, which requires the expertise of technical nature. The watershed committees at the district level have to be formed with the objective of an integrated approach involving experts dealing with forest, agriculture, horticulture, watershed, rural development department, besides local panchayat members.
4.21 Soil Conservation Practices for the Ghataprabha River at Rameshwara Catchment Area For the hilly regions, the following soil conservation practices can be employed. The most important practice among those mentioned below, are bench terracing and stone bunding (Table 4.10).
Table 4.10. Soil conservation Measures and Practices Recommended for the Ghataprabha River at Rameshwara Catchment Area
Sl. Type of soil Practices recommended No. conservation Outward cross slope of 10% Bench terracing on Longitudinal slope of 8% 1 steep slopes (50- Length of terrace, 20-35 m 70%) Width of terrace, 3 to 5.5 m Riser (earthen or Steep batters of, 0.25:1 2 stone) Earthen shoulder 0.5 m base, 0.3 m height,01 m top 3 bund Stone bunding or 0.3 m base, 0.2 m height, 0.1 m top 4 fencing when stone Followed by earthen bund of 0.1 m top is easily available. Low (bottom) flat deep areas leveled. 5 Land leveling Bench terraces are also leveled by cut
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and fill. 6 Land slide control Vegetative means Water channels conveying water from natural springs as well as rainwater. Same design delivers 5-50 liters/min in 7 Gools winter and 100-500 liters/min during rainy season. Need improvement in regulation. Earthen ponds collecting discharge 8 Khatta/khala water of & seepage water.
The area under each watershed has been planned on the basis of Land use / Land cover and topographic conditions. The total area proposed for treatment is 37558 ha, in the Rameshwara project basin (Table 4.11).
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Soil Aspects
Table 4.11. Micro-Watershed of Rameshwara Catchment Area and Treatment Plan Area coming under Micro Contour No. of. Check Micro Villages watershed & Plantations Watershed bunding/Bench dams watershed covered Proposed for (ha) No. terracing (ha) (ha) Treatment (ha) RAMDURG TALUK 1 Udapudi Udapudi 244 1 2 Hunachigidal Halla Bidaki 264 1 1 3 Salapur Halla Salapur 510 1 4 Hanamapur Hanamapur 511 1 Chinnatti 120 Gudakatti 96 1 1 5 Chinnatti Halla 1 Budnur 60 Bannur 249 6 Kempmaddi Halla Bannur 545 1 1 1 7 Shivapet Halla Avaradi 504 1 8 Gaddi Halla Umtar 510 1 1 1 9 Soul Halla Hulkund 525 1 Revadikoppa 419 1 10 Revadikoppa Manihal 28 Hampiholi 36 1 1 1 Channapur 462 11 Channapur Aneguddi 50 1 12 Dadibhavi Dadibhavi 518 1 1 13 katakol Katakol 582 1 14 Katla Halla Hulkund 518 1 Kadampur 274.10 1 1 15 Kadampur Budanur 126.05 1 Kullur 140.05 16 Batakurki Batakurki 608 1 1 1 17 Halpi Halla Shidnal 502 1
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Soil Aspects
18 Tondikatti Tondikatti 508 1 SAUNDATTI TALUK 19 Matolli Matolli 530 1 1 1 Yeraganavi 429 20 Itnal Sattigere 114 1 Gudumakeri 57 1 1 Rudrapur 650.12 1 jalikatti 528 1 21 Rudrapura Hirebudnur 568.40 1 1 1 Itnal 764 1 Mugalihal 580 1 22 Mugali Halla Sattigeri 110 1 1 1 Chikumbi 584 23 Kori Halla Sattigeri 600 1 1 1 24 Chulki Chulki 600 1 25 Sirasangi Sirasangi 560 1 Ningarani Kacheri 1 1 26 Markumbi 522 1 Halla 27 Bhavi Halla Harlakatti 570 1 Gudumkeri 200 1 1 28 Dodda Halla Yeragatti 144 1 Yeragamavi 258 29 Basavana Halla Tallur 650 1 1 1 Haralkatti 400 30 Kagi Halla 1 Gudamkeri 140 Sattigeri 725 1 1 1 31 Hoovina Halla Gudamkeri 30 1 32 Kurubagatti Halla Kurubagatti 520.10 1 1 33 Kodiwad Halla Kodiwad 529.59 1 34 Ramapur Ramapur 625 1 1 1 35 Rudrapura Thanda Rudrapura 260.10 1
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Soil Aspects
Murgod 255.20 GOKAK TALUK 36 Koujalagi Koujalagi 614 1 1 1 37 Warisiddappana Halla Kemmanakol 626 1 38 Kare Halla Kaitnal 520 1 1 1 39 Saudatti Halla Khanagoan 620 1 Thimapur 340 40 Hire Halla 1 Yeragudri 443 1 1 41 Hooveenkeri Halla Hooveenkeri 500.46 1 42 Maladinni Maladinni 510 1 1 1 43 Chikkanandi Chikkanandi 514 1 44 Kumbara Halla Gosabal 528 1 1 1 45 Desana Halla Belakundri 526 1 Shigiholi 328 46 Shigiholi 1 Benchamadri 184 1 1 47 Melamatti Melamatti 504 1 48 Talakatnal Talakatnal 520 1 1 1 49 Tumbu Halla Bagarnal 586 1 50 Kulgod Halla Kulgod 532 1 Venktapur 420 1 1 51 Venktapura Halla Yeragudri 60 1 Kulagod 40 Koujalagi 652 1 52 Meera Halla 1 1 Honukoppa 132 Honakuppi 380 1 Siddapur 53 Hona Kuppi 132 Hatti Tigadi 20 1 1 1 54 Huchchankoppa Halla Yadawad 565 55 Yellamma Jali Halla Mannikeri 540 1 56 Ankalagi Ankalagi 1850 2 1 1
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Soil Aspects
57 Tavag Tavag 2129 4 2 2 58 Betageri Betageri 450 1 1 1 59 Yadawad Yadawad 380 Total 37558 65 33 33
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Water Quality
Table 4.12. Cost Estimates as per Soil Treatment Methods
No. of Cost Contour Cost Area to Check Plantations Cost (Rs. bunding/Bench (Rs. Treated dams (ha) (Rs. lakhs)*** Lakhs)* terracing (ha) Lakhs)** (ha) 37558 33 49.5 65 29.25 33 21.252 Total 100.0 Lakhs
*Cost of each check dam being Rs.1.50 Lakhs **Cost of bench terrace construction is Rs. 45,000/ha ***Cost for plantation establishment is Rs. 55249/ha Total cost for catchment area treatment is = 100.0 Lakhs
Table 4.13. Area and Cost Estimate for Catchment Area Treatment
Year Physical (ha) Financial outlay (Rs. In Lakhs) 2007-08 7511.6 20.0 2008-09 7511.6 20.0 2009-10 7511.6 20.0 2010-11 7511.6 20.0 2011-12 7511.6 20.0 Total 37558 100.0
The total cost required for the catchment area treatment at the study area has been worked out and represented in the Table 4.12. The different stages at which the treatment should be conducted are mentioned and correspondingly the cost requirement for each stage is also given in the Table 4.13. The total cost required for the treatment was worked out to be 100.0 Lakhs.
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Chapter V
WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT
5.0 Introduction The rapid pace of urbanization, industrialization as well as expanding agricultural activities have made environmental pollution a growing concern globally. Among the various receptor/environment systems exposed to the contaminants, ground water has received comparatively less attention in the past because of the common belief that ground water belongs to a pristine domain.
Ground Water Pollution is normally traced back to four main origins namely industrial, domestic, agricultural and over exploitation; the last category mainly accounting for seawater intrusion. Studies carried out in India reveal, that one of the most important causes of ground water pollution is unplanned urban development without adequate attention to sewage and waste disposal. Industrialization without provision of proper treatment and disposal of wastes and effluents is another source of ground water pollution. Excessive applications of fertilizers for agricultural development, coupled with over-irrigation, intrusion due to excessive pumping of fresh water in coastal aquifers etc., are also responsible for ground water pollution. Unsystematic use of synthetic fertilizers along with improper water management practices have resulted in deterioration of ground water quality in many parts of the country.
The principal threat to groundwater comes from inadequately controlled landfills where leachate generated from the fill material is allowed to escape to the surrounding and underlying ground. The chemical composition of such leachate depends on the nature and age of the landfill and the leach rate. Most leachates emanating from municipal wastes are not only high in organic content but also contain some toxic materials. Leachates from solid wastes of industrial origin, however, often contain a much higher proportion of toxic constituents, such as metals and organic pollutants. Similarly a range of groundwater pollution problems may be associated with mining activities. The nature of the pollution depends on the materials being excavated and extracted. Both surface and
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 57 Water Quality underground mines usually extend below the water table and often dewatering is required to allow mining to proceed. The water pumped either directly from the mine or from specially constructed bore holes, may be highly mineralized and its usual characteristics include low pH (down to pH 3) and high levels of iron, aluminium and sulphate. Disposal of this mine drainage effluent to surface water or ground water system can cause serious impacts on water quality for all uses especially for irrigation purposes. Pollution of groundwater can also result from the leaching of mine tailings and from settling ponds, which can therefore, be associated with both present and past mining activity in a specific area.
The following pathways, in addition to the ones mentioned above, assume special significance in the case of lakes and reservoir pollution, Riverine sources: pollutants in solution in the inflow or adsorbed onto particulate matter, or both. The cumulative input is the sum of contaminants from all the rivers draining the watershed into a lake, or surface water body. Groundwater sources: groundwater systems polluted from waste discharges of point and diffuse sources flowing into rivers, and directly into lakebeds. Atmospheric sources: direct wet and dry atmospheric deposition of contaminants on to the lake surface and wash off of similar pollutants from the land. This latter process is defined as secondary cycling.
In addition to the above, lakes serve as perennial traps for pollutants carried down by rivers, and groundwater draining the watershed. The pollutant concentration levels in the lake usually build up due to evaporation of water from the lakes surface during certain perish unless there is a natural flushing with good quality water.
5.1 Water Requirement for Irrigation Each crop requires a certain quantity of water, input between certain fixed intervals throughout the crop growth period. If the natural rainfall is sufficient and timely so as to satisfy both the requirements, no additional supply of irrigation water is required. For example in England, the natural rainfall satisfies both
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 58 Water Quality quantity and temporal requirements, practically for all crops and therefore additional irrigation water is not significantly needed. But in tropical countries like India, the natural rainfall is insufficient and hence the water supply is not met in fixed intervals, as required by the crops. Therefore, water has to be supplied synthetically through other sources by defined irrigation methods. The total quantity of water required by the crop for its full-fledged growth (when expressed as centimeter depth of water standing over the irrigated area) is known as delta. This total quantity of water must be supplied to the crop during the growth period at suitable fixed intervals as per the requirements of the particular crop.
However irrigation demands are generally seasonal, and also depending on the season, the water quantum required may be less or more. However, yearly demands for irrigation are practically constant, and do not vary greatly, except in the case of dry or wet years. Since irrigation storage is an insurance against drought, it is better to build up as much reservoir storage as possible for future irrigation needs consistent with current requirement. Irrigation projects are basically flow irrigation schemes. Major river water can be stored by constructing a dam against a river channel and such stored water is eventually distributed through a system of canals to the farmer’s fields for irrigation purposes. Even the cropping pattern is designed for the command area of irrigation projects with the objective of making the best use of water. The sheet of water that flows out of canals to the fields also enriches the soil with sufficient water. Like rain water, the irrigation water also percolates into deeper layers of the soil. Such water contributes to the ground water in the command area. In those strata, where there are no provisions for free flow of ground water, the percolated water moves to other areas and there are chances of such moving underground water leaching the salts in to soil medium. The dissolved salts as a result, eventually render the ground water acidic or alkaline, which may not be fit for domestic or irrigation purposes. This apart if the lithology of the area does not support free movement of water, it can lead to problem of water logging, and also alkalinity, depending on the soil features of a particular area. Hence water management in the command area of an irrigation project has to be carefully planned so as to prevent the problems and consequences arising out of excessive accumulation of water. It is not enough if the water usage in the command area of irrigation
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 59 Water Quality projects is merely planned but one should ensure that such plans are actually working compatibly in nature. The irrigation activities following, must not lead to degradation in the quality of water and soil in the command area. Such environmentally compatible irrigation interventions are possible only with continuous monitoring of ground water and quality.
5.2 Surface Irrigation Tank irrigation system has deteriorated over time, and hence modernization of rivers and tanks could provide support for crops. The irrigation efficiency can be improved if the losses in the system such as loss during conveyance and distribution occurs due to seepage, evaporation, leakages, evapo-transporation by non-agricultural crops are minimized. Loss in field occurs due to inadequate land leveling, land shaping, deep percolation, evaporation, etc.; The water use efficiency also varies with the method of application of water like border, strip, basin furrow, flooding etc. To improve the irrigation efficiency rehabilitation of the existing irrigation projects, canal systems, anicuts and tanks and measures like lining the canal, provision of control structures, prevention of leakages, rotational supply on-farm development and training of farmers can be adopted. Proper maintenance of irrigation source, desilting of tanks, massive adoption of water harvesting technologies, rejuvenation of old wells, system to control irrigation and drainage, introduce river basin planning, assess water balance of the river basins, prevent surface run-off to the sea, promote construction of structures for surface storage and ground water recharge, prioritize and establish rules for water allocation from the basin, develop computer aided system operation models and manuals, and improve dependability and equitability of irrigation releases. To assist this approach, river valley authority would play a vital role and all O&M operations could be done through the water users organizations.
5.3 Ground Water Management There is need for caution in regard to ground water development and exploitation; withdrawal of ground water is more than recharge in many areas. Water users organization and on-farm development, help in judicious water allocation and management. Thus some of the measures necessary are listed below:
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Improvement of the water use efficiency by progressive reduction in conveyance and application losses Adoption of better water management practices/ techniques through farmers’ organizations Promotion of adaptive research and development to ensure more cost effective and efficient execution and management of irrigation systems through better water management practices. Conjunctive use of ground and surface water aiming at optimal utilization of water resources and to have its development, environmentally sustainable as well. The ground water should be utilized during the post monsoon period and surface water can be used when the water level goes beyond certain limits, below ground level (non-monsoon period).
5.4 Management Measures for Irrigation Water Effective irrigation management reduces runoff and leachate losses, controls deep percolation, and along with cropland sediment control, reduces erosion and sediment delivery to waterways. The goal of this management measure is to reduce movement of pollutants from land into ground or surface water, consequent to the practice of irrigation. This goal is accomplished through consideration of the following aspects of an irrigation system, namely Irrigation scheduling Efficient application of irrigation water Efficient transport of irrigation water Use of runoff or tail water Management of drainage water
A well designed and managed irrigation system reduces water loss to evaporation, deep percolation and runoff and minimizes erosion from applied water. Application of these management measures will reduce the misuse of irrigation water, improve water use efficiency, and reduce the total pollutant discharge from an irrigation system. It focuses on components to manage the timing, amount and location of water applied to match crop water needs, and special precautions (i.e., backflow preventers, prevent runoff, and control deep percolation).
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5.5 Pollutant Transport from Irrigated Lands Return flows, and leachate from irrigated lands may transport the following types of pollutants to surface or ground water: Sediment and particulate organic solids, Particulate-bound nutrients, chemicals, and metals, such as phosphorus, organic nitrogen, a portion of applied pesticides, and a portion of the metal applied with some organic wastes, If soils or drainage in the irrigated area contain toxic substances that may concentrate in the drainage or reuse system, this factor must be considered in any decision about use of the water and design of the reuse system.
The movement of pollutants from irrigated lands is affected by the timing and amount of applied water and precipitation; physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the irrigated land, the type and efficiency of the irrigation system used, crop type, the degree to which erosion and sediment control, nutrient management, and pesticide management are employed; and the overall management of the irrigation system.
Transport of irrigation water from the source of supply to the irrigated field via open canals and laterals can be a source of water loss if the canals and laterals are not lined. Water is also transported through the lower ends of canals and laterals as part of flow-through requirements to maintain water levels. In many soils, unlined canals and laterals lose water via evaporation and seepage in bottom and side walls. Seepage water either moves into the ground water through percolation or forms wet areas near the canal or lateral. This water will carry with it any soluble pollutants in the soil, thereby creating the potential for pollution of ground or surface water.
5.6 Fertilizer Contamination of Water Fertilizer applications that supply nutrients in quantities far in excess of those taken up by plants can result in contamination of both surface and drainage waters. Nitrates and phosphates are the chemical constituents most often involved. Nitrates contamination can occur in both surface runoff and drainage
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 62 Water Quality waters, while excessive levels of phosphates generally occur only in surface runoff. The loss of nitrogen and phosphorous from the soil has adverse effects on soil fertility, but the effect on water quality is even more serious. Nitrate levels in drinking water, above 10 mg/l, are considered a human health hazard. In some heavily fertilized areas, the drainage waters are sufficiently high in nitrates to be a problem. Some rural wells have been found to contain nitrates significantly above the safe limit.
A second problem stemming from high nutrient-bearing waters coming from soils is the “over fertilization” of lakes. Nitrogen and phosphorus in lake water stimulate the growth of algae and other aquatic plants in the lakes. Algal growth depletes the water of dissolved oxygen, which is essential for fish and other living forms. Other aquatic plants (weeds) growths are stimulated and produce heavy mats near the shoreline interfering with recreational uses of the lakes.
Applications of fertilizers far in excess of plant uptake should be discouraged, and the timing of fertilizer applications should coincide with plant needs. The fertilizer should be mixed with at least some soil, especially where conservation tillage practices are employed, to reduce surface runoff of the fertilizer compounds.
5.7 Irrigation Methods and System Designs An irrigation system consists of two basic elements i.e., the transport of water from its source to the field, and the distribution of transported water to the crops in the field. A number of soil properties and qualities are important to the design, operation, and management of irrigation systems, including water holding capacity, soil intake characteristics, permeability, soil condition, organic matter, slope, water table depth, soil erodibility, chemical properties, salinity, sodicity, and pH. Some soils cannot be irrigated due to various physical problems, such as low infiltration rates and poor internal drainage which may cause salt buildup. The chemical characteristics of the soil and the quantity and quality of the irrigation water will determine whether irrigation is a suitable management practice that can be sustained without degrading the soil or water resources (Franzen et al., 1996; Scherer et al., 1996; and Seelig and Richardson, 1991).
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5.8 Changes in River Hydrology Many human activities, directly or indirectly, lead to modifications of river channels, which can, in turn, induce changes to the aquatic environment. Major modifications to river systems include the following, Changes in depth and width for navigation creation of flood control ponds Creation of reservoirs for drinking water supply Construction of dams for hydroelectric power generation, and Diversion river paths for irrigation purposes.
All of the above affect the hydrology and related uses of the river system and so have a great potential to affect water quality. It must be remembered, however, that not all such water quality changes are necessarily deleterious.
5.9 Water Application and Drainage Depending on the method used, water application - in other words the actual process of irrigation can affect the soil to varying degrees. It is also likely to have impacts on water, species and the microclimate. The main problem encountered with many irrigation methods is that of soil salinization, particularly if the system is poorly managed and there is no drainage. In simplified terms, salinization can be defined as an extreme nutrient imbalance (excess of salts) and damage to the soil structure (puddling, crusting, and compaction).
Traditional irrigation methods often involve water dosage problems (e.g. flood, basin, border-strip and furrow irrigation). The possibility of erosion cannot be ruled out where such techniques are used. Sprinkling and in particular drip irrigation may also lead to salinisation if not carried out properly. All irrigation methods can have adverse effects on the soil microflora and microfauna. When geared to local conditions and properly managed, however, irrigation can also contribute to the nutrient balance and benefit microflora and microfauna. All water application methods are likely to have an influence on flora. The natural balance of species will generally be disturbed, while the number of species may either increase or decrease.
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5.10 Objectives The general objectives of the study at the Rameshwara command area includes the following aspects Assessment of ground and surface water quality in the catchment and command area. Evaluation of impact of various water quality parameters on the ground water quality in the command area. Assessment of the effects of various water quality parameters on biophysical and socio-economic activities. To identify the major sources for ground and surface water pollution.
5.11 Scope of the Study Knowledge of land management activities and water quality conditions is important in many ways to hard work involving implementation of management measures and practices. The watershed planning process includes an understanding of the hydrologic resources, an assessment of environmental problems, goal setting, and priority setting. The development of action plans and implementation follow, with evaluation of effectiveness and revisions of plans as needed. Good water quality data are essential to problem identification and characterization, goal setting, priority setting, development of implementation plans, and evaluation. In order to have an understanding of what have to be met, a baseline must be established. With good data regarding land management activities, including the control of point sources, accurate interpretation of the causes for water quality problems and improvements is possible.
Ground water management is the key to combat the emerging problems of water scarcity. Ground water being a hidden resource is often developed without proper understanding of its occurrence in time and space and threatened by overexploitation and contamination. There is an inherent linkage between development and management of ground water resources.
For an effective supply side management, it is essential to have full knowledge of hydrogeological controls which govern the yields and behaviour of ground water levels under abstraction stress. The effects of ground water development
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 65 Water Quality can be short term and reversible or long term and quasi-reversible which require a strong monitoring mechanism for scientific management. There is need for scientific planning in development of ground water under different hydrogeological situations and to evolve effective management practices. Demand driven development of ground water resources by different user groups without any scientific planning and proper understanding of local ground water regime behavior, leads to sharp depletion of the resources and quality degradation. Signals of misused management of ground water resources are seen in areas where ground water extraction rate has exceeded the natural recharge. It has been strongly felt that ground water management is the foremost challenge being faced by the Organizations dealing with ground water in India. The activities of the organizations and policies affecting ground water need to reflect the priority issues with the overall objective to provide water security through ground water management in major parts of the country.
Experience over the last four to five decades of irrigation in India, has shown that starting of massive irrigation projects without understanding the inherent potential of the command area in matters like soil character, ground water, natural drainage characteristics, prevailing cropping systems etc., has led to either severe under-utilization of the project potential or has spelt disaster by way of salinization, environmental hazards, destruction of natural ecosystem and in some extreme cases leading to total barrenness of land among others. On the other hand, instead of ushering prosperity in the region, such scientifically unplanned projects have resulted in spelling ruin to the population in the command area. Hence the crucial need for a detailed study of the existing conditions in the project area and utilization of the knowledge in harnessing the benefit for sustained irrigation, and the type of study in progress here serves a very vital objective.
5.12 Study Area 5.12.1 Location and Accessibility The intake structure is located near Aralimatti, a small village in Gokak Taluk, Belgaum District. It is located towards north to Koujalgi in Gokak Taluk and the command area is distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti Taluks of the Belgaum
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 66 Water Quality district. The nearest town is Gokak with a distance of 45 Km, which is approachable throughout the year and Ghataprabha is the nearest railway station.
5.12.2 Physiography and Drainage The major part of the command area is almost a gentle undulating landscape with a linear strap of hills running in almost east- west direction dividing the region into equal halves. The region has a gentle easterly slope forming largely a plain interspersed with isolated low hills. The drainage pattern is parallel to sub- parallel draining into Ghataprabha River. This area forms a part of the Ghataprabha sub-catchment in main Krishna above the confluence of Bhima catchment of Krishna basin. Ghataprabha River originates in Sundergad of Western Ghats and major tributaries joining it are Tamraparani near Shedihal, Hiranyakeshi in Chikodi taluk and Markandeya near Gokak town.
5.12.3 Climate, Rainfall and Hydrological Aspects The climate of the whole is healthy, agreable and is characterized by a general dryness, excepting during monsoon season. The summer season between March and May is dry, dusty and very hot with maximum temperature reaching up to 42 0 C. December to February is the cold season when the minimum temperature falls to 18 0C. Generally humidity varies from less than 20% during summer to 85% during monsoon period. June to September is the period during which humidity is normally higher and most of the rainfall is received during southwest monsoon period with August being the wettest month. As per the records of rain gauging station at Kuligod, the average annual rainfall is 503 mm. On an average there are about 50 rainy days in a year. The winds are generally mild in nature with slightly increased velocity, as observed during the late summer and monsoon season. The area comes under the northern dry zone of the ten fold Agro-climatic zone of Karnataka.
5.12.4 Geology The geological formations found in the area are the rocks belonging to Kaladgi series of Precambrian age overlaid by the Deccan traps. The oldest member of the series, the Quartzite/ Sandstone is seen occupying the hills near Hulkund.
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These form the ridges because of their compaction and resistance to weathering. They are horizontally bedded, highly jointed and crumbled mass which is seen strewn along the flanks of the hills. Occurring next in succession are the dolomites and variegated lime stones with intercalations of shale spreadout in the eastern part. These rocks are almost horizontally bedded with very low dip angles, besides being soft, friable and susceptible to weathering, and hence have been eroded away forming the plains. They are overlaid by the basaltic rocks of Deccan traps. The basalts are usually resting horizontally, fine grained and highly jointed. Excepting the top portion, which is sometimes amygdaloidal with vesicles being filled up with secondary mineralization, the basalt is massive, hard, compact and fine grained.
The oldest rock formations exposed in the area are the granite gneisses and migmatites belonging to the Peninsular Gneissic complex of Archaean age. They are exposed near Gokak Town and as inliers near Kanasgeri, Midkanahatti and Benchinamadri villages in Gokak taluk. The trend of foliation in the gneisses vary from N-S to NW-SE. The schistose rocks belong to the Dharwar Supergroup and are exposed near Betageri in Gokak taluk. The schists show two sets of foliations/ schistosity in ENE-WSW and NNE-SSW directions. The younger granites are exposed in parts of Bilgi taluk around Girisagar. They are pink in colour and are coarse-grained. The schists, gneisses and granites have been intruded by pegmatites, quartz vein and basic dyes. The dykes are prominently seen around Benchinamadri and Upparhatti villages in Gokak taluk and in parts of Bilgi and Hungund taluks.
5.13 Materials and Methods Water has the unique ability to dissolve a great range of substances than any other liquid precipitation reaching the earth, but contains only small amounts of dissolved mineral matter. Once it reaches the earth, and during infiltration, it reacts with minerals of the soil and rock in contact with it. The quality and type of mineral matter dissolved, depends on the chemical composition and physical structure of the rocks as well as the hydrogen ion concentration (pH) and the redox potential (Eh) of the water. The ability of water to dissolve minerals, determines the chemical nature of the ground water. A constant monitoring of
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 68 Water Quality chemical parameters throughout the year in all seasons is therefore required for any regional hydrochemical studies, for which a set of observation wells has to be selected and sampling has to be done at regular intervals. Accordingly in the study area of Sri Rameshwara lift Irrigation Scheme, about 24 locations have been selected for sampling, covering various sectors such as domestic and irrigation wells.
Various water quality constituents viz., pH, Turbidity, Electrical conductivity, TDS, Alkalinity, Chlorides, Total hardness, Calcium hardness, Magnesium hardness, Nitrate, Sulphate, Fluoride, Sodium, and Potassium, etc were determined employing Standard Methods. (APHA, 1995)
5.13.1 pH: pH of the samples were determined by using pH meter (EUTEOH CYBERSCAN 510). The pH meter was calibrated using pH 4.01 and pH 9.20 buffer solutions, and the reading for the samples was recorded.
5.13.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): The electrical conductivity was determined using conductivity meter (SYSTRONICS Conductivity-TDS METER 308). The temperature compensation knob of the conductivity meter was adjusted to the prevailing temperature of the sample and calibrated to CAL mark with the cell dipped into the distilled water. Then the cell was dipped into the sample and reading was noted. The reading was recorded from the scale and was expressed as µmhos/cm.
5.13.3 Turbidity: Turbidity of the sample was determined using Colorimeter (HACH DR/890 Colorimeter). The samples were shaken well and appropriate quantity poured into cuvettes. The cuvette was placed inside the cell compartment and turbidity was read directly from the instant scale in NTU.
5.13.4 Alkalinity: The alkalinity of sample was determined by titration method. Ten ml of sample was titrated against 0.02 N Sulphuric acid using Methyl Orange as indicator.
Formula: Total alkalinity = (ml of titrant /ml of sample x 1000 mg/L) as CaCO 3 .
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5.13.5 Total Hardness: Total Hardness of sample was determined by titrimetric method. Ten ml of the sample was titrated against 0.01M EDTA (Disodium salt) by adding 1 ml of ammonia buffer and Eriochrome Black T indicator.
Formula: T.H = (ml of titrant / ml of sample) x 1000 mg/L as CaCO 3
5.13.6 Calcium Hardness : Calcium hardness of sample was estimated by titrating the sample against 0.01 M EDTA (Disodium salt), with addition of 1 ml of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and murexide indicator. Formula: Calcium hardness = (ml of titrant / ml of sample) x 1000 mg/L as
CaCO 3
5.13.7 Magnesium Hardness : Magnesium hardness was calculated from the difference in Calcium hardness and Total hardness values obtained as below. Formula: Magnesium hardness = (Total hardness- Calcium hardness) x 0.243 mg/L
5.13.8 Chloride : The procedure adopted for the estimation of chlorides was titrimetric method, which involves titration with standard silver nitrate. Ten ml of sample was titrated against 0.02N silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate as indicator.
Formula: Chloride = (VxN) of AgNO 3 x 35.45 x 1000 /volume of sample mg/L
5.13.9 Sulphate: Sulphate was estimated by turbidimetric method. To a sample aliquot of 100 ml, 10 ml of conditioning reagent and 0.5g of Barium Chloride was added. Sample taken was kept aside for turbidity development for 15 minutes and absorbance of solution was noted at 420 nm by using, a Uv-Vis spectrophotometer (JENWAY 6400 Spectrophotometer).
5.13.10 Phosphate: Phosphate in the samples was determined by the ‘Molybdenum blue’ method using stannous chloride (as orthophosphates). To a sample of 100ml, 4 ml ammonium molybdate and 0.5ml of stannous chloride solution was added. After 10 minutes the colour developed was measured as absorbance, using, a Uv-Vis spectrophotometer at 690nm (JENWAY 6400 Spectrophotometer).
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5.13.11 Nitrate : Nitrate estimation was done by Phenol-di-sulphonic acid method (PDA method). An aliquot of sample was taken and silver chloride was added to remove chlorides. The filtrate obtained after removing chlorides was fully evaporated. The residue obtained was dissolved by adding 2ml of phenol-di- sulphonic acid and made up to 50 ml with distilled water, 6 ml of 30% liquid ammonia was added for colour development and absorbance noted at 410nm using Uv-Vis spectrophotometer (JENWAY 6400 Spectrophotometer).
5.13.12 Fluoride: Fluoride estimation was done by Colorimeter using SPADNS reagent. Water samples were mixed well and fed into the cuvettes and readings were noted.
5.13.13 Sodium and Potassium: Sodium and Potassium were estimated using Flame Photometer. Samples were fed into the instrument through the capillary tube and readings were noted.
5.13.14 SAR, RSC and Percent Sodium: Sodium absorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate and percent sodium were estimated by calculation. In agricultural practice, sodium concentration is expressed in terms of percent sodium, which can be defined as the percentage of the sodium concentration of water to the total cationic concentration. The percentage of sodium which is equal to (Na x 100) /(Na+Ca+Mg+K) was found out keeping in mind that percent sodium also has a bearing on the quality of water for irrigation.
Table 5.1. Analytical Methods Used For Physico-Chemical Analysis of Ground and Surface Water Samples
Serial. No. Parameter Method
1 pH Electrode method
2 Conductivity Electrode method 3 Alkalinity Titrimetric method
4 Turbidity Nephelometric/HACH Colorimeter
5 Total dissolved solids Electrode method
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6 Total hardness EDTA method
7 Calcium EDTA method
8 Magnesium EDTA method
9 Chlorides Titrimetric method
10 Nitrates Spectrophotometer
11 Sulphates Spectrophotometer
12 Phosphates Spectrophotometer
13 Sodium Flame photometer
14 Potassium Flame photometer
15 Fluoride SPADNS method
The details of the sampling sites at command area with respect to ground water and surface water are shown in the Table 5.2 and 5.3 respectively. The samples from these stations will be monitored during pre and post operational process of the project.
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Table 5.2. Details of Ground Water Sampling Sites at Command Area Tube/open Depth of Water table Sl. Yield Elevation water level No Location Latitude Longitude Well/surface (inch) (m) water (ft) (ft) GOKAK TALUK 1 Basappa Mallapa Shetar, Koujalgi E 75 0 04 ' 32.4 " N 16 0 13' 37.7 " T 170 6.0 140 619 2 Redrahatti E 75 0 05 ' 40.1 " N 16 0 12' 25.2 " HP 200 1.0 160 623 Pattan shetty, Janatha Colony, 626 3 E 75 0 04 ' 00.3 " N 16 0 12' 03.6 " T 300 2.0 240 Koujalgi 4 Kalliguddi, Roadside E 75 0 05 ' 36.3 " N 16 0 10' 48.3 " HP 180 2.0 160 625 5 R.K.Sambal, Kalliguddi E 75 0 06 ' 03.6 " N 16 0 10' 08.9 " T 400 5.0 350 654 6 Kalliguddi, inside village E 75 0 06 ' 09.3 " N 16 0 09' 11.3 " T 300 2.0 140 650 7 Hulkund, Roadside E 75 0 07 ' 34.5 " N 16 0 08' 57.0 " T ------614 Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri, 610 8 E 75 0 08 ' 53.5 " N 16 0 11' 03.3 " T 210 5.0 170 Chenal 9 Ramappa Hanumappa, Chipalkatti E 75 0 09 ' 57.5 " N 16 0 08' 27.7 " T 400 3.5 210 617 Gurusidappa Lakshmappa 10 Dalwagi, Roadside b/w Manikere & E 75 0 05 ' 06.4 " N 16 0 10' 17.9 " T 425 3.0 340 532 Kuligodi SAUNDATTI TALUK 11 Dasanala Cross, Road side E 75 0 02 ' 43.5 " N 16 0 08' 36.2 " HP 150 2.0 50 614 12 Mugalihaal E 75 0 02 ' 43.5 " N 16 0 08' 36.2 " PWS 450 3.0 300 614 13 Mallikere Thota E 75 0 03 ' 58.9 " N 16 0 07' 47.7 " T 500 3.0 400 629 HPS near temple, inside Mallikere 14 E 75 0 04 ' 51.8 " N 16 0 08' 16.9 ” MWS 500 3.0 90 654 village Bagochikoppa, infront of 15 E 75 0 06 ' 22.6 " N 16 0 07' 39.8 " HP 80 1.0 60 641 yogeshwara matt 16 Hirekoppa, Near temple E 75 0 06 ' 12.9 " N 16 0 07' 05.3 " MWS ------656 Chikoppa, Road side, Opp to Bus 17 E 75 0 06 ' 26.4 " N 16 0 07' 07.8 " HP 500 2.0 300 657 stop RAMDURGA TALUK Balappa Yavanappa Parakanatti, 18 E 75 0 06 ' 55.7 " N 16 0 04' 54.2 " T 160 1.0 100 648 Murukattnal 19 Hosur E 75 0 09 ' 52.5 " N 16 0 06' 13.9 " HP 300 2.0 100 620
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 73 Water Quality
Table 5.3. Details of Surface Water Sampling Sites at Command Area
Tube/open Water Depth of Yield Sl. table Elevation water (inch) No Location Latitude Longitude Well/surface level (m) (ft) water (ft) 20 Dhavaleshwar Barrage E 75 0 04 ' 24.5 " N 16 0 19' 50.0 " RW ------505 21 Aralimatti E 75 0 05 ' 43.7 " N 16 0 19' 26.7 " RW ------523 22 Venktapura E 75 0 05 ' 26.1 " N 16 0 17' 10.0 " RW ------589 23 Siddramaiaha, Kalliguddi E 75 0 06 ' 21.9 " N 16 0 11' 21.2 " OW 40 --- 5.0 633 24 Mannikeri Manthose E 75 0 04 ' 08.2 " N 16 0 10' 03.5 " OW 45 --- 18 626
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 74 Water Quality
5.14 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 5.4. Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Ground Water at Command Area
EC Sl. Colour Turbidity PH (µmhos/ TDS Cl F T.H Ca Mg Alkalinity Na K NO SO PO No (Hazen) (NTU) 3 4 4 cm) 1 6.74 650 370 259.7 1.14 800 365 435 302.1 1 0.05 24.7 1.1 2.36 357.9 0.05 2 7.31 1400 803 716.7 2.0 1030 220 810 527.8 1 0.05 594 0.8 13.42 280.2 0.03 3 7.40 95 53 72.7 0.53 300 110 190 241.2 1 0.05 25.4 1.4 0.81 17.1 0.02 4 6.83 145 81 103.9 0.83 490 210 280 304.9 1 0.05 60.9 0.8 13.04 77.8 0.08 5 7.98 145 81 197.4 0.69 350 160 190 232.1 1 0.05 90.5 2.9 0.00 81.4 0.03 6 7.88 135 75 218.1 0.77 340 160 180 204.8 1 0.05 94.5 2.7 0.00 68.2 0.02 7 8.55 560 323 218.1 1.29 350 50 300 277.6 1 0.1 315 42.1 9.06 299.8 0.06 8 6.87 751 417 1184.1 2.30 1540 420 1120 435.9 1 0.05 1070 2.0 0.00 447.8 0.01 9 7.88 454 252 571.3 1.73 860 250 610 391.3 1 0.05 481 2.4 2.40 388.8 0.04 10 7.01 109 61 83.1 0.80 430 175 255 304.9 1 0.05 39.1 2.4 1.72 34.2 0.05 11 6.87 151 85 155.8 0.94 480 240 240 259.4 1 0.1 52.5 0.4 9.75 51.2 0.03 12 8.08 149 84 135.0 0.81 410 125 285 345.8 1 0.05 105.5 1.2 5.49 129.3 0.05 13 6.85 175 97 155.8 0.84 520 190 330 318.5 1 0.05 103.7 0.3 9.84 84.0 0.04 14 6.87 148 83 155.8 0.27 540 425 115 277.6 1 0.05 33.7 0.2 5.48 90.6 0.03 15 6.52 267 149 290.8 0.56 900 465 435 414.1 1 0.05 89.6 1.1 10.77 111.8 0.02 16 7.36 371 215 176.6 0.74 960 430 530 300.3 1 0.05 55.1 0.8 10.48 78.9 0.04 17 6.72 571 335 259.7 0.78 570 305 265 364.0 1 0.1 65.3 0.9 10.09 130.1 0.07 18 7.39 198 110 218.1 0.90 990 265 725 312.1 1 0.05 73.5 0.9 13.01 170.7 0.02
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 75 Water Quality
19 7.85 873 482 872.5 1.89 1760 620 1140 232.1 1 0.05 886 1.8 6.35 768.6 0.01
Table 5.5. Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface Water at Command Area
Sl. EC Colour Turbidity PH (µmhos/ TDS Cl F T.H Ca Mg Alkalinity Na K NO SO PO D.O No (Hazen) (NTU) 3 4 4 cm) 20 7.51 115 63 103.9 0.40 340 105 235 142.9 5 1 55.6 2.0 0.29 108.3 0.08 8.0 21 7.38 111 61 114.3 0.43 280 110 170 154.7 20 5 55.9 2.2 0.18 113.0 0.48 9.4 22 7.48 113 63 41.5 0.21 140 65 75 77.4 10 1 11.1 4.3 0.12 1.3 0.03 7.5 23 7.15 3150 1820 425.9 2.12 1240 480 760 432.3 1 0.05 360 1.4 0.00 470.4 0.07 6.5 24 7.42 105 56 72.7 0.97 350 155 195 195.7 1 0.05 26.9 0.8 2.65 26.7 0.03 8.5
Note: 1) All values are expressed in mg/l except for Turbidity, pH, Colour and Conductivity 2) Values in bold indicate parametric values exceeding the prescribed standard limits.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 76 Water Quality
Table 5.6. Standards for Physical and Chemical Parameters in Drinking Water
Permissible limit Guideline Maximum Sl. in the absence of Characteristics value contamination level No. alternate source (WHO) (USEPA) (BIS-10500: 1991)
1 pH 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 Conductivity 2 3000 NA NA (micro mhos/cm) Alkalinity as 3 600 200 NA CaCO 3 4 Turbidity (NTU) 10 NA NA Total Dissolved 5 2000 1000 500 Solids (TDS) Total hardness 6 600 500 NA as CaCo 3 Calcium as 7 200 NA NA CaCO 3 8 Chlorides 1000 250 250
9 Nitrates 45 NA 10
10 Sulphates 400 400 250
11 Phosphates 0.3 NA NA
12 Sodium 200 200 20
13 Potassium 10 10 NA
14 Fluoride 1.5 NA 2
15 Colour 25 NA NA Note: All values are expressed in mg/l except for Turbidity, pH, Colour and Conductivity. NA: Not available.
The results obtained for the analysis of ground water and surface water samples collected from the study area are shown in Tables 5.4 & 5.5. The significance of the various water quality parameters are discussed below in the light of the study data.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 77 Water Quality
5.15 Ground Water 5.15.1 pH: A direct relationship between human health and the pH of drinking water is impossible to ascertain because pH is so closely associated with other aspects of drinking water quality. However neutral pH is favorable for the growth of any plants species and the recommended pH for drinking water is 7.5-8.5. Most microorganisms usually tolerate the pH range commonly found in water sources. The microbiological integrity of water is dependent upon the pH level, which influences the effectiveness of chlorine disinfection.
The pH of the samples analyzed varied from 6.52-8.55. The recommended guideline value for pH is 6.5-8.5. From Table 5.4, it is clear that the pH value of all the samples is within the limit. The pH of water is adversely affected if it is low or higher than the prescribed limit. If the pH is less than 5.0 it is termed as acidic condition and the plants may not be able to survive in this condition and if the pH is more than 9.0 then it is termed as alkaline condition, and certain crops may not able to withstand this condition. The alkalinity is due to the presence of carbonates and bicarbonates.
5.15.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC): Electrical conductivity is a measure of water’s capacity to convey electric current. Electrical conductivity of water is directly proportional to its dissolved mineral content, and electrical conductivity varies directly with the temperature of the sample. Electrical conductivity determination is very rapid, consequently the quantity of dissolved salts in a water can ascertained once. Where waters from the same source are periodically examined, the variation in the dissolved solids content is indicated by conductivity measurements. In mixing of waters from two or more sources, the proportion of each water can be determined using conductivity data.
From the Table 5.4, it is observed that the electrical conductivity of all the ground water samples is with in the permissible limit.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 78 Water Quality
Classification of Irrigation Water Based on Salt Concentration Sl.No Type of Water Suitability for Irrigation Low salinity water (C1) Suitable for all types crops and all kinds of soil. 1 conductivity between 100 to Permissible under normal irrigation practices 250 µmhos/cm except in soils of extremely low permeability. Medium salinity water (C2) Can be used, if a moderate amount of leaching 2 conductivity between 250 to occurs. Normal salt tolerant plants can be grown 750 µmhos/cm without much salinity control. High salinity water (C3) Unsuitable for soil with restricted drainage. Only 3 conductivity between 750 to high-salt tolerant plants can be grown. 2250 µmhos/cm Very high salinity ( C4) 4 conductivity more than 2250 Unsuitable for irrigation µmhos/cm
5.15.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): The dissolved solids consist mainly of bicarbonates, carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates and possibly phosphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. The amount of dissolved solids present in water is a consideration for its suitability for domestic use. In general, water with a total dissolved content, less than 500mg/L are the most desirable. Waters with high dissolved solids content may also be used for human consumption, without harmful physiological effects. There is no evidence of deleterious physiological reactions occouring in persons consuming drinking water supplies that have TDS levels in excess of 1000mg/l. The results of certain epidemiological studies appear to suggest that TDS in drinking water might even have beneficial health effects.
The amount of dissolved solids present in water is a consideration in the water’s suitability for the domestic use. A high total dissolved content imparts taste to the water and often has a laxative and sometimes the reverse effect upon people whose bodies are not used to higher levels.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 79 Water Quality
From the analysis, it is inferred that all ground water samples are having TDS values with in the limits (<2000 mg/l). The TDS value of ground water samples with in the command area is ranged between 53 to 803 µmhos/cm.
5.15.4 Total Hardness: The principal natural sources of hardness in water are sedimentary rocks, seepage, and runoff from solids. Hard water normally originates in areas with thick topsoil and limestone formations. Ground water is generally harder than surface-water. The degree of hardness of drinking water has been classified in terms of its equivalent CaCO 3 concentration as shown in below,
Classification of water depending upon the hardness
Soft 0-75 mg/L Medium hard 75-150 mg/L Hard 150-300 mg/L Very Hard Above 300mg/L (Source: World Health Organization, 1984)
The principal hardness causing cations are the divalent calcium, magnesium, ferrous iron, and manganous ions. The hardness in water is derived largely from contact with soil and rock formations. Rainwater as it falls upon the earth is incapable of dissolving the tremendous amounts of solids found in many natural waters.
In general, hard waters originate in areas where the topsoil is thick and limestone formations are present. Soft waters originate in areas where the topsoil is quite thin and limestone formations are sparse or absent. Hard waters are satisfactory for human consumption as soft waters. There is some evidence that Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ are protective against heart ailments.
The total hardness of the ground water samples analysed is shown in Table 4. From the Table it is clear that 42% of the samples are having high total hardness (>600mg/L). The areas having very high total hardness are Redrahatti and the sample that belongs
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 80 Water Quality to the farmer Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri of Chenal village (>1000mg/L). The hardness of water is an important consideration in determining the suitability of water for domestic and industrial uses. Determinations of hardness serve as a basis for routine control of softening processes.
5.15.5 Calcium Hardness: The part of the total hardness that is chemically equivalent to the bicarbonate plus carbonate alkalinities present in water is considered to be carbonate hardness. It may also be considered as the part of the total hardness that originates from the action of carbonic acid on limestone. Carbonate hardness was formerly called temporary hardness because it can be caused because of precipitation by prolonged boiling. Calcium and magnesium cause by far, the greatest portion of the hardness occouring in natural waters.
From the Table 5.4, it is observed that about 63% of the ground water samples are having high calcium hardness (>200mg/L). The permissible limit for the calcium hardness is 200mg/L. The high calcium hardness in the samples was observed in the areas such as Bagochikoppa, infront of yogeshwara matt, Hirekoppa, near temple and Hosur. The lowest hardness was found in the Hulkund, Roadside (50mg/L).
5.15.6 Fluorides: Fluoride is the other important parameter, because of the public health significance of fluoride in water supplies intended for human use, determination of fluoride assumes significance. The maximum permissible limit for fluoride in drinking water is 1.5mg/L. In situations where fluoride is added to provide an optimum level for the control of dental caries, it is necessary to know the amount of natural fluoride present so that the proper amounts of supplemental fluoride can be added. In some areas, industrial contamination of the atmosphere and vegetation by fluoride has been a serious problem. Control methods have had to be employed to protect cattle and other herbivours animals from damage to bones and teeth.
As a result of the great interest focused on the fluoride content of public water supplies in relation to the dental fluorosis problem, much information became available on
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 81 Water Quality fluoride. It was natural that the dental profession would use this information to determine whether fluoride was correlated with other diseases.
The Table 5.4 clearly indicates that 79% of the ground water samples are having the fluoride concentration within the limit (<1.5mg/L). The remaining 21% of samples are having high fluoride content. The highest fluoride concentration was found to be in the Redrahatti and the sample that belongs to the farmer Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri of Chenal village, i.e., 2.0 and 2.3 mg/l respectively.
5.15.7 Chlorides: The chloride content of waters used for irrigation of agricultural crops is generally controlled along with the total salinity of the water. Evapotransportation tends to increase the chloride and salinity at the root zone of irrigated plants, making it difficult for crops to take up water due to osmotic pressure differences between the water outside the plants and within the plant cell. For this reason, chloride and total salinity concentration at or below the drinking water standards are normally specified for waters used to irrigate salt-sensitive crops.
The presence of chloride in natural waters can be attributed to dissolution of salt deposits, discharges of effluents from chemical industries, sewage discharges, irrigation drainage, and contamination from refuse leachates. Each of these sources may result in local contamination of both surface and ground water. The chloride ion is highly mobile, however, and is eventually transported to closed basin. Most of the waters used for irrigation are lost to the atmosphere through evapotransporation, leaving the salts originally present in the irrigation water behind in the soil. These salts must be removed to prevent destruction of the soil’s crop-growing potential, and the resulting highly saline irrigation return water tend to increase the chloride content of surface waters into which they are discharged.
Chloride in reasonable concentrations is not harmful to humans. The acceptable permissible limit for the chloride for drinking is 1000mg/L, when there are no
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 82 Water Quality alternatives. Sources containing as much as 2000mg/L are also used for the domestic purposes, without the development of serious adverse effects.
The place where the chloride concentration exceeded the permissible limit (1000mg/L) is shown in Table 5.4. The high chloride concentration was found to be in the sample that belongs to farmer Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri of Chenal village i.e., 1184.1 mg/l. Similarly, the low concentration of chloride was found to be in the sample that belongs to farmer Pattan shetty , Janatha Colony, Koujalgi that is around 72.7 mg/l. However 94% of the samples are with in the limit (<1000mg/L).
5.15.8 Sodium: Sodium has important considerations with regard to irrigation waters, but for drinking and industrial purposes it is of minor importance only. However excessive amounts of sodium in drinking water is harmful to persons suffering from cardiac, renal, and circulatory diseases. The ratio of sodium to total cations (percent sodium) is important in agriculture and human pathology. When the percent sodium exceeds 60, the water is considered to be unsuitable for irrigation purposes. Soil permeability has also been found to be affected by high sodium ratio. Sodium concentrations vary considerably, depending on regional and hydrological and geological conditions, the time of year, and salt utilization patterns. Sodium levels in groundwater vary widely but normally range between 6-130 mg/l. In surface water the sodium concentration may be less than 1mg/l or exceed 300mg/l, depending upon the geographical area.
The permissible limit for sodium is 200mg/L. Around 26% of the samples were found to have high sodium content i.e. >200mg/L. The high concentration of sodium was found to be in samples from Redrahatti, Chenal, Hulkund, Chipalkatti and Hosur villages.
5.15.9 Potassium: Potassium is an essential element, but in excessive amounts it acts as a cathartic. Though potassium in irrigation water is essential for plant nutrition, it must be maintained in proper balance with other nutrients for good plant development. The permissible limit for potassium is 10mg/L. From the Table 5.4, it is observed that all
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 83 Water Quality the ground water samples are having potassium concentration with in the limit, except one sample from Hulkund village. The higher potassium concentration was found to be 42.1mg/L in Hulkund and the lowest was found to be in Mallikere village i.e. 0.2 mg/L.
5.15.10 Sulphates: Sulphates occur naturally in water as result of leaching from gypsum and other common minerals. In addition, sulphate may be added to water systems in several treatment processes. Sulphates contribute to the total solids content. Sulphate ions are relatively abundant in natural water ranging from few to several thousands mg/L. Higher amount of sulphate imparts a bitter taste to water. Sulphates as magnesium sulphate cause laxative effects to children particularly in hot weather or climates.
For irrigation purposes the water should have sulphate concentration less than 200mg/L. Sulphate is poorly absorbed from human intestine, and it slowly penetrates the cellular membranes of mammals and rapidly eliminated through the kidneys. The high sulphate concentration in ground water can hinder the natural anaerobic biodegradation of chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethane and tetrachloroethane.
The permissible standard for sulphates in drinking water is 400mg/L. About 90% of the ground water sample is having sulphate concentration with in the limit. Higher concentration sulphates were found in the villages such as Chenal and Hosur i.e., 447.8 and 768.6 mg/l respectively. The lowest concentration of sulphate was found in the sample that belongs to Pattan shetty, Janatha Colony, Koujalgi (17.1mg/l).
5.15.11 Phosphates: All surface water supplies support growth of minute aquatic organisms. The free swimming and floating organisms are called plankton and are of great interest because of their influence on water quality. Where both nitrogen and phosphates are plentiful, algal blooms occur which may produce a variety of disturbing conditions in the ecosystem. High concentration of phosphorus in ground water samples was found to be, 0.07mg/L in Chikoppa village (Table 5.4).
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 84 Water Quality
5.15.12 Nitrates: Nitrates are widely present in substantial quantities in soil, in most waters, and in plants. Nitrates are products of oxidation of organic nitrogen by the bacteria present in soils and in water where sufficient oxygen is present. Because nitrates and nitrites are widespread in the environment, they are found in most foods, in the atmosphere, and in many water sources. Some nitrates in the environment are produced by fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Application of fertilizers to lands and leaching from cesspools contribute nitrate to ground waters.
The permissible limit for nitrate concentration is 45mg/L. From the Table 5.4, it is clear that, the nitrate concentration of all the samples are within the limit.
5.15.13 Turbidity: The presence of turbidity can have a significant effect on the microbial quality of drinking water. The detection of bacteria and viruses in drinking water may become complicated by the presence of turbidity. The turbidity may be caused by a wide variety of suspended materials that range in size from colloidal to coarse dispersion, depending on the degree of turbulence. Consumers of public water supplies expect and have right demand for turbidity free water. Most people are aware that domestic wastewater is highly turbid. Any turbidity in the drinking water is automatically associated with possible wastewater pollution and health hazards occasioned by it. Removal of turbidity may be achieved by simple filtration or more effectively, by a combination of coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration. Filtration through sand beds or other single medium filters consistently produce water with turbidity of 1 NTU or less. Continuous monitoring of turbidity throughout the treatment stages is valuable aid in attaining such a performance.
The permissible limit for the turbidity is 10 NTU. From the Table 5.4, it is clear that all the samples are within the limit.
5.15.14 Colour: Many surface waters, particularly those emanating from swampy areas, are often colored to the extent, that they are not acceptable for domestic or some industrial uses without treatment to remove the color. The determination of colour is
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 85 Water Quality rapid one and is useful in detecting a change in the character of the water. When waters from the same source as from river, are being regularly examined, the variations in colour often serve as indices of quality. Generally yellow colour indicates the presence of appreciable amounts of organic matter and sometimes chromium.
The coloring materials, many of which are humic substances, result from contact of water with organic debris, such as leaves, needles of conifers, and wood, in all various stages of decomposition. Natural colour exists in water primarily as negatively charged colloidal particles. Because of this fact, its removal can be usually be readily accomplished by coagulation with a salt having a trivalent metallic ion, such as aluminum or iron.
For the colour, the desirable limit is 5, but maximum permissible limit is 25. The colour of all the ground water samples analysed in the present case are all within the limits (<20 Hazen unit).
5.15.15 Alkalinity: The estimation of alkalinity provides an idea of the nature of salts present. If the alkalinity is equal to hardness, calcium and magnesium salts are only present. If the alkalinity is less than equivalent hardness, neutral salts of calcium or magnesium must be present, that are not carbonates, but usually sulphates.
Although many materials contribute to the alkalinity of water, the major portion of the alkalinity in natural waters is caused by three major classes of materials, which may be ranked in order of their association with high pH values as follows, hydroxides, carbonates, and bicarbonates.
The maximum permissible limit for the alkalinity is 600mg/L. The entire ground water samples analysed in the study area is having Alkalinity value with in the limit. The lowest concentration of alkalinity was found to be 204.8 mg/l in Kalliguddi village .
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 86 Water Quality
5.15.16 Salinity: Increasing salinity resulting from the effects of irrigated agriculture is one or the oldest and most widespread forms of groundwater pollution. It is caused by the dissolved salts in irrigation water being deposited following evaporation of the water. The addition of further excess irrigation water merely leaches salts from the soil and transfers the problem to the underlying groundwater.
Ground water is one of the earth’s most important and widely distributed natural resources; it represents the largest available source of fresh water in hydrological cycle. Salinity of Ground water can be through natural process and man made activities like addition of excess fertilizers and unplanned agricultural activities. Among 19 samples, 53% of the samples shows low salinity, 37% samples having medium salinity, and 10% samples shows high salinity.
Table 5.7. Salinity in Ground Water
No. of sampling sites Total no. of saline Saline samples (in samples per cent) Low saline 10 53 Medium saline 07 37 19 High saline 02 10 Extremely saline ------
5.15.17 Percent Sodium: It has been widely recommended that the percentage of sodium in irrigation water should not exceed 50 to 60, in order to avoid deleterious effects on soil. It is considered, that water is of I class quality if the % sodium is less than 30%, II class quality if the % sodium is between 30 and 75, and of III class quality if it is more than 75. In the study area percent sodium values for ground water varied in the range of 1.9 and 32.7 is shown in Table 5.8.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 87 Water Quality
Classification of Irrigation Water Based on Sodium Sl.No Types of water Suitability for Irrigation Low sodium water (S1) Suitable for all types of crops and all types of soils, 1 SAR : 0 to 10 except for those crops which are sensitive to sodium. Suitable for coarse textured or organic soil with good Medium sodium water 2 permeability. Relatively unsuitable in fine textured (S2) SAR : 10 to 18 soils. High sodium water (S3) Harmful for almost all types of soil; Requires good 3 SAR : 18 to 26 drainage, high leaching gypsum addition. Very high sodium water 4 Unsuitable for irrigation (S4) SAR : Above 26
5.15.18 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR): The Sodium absorption ratio was calculated for the ground water quality of the study area, which showed values between 1.24 to 38.56 is shown in Table 8. The results indicate the presence of four distinct zones in the study area, which are: Excellent, where the SAR ratio is <10 Good, where it is 10 to 18 Fair, where it is 18 to 26 Poor where the SAR ratio is greater than 26.
5.15.19 Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC): Residual sodium carbonate values have ranged from -117.0 to -13.1meq/l in the study area. The sodium hazard also increases if the water contains a high concentration of bicarbonate ions, for as the soil solution becomes more concentrated there is a tendency for calcium and magnesium to precipitate as carbonates and for the relative proportion of sodium to be increased as a consequence. The bicarbonate values are conveniently expressed as Residual Sodium Carbonate. Water containing less than 1.25 meq/L of RSC is probably safe for agricultural purposes, while those containing 1.25 to 2.5 meq/L are marginal; and those with more than 2.5 meq/L are not suitable. All the ground water samples of the study area lies within the prescribed limit and is considered safe for agriculture (Table 5.8).
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 88 Water Quality
Table 5.8. Irrigation Water Quality Parameters of Ground Water
SAR RSC Percent Sodium Sample No. (meq/l) (meq/l) 1 1.24 -43.9 1.9 2 26.17 -60.0 25.0 3 2.07 -13.1 5.0 4 3.89 -23.4 7.3 5 6.84 -15.9 14.2 6 7.25 -16.0 15.2 7 23.81 -17.9 32.7 8 38.56 -98.6 29.1 9 23.20 -49.6 25.0 10 2.67 -19.6 5.4 11 3.39 -23.1 6.7 12 7.37 -18.2 13.4 13 6.43 -26.0 11.0 14 2.05 -21.4 4.6 15 4.22 -45.2 6.2 16 2.51 -55.1 3.6 17 3.87 -24.9 7.1 18 3.30 -62.5 4.2 19 29.87 -117.0 23.6
5.16 Surface Water 5.16.1 pH: The pH of the samples analyzed varied from 7.15 - 7.51. The recommended guideline value for pH is 6.5-8.5.From the Table 5.5, it is clear that the pH value of the surface samples is within the limit.
5.16.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC): From the Table 5.5, it is clear that except one sample from Kalliguddi, the electrical conductivity of all the samples is appears to be within the limit indicating that the samples may contain less dissolved solids. The electrical conductivity of the sample from Kalliguddi which belongs to the farmer Sidramaiaha was found to be 3150 µmhos/cm.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 89 Water Quality
5.16.3 Total dissolved solids (TDS): The amount of dissolved solids present in water is a consideration for its suitability for domestic use. In general water with a total dissolved content of less than 500mg/L are the most desirable. Waters with high dissolved solids content may also be used for human consumption without harmful physiological effects. All the surface water samples showed dissolved solids concentration within the limit except, a one sample from Kalliguddi i.e. 1820mg/L (Table 5.5).
5.16.4 Hardness: The total hardness of the surface water samples analysed is shown in Table 5.5. From the Table it is clear that except one sample, the remaining all samples are having both total and calcium hardness within the limits. A high total and calcium hardness was found to be in the Kalliguddi village i.e. 1240mg/L and 480mg/L respectively.
5.16.5 Fluorides: Fluoride occurs in almost all natural water supplies. Fluorides in high concentrations are not a common constituent of surface water, but they may occur in detrimental concentrations in ground water. The permissible standard for the fluoride in drinking water is 1.5 mg/L. From the Table 5.5, it is found that, the high concentration of fluoride was in Kalliguddi village i.e., 2.12 mg/L.
5.16.6 Chlorides: Chloride in reasonable concentration is not harmful to humans. The accepted permissible limit for the chloride for drinking was 1000mg/L, when there is no alternative. Sources containing as much as 2000mg/L are used for domestic purposes without the development of serious adverse effects.
The concentration of chlorides in all surface water samples was found to be within the limit. The high concentration of chloride was found in Kalliguddi village i.e., 425.9 mg/L.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 90 Water Quality
5.16.7 Sodium: The permissible limit for sodium is 200mg/L. From the Table 5.5, it is observed that, the high concentration of sodium was found in Kalliguddi village (360mg/L). The remaining surface water samples are having sodium concentration with in the prescribed limits.
5.16.8 Potassium: Potassium is an essential nutrient, but in excessive amounts it acts as a cathartic. Though potassium in irrigation water is essential for plant nutrition, it must be maintained in proper balance with other nutrients for good plant development. The permissible limit for potassium is 10mg/L, and from the Table 5.5, it is found that all the samples are within the limits. The high concentration of potassium was found in Venktapura i.e., 4.3 mg/L.
5.16.9 Sulphates: For irrigation, the water should have sulphate concentration of less than 200mg/l. Sulphate ions are relatively abundant in natural waters ranging from a few to several thousands mg/L.
The permissible standard for sulphates in drinking water is 400mg/l. The concentration of sulphates in the surface samples analysed are within the limits as prescribed, except one sample from Kalliguddi village (470.4 mg/L).
5.16.10 Phosphates: Surface waters seldom contain higher concentration of phosphates, since they are utilized by plants where as ground water usually contains appreciable amounts of phosphates. Where phosphorus is plentiful, algal blooms occur, which may produce a variety of nuisance conditions.
All surface water supplies support growth of minute aquatic organisms. The free swimming and floating organisms are called plankton and are of great interest because of their effects on water quality. Where both nitrogen and phosphorus are plentiful, algal blooms occur, which may produce a variety of nuisance conditions. Among surface water samples the higher concentration of phosphates was found to be 0.48 mg/L in Arlimatti village.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 91 Water Quality
5.16.11 Nitrates: Increases in the level of nitrates in water is associated with the application of nitrogen fertilizers. The permissible limit for nitrate concentration is 45mg/L. From the Table 5.5, it is clear that, the nitrate concentrations of all the surface water samples are within the limit.
5.16.12 Turbidity: The presence of turbidity can have a significant impact on the microbial quality of drinking water. The detection of bacteria and viruses in drinking water may be complicated by the presence of turbidity. Higher turbidity was found in surface water than in ground water.
The permissible limit for turbidity is 10 NTU. From the Table 5.5, it is observed that, the turbidity of all the surface water samples are with in the prescribed standard limits. Among surface water samples the higher concentration of turbidity was found in Arlimatti village i.e., 5 NTU.
5.16.13 Colour: Many surface waters, particularly those emanating from swampy areas, are often colored to the extent that they are not acceptable for domestic or some industrial uses without treatment to remove the color.
For the colour the desirable limit is 5, but maximum permissible limit is 25. The colour of the surface water samples analyzed is within the limit (<20 Hazen units).
5.16.14 Alkalinity: The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize acids. The alkalinity of natural waters is primarily due to the salts of weak acids, although weak or strong bases may also contribute. Alkalinity is thus a measure of the buffer capacity. The alkalinity of water has little public health significance. Highly alkaline waters are usually unpalatable, and consumers tend to seek other supplies.
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The maximum permissible limit for the alkalinity is 600mg/L. From Table 5.5, it is clear that all the surface water samples are having alkalinity within the permissible limit. The higher concentration of Alkalinity was found in Kalliguddi village (432.3 mg/L).
5.16.15 Dissolved oxygen (DO): All the gases of the atmosphere are soluble in water to some degree. Both nitrogen and oxygen are classed as poorly soluble, since they do not react with water chemically; their solubility is directly proportional to their partial pressure. Hence, Henry’s law may be used to calculate the amounts present at saturation at any given temperature. The amount of oxygen found dissolved at a given temperature and pressure is known as the D.O value. The dissolved oxygen is dissolved in most water body in varying concentration, as solubility of oxygen depends on temperature, pressure and salinity of water. D.O test is an indicator of the purity of water body. The dissolved oxygen values in this case ranged between 6.5 to 9.4 mg/L. From Table 5.5, minimum dissolved oxygen of 6.5 mg/L was noticed in the sample from Kalliguddi and maximum dissolved oxygen of 9.4 mg/L was in the sample from Arlimatti village.
5.16.16 Percent Sodium SAR and RSC: In the study area percent sodium values for surface water varied in the range between 4.7 to 15.3 meq/l and the SAR values varied in the range between 1.33 to 14.46. Both percent sodium and SAR values are with in limit and it is suitable for irrigation. Where as in the case of RSC the value is ranged between -72.1 to -6.8 meq/l (Table 5.9).
Table 5.9. Irrigation Water Quality Parameters of Surface Water Sample No. SAR RSC (meq/l) Percent Sodium (meq/l) 20 4.26 -19.8 8.9 21 4.72 -14.3 11.1 22 1.33 -6.8 4.8 23 14.46 -72.1 15.3 24 2.03 -17.3 4.7
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 93 Water Quality
5.16.17 Salinity: Salinity is due to the accumulation of soluble inorganic salts such as chlorides, sulphates, bicarbonates, etc., and cations of Na, Ca, Mg, K, etc. Salinity of water increases due to various reasons viz., use of bad quality of water, poor permeability of soil, topographic position of the land, over irrigation, excessive application of fertilizers, soil texture, inadequate drainage, type of crop, depth of irrigation water, soil management practices and climatic conditions. Salinity of soils can also be recognized by electrical measurements by determination of electrical conductivity of soils.
Table 5.10. Classification of Salinity of Water Electrical Total soluble Class Description conductivity salts (mg/L) (µmhos / cm) Low salinity water can be used for most crops on most soils, with all methods of water application. Some Class I leaching is required but this occurs 0-250 0-160 under normal irrigation practice, except in soils of extremely low permeability. Medium salinity water can be used if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Plants with medium salt tolerance can be grown, usually without special practices for salinity Class II control. Sprinkler irrigation with the 250-750 160-480 more saline waters in this group may cause leaf scorch on salt-sensitive crops, especially at high temperatures in the day time and with low water application rates. High salinity water cannot be used on soils with restricted drainage. Even with adequate drainage, special Class III management for salinity control may 750-2250 480-1440 be required, and the salt tolerance of the plants to be irrigated must be considered. Very high salinity water is not suitable Class IV for irrigation under ordinary 2250-4000 1440-2560 conditions. For use, soils must be
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 94 Water Quality
permeable, drainage adequate, water must be applied in excess to provide considerable leaching and salt- tolerant crops should be selected.
Extremely high saline water may be used only on permeable, well-drained soils under good management, Class V >4000 >2560 especially in relation to leaching and for salt-tolerant crops, or for occasional emergency use. (Source: Mahajan, 1989)
Table 5.11. Salinity in Surface Water Saline sample No. of sampling sites Total no. of saline samples (in per cent) Low saline 4 80 Medium saline 0 --- 5 High saline 1 20 Extremely saline 0 ---
The salinity of water has been classified on the basis of EC and total soluble measurements and the same is provided in the Table 5.10. The Table also gives information about the degree of salinity. In the present case the salinity values of most surface water samples was low and only one case very high (Table 5.11).
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 95 Water Quality
Table 5.12. Comparative Assessment with Standards Prescribed by BIS for Drinking Water Maximum No. of sampling l ocations above maximum permissible limit Parameters Permissible limits prescribed by (BIS-10500:1991) (BIS-10500: 1991) Number Percent pH 6.5-8.5 0 0 EC (µmhos/cm) 3000 1 5 Turbidity (NTU) 10 0 0 TDS 2000 0 0
TH as CaCO 3 600 8 42
Ca as CaCO 3 200 12 63 Chlorides 1000 1 5 Sodium 200 6 32 Potassium 10 1 5 Fluoride 1.5 3 16 Sulphates 400 3 16 Nitrates 45 0 0 Phosphates 0.3 1 5 Colour (Hazen unit) 25 0 0 Note: All values are expressed in mg/l except for Turbidity, pH, Colour and Conductivity
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 96 Water Quality
5.17 Conclusion Ground water is a precious resource among the most widely distributed resources of earth. Basically ground water is an integral part of the environment, and hence it is a major life-sustaining resource for all the living beings. In India, as also in certain parts of the world, water crisis is becoming a regular phenomenon, more perhaps due to improper or lack of scientific management of water resources and continuing environmental degradation. It is always a social and economic necessity to exploit the ground water potential, supplementing the irrigation water provided by the canals, and meeting the manifold requirements of the community, which thus play a positive role in fully mobilizing the available resources for extending the benefit of irrigation to larger areas. Secondly, pumping out of the ground water ensures lowering of depth of water table beyond root zone in water logged areas. Thirdly, such conjunctive irrigation (surface and ground water) will not permit salinization and alkalinization of water sources. However, this needs a sound planning for utilizing the ground water in the command area. The quantum of ground water available for use should be studied in depth and equally important is to assess the quality of ground water .
The small-scale irrigation projects discussed here are bound to have fewer impacts than measures which involve large-scale hydraulic engineering schemes. The potential technological solutions are often interchangeable; in other words, a number of different options may produce the same result, making it possible to choose the soundest alternative from the environmental viewpoint. It should be remembered that traditional irrigation technologies may well be geared to the natural environment, but can cause environmental problems if used in combination with "modern" technologies. Where appropriate combinations of old and new technologies are used, however, they can help to prevent negative impacts on both the natural and social environment.
From the detailed analysis of ground and surface water samples in Rameshwara Lift Irrigation site, it may be concluded that, the water quality of the samples analysed is exceeding the limits prescribed in some cases. From the results
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 97 Water Quality obtained, it is observed that, the various parameters such as Total hardness, Calcium hardness, Sodium, Fluoride and sulphates are at higher concentrations than the permissible limits, which has the potential to affect human health adversely. (Table 5.12)
Keeping in mind, the health aspects of the consuming public it is better to take precautionary measures in order to overcome the problems caused by various water quality parameters. Among the various parameters, sodium and hardness were found in higher concentration in more than 41% samples. The fluoride concentration was found to exceed the limits in 16% of the samples (Table 5.12). Regarding irrigation waters, chloride is the most important anion. Chlorides are generally more toxic than sulphates to most plants. The samples from areas showing excess fluoride levels should be defluoridated to reduce the fluoride concentration to acceptable level. This is ensured for irrigation water because of dilution. From the analysis it is also clear that the quality of surface water is relatively better than the ground water in the command area.
It is likely that the ground water quality may improve following excessive recharge by irrigated water. To ensure this the quantum of fertilizer/pesticide used must be as per standards. Also periodic monitoring of the ground and surface water should be undertaken in order to contain this problem and corrective actions should be initiated in order to provide safe drinking and irrigation water as when required.
5.18 Hydrogeological Conditions 5.18.1 Granites, Gneisses and Schists: These formations form the basement in the area. Ground water occurs under water table to semi confined conditions in the weathered zone and fractured rock formations. In the shallow zone, which is generally the weathered zone, extending upto 20 mbgl (metre below ground level), ground water is developed by open dug wells and often by shallow bore wells. The yield of open wells varied from
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 98 Water Quality
20 to 150 m 3/day for pumping periods of 2 to 6 hours. Bore wells drilled by the State Public Health Engineering Department (PHED), from 22 to 91m deep, have reported yields varying from 1.0 Lps to 10 Lps. Only one exploratory well has been drilled by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) in this area (89m, deep) which has yielded 0.4Lps.
5.18.2 Deccan Traps: Deccan traps occupy part of the study area. They overlie the kaladgi formations, but in some parts of the area, they overlie the crystalline basement. Zeolitic and Vescicular horizons occur at elevations of 520m, 560m, 590m, and 620m above MSL which act as good depositories of ground water. Ground water occurs under water table conditions in weathered and jointed traps and semi confined conditions in the zeolitic and vescicular horizons. Ground water occur under confined conditions wherever they are overlaid by hard massive traps. Confined conditions are also encountered at the contact of traps and the underlying Kaladgi formations or basement. The depth of weathering varies from 2 to 20m. The yield of dug wells vary from 20 to 110 Lps. Rural water supply have yields less than 1.0 Lps to 14.0 Lps. 20 exploratory wells drilled by CGWB had yields varying between 1.0 Lps to 7.6 Lps.
5.18.3 Laterites and Alluvium: Laterites occupying the area are not important from the point of view of ground water as they are generally from cappings over the hillocks and table lands, except in the area around and north of Belgaum Town where ground water occurs under water table conditions. The yield of open wells range from 25 to 300 m 3/day and the yield of shallow bore wells varied from less than 1Lps to 2.5 Lps. Alluvium, mainly of fluvial origin, occur along the courses of major rivers and streams such as Krishna, Ghataprabha, Markandeya and Hiranyakeshi. Their thickness often exceeds 5m, but their aerial extent is very much limited. Their development potential, thus, is very much limited.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 99 Water Quality
5.19 Ground Water Resource Status Karnataka is one of the southern states in peninsular India covering an area of 1,91,791 Sq. Kms, lying between North latitude 11˚ 0' 13'' and 19 0' 00'' and East longitude 74 00' and 79 00'. Geologically it forms part of the Precambrian shield and is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks which are generally unsuitable for storage and transmission of groundwater. The state is divided into 27 districts and 175 taluks. There are 27,066 inhabited villages, 2127 un- inhabited villages and 254 towns and urban agglomerations. As per 2001 census, the state has a total population of 4.50 Crores.
5.19.1 Groundwater Condition Primary porosity is almost absent in granite, gneiss and schist. The weathering and secondary fractures are only the water bearing properties found in these rocks. In limestones, solution cavities are an additional property. Alluvial formation along the major river and tributaries although limited in thickness and extent, serve as important ground water reservoirs.
Ground water levels are essentially controlled by rock type, fracture patterns, physiographic features and rainfall distribution, spatially and temporally. The observation wells over several years located in different formations have generally recorded that in April-May and the shallowest ground water level in October-November, with a decreasing trend from November onwards till the onset of monsoon.
The erratic distribution of rainfall coupled with indiscriminate sinking of irrigation bore wells is considered to be the cause of the depletion of water levels. Of late the development of ground water through bore wells to a depth more than 200m is a common feature for both irrigation and drinking needs. Inspite of deep drilling the yield is considerably less comparatively and the, yield will be between 800 to 2000 gallons per hour and, in exceptional cases the yield may exceed 3000 gallons per hour.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 100 Water Quality
5.19.2 Ground Water Estimation The secondary data or information gathered by Department of Mines and Geology such as transitivity, permeability, specific yield etc., determined by conducting long duration pump tests on open wells, slug tests in bore walls etc., has been utilized in this chapter. For this purpose a network of observation wells were selected in different formations for periodical monitoring of the fluctuation of ground water levels.
5.19.3 Ground Water Resource Estimation Methodology-1997 Keeping in view the norms prescribed and methodology recommended, the estimation of ground water in the present programme is as follows (DMG 2002):
Based on the Alpha Numerical coding system evolved by All India Soil and Land Use Surveys, Department of Agriculture and Co-operation, Government of India for preparing the watershed atlas of Karnataka, the state was divided into 380 watersheds. The irrigation command areas, if any, in the respective watersheds were delineated and estimation of areas for command and non-command areas were computed separately. The net area available for recharge was arrived at by deleting the hilly areas with a slope of more than 20% and poor/ saline ground water areas from the gross area.
5.19.4 Assessment of Non-Command Area The assessment of non command area was attempted for monsoon and non monsoon seasons separately. The rainfall recharge during monsoon was assessed by fluctuation method and rainfall recharge during non-monsoon was done by rainfall infiltration factor method.
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For computation of recharge by other sources, the recharge component from water harvesting structures was considered apart from the return from ground water irrigation, seepage and return recharge from tank irrigation and lift irrigation components (DMG report, 2002)
Rainfall recharge during non-monsoon season was considered as nil in cases where the non-monsoon rainfall component was less than 10% of the annual rainfall. Five to ten percent of the total recharge depending on the terrain was earmarked as natural discharge during non-monsoon. The balance recharge available was considered as net annual ground water availability.
In addition to draft from irrigation structures, draft for domestic and industrial need was also computed. This was done by considering the population in the watersheds for the assessment year separately, for command and non-command areas. Per capita consumption was taken as 160 liters per day and this value has been projected to year 2025 based on the population growth rate in each watershed. The stage of ground water development was arrived at by dividing the existing ground water draft for all uses by the net annual ground water availability. The balance potential was arrived at by deducting draft for irrigation during 2007 and average draft for domestic usage for 2032 from net ground water potential for next 25 years is 4491.12 ham.
5.20 Assessment of Command Area Assessment in command areas was done on the same lines as in non-command areas, except that two important additional components of recharge viz. recharge due to seepage from canals and recharge due to return flow from surface water irrigation were considered. For unlined canals, a seepage factor of 15ha-m per day per million Sq mtr. of wetted area was considered in normal soils with clay content. For sandy soils with silt content, the value considered was 25ham per
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 102 Water Quality day per million Sq mtr. of wetted area. For lined canals and the canals in hard rocks, 20% of the values obtained for unlined canals was considered.
5.21 Categorization of Watersheds For categorization of watersheds as ‘Safe’, ‘Semi critical’, ‘Critical’, and ‘Over exploited’, the long term trend of ground water levels in the watersheds was also considered in addition to obtaining an assessment of net annual ground water availability and stage of ground water development. Hydrograph depicting the variation of pre- and post - monsoon water levels, at least for a minimum period of 10 years prepared. (DMG report 2002) Safe: Percentage development of ground water is between 70 and 90% and there is no significant long term decline of pre- and post- mansoon ground water levels. Semi Critical: Percentage development of ground water is between 70 and 90% .Either pre- or post-monsoon ground water levels show a significant long term decline. Critical: The stage of ground water development is more than 90% but less than 100%.Either pre- or post-monsoon ground water levels show a significant long term decline. Over Exploited: The stage of ground water development is more than 100%. Both pre- and post-monsoon ground water levels show a significant long term decline.
5.22 Assessment of Ground Water Potential The river basins and sub-basins of the State were demarcated on maps of 1:2,50,000 scales into watersheds for resource estimation. Each watershed is numbered on a five digit alpha numerical code. Wherever possible, the extent of watershed has been maintained to its minimum by adding one or two more digits to the five digit code, thus making them as six or seven digitized watersheds. The area of the watershed was determined using planimeter. (DMG report, 2002)
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5.22.1 Ground Water Potential Groundwater levels are essentially controlled by rock type, fracture patterns, physiographic features and rainfall distribution in space and time. The long term trend of groundwater levels in the watershed was also considered in addition to obtaining an assessment of net annual groundwater availability and stage of groundwater development.
The taluk wise ground water potential and its utilization in Belgaum district are given in Table 18. Data on total annual ground water recharge and net annual ground water development are also provided in the Table.
5.22.2 Ground Water Recharge The recharge to ground water is computed separately for monsoon and non- monsoon months for command and non-command area, as well as that of poor quality area. The recharge was computed based on water table fluctuation method and rainfall, infiltration method. The percentage difference was calculated and normalization of rainfall recharge was also done.
5.22.3 Water Table Fluctuation Method (WTF) Recharge was computed separately by Water Table Fluctuation (WTF) method. This method is based on ground water balance equation, which is as follows:
Input – Output = Change in ground water storage
The input factors vary for command and non-command areas and these are: • Rainfall • Subsurface inflow, which is zero in case of watersheds • Return seepage from irrigation • Canal seepage • Seepage from other sources
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• Seepage from surface water bodies
Thus the recharge was computed from the equation
R = h*S y * A + D g ---- (1)
Where R = Possible recharge H = Rise in water level due to monsoon rainfall
Sy = Specific Yield A = Area of the aquifer
Dg = Gross ground water draft during the season
The above equation gives the total recharge in the area during the season and it may include recharge from rainfall as well as recharge from ground water irrigation, from water conservation structures, and from tanks and ponds. Hence recharge from rainfall can be computed as below:
Rrf = R- Rgw – R wc - Rt------(2)
Rrf = Recharge due to rainfall
Rgw = Recharge due to ground water irrigation
R wc = Recharge due to water conservation structures
Rt = Recharge due to tanks, ponds and canals
The recharge due to rainfall (Rrf) is normalized and the same is adopted for computation of resources.
5.22.4 Water Level Fluctuation
In equation (1) i.e., R = h*S y * A + D g, h represents the water level fluctuation between pre and post monsoon. If the value is negative then water table fluctuation method cannot be adopted. The data on water level fluctuation between pre- and post-monsoon was obtained from the observation wells
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 105 Water Quality maintained by CGWB and DMG as the records maintained and published by them. Only dug well monitoring stations are considered and data from bore wells and dug-cum-borewells are not considered. The average water level from all the available stations of both the departments within the water shed was considered for arriving at the average value.
5.22.5 Specific Yield The specific yield value as available from various studies conducted by CGWB in the state was used wherever available. In places where such values are not available the values from similar hydrogeological set ups was used and in other areas the values recommended by GEM-97 were used. The general specific yield values ranged from different formations are as below.
Formation Specific Yield (%) Alluvium 5-8 Laterites 1-2 Basalts 1-2 Lime stones 1-1.5 Granite/ Schist’s/Gneisses 1-3
5.22.6 Aquifer Area The aquifer area is obtained from the watershed area by subtracting hilly area and poor quality area. Recharge for non-monsoon season is computed by rainfall infiltration method in a similar way as that of monsoon recharge provided, the non-monsoon rainfall is more than 10% of average annual rainfall.
5.22.7 Normalization of Monsoon Rainfall Recharge The recharge calculated as above is for a particular monsoon season for corresponding rainfall and is normalized for normal monsoon rainfall. For normalization the procedure as given in GEM-97 has been adopted which is as follows,
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During normalization process those data pairs in which R rf is negative or near zero are avoided. If all the data pairs fall in the group then water level fluctuation method is avoided and rainfall infiltration method is adopted.
5.22.8 Recharge Assessment based on Rainfall Infiltration (RIF) Method The recharge computed based on Water Table Fluctuation (WTF) method should be in agreement with RIF method, since the source for both these are the same. Hence the recharge is computed separately by rainfall infiltration method also. It is done using following formula
Rrf = f x A x r fn
Where R rf = Rainfall recharge F = Rainfall infiltration factor
rfn = Normal monsoon/non-monsoon rainfall A = Area of watershed / unit
5.22.9 Rainfall Infiltration Factor The rainfall infiltration depends upon formation, soil type, slope, vegetative covers etc. It also depends on compactness, clay content, degree of weathering & fracturing of the formation. The infiltration rate obtained from infiltration tests conducted by various field offices of CGWB, SWR since 1982 under different litho-units were also considered for arriving at the infiltration factor for these computations. They are as follows:
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 107 Water Quality
Formation Rainfall Infiltration factor Alluvium 6-11 Laterites 6-7 Basalts 6-7 Lime stones 6-7 Granite/ Schist’s/Gneisses 3-9
Rainfall infiltration method is used for computing recharge during non-monsoon season on the same lines as of monsoon recharge, provided the rainfall is more than 10% of annual rainfall. Otherwise it is presumed that the rainfall is not sufficient to affect any recharge during non-monsoon season.
5.22.10 Recharge from other sources In addition to recharge from rainfall, the recharge from other sources are also computed and added to ground water resource, which are: Return flow from ground water irrigation Return flow from surface water irrigation Seepage from canal Seepage from tank / pond / water bodies Seepage from water conservations structure.
5.22.11 Return flow from Ground Water Irrigation Amount of ground water used for irrigation is computed by crop water requirement as well as by unit draft method. Return flow has been computed taking the same factors as given in GEM-97, based on depth to water level. Return flow computed by unit draft method is more realistic and the same has been adopted.
5.22.12 Return Flow from Surface Water Irrigation
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Volume of water used for surface water irrigation has been computed by cropped area and crop water requirement method. Return flow has been determined by taking factors as given by GEM-97 based on depth to water level. 5.22.13 Seepage from Canal Canal seepage has been computed using canal length, its wetted perimeter and number of days of canal flow and canal seepage factor as recommended by GEM-97.
5.22.14 Seepage from Tank/ Pond/ Reservoirs Seepage from tanks / reservoirs has been computed by taking average water spread area, days of water availability during monsoon and non-monsoon period and recharge factor as recommended by GEM-97.
5.22.15 Seepage from Water Conservations Structure Seepage from water conservation structures is negligible as the number of such structures is very limited. The seepage is computed by taking average length of water conservation structures as 11m, average height of water column as 0.9m and average length of water spread as 17m, the volume of water storage in one 3 filling is computed as 84m , This has been multiplied by a recharge factor of 0.50 (as per Gem-97) to compute recharge in one fillings as 0.0042 ham. This in turn has been multiplied by number of filling and number of structures to compute the total recharge from water conservation structures.
5.22.16 Allocation for Domestic & Industrial Purposes Allocation of ground water for Domestic and Industrial purposes have been computed based on population density and fractional load or dependence on ground water. The fractional load in cities and canal command areas where surface water supply there taken as 0.5 and in the rest of the areas it is taken as one.
5.22.17 Computation of Unaccounted Natural Discharge
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Natural discharge like base flow and evaporation from groundwater is accounted as 5% of annual ground water recharge in case the recharge is calculated by Water Table Fluctuation method. The same has been taken 10% of annual recharge by rainfall infiltration factor method as recommended by GEM-97.
5.23 Ground Water Resource Categorization 5.23.1Belgaum District: Ramdurg, Saudatti and Gokak are the three taluks which come under Rameshwara lift irrigation project. From all the three taluks about 138 villages were surveyed and about 65% of villages are having ground water development between 70 and 90% (semi critical). The remaining 35% of the villages are having groundwater development more than 100% (over exploited). A both pre- or post- monsoon ground water levels show a significant long term decline. (Table 5.13)
Table 5.13. Number of Villages / Watershed Code
Semi Over Total No. of over Taluk Critical Critical Exploited developed villages 59 NIL NIL 59 4D7C7A Ramdurg --- 4D7C8A ------
4D7C7G 32 47 NIL 79 Saudatti 4D7C7G 4D7C8C ------4D7C5A Note: Area coming under Rameshwara lift irrigation project is only considered.
The type of rock formation in command and non-command area of the villages coming under Rameshwara Lift Irrigation scheme includes GNEISS, SCHIST and LMST types (Table 5.14).
The total annual ground water recharge was computed as follows,
Total annual ground water recharge = Recharge from rainfall during monsoon season + Recharge from other sources during monsoon season + Recharge
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 110 Water Quality from rainfall during non-monsoon season + Recharge from other sources during non- monsoon season. From Table 5.15, the total annual ground water recharge in Belgaum district is given as 23132.42 + 5585.74 + 3873.07 + 3507.32 = 36098.55 ham.
Natural discharge during non-monsoon season = 1804.93 ham.
The net ground water availability = Total annual ground water recharge - Natural discharge during non-monsoon season.
Therefore the net annual ground water availability in the watersheds in Belgaum district during 2004 is 36098.55 - 1804.93 = 34293.62 ham.
The categorization of watersheds in Belgaum district as per Ground Water Estimation Committee (GWEC) of 31.12.99, indicating that around 50% of the watersheds in the command and non-command area fall under safe condition i.e., percentage development of ground water is between 70 and 90% and there is no significant long term decline in pre- and post-mansoon ground water levels. Around 40% of the watersheds fall under semi critical stage i.e., percentage development of ground water is between 70 and 90% .The pre- or post-monsoon ground water levels showed a significant long term decline. In the remaining 10% of the watershed is in over exploited stage i.e., the stage of ground water development is more than 100%. Both pre- and post-monsoon ground water levels also showed a significant long term decline. (Table 5.19)
The watersheds that come under Rameshwara lift irrigation project (including command and non command area) are represented in Table 16. It is clear that the average net ground water availability in Rameshwara command area during 2004, is about 5715.60 ham, and it is also observed that 50% of the watersheds which come under Rameshwara command area are in exploited stage. The
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 111 Water Quality average crop water requirement varied from 0.57 to 0.86. The net annual ground water availability in these watersheds varied from 1730.34 ham to 12425.81 ham.
Table 5.17, clearly indicates the stage of ground water development in Belgaum district during 2004. Among 6 watersheds which come under Rameshwara lift irrigation project, the ground water development in 2 watersheds are in safe condition, 1 semi critical and remaining 3 are in over exploited stage. It is also observed that the ground water level in over exploited stage is far less in post monsoon season.
The taluk wise ground water recharge in Rameshwara lift irrigation project is represented in Table 5.18, the Gokak, Ramdurg and Saudatti are the three taluks which come under Belgaum district with an average crop water requirement of 0.68 hams. The average balance ground water irrigation potential available is 3906.48 hams.
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Table 5.14. General Description of Ground Water Assessment Units of Belgaum District Sl No Code No. of Water Shed Command / Non Command Type of Rock Formation Aerial Extent (Hectares) 165 4D7C5 Non Command GNEISS, SCHIST 161961 165A 4D7C5 Command GNEISS, SCHIST 24539 167 4D7C7 Non Command GNEISS, LMST 57220 167A 4D7C7 Command GNEISS, LMST 84780 168 4D7C8 Non Command LMST, SCHIST,GNEISS 114321 168A 4D7C8 Command LMST, SCHIST,GNEISS 56879
Table 5.15. Groundwater Resource Potential of Belgaum District as on 31.03.04 Recharge Recharge Recharge Recharge Total Natural Net Ground From Rainfall From other From Rainfall From Other Annual Discharge Water Code Command During Sources During Non- Sources Ground During Non- Availability Sl. No Of /Non Monsoon During Monsoon During Non- Water Monsoon No Water Command Season Monsoon Season Monsoon Recharge Season Shed Season Season (Ham) (Ham) (Ham) (Ham) (Ham) (Ham) (Ham) Non 165 4D7C5 10362.36 536.45 1721.70 459.29 13079.80 653.99 12425.81 Command
165A 4D7C5 Command 764.53 578.31 209.13 269.44 1821.41 91.07 1730.34 Non 167 4D7C7 2384.71 499.48 351.57 754.66 3990.43 199.52 3790.90 Command
167A 4D7C7 Command 307.59 1018.61 474.78 352.12 2153.10 107.66 2045.45 Non 168 4D7C8 7318.13 1319.10 707.49 1364.75 10709.47 535.47 10173.99 Command
168A 4D7C8 Command 1995.10 1633.79 408.40 307.06 4344.34 217.22 4127.13 Note: Area coming under Rameshwara lift irrigation project is only considered.
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Table 5.16. Stage of Ground Water Development of Belgaum District as on 31.03.04 Existin Is g Gross Existing Net Avg Balance Net Allocatio There Existing Ground Gross Ground Existing Crop Ground Annual n For Any Is There Gross Water Ground Water Stage Of Water Water Ground Domestic Signific Any Ground Draft Water Availabil Ground Requir Irrigation Code Comma Water And ant Significan Water For Draft For ity For Water ement Potential Sl No Of nd /Non Availabilit Industrial Decline t Decline Category draft For Domest All Uses Future Developm Available No Water Comma y Uses For Of Of Post Irrigation ic And Irrigatio ent Shed nd Next 25 Pre- Monsoon Industri n Yrs Monso Water al Develop on Levels ha-m ha-m Water ment % ha-m Water Supply ha-m ha-m (m) ha Levels ha-m Non 165 4D7C5 Comm 12425.81 5172.60 570.50 5743.10 830.08 6423.13 46.22 NO NO SAFE 0.57 11194.99 and Comm 165A 4D7C5 1730.34 732.23 312.16 1044.39 454.20 543.91 60.36 NO NO SAFE 0.57 948.00 and Non 167 4D7C7 Comm 3790.90 8043.57 565.08 8608.65 785.46 0.00 227.09 YES YES OE 0.76 0.00 and Comm 167A 4D7C7 2045.45 2661.87 526.83 3188.70 732.30 0.0 155.89 NO YES OE 0.86 0.00 and Non 168 4D7C8 Comm 10173.99 15131.26 837.95 15969.20 1164.75 0.00 156.96 YES YES OE 0.82 0.00 and Comm SEMI 168A 4D7C8 4127.13 3347.36 342.12 3689.49 475.55 304.21 89.40 NO YES 0.68 447.37 and CRITICL Note: Area coming under Rameshwara lift irrigation project is only considered.
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Table 5.17. Categorization for Ground Water Development of Belgaum District as on 31.03.04 Is There Assignment Is There Command / Stage of Ground Categorization For Code No 0f Decline of Pre Assignment Decline Sl. No Non Water Future Ground Water Watershed Monsoon Water of Post Monsoon Command Development (%) Development Levels Water Levels Non 165 4D7C5 46 NO NO SAFE Command 165A 4D7C5 Command 60 NO NO SAFE Non 167 4D7C7 227 YES YES OE Command 167A 4D7C7 Command 156 NO YES OE Non 168 4D7C8 157 YES YES OE Command 168A 4D7C8 Command 89 NO YES SEMI CRITICAL
Table 5.18. Taluk Wise Ground Water Resources Categorization of Belgaum District as on 31.03.04 Existing Total Net Annual Existing Gross Existing Allocation Net Ground Avg Crop Balance Annual Ground Gross Ground Gross For Water Water Ground Ground Water Ground Water Ground Domestic Availability Requirement Water Water Availability Water Draft For Water And For Future Irrigation Semi Recharge draft For Domestic Draft Industrial Irrigation Potential Safe Critical OE Critical District Taluk Irrigation And For All Use For Development Available Area Area Area Area Industrial Uses Next 25 (%) (%) (%) (%) Water Yrs Supply
ha-m ha-m ha-m ha-m ha-m ha-m ha-m ha-m ha-m
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Gokak 16462.68 15951.83 15079.57 759.71 15839.28 1214.04 1224.66 0.79 1555.86 16 ------84
Belgaum Ramdurg 7531.70 7155.12 10584.36 745.92 11330.28 1053.97 60.84 0.68 89.47 ------OE
Saudatti 12051.82 11449.23 12366.11 933.94 13300.06 1327.35 1318.25 0.58 2261.15 20 ------80
Note: Area coming under Rameshwara lift irrigation project is only considered.
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Table 5.19. Status of Ground water in Belgaum District as on 31.12.1999 as Per GWEC Methodology, 1997 Allocation Existing Existing Existing for Net ground irrigation Existing Net annual gross gross domestic water Code no Type of draft stage of Sl. Total ground ground ground and availability of water water domestic ground Categorization no Recharge water water water industrial for future shed shed draft for water availability draft for draft for use for irrigation next 25 development irrigation all uses next 25 development years years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 286 4D7C5A Command 2297.96 2183.07 505.50 630.28 173.45 678.95 1504.12 28.87 SAFE Non SEMI 286A 4D7C5A 2423.45 2302.27 1522.70 1726.84 283.75 1806.45 495.82 75.01 Command CRITICAL 291 4D7C7A Command 3332.65 3166.02 1218.50 1374.02 216.17 1434.67 1731.35 43.40 SAFE Non SEMI 291A 4D4C7A 2908.00 2762.60 1908.70 2138.48 319.40 2228.10 534.51 77.41 Command CRITICAL 292 4D7C7G Command 3390.40 3220.88 2016.40 2357.89 474.68 2491.08 729.81 73.21 SAFE Non SEMI 292A 4D7C7G 559.88 531.89 427.40 463.36 49.98 477.38 54.51 87.12 Command CRITICAL 293 4D7C8A Command 5764.10 5475.90 3369.20 3636.56 371.62 3740.82 1735.07 66.41 SAFE Non SEMI 293A 4D7C8A 3054.60 2901.87 1932.50 2079.82 204.77 2137.27 764.60 71.67 Command CRITICAL 295 4D7C8C Command 2184.88 2075.64 1003.20 1178.64 243.86 1247.06 828.58 56.78 SAFE Non 295A 4D7C8C 6308.49 5993.07 5215.20 5557.61 475.95 5691.15 301.91 92.73 CRITICAL Command Note: Area coming under Rameshwara lift irrigation project is only considered.
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5.24 Categorization of Areas based on the level of Ground Water Development The level of ground water development in an area is to be taken as the ratio of net yearly draft to total utilizable ground water resource for irrigation. It can be expressed as:
If the projected net extraction in a taluk in year 5 is less than 65% of the total utilizable ground water resource for irrigation, it is categorized as white or safe area. If the projected net extraction in a taluk in year 5 is between 65% and 85% of total utilizable ground water resources for irrigation, the taluk is categorized as Grey or semi critical area. If the projected net extraction in a taluk in year 5 is in excess of 85% of the utilizable ground water resource for irrigation, the taluk is categorized as Dark or critical area.
5.24.1 Belgaum District There are 10 taluks in the district out of which 2 taluks namely, Chikodi and Hukkeri have been categorized as Dark and 2 taluks, Athani and Bailahongal with ground water utilization level at 75% and 83% have been categorized as Grey. Raibagh taluk, earlier under “DARK” category, has been categorized as White due the fact that area canal irrigation has increased and water logged conditions are prevailing in about 40-50% area of the taluk. In most part of the year, the wells in the atchkat of the command area are not in use, and the effective net draft from ground water irrigation is substantially decreased.
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Table 5.20. Categorization for Ground Water Development of Belgaum District (as on 1999)
Recharge % of No. of Wells Draft (ham) Balance Sl. Name of (ham) Utiliza Stage Cate Recharge No Taluk NET tion @ @ 99 gory Gross Net BW DCB DUG OTHS TOTAL BW DCB DUG OTHS TOTAL (ham) DRAFT 94 1 Athani 14665 12465 968 84 10775 498 12325 1646 118 9698 100 11562 8093 4372 65 75 G 2 Bailahongal 9214 7832 3747 26 1925 81 5779 6370 36 1732 16 8154 5708 2124 73 83 G 3 Belgaum 11092 9428 1806 --- 4139 220 6165 3070 --- 3725 44 6839 4787 4641 51 61 W 4 Chikodi 10570 8984 1500 --- 8672 1087 11259 2550 --- 7805 217 10572 7400 1584 82 92 D 5 Gokak 12747 10835 975 209 5612 95 6891 1658 292 5050 19 7019 4913 5922 45 55 W 6 Hukkeri 5966 5071 842 143 6649 568 8202 1431 200 5984 114 7729 5410 -339 107 >100 D 7 Khanapura 16065 13655 1452 11 960 31 2454 2468 15 864 6 3353 2347 11308 17 20 W 8 Ramdurg 9826 8352 1800 11 1179 153 3743 3060 15 1601 30 4706 3294 5058 39 49 W 9 Raibagh 11416 9704 1124 3 10162 71 11360 1911 4 9146 14 11075 5116 4588 53 63 W 10 Saudatti 10575 8989 1996 15 2062 174 4247 4247 21 1856 35 5305 3714 5275 41 51 W
Note: D- Dark, G-Grey, W= White
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5.25 Hydrological Characteristics The hydrological or aquifer characteristic parameters may be used for solving a general problem of assessment of ground water potential from installation of well field for irrigation or domestic water supply in a certain locality. The parameters such as Transmissivity, Permeability, Specific yield and Storage capacity are used in the determination of porosity of aquifer to recharge the water to ground water table, rate and quantity of water discharged.
5.25.1 Transmissivity (T) The transmissivity or transmissibility is the product of the average hydraulic conductivity (or permeability) and the thickness of the aquifer. Consequently, transmissivity is the rate of flow under a hydraulic gradient equal to unity through a cross section of unit width over the whole thickness of the aquifer. It is designated by the symbol ‘T’ and is expressed in m 2 / day.
The transmissivity is the flow capacity of an aquifer, at which water will flow through a unit width of aquifer under unit hydraulic gradient and it can be determined by Jacob’s modified method as follows: 264 T = ------Q S Where T = transmissivity in m 2 /day Q = pumping rate (m 3 / min) which is derived by product of specific
capacity (c) x total draw down (S 1) S = is the slope of line as change in drawdown as recovery over one log cycle of time.
The transmissivity values varied between 9.0 to 223.6 m 2/day in the command area of Rameshwara lift irrigation project. (Table 5.21)
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Table 5.21. Aquifer Parameters for different wells in Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Area Specific Specific Discharge Transmissivity Permeability Well No. capacity 2 yield ‘Q’ 2 ‘T’ (m /day) ‘K’ (m/day) 3 ‘C’ (m /s) ‘S y’ (%) (m /s) 1 0.017 9.00 15.66 1.96 0.002 4 1.023 102.5 57.62 4.28 0.014 7 0.018 27.0 39.88 3.20 0.008 8 0.665 42.6 40.02 1.90 0.007 9 1.526 25.2 32.08 1.02 0.018 11 0.088 17.2 21.06 0.99 0.006 14 0.912 18.0 25.03 2.65 0.012 16 2.566 223.6 158.3 5.64 0.035 18 0.021 88.56 0.335 1.69 0.022 19 0.851 13.5 35.15 2.32 0.020
5.25.2 Specific Yield (Sy) The volume of ground water extracted by gravity- drainage from a saturated water bearing material is known as the yield, and when it is expressed as ratio of the volume of the material drained, then it is known as the specific yield. Specific yield of a geological formation is the ratio of the volume of water, which the formation will yield by gravity after being saturated to the volume of the rock, expressed in percentage.
In reality, the specific yield varies due to the heterogeneity of the hydrological events. The field determination requires a pumping test with an observation well in the vicinity. This sort of a set up is seldom met with under field conditions. The following formula of Ramsohoye and Lang (1961) as modified by Adhaylkar and Mani (1974) can be used for determining the specific yield with the pumping test data of a single pumping well. Sy = 4Tt/R 2 Where Sy = specific yield T=transmissivity in 1pd/m t=time in days since pumping began, R=radius in meters of the area of influence.
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The percent yield of aquifers in the command area varied between 0.99 to 5.64% (Table 5.20). The results obtained for specific yield signifies that maximum rate of 0.99% to 5.64% pumping that can be allowed while ensuring those water level declines are kept within acceptable limits.
5.25.3 Specific capacity (C) It is a measure of both the effectiveness of a well and also of the aquifer characteristics (T & S). It is defined as the ratio of the pumping rate and the drawdown and, is usually expressed in litres per minute per metre of drawdown for a specific period of pumping.
From Darcy’s law, the coefficient of permeability may be defined as the rate of flow of water through unit cross sectional area of the water- bearing material under a unit hydraulic gradient, and at a temperature of 20 0 C. Permeability is also explained as the ability of formation to transmit water through its pores and it can be computed from the formula, P= T/ h Where P= permeability T=transmissivity in m 2/day h= total saturated thickness of the aquifer tapped in metres.
The permeability values for the different wells in the Rameshwara lift irrigation scheme is tabulated in Table 20. The permeability values varied in the range between 0.335 to 158.3 m/day.
5.25.4 Infiltration Rate and Hydraulic Conductivity Infiltration rates and hydraulic conductivity of two areas, (i.e., one area salt affected and other unaffected by salt accumulation) were determined to evaluate the long term impact of irrigation. Infiltration rates were determined by Disc permeameter and also by using Guelph permeameter. It is observed that the salt affected soils show reduced rate of infiltration and hydraulic conductivity,
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In many soils, the hydraulic conductivity does not in fact remain constant. Because of various chemical, physical and biological processes, the hydraulic conductivity may change as water permeates and flows deep into soil. Changes occurring in the composition of the exchangeable-ion complex, as and when the water enters the soil, alters the composition or concentration of solutes than the original soil solution that can generally contribute to change in the hydraulic conductivity.
During the field study it is observed that due to excessive soil salinity a thick layer (crust) is formed due to accumulation of salts. These crusts formed on the soil layer, when exposed to rain, two mechanism acts on the soil particles, A physical dispersion caused by the impact of raindrops, and A chemical dispersion which depends on the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of the soil and the electrolyte concentration in the applied water.
The physical mechanism alone operates in soils with no sodium in the exchange complex or when high electrolytes are present in applied water. Therefore, based on the present results it is noticed that the permeability of a soil to water depends both on the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of the soil and on the salt concentration of the percolating solution. Soil hydraulic conductivity (HC) can be maintained at a high ESP provided that the electrical conductivity (EC) of the infiltrating water is above critical water.
5.25.5 Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity To measure the conductivity in the field, the following formula is used. n K = a / [b + ( ΨΨΨ-ΨΨΨa) ]
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Where k= hydraulic conductivity (cm/hr)
Ψ = Section head (cm H 2O)
Ψa = air entry section a, b, n are constants
Table 5.22. Hydraulic Properties of Soils in selected locations of the study area Infiltration Hydraulic SI. No Location Texture Rate Conductivity Cm/hr m/day 1 Kalliguddi Clay Loam 1.45 0.0451 2 Chipalkatti Clay 0.72 0.0073 3 Hirekoppa Clay 0.80 0.0321 4 Bagochikoppa Sandy Loam 1.92 0.2543 5 Hosur Clay loam 1.52 0.0521
The hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate of the five villages viz., Kalliguddi, Chipalkatti, Hirekoppa, Bagochikoppa and Hosur village are tabulated in the Table 5.22. From the estimation it is observed that, the high infiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity is found to be in Bagochikoppa village. The infiltration rate indicates the maximum rate at which the water recharged into the ground water table. The lowest infiltration rate of 0.72 cm/hr is observed in Chipalkatti village.
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil represents its average water transmitting properties, which depends mainly on the number and diameter of the pores present. If these are uniformly distributed the soil is classified to be homogenous. A maximum hydraulic conductivity of 0.2543 m/day is observed in Hosur village.
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Table 5.23. Preliminary Yield Test (PYT) and Aquifer Performance Test (APT) Results
Depth Fracture PYT Test SWL APT drilled Sl Location,coordinate/Toposheet, no Zones results Drow results SWL (m.b.g.l) Lithology no and R.L of G.L (m.s.l) encountered Discharge down T (m2/ (mbgl) casing (mbgl) (lps) (m) day) (m) 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 GOKAK TALUK Ankalgi DCAN EW 17-20, 24-35 1 0 ' " 0 " 80.00 TRAP 5.30 11.30 234 8.250 E 74 41 26 N 16 01' 19 44-63 BAST
Ankalgi KLDGI 2 OW 40.00 SRIES 27-40 Negligible ------8.150 E 74 0 41 ' 26 " N 16 0 01' 19 " SNDS KLDGI SRIES Arabhavi QRTZ 20-22, 33-35 3 EW 76.20 4.70 23.630 25 2.227 0 ' " 0 " SNDS 41-43, 63-65 E 74 49 03 N 16 13' 45 BAST GRNT KLDGI SRIES Arabhavi QRTZ 4 OW 42.00 25-35, 40-42 5.10 12.700 17 2.110 0 ' " 0 " SNDS E 74 49 03 N 16 13' 33 45 BAST GRNT Betgeri KLDGI 26-27, 32-44 5 EW 50.00 SRIES 4.50 1.520 222 4.250 0 ' " 0 " 47-50 E 74 58 45 N 16 08' 36 QRTZ Betgeri KLDGI 20-26, 30-37 6 OW 49.00 SRIES 4.40 2.090 348 16.970 0 ' " 0 " 44-49 E 74 58 45 N 16 08' 36 QRTZ
KLDGI Yadwad 7 0 ' " 0 " 80.00 SRIES ---- Negligible ------1.100 E 75 11 00 N 16 14' 10 LMSN
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SAUDATTI TALUK Hosur KLDGI 31-32, 44-45, 8 EW 61.00 SRIES 0.50 10.250 4 15.660 0 ' " 0 " 58-59 E 74 57 25 N 15 49' 55 15 LMSN Inamhongal ACRN 19-22, 50-51 9 0 ' " 0 " 200.00 0.80 2.990 10 6.720 E 75 04 38 N 15 35' 05 GRGN 160-161 Kitturnahalli 10 EW 82.00 SCST --- Negligible ------6.310 E 74 0 52 ' 14 " N 15 0 52' 30 " Mallur ACRN 11 EW 67.00 17-27 0.66 10.930 1 7.500 0 ' " 0 " GRNT E 74 59 15 N 15 50' 55 KLDGI Manoli SRIES 18-23, 28-38, 12 EW 68.25 SHILE 4.00 5.210 58 9.650 0 ' " 0 " 57-68 E 75 06 30 N 15 51' 36 SLAT SNDN
Murgod 13 EW 60.00 QRTZ 39-41, 50-52 0.40 1.000 25 17.000 E 74 0 55 ' 35 " N 15 0 53' 31 "
KLDGI Shivapuri SRIES 14 EW 82.00 ---- Negligible ------4.470 0 ' " 0 " SNDN E 74 57 27 N 16 00' 20 SHILE KLDGI Sirangi SRIES 40-41, 48-49, 15 EW 200.00 0.70 12.280 2 10.340 0 ' " 0 " SNDN 60-61 E 75 15 15 N 15 25' 00 SHILE DCAN Athani 44-47,69-77, 16 0 ' " 0 " 123.40 TRAP 4.08 0.277 340 6.000 E 75 04 10 N 16 43' 40 78-84, 120-126 BAST RAMDURG TALUK KLDGI Batkurki SRIES 30-31, 68-69, 17 EW 200.00 Negligible ------0 ' " 0 " PQTZ 102-103 E 75 17 05 N 16 04' 45 GRCK
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Chipalkatti KLDGI 18 EW 26.60 21-36 Negligible 12.580 --- 2.540 0 ' " 0 " SRIES E 75 11 36 N 16 08' 20 Chuchanur KLDGI 15-20, 25-35, 19 EW 82.50 SRIES 41-44, 54-56, 6.05 0.120 2000 8.300 E 75 0 07 ' 10 " N 15 0 55' 20 " LMSN 80-81 Chuchanur KLDGI 20 OW-I 62.00 SRIES 17-18, 29-36 5.50 0.068 200 8.590 E 75 0 07 ' 10 " N 15 0 55' 20 " LMSN Chuchanur KLDGI 21 OW-II 37.90 SRIES ---- 3.00 6.470 --- 8.850 E 75 0 07 ' 10 " N 15 0 55' 20 " LMSN KLDGI Godchi SRIES 49-44, 50-51, 22 EW 94.45 1.00 12.580 3 2.540 0 ' " 0 " LMSN 61-62 E 75 11 36 N 16 00' 45 QRTZ Kittur ACRN 23 EW 57.60 30-31 4.40 7.840 54 7.740 0 ' " 0 " GNSS E 75 21 17 N 15 50' 40 Kittur ACRN 24 OW 62.00 34-35 0.60 13.720 1 7.950 0 ' " 0 " GNSS E 75 21 17 N 15 50' 40 DCAN Murkatnal TRAP 25 EW 200.00 BAST 15-16 0.60 11.240 2 6.720 E 75 0 07 ' 00 " N 16 0 04' 00 " LMSN
Suriban ARCN 11-18, 21-28 26 EW 82.00 4.80 6.390 155 5.940 0 ' " 0 " GRGN 31-34, 49-51 E 75 23 48 N 15 53' 34 Suriban GRNT, 23-24, 40-41 27 OW 77.00 AMBL 2.00 11.458 57 5.790 0 ' " 0 " 74-75 E 75 23 48 N 15 53' 34 MBST Source: Central Ground Water Board
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Chapter VI
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY AND NOISE LEVELS ASSESSMENT
6.0 Introduction The atmosphere, which makes up the largest fraction of the biosphere, is a dynamic system that continuously absorbs a wide range of solids, liquids, and gases from both natural and man-made sources. These substances travel through air, disperse, and react with one another and with other substances both physically and chemically. Most of these constituents, eventually find their way into a depository such as the ocean, or to a receptor such as man. Some substances such as helium, however, escape from the biosphere. Others such as carbon-dioxide may enter the atmosphere faster than they enter a reservoir and thus gradually accumulate in the air.
It has been found that a significantly increasing volume of particulate matter entering the atmosphere scatters the incoming sunlight. This reduces the amount of heat that reaches the earth and tends to reduce its temperature. The decreasing mean global temperature of recent years has been attributed to the rising concentration of air-borne particles in the atmosphere. A counter acting phenomenon commonly referred to as the “green-house effect” is caused by the increasing amounts of carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere generated in combustion processes, if continues to increase at the present rate, the mean global temperature could rise by 4 0 C in the next five decades. There has been conjecture that this might become a matter of great importance because small temperatures increase could cause a partial melting of the ice caps of the earth causing continental flooding and overwhelming effects on man.
Air pollution can cause death, impair health, reduce visibility, bring about vast economic losses and contribute to the general deterioration of both our cites and country-side. It is therefore, a matter of great importance that engineers of all disciplines consciously incorporate in their designs sufficient constraints and safe
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There are three methods of identifying air pollution: Sensory recognition Physical measurement of pollutants Observing the impact on plants, animals, and buildings.
6.1 Sensory Recognition Usually the first awareness of an air pollution problem is through some effects on the individual. These are: Strong or unusual odours Reduction in visibility Eye irritation Acid taste in the mouth Feel of grit under foot
These are highly subjective phenomena and vary from individual to individual.
6.2 Physical Measurement While sensory perception may provide the first indication of the presence of most of the contaminants in the air, it is often not possible to detect trace quantities of many air-borne toxic substances or the presence of radioactive matter through the senses. Their identification requires physical measurement by standard methods of sampling and analysis.
6.3 Impact on Plants, Animals and Buildings Effects of air pollution can be observed on the growth of plants and health of animals. Similarly, its deleterious effects on buildings can also be observed. Thus plants, animals, and buildings act to some extent as indicators of certain atmospheric impurities.
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An inventory of air contamination is a necessary first step towards control of air pollution. Air pollution can be either natural or may be the result of various anthropogenic activities of man like industrial operations etc. The industrial contaminants can be either by-products of external combustion like smoke, dust, and sulphur oxides or by-products of internal combustion like the reactions in petrol and diesel engines. Further, the emissions can be either primary pollutants or secondary pollutants. The various sources of pollutants can also be broadly grouped under either stationary sources or mobile sources.
Plants are affected by gaseous pollutants and deposition of particulates on soil. On the other hand, particulates such as dust and soot, deposited on plant leaves, block the stomata of plants. This in turn affects the plants by restricting the absorption of CO 2 and reducing the rate of photosynthesis as well as rate of transpiration. The net result is retarded growth of plants and decreased yield of crops. Furthermore deposition of toxic metals on soil, renders the soil unsuitable for growth of plants. Some plants are very sensitive to traces of toxic metals as the latter inhibit the action of some plant enzymes.
6.4 Natural Contaminants Among natural contaminants pollen is important because of its peculiar properties irritating to some individuals. Pollen grains are the male gametophytes of gymnosperms angiosperms and they are discharged into the atmosphere from weeds, grasses and trees. Because of wind pollination, thousands of pollen grains are liberated. While air transported pollen grains range chiefly between 10 to 50µ in size, some have been found to be as small as 5µ and as large as 100µ in diameter.
6.4.1 Aerosols: Aerosols refer to the dispersion of solids or liquid particles of microscopic size in gaseous media, such as dust, smoke, or mist. An aerosol can also be defined as a colloidal system in which the dispersion medium is a gas and the dispersed phase is solid or liquid.
6.4.2 Dust: Dust is made up of solid particles predominantly larger than those found in colloids and capable of temporary suspension in air or other gases.
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They do not tend to flocculate except under electrostatic forces, they also do not diffuse but settle under the influence of gravity.
6.4.3 Smoke: Smoke consists of finely divided particles produced by incomplete combustion. It consists predominantly of carbon particles and other combustible materials. Generally the size of the particles is less than 1µ. The size of coal small particles range from 0.2-0.01µ and oil smoke particles from 1.0-0.03µ.
6.4.4 Mists: This refers to a low concentration dispersion of liquid particles of large size. In meteorology, it means a light dispersion of minute water droplets suspended in the atmosphere. Natural mist particles formed from water vapour in the atmosphere are rather large, ranging from 500-40µ in size.
6.4.5 Fog: Fog refers to visible aerosol in which the dispersed phase is liquid. Formation by condensation is usually implied. In meteorology, it refers to dispersion of water or ice in the atmosphere near the earth’s surface reducing visibility to less than ½ Km. In natural fog the size of the particles range from 1.0- 40µ.
6.4.6 Fumes: These are the solid particles generated by condensation from the gaseous state, generally after volatilization from melted substances, and often accompanied by chemical reaction such as oxidation.
Table 6.1. Sources of Atmospheric Dust Sl. Sources Examples No Fuel Burning (Coal, wood, fuel, oil), Incineration (House and municipal garbage), 1 Combustion Others (open fires, forest fires, tobacco smoking) Materials handling Loading and unloading (sand, gravel, coal, 2 and processing ores, lime, cement)
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Earth-moving Construction (road, buildings, construction 3 operations sites, site clearance), Mining (blasting) Crop spraying, Poultry feeding , Engine 4 Miscellaneous exhaust, Mud road cleaning
Air pollution is one of the greatest environmental evils. The air we breathe has not only life-supporting properties but also life-damaging properties. Under ideal conditions the air we inhale has a qualitative and quantitative balance that maintains the well-being of man. But when the balance among the air components is disturbed, or in other words, if it is polluted, it affects human health.
All the impurities in the inhaled air do not necessarily cause harm. Depending upon the chemical nature of the pollutants, some may be harmful when present in the air in small concentrations and others, only when present in higher concentrations. The duration of exposure of the body to polluted air is also an important factor. Therefore prime factors affecting human health are, Nature of the pollutants Concentration of the pollutants Duration of exposure State of health of the receptor Age group of the receptor 6.5 Materials and Methods 6.5.1 Criteria Used For Selection of Ambient Air Quality Stations The ambient air quality stations were selected based on the projected impact of the project on the human settlements, flora and fauna of the study area. The Respirable Dust Sampler was used for the selected stations at a suitable level, for monitoring the primary pollutants [IS: 5182 (part14) 1985]. The primary pollutants were monitored at each monitoring station continuously for 8 hours were:
Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter, (RSPM) or (PM 10 ) Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2)
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO x)
6.6 Ambient Air Quality Studies
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6.6.1 Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) is the particulate having diameter less than 100 µm/greater than 10 µm that tend to remain suspended in the atmosphere for relatively longer periods. Soil dust, volcanic particles and smoke generally the natural sources of total suspended particulates. Anthropogenic emissions of the total suspended particulates are due to fossil fuel burning, industrial processes and vehicular exhausts. Secondary sources of total suspended particulates include conversion of various gaseous substances in the atmosphere, like H 2S,
SO 2, NO x, NH 3 and hydrocarbons to particulate matters. Hydrocarbons react to form products that condense to produce particles. The suspended particulates present in the atmospheric affect the surroundings by lowering the visibility, producing hazy conditions, participating in secondary reactions in atmosphere, finally affecting biomes either directly or indirectly (CPCB/NAAQMS/14/1999- 2000).
Sampling and analysis of SPM is based on gravimetric principle (James Lodge 1989). Air is drawn through an improved cyclone design close to 10 µm size, at a flow rate, which is typically around 1132 L/m. The suspended particulate matters are collected and get separated due to the centrifugal force and cyclonic activity falling through the cyclone’s conical hopper and finally collects in the dust collection cups. The dust particles of size less than 10 µm are trapped on the filter paper (8”x10”). The flow rate is recorded at intervals of one hour to determine the average flow rate for 8-hourly sampling. The SPM concentration is calculated from the difference between the final and initial weights of dust collection cups and dividing the net weight, by the volume of air sampled. The total SPM concentration was further determined and reported as SPM by adding the SPM results and PM 10 results obtained from the difference in weight of filter paper (CPCB. DOC: CB/CL/TM/9/C-3 & Operation Manual RDS). The instrument used was Respirable Dust Sampler, APM 460/451 (M/s Envirotech Instruments (P) Ltd).
6.6.2 Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) or (PM 10 )
Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter or PM 10 are the particulates having diameter less than 10 µm and they are small enough to be inhaled and may enter deep into respiratory track and pulmonary system of human beings. These particles are responsible for most of the air borne particulate threat to human health because of their small size and pose health hazard due to their inhalation followed by deep penetration in the respiratory system during breathing. The fine
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 132 Water Quality particulates generally arise due to agglomeration of aerosols, gas particles, conversion from gas to particulates and these are mostly combustion originated.
The sources of PM 10 include road dust, vehicular exhaust, and wind blown dust arising from agriculture, construction and fireplaces. PM 10 may also originate from incomplete combustion of fuel and from other pollutants viz. NO x, SO 2 organics etc., (CPCB/NAAQMS/14/1999-2000).
Measurement of RSPM or PM 10 in ambient air is based on Cyclonic Flow Technique method. The instrument used is Respirable Dust Sampler, APM 460/451, (M/s Envirotech Instruments (P) Ltd). Air is drawn through a size– selective inlet onto a 20.3 x 25.4 cm filter at a flow rate which is typically around 1132 L/min. Particles with aerodynamic diameter less than the cut-off point (10 µm) of the inlet are collected by the filter and above 10 µm size in the dust collection cups. The mass of the particles is determined by the difference in filter weights before and after sampling. The concentration of PM 10 in the designated size range is calculated by dividing the weight gain of the filter paper by the volume of air sampled. The lower range of the method is about 5 µg/m 3 and the upper limit is in the range of 400 to 1000 µg/m 3 and the exact value depends on the nature of the aerosol sampled (CPCB. DOC: CB/CL/TM/9/C-4).
6.6.3 Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2) This is one the principal constituents of air pollutants. The main source of sulphur dioxide is the combustion of fuels, especially coal. Therefore, its concentration in the atmosphere depends upon the sulphur content of fuel used.
SO 2 is a colorless, pungent, irritating, water-soluble and reactive gas. In ambient air, oxides of sulphur occur as sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO 3), which arise mainly from combustion of fossil fuel, and ores. SO 2 is both a primary and secondary pollutant. Significant SO 2 emissions are generated from mobile sources depending on sulphur content of fuel combusted. The residence time of SO 2 in atmosphere is about 4 days (Murali Krishnan, 1995).
Concentrations of SO 2 in ambient air in cities of developed countries have mostly decreased in the last decade due to improved emission control, increased use of
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low sulphur fuels. Since SO 2 is highly reactive; it has a highly non-uniform dose distribution and most of the gas inhaled via the nose is absorbed by nasal mucus, with a small proportion reaching the lower portion of the respiratory track.
The acidic aerosol formed due to the presence of SO2 can cause acute effects on pulmonary function and respiratory symptoms, and persons having asthma complaints can be about ten times more sensitive than the healthy.
The Modified West and Gaeke (1956), West and Ordiveza (1962) method were employed for sampling and analysis of sulphur dioxide by scrubbing air at the rate of one litre per minute for 4 hrs in a solution of 0.04 M Sodium Tetra Chloro- Mercurate (TCM). The sampled solution was then reacted with sulphamic acid (0.6 %), formaldehyde (0.2 %) and pararosaniline (0.2 % PRA). The absorbency of the product (pararosaniline methylsulphonic acid) red- violet dye formed, was measured using a spectrophotometer at 560-nm (Spectronic 20-D+). Multiplying the absorbency of the sample with the calibration factor of the method and dividing by the volume of air sampled, concentrations of SO 2 were calculated. 3 Concentration of SO 2 in µg/m in the sample is calculated as:
3 C (SO 2 µµµg/m ) = (A-A o) 1000 (B) / V Where A - Sample absorbance
Ao - Reagent blank absorbance 1000 - Conversion factor from litres to cubic meters B - Calibration factor V - Volume of air sampled in litres
6.6.4 Nitrogen Oxides (NO x) It is probable that oxides of nitrogen are the second most abundant atmospheric contaminants in many cites, ranking next to sulphur dioxide. Out of seven oxides of nitrogen (N 2O, NO, NO 2, NO 3, N 2O3, N 2O4,N 2O5), only nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide arise from many human activities and are classified as pollutants. In atmospheric analyses they are usually reported as ‘total oxides of nitrogen’. The important oxides of nitrogen in the atmosphere are Nitric oxide
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- (NO), Nitrous Oxide (N 2O), Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) and salts of Nitrate (NO 3 ), - + Nitrite (NO 2 ) and Ammonium (NH 4 ). Nitric oxide usually emitted from the automobile exhaust is oxidized to Nitrogen dioxide by reaction with oxidants such as Ozone present in ambient air. The other major sources are fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning, lightning, soil emissions and ammonia oxidations. The Peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN) is the important component of photochemical smog formed from the secondary reactions. The resident time of NO x in the atmosphere is about 5 days (Murali Krishnan, 1995).
The Jacob and Hochheiser (1958) method was adopted for sampling and analysis of NO x. The NO x was collected by bubbling air through a solution of sodium hydroxide- sodium arsenite (4g Sodium hydroxide and 1.0 g Sodium arsenite in 1000 ml distilled water) in a glass impinger at a flow rate of 1 litre per minute. The absorbency of the violet colored product (azo dye) obtained by reacting the sampled solution with sulfanilamide (20 g in 700 ml distilled water and 50 ml of 85 % phosphoric acid and dilute to 1000ml), 1 % aqueous solution of N- (1-naphthyl)- ethylenediamine di-hydrochloride (NEDA) was measured in a spectrophotometer (Spectronic 20-D+) at 540 nm. Concentration of NO 2 was calculated by using the equation as described under the SO 2 measurement.
Table 6.2. Sampling Stations for Air and Noise Quality Studies S.No Name of Stations Latitude Longitude Elevation Arlimatti (At the end of 1 village close to pumping N 16 o 19'15.0" E 75 o 05' 37.2" 532 station) 2 Koujalagi (Near bus N 16 o 12' 02.9" E 75 o 03' 38.9" 560 stand) 3 Kulgod (Near bus stand) N 16 o 21'12.0" E 75 o 07' 52.3" 590 4 Mallikeri (Near bus stop) N 16 o 08'16.1" E 75 o 04' 58.4" 659 Bhagojikoppa (Near bus 5 N 16 o 07'40.6" E 75 o 06' 23.5" 635 stop) Note: All values are in µg/m 3
6.7 Noise and its Measurements Noise has become part of our environment. With progress in industrial growth, the level of noise has been increasing continuously. In the nineteenth century the development of the steam engine, petrol engine and technological machineries
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 135 Water Quality in industry resulted in increasingly noisy environment. In the twentieth century this has been further accelerated by the introduction of diesel engine, high tech machineries, construction site machineries and road traffic. Noise is considered to be one of the dimensions of pollution which leads to degradation of the environment and also poses health and communication hazards.
6.7.1 Noise Pollution Hazards Noise is air-borne mechanical energy striking the human eardrum. While 65 dB (A) is the noise level for conversation heard at a distance of one metre, 125 dB (A) gives the sensation of pain ear and 150 dB (A) might kill a human being. The most commonly occurring ear damage is brought about by continuous periods of high intensity noise. If a noise level exceeding 90 dB in the mid-frequency range reaches the ear for more than a few minutes, then the sensitivity of the ear is reduced.
In addition to progressive hearing loss there may be instantaneous damage to aquatic trauma. This arises from very high intensity impulse type noise due to explosion or sudden excessive noise of about 150dB or more. Sonic booms or over-pressure from supersonic air liners are impulse type noise, which can have hazardous effects on the ears.
Noise pollution can also cause pathological or psychological disorders. Pathological effects are produced by particular noise frequencies causing vibration or resonance in materials or human bodies. High frequencies or ultrasonic sound above the normal audible range can affect the semi-circular canals of the inner ear and make one suffer from nausea and dizziness. Again very low frequency noise can produce resonance in the body organs giving the effects of reduced heart beat, variations in blood pressure and breathing difficulties. Mid-audible band frequencies can generate resonance in the skull and hence affect the brain and nervous system having impact on thinking and co-ordination of the limbs. Moderate vibration can lead to pain, numbness and cyanosis (blue colouration) of fingers while severe vibration results in damage to bones and joints in the hands with swelling and stiffness.
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It is difficult to assess non-pathological or psychological noise effects on man. The mildest impact is generally physical and mental fatigue. However, this effect is significant in industrial and other establishments, where the end results are lower efficiency, reduced work rate, increased absenteeism and a higher potential for accidents and injuries. Selye (1995) observed one of the following three stress reactions resulting from exposure to noise:
Atrophy of the thymus gland, Development of duodenal ulcers, and Swelling and discoloration of the adrenal glands, most of the experimental animals even were seem to manifest all of the above three reactions.
6.7.2 Noise Pollution Rules 2000 In India, ambient noise levels have increased in public places from various sources. The ministry of Environment and Forests considered it necessary to regulate and control noise producing and generating sources with the objective of maintaining the ambient air quality standards. This notification is to be considered as “The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000. The salient features of the notification are as under: ♦ The state government should categorize the area into industrial, commercial, residential or silence area/ zones for the purpose of implementing noise standards. ♦ The state government should take measures for abatement of noise including noise emanating from vehicular movements and ensure that the existing noise levels do not exceed the ambient air quality standards. ♦ All development authorities, local bodies or other concerned authorities while planning developmental activities should take into account the impact of noise pollution. Loud speakers or public address systems should not be used without the written permission from the concerned authorities. ♦ A stiff penalty would be charged from people who violate the noise pollution rules 2000. 6.7.3 Decibel
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The two important parameters of sound/ noise are sound pressure and sound intensity. They are measured in different units giving varying scale of magnitude. The common scientific acoustic unit is decibel (dB). It is not an absolute physical unit but is a ration expressed as logarithmic scale relative to a reference sound pressure level.
Decibel (dB) is a ratio expressed as the logarithmic scale relative to a reference sound pressure level. dB is thus expressed as
Intensity Measured (I) Sound Intensity Level = 10log ------Reference Intensity (I 0)
dB = 10 log (I/ I 0)
The level of noise is usually expressed in terms of Sound Pressure Level (SPL) in dB. The SPL is expressed as
SPL = 20 log (P/P 0)
Where, p = Pressure variation measured (N/m 2)
-5 2 P0 = Standard reference pressure 2 X 10 N/m
6.7.4 Sound Pressure level
2 Sound pressure level can be expressed as 10 log 10 (P/Po)
Which when simplified becomes, 20log 10 (P/Po)
Where, P = Measured sound pressure
Po = Reference sound pressure
The logarithmic scale takes care of wide range of sound pressure and intensities. The reference intensity used is the threshold of hearing which means sound which can be heard at sound pressure of 2 x 10 -5 Newton m -2. The db
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 138 Water Quality scale is limited in the sense that it is not related to the human ear frequency response and environmental circumstances in which noise is produced. This has necessitated design of noise measuring meters which reduce the response to low and very high frequencies, characteristic of human ear capacity. These meters record the dB (A) scale which is commonly used for measurement of general noise levels. However, even the dB (A) scale is not refined enough to take care of peak noise levels, duration of noise exposure and quantity and quality of noise which are aspects of specific environmental noise situations.
6.7.5 Weighted Decibels The human ear can detect sound within a particular frequency range from 20 to 20,000 Hz. However, within this range the ear is particularly sensitive to sound at frequencies between 1000 to 6000 Hz. These frequency characteristics of the ear are incorporated in the approach to measure and estimate noise levels by using a frequency weighting (weighted) which weights the sound pressure level in such a manner that it closely approximates to the situation when we hear sound. Thus it emphasizes frequencies between 1000 & 6000 Hz and de- emphasizes higher and lower frequencies. Once a sound has been measured in weighted decibels, it is now known as sound or noise level and expressed as dB (A).
6.7.6 Measurement of Noise Levels Sound level meter (Quest Make USA), was used for monitoring noise levels. The sound level meter having a microphone fitted with wind screen was placed around 1 meter above ground level with the help of a tripod stand. The noise levels were recorded every 10 seconds and integrated for different parameters. Few measurements were also carried out at the same places during the night, for comparison and data interpretation. The instrument used measures the sound in terms of decibel unit.
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Sl. No Areas Day dB (A) Night dB (A)
1 Industrial 75 65
2 Commercial 65 55
3 Residential 50 45 Sensitive area 4 50 40 (hospitals)
6.8 Results and Discussion 6.8.1 Ambient Air Quality Status Regular monitoring of ambient levels of air pollutants is essentially requires a well designed sampling sites and frequency of sampling is also necessary for realistic and precise measurement during the evaluation of the air quality. Regular ambient air quality monitoring helps not only in evaluating status of air quality but also for the evaluation of flora, fauna and human responses to the ambient levels of pollutants. During the present impact assessment study, Respirable Dust Sampler was activated in the selected areas to derive pollutants concentrations encountered at ambient level. Monitoring at each location was carried out continuously for 8 Hrs for estimating the primary parameters such as
♣ Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter, (RSPM) or (PM 10 ) ♣ Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
♣ Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2)
♣ Oxides of Nitrogen (NO x)
The results obtained in the study are tabulated in Table 6.3 and is compared with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (Table 6.4). From the results it is observed that, the values obtained for RSPM and SPM in Koujalagi and Bhagojikoppa are high. The high concentration of RSPM and SPM is due to the wind blowing at the time of sampling, and other stations are showing concentration with normal range. The concentration of particulate matter may increase during the construction activities at pumping station and canal site. The workers should be protected from these sources of air pollution which may cause adverse effects on respiratory system. This may be overcome by providing suitable masks during construction activities.
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The levels of SO 2 and NO x are within the permissible limits. A comparatively higher concentration of NOx may be the indication of construction activities and DG set running in the construction area. However the presence of SPM and PM 10 indicates that these are due to the background concentration prevailing in this tropical climatic region. The results also agree with those published by the Central Pollution Control Board in the National Ambient Air Monitoring Programme. In the canal work area also, the level of pollution is not significant. A 3 maximum of 10 µg/m of NO x concentration was found in Bhagojikoppa which is because of location of sampling station near the bus stop, as contribution is from the emission from vehicles and other activities.
From the study it can be concluded that there will be no such adverse effects on the human beings and other living organisms due to the construction activities at the pumping stations and at canal site because the human settlement is far from this site, provided the workers should be protected from the source of air pollution. To control the effect of higher RSPM on labourers and staff working in the canal site area. However it is necessary to provide safety devices to workers while executing the work. The cost of the same should be borne by the contractor. The results are given in Table 3 and the corresponding standards in Table 6.4.
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Table 6.3. Results of Ambient Air Quality Studies
RSPM Sl. No Name of Stations SPM SO 2 NO X (PM 10 ) Aralimatti (At the end of 1 village close to pumping 83.3 255.5 2.0 1.7 station) 2 Koujalgi (Near bus stand) 144.4 1473.3 10.1 1.5 3 Kulgod (Near bus stand) 96.29 437.7 2.8 1.4 4 Mallikeri (Near bus stop) 77.7 585.5 10.1 6.8 Bhagojikoppa (Near bus 5 222.2 1801.1 8.5 10.2 stop) Note: All values are in µg/m 3
Table 6.4. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) and WHO Recommendations
Concentration in Ambient Air WHO Time Recommen- Weighted Residential Industrial Sensitive Parameter -dations Average Area Area Area
10 Minutes - - - 500 Sulphur 1 Hour - - - 350 Dioxide 24 Hours 80 120 30 100-150 (µgm/m 3) Annual 60 80 15 40-60 Nitrogen 1 Hour - - - 400 Oxide 24 Hours 80 120 30 150 (µgm/m 3) Annual 60 80 15 - RSPM 24 Hours 100 150 75 70 (µgm/m 3) Annual 60 120 50 - SPM 24 Hours 200 500 100 150-230 (µgm/m 3) Annual 140 360 70 60-90
6.8.2 Noise Level Survey During the survey it is observed that the sound is basically generated due to construction activities. During construction activities, at canal site where large scale crushing of stones and other activities are going on, the level of noise generated is marginally high. In the village and canal areas the values are within in the limits. However it is beyond doubt that during the construction activity the
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 142 Water Quality values are bound to reach higher levels. However this activity is not going to pose a major threat to the human settlements. Nonetheless, necessary precaution must be taken to curb any possible impact on working force during construction activity. Monitoring of noise levels during the construction is recommended to ensure that the neighborhood of forests and human settlements are protected.
To control the effect of high levels of noise prevailing in the pumping station and at canal site area and rock drilling area, the work force including labourers and other staff should be provided with earplugs / ear muffs during working hours. The noise levels obtained were very less and well within the standards.
Table 6.5. Noise levels (dB) at Pumping Station and Canal site
Sl. Distance from source Name of stations NO 0 50m 100m 250m Aralimatti (At the end of village 1 81.6 75.4 71.8 Low close to pumping station) 2 Koujalgi (Near bus stand) 78.2 72.1 70.3 Low 3 Kulgod (Near bus stand) 79.1 73.2 70.8 Low 4 Mallikeri (Near bus stop) 76.8 72.1 70.1 Low 5 Bhagojikoppa (Near bus stop) 76.8 72.1 70.8 Low
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6.9 Recommendations During construction the standard practices may be followed so that the noise and air pollution is maintained at minimum. This should be supplemented by regular monitoring of the air quality and noise levels during the construction period.
More important is protecting the health of workers. As the level of dust at some places exceeds the limit, they should be provided with respirators or other device to prevent the impact of dust. Secondly whenever the noise levels exceed the limit or nearer to it, the workers must be provided with ear muffs.
Besides the already identified sites of air pollution and noise additional sites suggested by the monitoring team during the project should also be considered for the above purpose.
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Chapter VII
Biodiversity & Ecological Assessment
7.0 Background 7.1 The Ghataprabha River The River Ghataprabha takes its origin in Sundergad of the Western Ghats at an altitude of 858 m and flows eastwards for 59 km through Maharashtra state and forms the border between Maharashtra State and forms the border between Maharashtra and Karnataka for a length of about 10 km, it enters the district near the village Shedihal and here it receives the Tamraparni from the south and runs about 40 km in a northeasterly direction through Chikodi taluk before it is joined from the west by the Hiranyakeshi river. It then enters the Gokak taluk near the village Sultanpur and from this point it takes a sharp turn towards north, running along the boundary of the taluk. The total catchment area of the river from the source and its tributaries is 8,829 sq km but their principal source of supply is about 64 km length of the Western Ghats and about 64 km width on the east of these hills. In this area, the annual rainfall drops from about 300 to 100 cm.
7.2 Location and land use The intake structure of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme is located near Aralimatti village, Gokak taluk, Belgaum district and the command area for the project is distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti taluks of the Belgaum districts. The nearest town is Gokak which is approachable throughout the year. Ghataprabha is the nearest railway station.
Major part of the command area is covered by agriculture lands that are cultivated in both seasons – Khariff and Rabi. Apart from the cultivable land, rest of the land area along the natural stream courses is covered with weed growth, while the slightly elevated mounds have sparse scrub cover and the land close to the pediment region of the hills is stoney waste devoid of any vegetative cover. During Khariff season cereals, oil seeds and fibre crops are grown and during Rabi season pulses and Jowar are grown. The cereal crops include
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Maize, Jowar and Bajra and the oil seeds include Soya bean and groundnut. The pulses are red gram and green gram. The fibre crops include jute and cotton, which extend to Rabi season. Recently the farmers have also started the cultivation of sugarcane along the Ghataprabha River by using irrigation.
7.3 Climate The summer season between March and May is dry, dusty and very hot with maximum temperature reaching up to 42 o C. December to February is the cold season when minimum temperature falls to 18 o C. Generally humidity varies from less than 20% during summer to 85% during monsoon period. June to September is the period during which humidity is normally higher. Most of the rainfall is received during South West monsoon period with August being the wettest month. The average annual rainfall is 503 mm. the winds are generally light with slight increase in the force observed during late summer and monsoon season. The area comes under northern dry zone of ten fold agro-climatic zone of Karnataka.
7.4 Topography In general, the area covered under Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation scheme presents a gently undulating landscape with a linear belt of hills running in almost east-west direction dividing the region into two halves. The region has gentle easterly slope forming largely a plain interspersed with isolated low hills. The river Ghataprabha flowing in E-W direction forms the major valley flanked on hills near Hulkund, forming form a chain and the highest point is 723 m above MSL about 1.5 km of Mannekeri village. This chain of hills is dissected by Hulkund halla about 0.5 km of Hulkund village. The elevation range recorded in the region is between 522 m on the riverbank at Aralimatti and 702 m about a km of Sattigeri village.
7.5 Flora The vegetation of Belgaum district is of two distinct types. The first-the moist type-occurs in the south-western portion where the district touches the crest line of the Western Ghats. The second-the dry forest type found to the east of Belgaum city stretches from the northern areas around Gokak, Saundatti,
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Chikkodi in the south. The proposed Rameshwar lift irrigation project area falls into second category of forest, i.e., dry type.
The dry forest is made up of small trees mostly slow-growing, with either broad or reduced leaves. The first climax broad-leaved type is the Terminalia- Anogeissus-Tectona series. Depending on the rainfall which may vary from 300 to 900 mm during the year canopy is more or less open and the height of the trees may go upto 20 m the second climax broad -leaved type is the Anogeissus- Hardwickia series. The trees which are scarcely 12 m tall are scattered. A further association is the Anogeissus-Chloroxylon-Albizzia series with a mixture of broad-leaved and small-leaved trees.
The small-leaved trees are often forming a dry evergreen type with Acacia- Albizzia dominants. Common trees in these dry tracts are Acacia nilotica (Kari jail), Albizia odoratissima (Bilwara), A. procera (Bellate), Boswellia serrata (Guggala), Buchanania lanzan (Kolegeru), Chloroxylon swietenia (Hurihuli), Diospyros melanoxylon (Abanashi), Lannea coromandelica (Udimara) and Sterculia urens (Bili matti). Strychnos potatorum (Chilla beeja) and Wrightia tinctoria are economically useful trees that occur as an understorey when the forest is well preserved. However they are more often seen as stunted and scattered shrubs due to biotic interference.
Shrubs and herbaceous climbers are frequent. The red and black seeds of Abrus precatorius (gulaganji) and accrescent calyces of Calycopteris floribunda (marasada) are prominent after the monsoon. Ichnocarpus frutescens (Karihambu) and Decalepis hailtonii (Megaliberu) are protected from browsing by their latex. Gmelina asiatica (Shivani) and Canthium parviflorum (Kare) have a decided advantage in the struggle for survival because of their forbidding thorns. Cassia auriculata (Avarike) and Ziziphus oenoplia (Surimullu) are perhaps the commonest shrubs in these dry regions. There are patches of xerophytes especially on the exposed rocky flats as at Gokak. The succulent Euphorbia shrubs stand up like candelabra encrusted with the red of numerous cyathia. Caralluma with its malodorus flowers is admirably adapted for survival on these arid flats because of its captive water holding, poisonous sap and pollination
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 147 Water Quality strategy. Sesamum laciniatum with its dissected leaves and large red flowers is a pleasing oddity in an otherwise bleak setting.
There are characteristic trees near human habitations. Ziziphus mauritiana (Bore hannu), Azdirachta indica (Bevu) are favorite trees in the drier regions, one for its edible fruits, the other for its oil-yielding fruits and medicinal leaves . Pongamia pinnata (Honge) is another useful tree especially present along streams, rivers and tanks. The white flowers of Plumeria (Kadu sampige) appearing when the tree is leafless make a striking picture against the backdrop of many a dusty village. The district thus has a wide range of vegetation types ranging from the moist tropical evergreens to the xerophytes of arid, exposed, inhospitable rocky soil. Many of the plants are of economic value for their timber, fruits, fibers and oils.
7.6 Trees found in Agricultural and Horticultural gardens The major trees found in agricultural fields and horticultural gardens are Azaridictha indica , Musa sapientum ; Citrus indica ; Anacardium occidentale ; Artocarpus integrifolia ; Tamarindus indica ; Eugenia jamboolina ; Mangifera indica ; Citrus bergamia ; Psidium pomiferum ; Annona reticulata ; Annona squmosa ; Cocus nucifera and Areca catechu . The chief fiber yielding plants are Bambusa arundinacea , Saccharam officinarium , Alove vulgaris , Caryota urens , and Helicicteres isora . The common hedge plants are Adathooda vasica , Opuntia dillenia , Jatropa curcas , Moringa pterygosperma , Erythrina indica , Acacia concinna and Pithicolobium dulce . The aquatic plants, some of which have magnificent blossoms are lotuses, Nymphoea robra with large brilliant red flowers and Nelumbium speciosum , are common in the region.
The chief climbing shrubs and weeds growing on waste lands and hills are ‘Dattura’, thorn apple, ( Datura alba ); Balli ( Capparis horrida ), a thorny shrub with large white flowers. There are three kinds of ‘Dattura’ plant; Kakkigida, ( Solanum indicum ); Indian nightshade ( Solanum jacquini ); and Solanum trilobatum . Other plants are Utrani ( Achyranthes aspera ); the yellow thistle or Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana ); Bundurgi ( Dodonaea viscosa ) and Chadarangi ( Lantana camera ).
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Among the wild climbing plants in the forests are the Memodica charantia , Coculus cordifolius and Cissu discolor . Many Convolvulus family members yield exquisite flowers, and among them are the Bryonia collosa , Argyreia malabarica and the elephant creeper Argyreia speciosa .
7.7 Exotic Flora The chief exotic trees and plants which have been introduced into the area are the rain tree ( Pithecolobium saman ), a native of Jamaica, the ‘Dividivi’ tree (Caesalpinia coriaria ), which grows in black and red soil and the pod of which yields valuable tannin; the Mahogany ( Swietenia mahogany ); the ‘Suru’ (Casuarina equisetifolia ); the ‘Nilgiri’ ( Eucalyptus oblique ); the Silver oak (Grewilia robasta ) and the ‘Chikku’ ( Achorus sapota ).
The ornamental shrubs and plants which thrive well are Acalyphas , Achemenes , Aralias arums, Bignonia, Caladiums, Coleus, Crotons, Dahlias, Gladiolus, Hoya, Jasminum and Plumbago. Most of these are exotic varieties, but have acclimatized to the region.
The chief varieties of flowers are the Amaranthus antirrhinum, aster, balsam, calliopsis, candy tuft, cockscomb, convolvulus, dianthus or pink geranium, mignonette, portulaca, rose sweet pea, sunflower, and verbena etc., among others.
The chief vegetables are Brinjal (Badanekayi) Capsicum (Menasinakayi), Carrots (Gajjari), Cauliflower, Cucumber (Savtekayi), French Beans (Tingalvari), Knolkhol, Lettuce, Mustard (Sasavi), Onion (Ullagadde), Peas, Radish (Mulangi), Spinach, Tomato, Turnip, Fenugreek (mente) and Potato.
7.8 Fauna 7.8.1 Domestic animals The domestic animals cows and buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, monkeys, donkeys, dogs and fowls are prominent. Cows are found all over the region. Krishna valley, Khillari, Amrit mahal and local breeds of cows are noticed in the district. Cows are reared for milk and draught purposes, while bullocks are used
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 149 Water Quality in ploughing and transport. She-buffaloes are reared for milk, while he-buffaloes are used for ploughing and draught. Surti, Gavli, Pandharapur and local breeds of buffaloes are noticed in the region. Donkeys and horses are used for transporting clothes and building materials. Dogs are kept by owners to guard their premises and also to hunt boars, sambar. Goats are reared for mutton and some goats yield milk. Sheep are reared mainly for wool and mutton. Fowls are reared for eggs and chicken.
7.8.2 Wild animals Among the wild animals, the common langur Presbytis entellus is found all over the region inhabiting groves, rivers banks and woodlands. Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatto and bonnet macaque Mucaca radiata are generally distributed in the region. Rhesus macaque are terrestrial in habit, preferring the open plains to the forest clad country while bonnet macaque inhabits forested areas, rocky cliffs and wanders about in parties. The sloth bear Melursis ursinus is nocturnal in habit and is found in rocky hills, dry deciduous and xerophytic forests in the plains but near fresh water. The diet of sloth bear often varies with the seasonal flowering and fruiting of different trees and shrubs.
There are also reports of jungle cat Felis chaus , and the toddy cat is nocturnal, tree dwelling civet cat, frequenting forest and hill ranges of the region. The Indian civet Viverricula indica occurs in forest areas. The striped Hyaena hyaena is common all over the region. The small Indian mangoose Herpestes airppunctatus is also common in the region. The common Indian jackal Canis aureus abounds everywhere. The Indian fox Vulpes bengalensis is common in the eastern parts of the study area. The wild dog Cuon alpinus is more common in the forest than in the plains. The common porcupine Hystrix indica is rare. The giant flying squirrel Petaurista petaurista , the Malayan giant squirrel Ratufa bicolor , the wild pig Sus scrofa are common in all forest area. The wild pig is a dirty feeder and will even eat carrion and cows which have died of disease.
The blacknaped hare Lepus nigricollis is common in open area and scrub forest than heavy forests. The sambar, Cervus unicolor is a rare occurring in forests.
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The spotted deer is diurnal unlike the sambar which is nocturnal in habit. The barking deer Muntiacus muntjac haunts hill forests with its echoing rattling call.
The Indian mouse deer Tragulus meminna is common in forest area and is nocturnal. It is quite a pretty, shy cud-chewing deer let. Elephant, Elephas maximus frequents the forests in small groups. The pangolin, Manis crassicaudata is a favorite prey of tiger and panther. The bat Pteropus edwardsii is common all over the region wherever there are Tamarinds, Figs or other trees with edible fruit.
Bats squeak while at rest and in flight they emit ultrasonic pulses of sound. Great musk shrews, is often seen in the forest. The bandicoot, Mus bandicota is common in houses and granaries. The migratory rat, Mus decumannis is the common house rat found in the region. The field rat Golunda meltada is found in the plains and is said to do much damage to the crops, especially during famines. Among honey bees, Naraj jenu ( Melipona sp.,) and Sanna nonajenu (Trigona sp.) are about the size of gnats and they build their nests around small twigs in bushes and also in the ground. Nonajenu and Kadujenu build nests in trees and rocks. Aphis sp. is domesticated and reared in the region.
Among birds, black vulture, Otogyps calvus is common everywhere and more in forest areas. The Brahminy kite Haliaster Indus is found near all the water bodies. The common Paraiah kite Milvuis migrans , is very common in fair weather and occurs in small numbers during rainy season. The Indian screech owl, Strix javanica is common in forest areas and the rock horned owl, Bubo bengalensis is common in plains. The common swallow, Hirundo rustica is a cold weather visitant found everywhere. The wire-tailed swallow, Hirundo filifera is common in plains. The Indian swift, Cypsellus affinis is common in plains and the crested swift Dendrochelidon coronata is very common in forest areas. The jungle nightjar, Caprimulgus indicus is common in forest area, and common Indian nightjar, Caprimulgus asiaticus is common in plains.
The common Indian bee eater, Merops viridis occurs everywhere in the region. The white breasted kingfisher, Halcyon myrnensis is common everywhere and is
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 151 Water Quality resident of the region. The grey hornbill Tockus birostris and the golden beaked wood pecker Crysocolaptes delesserti are common in forest areas. The rose- ringed parakeet Palaeornis torquatus , the Indian lorikeet Loriculus vernalis, the blue throated barbet, Magalaima asiatica and the green barbet, Magalaima zeylanica , a resident are common in the region. The koel Eudynamys scolopaceus is seen mostly in plains. The common crow pheasant Centrococcyx rufipennis hovers round in scrub forests and gardens all over the region. The honey pecker, Dicaeum concolor is common in forest areas. The Indian grey shrike, Lanius schach , a resident, is found in plains and the ashy swallow shrike, Artamus fuscus is common in the region and so is the scarlet minivet, Pericrocotus flammeus . The small minivet, Ptericrocotus perigrinus is seen everywhere. The Malabar racket-tailed drongo, Dissemurus paradiseus a resident is seen in forest areas and so is the paradise fly catcher, Terpsiphone paradise .
The white spotted fantail, Leucocerca leucogaster and the yellow-eyed Babler, Pictoris sinensis both residents are common throughout the region and the white headed babbler, Malacocercus grisens , a resident frequents the plains. The red whiskered bulbul, Pycnotus cafer and the white cheeked bulbul, Pycnonotus leucogenys are also common in the region. The golden oriole, Oriolus oriolus is seen in plains and the black-headed orilie, Oriolus melanocephalus in forest areas. The shama, Cercotrichas macrura frequents thick forests. The magpie robin, Copsychus saularis is common in the region. The Indian tailor bird, Orthotomus sutorius , a resident, is common everywhere. The common magpie, Dendrocitta rufa , a resident, lives in forest areas. The carrion crow, Corvus macrorhynchus , a resident is common everywhere.
The common myna, Acridotheres tristis a resident is found in plains and the jungle mynah, Acridotheres fuscus , a resident in forest areas. The frequent baya weaver bird, Ploceus philippinus frequent plains, while the white-backed munia Lonchura striata the forest areas. The common sparrow, Passer domesticus a resident, is common everywhere in nearby villages. The blue rock pigeon, Columba livia hovers round plains and hilly regions. The spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis belongs to all forests and the painted Sandgrouse,
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Pterocles fasciatus is confined to scrub forest. The common sandgrouse Pterocles exustus a resident, is seen in plains, mostly in open grass lands. The peocock Pavo cristatus , is very common in scrub forest and grey jungle fowl Gallus sonerati is common in forest areas. The painted patridge, Francolinus pictus a resident, is seen on most black soil tracts and is seldom found far from trees.
The common grey partridge, Grancolinus pictus a resident, is very common in scrub forests. The jungle bush quail, Perdicula asiatica belongs to forests. The Indian bustard, Eupodotis edwardsii occurs around Saudatti. The lesser florkin, Sypheotides aurita is seen in fields and grass lands. The common ring plover, Aegialitis dubia hovers round ponds and grasslands. Near water source is seen the red wattled lapwing, Venellis indicus , and the yellow wattled lapwing, Lobipluvia malabarica, a resident, chooses drier ground. The painted snipe, Rhynchaea bengalensis seems to require much thicker cover and is never found in bare rice-fields.
The spotted sand piper, Rhyacophila glareola is fond of ponds and rice fields. The bronze winged jacana, Metopidius indicus, a resident is seen mostly in Khanapur area. The stilt, Himantopus candidus lingers near ponds. The green shank, Totanus glottis appears in the cold season. The pheasant-tailed jacana, Hydrophasianus chirurgus is a bird of the plains. The purple coot, Porphyrio porphyrio is locally distributed, mostly near reedy ponds. The white breasted water hen, Amaurornis phoenicura likes ponds and river banks. The adjutant stork, Leptopiles dubius and the white necked stork, Ciconia episcopus are found all round in the district and so are the little egret, Egretta garzetta and the large egret, Egretta alba . The cattle egret Bubulcus ibis , revolves round forest tracts. The white ibis, Threskiorins melanocephalus is found on all the larger streams and river banks. The little cormorant, Palacrocorax pygmaeus and the purple sun bird Nectarinia asiatica are also seen all over.
Among amphibians, the common toad Bufo melanosticus , the wrinkled from Rana curtipes , chanum frog, Rhacophorus macullatus , green frog Hyla arborea are common. They have keen sense of hearing and smell. They feed on insects
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 153 Water Quality and worms and breed at the onset of monsoon rains. They are preyed by snakes and carnivorous birds. Among reptiles, Indian chameleon, chameleon calcaratus, garden lizard Calotes varicolor , the blood sucker Calotes versicolor , starred tortoise Testudo elegans , cobra Naja naja, viper Echis carinata , rat snake and semi aquatic snake Natrix stolatus are prominent. Lizards are insectivorous and snakes are carnivorous and feed on rats, mice, frogs, toads, lizards, worms, insects and eggs.
Large tanks and rivers in the region present a number of different ecological habitats and accordingly more diverse species of fresh water fish and others live in them. During the rainy season, many fishes migrate upstream before spawning or move into shallow water as the level rises during rains. The Malaprabha and the Ghataprabha rivers are the main fresh water fishing grounds in the region.
7.9 Approach and Methodology 7.10 Approach A participatory and consultative approach was followed for executing the assignment on Biodiversity and Ecological Assessment of the Ramasheswra Lift irrigation project at Gokak taluk of Belgaum district. A team of experts from
Department of Environmental Sciences, Bangalore University visited the project area and conducted the ecological survey. Meetings were also held during the ecological survey with forest officials, Revenue Department and local community. Literature survey included review of forest working plan, census handbook, gazetteer and other records related to ecology of the region was collected.
7.11 Methodology 7.12 Phyto-sociological Survey of the Study Area
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7.12.1 Qualitative observations A complete inventory has been carried out to record the plant and animal species existing in the proposed water drawing point at Aralimatti village (12 ha area) and all along the canal area of the project site. For this survey, the state
Engineering Department deputed Sri. Vijay Krishna, who has been involved in survey. The ecology team has been able to identify and record the species and prevailing in different land use patterns, such as agro-ecosystems, house backyards, along the streams, which has been cross-checked with Gokak forest division Working Plan of the Forest Department. The team has also recorded the entire life forms category thriving in the field, consisting of trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers etc.
7.12.2 Quantitative survey In order to have representative ecological status for the study area, the whole study area was divided into three division i.e., project site (water diversion and pump house area), Riparian vegetation around 5-km stretch of downstream and upstream from the water drawing point and command area or the project. Each sites was examined for representative flora on randomly sampled quadrates for trees/shrubs/herbs and grasses depending upon prevailing geographical conditions, forest types and bio-diversity aspects. Quadrate method has decided for vegetation studies to capture the heterogeneity in the division. Quadrates were laid on the field, keeping in view of the heterogeneity in the particular area, such as tank bed and bund, trees in agricultural bunds, farm forestry plantations, avenue plantations, house backyards etc. In each sample plot all the individuals were recorded separately, and species were identified on the field and unidentified specimens were confirmed by cross checking with the Herbarium available at the Center for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore.
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Phyto-sociological parameters, viz., frequency, density and diversity were measured to determine the distribution and ecological aspects of the species.
Frequency is expressed in percentage and is a reflection of the probability of encountering the species within the sampled area. Density is a measure of how dense is the distribution of an individual species within a given area. It is calculated by dividing the number of individuals of a species by the total number of quadrants taken. Basal area is the area occupied by the base of a tree and it is considered as a good indicator of the size, volume of a tree in a given ecosystem.
Species diversity was calculated by using the formula of Shannon and Wiener (1963) as:
H = 3.3219 (log 10 N-1/N ∑∑∑ni log 10 ni)
Where H is Shannon index of general diversity; n i and N are the IVI of the species and community respectively.
7.12.3 Screening literature for species status Besides measuring these parameters, other biodiversity aspects in the form of endemic status, conservation status and life form have been collected from the literature. For all the species found in the area during ecological survey, IUCN, Red Data Books of the Botanical Survey of India have been screened to verify their conservation status and also Wildlife Schedule, 1 and 2, were consulted extensively, to verify their present conservation status
7.12.4 Faunal diversity in the region For faunal diversity, consultations were held with forest department, NGOs and other records of the region, followed by discussions with knowledgeable persons of the villages and also frontline forest officials to validate the information cited in
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 156 Water Quality the literature. To know endemic or conservation status of the fauna Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Preservation Act (1972) has been screened.
7.13 Observation and discussion 7.13.1 Overview of Forests resource of the Study Area Observations in the field combined with the study of past history of the region indicate that the forests were originally of thorn and scrub forest type. Systematic conservation of forest, in Belgaum district, dates back to the time of the passing of the Bombay Presidency forest Act. Attempts have been made from the earliest periods of the East India Company’s rule to earn a revenue out of timber and later on, the receipts derived by the Jungle Conservancy Fund from dead wood, and firewood removed for sale, which were later expanded on the planting and maintenance of scattered ‘thopes (area having group of trees)’, but nothing was done systematically to protect the natural forest growth of the region. The forests of the region like its crops naturally differ with the soil in which they grow and the rainfall they receive. In the dry black cotton soil areas, the growth consists chiefly of ‘babul’ which rapidly sows itself in tank beds or wherever land of any depth is left waste. Many of the fields which remained untilled after the great famine of 1877 speedily became covered with a thick growth of it. The areas of shallower soil produce Prosopis and Balanites. On the granite hills there is usually little soil cover, except in scattered pockets, where tamarind, custard apple, babul and acacia trees grow with little effort.
The details of forest types and areas are given below (Champion & Seth, 1967, in “A revised survey of the forest types of India”).
The thorn forest formation, consisting mainly of bundurgi ( Dodonaea viscosa ) and Acacias and Cassias, is typical of the dry black soil region, but is now extremely restricted by agricultural land, and only the banks of the major river Ghataprabha river and its tributary streams now show remnants of such formation. Many species of Acacia genus and other species of scrub and open forest and, grasses contribute to a typical landscape of this formation.
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The forests are managed under regular working plans, the objective of which is the supply of fuel to the public and small timber, for the purpose of house construction and agricultural implements. The scrub forests are usually open to grazing, and therefore no improvement can be effected from the silviculatural point of view.
The thorn forest formation, consisting mainly of Dodonia viscosa and Acacias is typical of the dry black soil region, but is now extremely restricted by agricultural land, and only the banks of the major river Malaprabha and its tributary streams now show a remnant of such formation. Acacias and other species of thorn scrub and grasses contribute to a typical landscape of this formation.
7.13.2 Composition and the condition of the forest Forest of the region can be classified as Southern Tropical Thorn Forests (6A/C1) and (6A/DS1) as per classification of India’s forest by Champion and Seth (1968), previously these were described as ‘Scrub jungle’.
The principal species are Anjan ( Hardwickia binata ), tugli ( Albizzia amara ), Mashwal ( Chloroxylon swietenia ) and Halagatti ( Wrightia tinctoria ). Other species found are dindal ( Anogeissus latifolia ), tumri ( Diospyros melonoxylon) , Kakke ( Cassia fistula ), Hirajali ( Acacia latronum ), Seethapal ( Annona squamosa ), Bandurgi ( Dodonia viscosa ) etc.
On the blanks of the rivers and streams and in well-drained black soils, species like Hulgal ( Pongamia pinnata ), Babul ( Acacia nilotica ), Naineral ( Syzygium corymbosa ), Holematti ( Terminalia arjuna ) are seen. Sandal ( Santalum album ) once a native of these forests has almost disappeared from the region but lies scattered along nalas, on forests borders and in malki lands along with other common species like hunse ( Tamarindus indica ), Neem ( Azadirachta indica ), Mango ( Mangifera indica ), Dodda mara ( Ailanthus execlsa ).
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Three most obnoxious kinds of species were observed in the region are prickly pear ( Opuntia sp.), Lantana camara and Loranthus. There had been attempts to eradicate these in the past.
7.13.3 Natural regeneration of the forest of the region Natural regeneration is in general inadequate. It is mostly of coppice origin or through root suckers and very seldom though seedlings. In areas near about Gokak falls the vegetation consists mostly of Euphorbias and within a cluster of these very often the neem ( Azadiractha indica ) makes its appearance and establishes itself. Given adequate protection this species will certainly thrive. In many areas the growth of vegetation is greatly depleted due to heavy biotic pressure. The growth where it occurs in places which are far away from away from human habitation is also stunted.
7.14 Key features of the study area The key features observed for three locations were summarized in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1. Key feature of sampled locations of the project area Sl. Location of Area Features No the project Two houses and 12 acres agricultural area dominated by sugarcane and paddy. The location is on right side of Project site – the Ghataprabha river bank, which is water 1 12 acre adjacent to the Aralimati village which is diversion 5 km below the Aralimatti. The trees point observed are Acacia nilotica, Pongamia, Terminalia along the bank and Tectona grandis in the agriculture land. This command area forms a part of Ghataprabha sub catchments in main Krishna river, above the confluence of Bhima catchment of Krishna basin. The region is gently undulating landscape Command with a linear belt of hills running in 2 18,000 ha area almost east-west direction dividing the region into two parts. The region has gentle easterly slope forming largely a plain interspersed with isolated low hills. As many as 34 villages land is going to get irrigation benefits. The vegetation
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observed is of scrub type dominated by many species of Acacia’ s and Prosopis julifera . 5-km stretch The area adjacent to the diversion point from the water is agricultural fields, it doesn’t have Riparian diversion point much vegetation on both side. However 3 vegetation on both few tree species such as Terminalia, upstream and Acacia, Pongamia are the common down stream species observed.
7.15 Bio-diversity Aspects of Flora in the Study Area 7.15.1 Plant species richness There were a total 101 plant species recorded in proposed irrigation project area. Of these were 43 trees, 19 shrubs, 31 herbs and 7 climbers respectively. The species names, family were given in Annexure II. The trees and herbs contribute a very high percentage to floral density. The survey team has come across more number of tree species than other life form. Location wise species density and diversity details were given in Annexure I.
Table 7.2. Tree species density and diversity in proposed project area Sl. Number of Land categories Density/ha Diversity No. species
Project site – water 1 diversion point and 8 46 1.85 pump house station
2 Command area 26 154 3.13 3 Riparian vegetation 26 168 2.95 Overall 43 358 3.55 Note: Location wise species density and diversity were given in Annexure I.
7.15.2 Overall Species density and diversity The dominant species were the Azadirictha indica, Acacia nilotica, Chloroxylon switinia, Pongamia pinnata, Terminalia sp., Tamarindus indica, Mangifera indica etc., recorded in the proposed project area. The species diversity values
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 160 Water Quality indicate that that farmers maintained tree resources. The sampled area also harbors few rare and threatened species category, such as Santalum album and Gloriosa superba .
7.15.3 Shrubs, Herbs and climbers The total of 43 trees, 19 shrubs, 31 herbs and 7 climbers were recorded in the proposed project area respectively. The Shrubs, herb and climber’s species name and family were given in Annexure II. Among the 42 herbs and 10 climbers species, Evolulus alsinoidis , a herb belonging to rare category and one climber i.e, Gloriosa suparba which come under endangered category.
7.15.4 Conservation status of plants Among 101 plant species recorded in the proposed project, three species belong to rare, endangered and threatened species (RET) category (Table 7.3). Among these one climber, one herb and remaining two species belong to trees. These species were recorded all along the Ghataprabha river stretch. The local community and our observations reveals that a number of factors such as fuelwood and fodder extraction, overgrazing, successive fire incidences, encroachment of river stretch are contribute for degradation of the ecosystem, leading to endangering native flora and fauna in the region.
Table 7.3. List of plant species as under IUCN/Red Data Book category in the study area Sl. Species Family RLF* Conservation Status No 1 Gloriosa superba Liliaceae Climber Endangered
2 Evolulus alsinoidis Convoluaceae Herb Locally threatened 3 Santalum album Santalaceae Tree Endangered *RLF – Raunkiers Life Form i.e. T: Tree; S: Shrub; H: Herb; C: Climber Source: IUCN/Red data books: Schedule 1 of Wildlife protection Act, 1972: Karnataka Forest Department and Botanical survey of India.
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7.16 Biodiversity Aspects of Fauna in the Study Area The population sizes of the faunal species observed were limited in number and most often only a few individuals were seen during the survey. However, faunal species such as birds were visually observed and their individuals were counted and recorded during survey programme, which were crosschecked with the available literature for the region. Although there are no specific studies for the region under survey, however we have scrutinized the Belgaum Division Working Plan for the faunal diversity of the Reserve Forest of the region.
The mammalian wildlife is characteristic of the thorn and scrub forest and open forest. Though the greater cat (Tiger) and Leopard are not resident of the study area sampled, but the village people were of the view that these were sighted in the region almost ten years back. The wild boar, wild dog, fox and rat are the common mammals reported from the reserve forest of the proposed project area. The local people claim that the spotted deer and the sambar were found earlier and now their population is under threat, because of forest degradation and also due to hunting. The checklist of mammals reported from the region are given in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4. Mammal’s species recorded for the proposed project area Sl. Conservation Common name Scientific name No. Status 1 Sloth bear Melursus ursinus Locally Rare 2 Sambhar Cervus unicolor Common 3 Spotted deer Axis axis Common 4 Jackal Canis aureus Common 5 Mouse deer Tragulus meminna Common 6 Three striped palm squirrel Funanbulus palmarum Common 7 Wild Boar Sus scrofa Common 8 Wild dog Cyon alpinus Common 9 Bonnet macaque Macaca radiata Rare 10 Fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx Common 11 Jungle sheep Muntiacus muntjak Locally Rare 12 Common mangoose Herpestes edwardsi Common
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Sl. Conservation Common name Scientific name No. Status 13 Rat Rattus rattus Common Source: IUCN/Red Data Books: Schedule 1 of Wildlife protection Act, 1972: Karnataka Forest Department and Zoological survey of India.
The checklist of birds reported from the region by various authors was given in Table 7.5. Common myna, Black vulture, Brahminy kite are commonly found in the region.
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Table 7.5. Bird’s species recorded for the proposed project region
Sl. Conservation Common name Scientific name No. Status 1 Crested Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus Common 2 Black Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis Common 3 King Vulture Sarcogyps calvus Rare 4 Common Indian night gar Caprimulgus asiaticus Rare 5 Golden backed woodpecker Dinopium benghalense Common 6 Grey Jungle fowl Gallus sonneratii Common 7 Blue rock pigeon Columbia livia Common 8 Common Hawk Cuculus varius Common 9 Koel Eudynamys scolopacea Common 10 Indian great horned owl Bubo bubo Common 11 Indian robin Saxicoloides fulicata Common 12 Pale Harrier Circs macrourus Common 13 Red vented bulbul Pycronatus cafer Common 14 Pied kingfisher Ceryle rudis Common 15 Scarlet minivet Pericrocotus flammeus Common 16 Spotted dove Streptopelia chnensis Common 17 Redwhiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus Common 18 Weaver bird Ploceus philippinus Common 19 Tree pie Dendrocitta vagabunda Common 20 Jungle Babler Turdoidus straiatus Common 21 Crested serpent eagle Spiloris cheela Rare 22 Common myna Acridotheres tristis Common Source : IUCN/Red data books: Schedule 1 of Wildlife protection Act, 1972: Karnataka Forest Department and Zoological Survey of India.
The list of Butterflies observed by different authors in the region are given in Table 7.6. Among the ten butterflies reported from the region two species are rare.
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Table 7.6. Butterflies recorded for the project area Sl. Common name Scientific name Status No. 1 Common Castor Ariadne merione Common 2 Common Crow Euploea core Common 3 Common evening brown Melanitis leda Common 4 Common Lime Papilio demoleus Common 5 Crimson Rose Pachliopta hector Rare 6 Indian Sunbeam Curetis thetis Common 7 Painted Lady Vanessa cardui Rare 8 Striped Tiger Danais genutia Common 9 Yellow Pansy Junonia hierta Common Source: IUCN/Red data books: Schedule 1 of Wildlife protection Act, 1972: Karnataka forest Department Zoological survey of India
The reptiles and amphibians and fishes recorded from the region are given in Table 7.7. The most common found reptiles are species of Geckos and garden and monitor lizard. The members of the Wild life aware nature club have sighted the Indian Chameleon. Local people feel that rocky area harbors python and cobra. Table 7.7. Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes recorded for the region Sl. Conservation Common name Scientific name No. Status * REPTILES 1 Rock Gecko Hemidactylus maculates Common 2 Common garden lizard Calotes versicolor Common 3 Indian Chamaeleon Chamaeleon zeylanicus Rare 4 Monitor Lizard Varanus bengalensis Common 5 Spectacled cobra Naja naja Rare 6 Russels’s viper Vipera russeli Common 7 Peninsular rock agama Psammophilus dorsalis Common AMPHIBIANS 8 Southern Hill toad Bufo microtympanum Common
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Sl. Conservation Common name Scientific name No. Status * 9 Common Indian toad Bufo melanosticus Common 10 Marbled Baloon frog Uperodon systoma Common FISHES 11 Mallemeenu Nemachilus denisuni Common 12 Korava Channa punctatus Common 13 Godhle meenu Esomus danriens Common Source : IUCN/Red data books: Schedule 1 of Wildlife protection Act, 1972: Karnataka Forest Department and Zoological survey of India.
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Chapter VIII Land Use/Land Cover (Remote Sensing) Assessment
8.0 INTRODUCTION Remote sensing has proved to be an extremely valuable tool in resources mapping, resources targeting, resources management, environmental monitoring, weather forecasting and disaster location and monitoring. The most important applications include geological, geomorphological, mineral, groundwater, snow melt runoff, soil, land use/land cover, land degradation mapping and monitoring, forest mapping, management of water and agriculture resources. The availability of multitemporal remote sensing data enables earth resource scientists to monitor, at periodic intervals the location of zones affected by disaster such as floods, drought, cyclones, landslides, forest fires, pests and diseases of crops, and environmental degradations due to soil erosion, shoreline erosion, deforestation, shifting cultivation, soil salinity/alkalinity, desertification and pollution.
8.1 Location and Extent The site is situated near Aralimatti, a small village in Gokak Taluk, Belgaum district. It is located towards north of Kaujalgi in Gokak Taluk and the command area is distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti Taluks of the Belgaum district. The nearest town is Gokak which is approachable throughout the year. Ghataprabha is the nearest railway station. The climatic condition of the whole year is healthy, agreeable and is characterized by general dryness excepting monsoon season. The summer season between March and May is dry, dusty and very hot with maximum temperature reaching up to 42 0 C. December to February is the cold season when minimum temperature falls to 18 0 C. Generally, humidity varies from less than 20% during summer to 85% during monsoon period. June to September is the period with August being the wettest month. As per the recurs of gauging station at Kuligod, the average annual rainfall is 503 mm. On an average there are about 50 rainy days in a year. The winds are generally light with slight increase in the force observed during late summer and monsoon
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 167 Water Quality season. The area comes under northern dry zone of ten fold Agro-climatic zone of Karnataka.
8.2 Land Use / Land Cover Land use / land cover of the catchment area has been classified into six major classes and twenty four sub classes according to the SNRIS norms. The main classes of Land use are Built up land – It includes Towns / Cities, villages and industrial areas Agriculture Land – This class includes all agriculture lands under different seasonal crops, agricultural plantations and fallow land. Forest - This class includes degraded forest and Forest Plantations. Wastelands – This class includes Mining and Industrial wastelands and Salt affected lands. Water bodies – This class includes Lake / Tanks and Reservoirs Others – Includes mainly Habitation with Vegetation, Tree groves, Aquaculture ponds and mixed vegetation. Some of these classes show negligible extent in the district.
The main classes of Land cover are – Forest - This class includes Moist and Dry Deciduous open forests and Scrub forests. Wastelands – This class includes Barren rocky / stony waste / sheet rock area, Gullied / Ravenous Land, Land with scrub and Land without scrub and Sandy area. Water bodies – This class includes Rivers / Streams / Nalas and River islands Others – This class includes vegetation dominated by Prosophys juliflora
The details of each sub class and their extent and proportion with respect to the total geographical area of the district are given in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1. Land use / Land cover of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area
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Total Area Percent Sl. No Land Use / Land Cover (in ha) Area 1 Agricultural Plantation 4.98 0.03 Barren Rocky / Stony Waste / 2 210.44 1.18 Sheet Rock Area 3 Fallow land 230.64 1.29
4 Kharif + Rabi (Double Crop) 878.77 4.92
5 Kharif crop 2132.20 11.95
6 Lake / Tanks 140.09 0.79
7 Land with scrub 4548.84 25.49
8 Land without scrub 368.01 2.06
9 Rabi crop 8135.09 45.59
10 River / Stream 1071.18 6.00
11 River Island 6.16 0.03
12 Village 118.09 0.66
Total 17844.48 100.00
The command area of Sri Rameshwara project was demarcated from the toposheets on 1:50000 scale procured from Survey of India. The base maps of the study area showing roads, railways, settlements, rivers/tanks were prepared on 1:50000 scale.
8.3 Description of different land use / land cover classes 8.3.1 Built-up Land Built-up land comprises all types of structures, houses, playgrounds, recreational, institutional etc. The major urban settlements are identified and mapped as towns and cities. It has been further classified as residential, Commercial, Recreational, Industrial, etc. Other smaller settlements are identified and mapped as villages. The total area identified as Built-up land comes to about 118.09 hectares which is 0.66% to total command area.
8.3.2 Agriculture Land
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Cropping activity is seen throughout the year, mainly in the valley regions of the study area. There are three cropping seasons viz., Kharif from June to September/October, Rabi from October to February and Summer from March to May. Different categories of croplands identified in the area are described below.
a. Kharif crop The kharif season falls from June to September. The main crops are paddy, groundnut, ragi, etc. They can be rainfed or irrigated areas. The total area identified as crop land comes to about 2132.20 hectares which is 11.95% to total command area. b. Rabi crop The cropping seasons falls from October to February. The main crops are jowar, maize, cotton, sunflower, etc. They can be rainfed or irrigated areas. The total area identified as crop land comes to about 81395.09 hectares which is 45.59% to total command area. c. Double Cropped Land (Kharif + Rabi)/ (Kharif + Summer) From the two seasons satellite imagery the double-cropped areas were marked, where we can see the cropping during Kharif + Rabi or Kharif + Summer crops such as paddy, sugarcane, mulberry, etc. The total area identified as crop land comes to about 878.77 hectares which is 4.92% to total command area. e. Agricultural Plantation It is an area under agriculture crops planted adopting certain agricultural management technique. Coffee, Cashewnut, Cardamom, Coconut, Tea and Rubber plantations are predominant plantations in the study area. The total area identified as agricultural plantation comes to about 4.98 hectares which is 0.03% to total command area. f. Fallow Land Fallow land is an agriculture land left uncultivated during both Kharif and Rabi seasons. If the land is kept fallow up to one year it is current fallow and if the land is kept fallow for more than five years it is permanent fallow. The total area identified as Fallow land comes to about 230.64 hectares which is 1.29% to total command area.
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8.3.3 Wasteland Wasteland refers to degraded land, which can be brought under vegetation cover with reasonable effort. These lands are not productive currently due to various problems. The different categories of wastelands that are identified and delineated in the present study area are as follows:
a. Land with scrub This is a land, which is generally prone to deterioration and may have scrub cover. The land under this category is confined to the mounds and upland areas and also along the fringes of the notified forest boundary. The total area identified as Land with scrub comes to about 4548.8 hectares which is 25.49% to total command area. b. Land without scrub These lands are generally prone to degradation or erosion and may not have scrub cover. This category is found on the mounds and plain areas. The total area identified as Land without scrub comes to about 368.01hectares which is 2.06% to total command area. c. Barren Rocky / Stony Waste / Sheet Rock These are the rock exposures of varying lithology often bare and devoid of soil cover and vegetation. This category is observed mainly on the hilltops and upper slopes of the hillocks within the forest area. The total area identified as Barren Rocky / Stony Waste / Sheet Rock comes to about 210.44 hectares which is 1.18% to total command area.
8.3.4 Water Bodies It is an area of impounded water, aerial extent and often with a regulated flow of water. It includes man-made reservoir/ tanks/ canal, besides natural lake, rivers/ streams. a. River Island River Island area identified and mapped. The total area identified as River island comes to about 6.16 hectares which is 0.03% to total command area.
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8.4 Slope Characteristics Slope plays an important role in Land irrigability and land capability assessment. Slope map represents the inclination of the terrain over a distance i.e. changes in elevation over a distance. Slope maps were derived from 20 m contour interval obtained from Survey of India toposheets of 1:50,000 scale by standard procedure (Table 8.2). Topographical maps alone do not provide information in a form suitable for most of the planning problems. Hence, derived slope maps with classes of slopes help in planning. Based on the guidelines of All India Soil and Landuse survey (AIS & LUS), following slope categories are classified for geographic area of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area.
Table 8.2. Categories of slopes and corresponding contour spacing on 1:50,000 scale SL. CONTO UR SLOPE CLASSES PERCENT SLOPE NO. DISTANCE 1 > 4 cm Nearly Level 0 – 1 2 1.33 – 4 cm Very Gentle 1 – 3 3 0.88 – 1.33 cm Gentle Slope 3 – 5 4 0.4 – 0.88 cm Moderate Slope 5 – 10 5 0.26 – 0.4 cm Strong Slope 10 – 15 6 0.11 – 0.26 cm Moderately Steep 15 – 35 7 < 0.11 cm Very Steep > 35
8.5 Hydrogeomorphology The ground water regime is a dynamic system wherein water is absorbed at the surface of the earth and eventually recycled back to the surface. The ground water regime is controlled by various parameters like slope, depth and nature of weathering, drainage pattern, irrigation precipitation, lithology, soil, geologic structure, geomorphology, etc., therefore it is important in understanding the groundwater condition of an area.
The synoptic view of satellite imagery facilitates better appreciation of geomorphology and helps in mapping of different landforms and their
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 172 Water Quality assemblages. The Survey of India topomaps provide information required to interpret the geomorphology from the satellite imagery.
Initially, any area is mapped in the first level, considering physiography and relief, into 4 major zones, viz., Hills/Plateaus, Piedmont zones and Plains and Valleys. Each unit is further classified and mapped into different geomorphic units based on the landform characteristics, their aerial extent, depth of weathering and thickness of deposition.
The geomorphological units of the Sri Rameshwara Project command area mainly covers Linear Ridge, Pediment, Valley, Pediplain shallow weathered, Plateau moderately dissected, Plateau Slightly dissected and Channel Island, Reservoir Island, Plateau weathered, River/ Stream, Tank, and Valley Fill. The Hydrogeomorphology of Sri Rameshwara Irrigation project is given in Table 3.
8.5.1 Linear Ridge Linear to arcuate hills showing definite trendlines, consisting of hard compact rocks with or without soil cover. This unit covers to 161.70hectares which is 0.91% of the total command area. This zone acts as a run off zone.
8.5.2 Pediment Gently undulating plain dotted with rock outcrops with or without thin veneer of soil cover. This unit covers 78.11 hectares which is 0.44% of the total command area. The zone acts as a runoff zone with limited groundwater prospect.
Table 8.3. Hydrogeomorphological units of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area Sl. Hydrogeomorphology Total Area (in ha) Percent Area No 1 Channel island 6.16 0.03 2 Linear Ridge 161.70 0.91
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3 Pediment 78.11 0.44 4 Pediplain Shallow weathered 1551.59 8.70 5 Plateau moderately dissected 4593.06 25.74 6 Plateau slightly dissected 5669.60 31.77 7 Plateau weathered 3447.34 19.32 8 River/Stream 1071.18 6.00 9 Tank 140.49 0.79 10 Valley 269.73 1.51 11 Valley Fill 855.50 4.79 Total 17844.48 100.00
8.5.3 Valley Low lying depressions and negative landforms of varying size and shape occurring within the hills associated with stream / nala courses. This unit covers 269.73 hectares which is 1.51% of the total command area. The groundwater prospect is moderate.
8.5.4 Pediplain Shallow Weathered Gently undulating plains, large aerial extent, plains formed by the coalescence of several pediments. Thickness of weathered material varies from 0 to10 Mts. This unit covers 1551.59 hectares which is 8.70% of the total command area. The groundwater prospect is moderate to poor.
8.5.5 Pediplain Moderate Dissected Gently undulating plains formed due to process of pedeplaination and weathering, normally occurring along valleys. The weathering thickness varies from 10 to 20 Mts. This unit covers 4593.06 hectares which is 25.74% of the total command area. The groundwater prospect is good to moderate.
8.5.6 Channel Island An island amidst the river/stream/channels with exposure of bedrock normally gneissic/granitic terrain and exposed with soil cover. Channel Island is mainly composed of gravels, sand and silt of river borne deposits. This unit covers 6.16 hectares which is 0.03% of the total command area. The groundwater prospect is good to moderate.
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8.5.7 Plateau Slightly Dissected Plateau with slightly dissection forming mostly gently undulating terrain with fairly thick weathered mantle and valley floors area. This unit covers 5669.60 hectares which is 31.77% of the total command area.
8.5.8 Valley Fill The valley fill comprises sand, silt, clay and rock fragments with limited lateral spread. These are the depression zones and are represented by the area along drainage. Intense land use practices are seen along the Valley Fills. This unit covers 855.50 hectares which is 4.79% of the total command area.
8.6 Ground Water Prospects The occurrence and movement of groundwater in hard rock terrains are controlled by number of factors such as lithology, structure, landforms, thickness of weathered mantle, soil type, land cover and land use, recharge through rainfall etc. Except rainfall data other aspects have been generated by using satellite data, qualitatively on regional scale. Such information derived from satellite data when integrated with adequate hydrological and collateral data, will be use full in the delineation of groundwater prospects zones.
It is suggested that though the Hydrogeomorphology map itself gives a reasonable idea on groundwater prospects of the region, extensive, highly localized surface geophysical surveys in the target areas are required, to establish the thickness of weathered zone, behavior of saturated fractures at depth etc., before drilling is taken up. After drilling the wells systematic pumping tests are to be conducted, so that based on the aquifer characteristics, suitable measures could be taken up for the management of groundwater resources over a long period. The Ground Water prospects of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme are given in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4. Ground Water Prospects of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area
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Sl. No Ground Water Prospects Total Area (in ha) Percent Area 1 Very Good to Good 6.16 0.03 2 Good 2762.75 15.48 3 Moderate 11981.14 67.14 4 Moderate to Poor 2358.18 13.22 5 Poor to Nil 461.70 2.59 6 Water Body Mask 274.54 1.54 Total 17844.48 100.00
8.7 Lithology The operation and interaction of natural agencies of weathering and erosion on the bedrock produce soil. The physical nature of soil therefore depends on the bedrock material and agencies of weathering.
Soils are classified as residual, transported or organic, depending upon their origin. On the basis of composition and physical characteristics, soil can be designated as clayey, loamy, silty, sandy, gravelly or combinations thereof. Broadly, they are called fine-texture, medium-textured or coarse-textured. Soils have characteristic hydrological properties, namely soil permeability and porosity, which govern the surface run-off vis-à-vis subsurface infiltration. Soils can be grouped as poorly drained, moderately drained, well drained and excessively drained. The coarse-textured soils, owing to their larger grain size, are invariably better drained than the fine-textured soils, in which infiltration of water is inhibited. These properties underlie the response of soils on photographs and images. The Lithology of Sri Rameshwara Project is given in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5. Lithology of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area Sl. Total Area Rock Type Percent Area No. (in ha) 1 Argillite, Quarzite and Conglomerate 521.99 02.93 2 Conglomerate, Arenite and Shale 3718.50 20.84 3 Dolomite, Argillite and Chert-breccia 1659.58 9.30 4 Dolomite, Limestone,Argillite 2127.40 11.92 5 Dolomite, Limestone, Argillite (Yendigeri) 4597.46 25.76 6 Undifferentiated flows 5219.55 29.25
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Total 17844.48 100.00
8.8 Drainage and Watershed The drainage map shows different types of drainage patterns. The collective pattern of streams and their course constitutes drainage pattern. Factors like slope, geological features, and topography are reflected in the drainage patterns of an area.
Drainage density is dependent on factors like relief, rainfall intensity, and infiltration capacity of the soil and vegetation cover. Drainage density in this area is high because of more undulations. Drainage system of the Sri Rameshwara Project command area falls under Krishna basin drained by one major catchment. The catchment forms drainage systems to river Krishna. This catchment mainly contributes to river Malaprabha by taking water through big streams.
The watershed details up to micro-watershed level are given in the following Table 8.8. The Sri Rameshwara Project command area falls under the water resource region of the Bay of Bengal (Region 4) drained by Krishna basin (4D). It is further delineated into 1 catchment, 2 sub-catchments and 3 watersheds. These 3 watersheds have been further delineated into 12 sub-watersheds, 19 mini-watersheds and 65 micro-watersheds. The details are given in Table 8.10. The Krishna basin (4D) includes two catchments viz., Main Krishna above confluence with Bhima (4D7). In Sri Rameshwara Project command area, the biggest sub-watershed is Chippalkatti with an area of 3561.42 hectares.
Table 8.6. Watershed Details (up to Watershed) of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area
Hydrological Units Total Nos. Name Region 1 Bay of Bengal (4) Basin 1 Krishna (4D) Main Krishna above confluence with Bhima Catchment 1 (4D7) Malaprabha Sub-Catchment 2 Ghataprabha (4D7D) (4D7C)
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Doddahalla, Tas, Hirehalla Hirehalla 4 Watershed 3 (Ghataprabha) (4D7C8) (4D7D5) (4D4D3)
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Table 8.7. Watershed code of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area
Sl. Watershed No. of Micro - Watershed No. code watersheds 1 Tas, Hirehalla 4D7C8 1 2 Doddahalla (Ghataprabha) 4D4D3 51 3 Hirehalla 4 4D4A3 7 Total 3 59
Table 8.8. Sub-watersheds of Sri Rameshwara Project Command Area Sl. No. of Micro - Total Area Sub-Watershed Watershed Percent Area No Watershed (in ha) 1 Akkisagar Hirehalla4 3 1062.65 5.96 2 Bagarmal Hirehalla4 4 1113.97 6.24 Doddahalla, 3 Chipalkatti 12 3561.42 19.96 Ghataprabha Doddahalla, 4 Hulkund 8 2097.22 11.75 Ghataprabha Doddahalla, 5 Hunshval 1 264.01 1.48 Ghataprabha Doddahalla, 6 Kuligod 10 2386.65 13.37 Ghataprabha Doddahalla, 7 Mallapur 2 563.25 3.16 Ghataprabha Doddahalla, 8 Manami 3 1216.59 6.82 Ghataprabha Doddahalla, 9 Timmapur 8 2271.36 12.73 Ghataprabha Tas, 10 Totgatti 1 416.94 2.34 Hirehalla Doddahalla, 11 Virupakshahalla 4 1569.77 8.80 Ghataprabha Doddahalla, 12 Yadawad 3 1320.66 7.40 Ghataprabha Total 59 17844.48 100.00
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Chapter IX
Socio-Economic appraisal and perception on Rehabilitation and Resettlement (R & R) policy
9.0 The Settings Sri Rameshwar Lift Irrigation scheme is located at Aralimatti village in Gokak taluk of Belgaum district in Karnataka state. The Government of Karnataka proposed the project during 2002, in response to the representations made by the people of the villages from Ramdurg, Gokak and Soudatti taluks of the Belgaum district. In order to explore the possibilities of providing protective irrigation and drinking water to these chronically drought affected villages, the Government of Karnataka considered recommendations of the Sri B C Angadi committee for implementation of Sri Rameshwar lift irrigation scheme by allocating 2.2 TMC of water from the Ghataprabha river, a tributary of Krishna river basin.
The proposed project is expected to benefit more than 30 villages, spread over three taluks of Gokak, Ramdurg and Soudatti belonging to Belgaum district. The gross command area of the project is 18,022.73 hectares, with net irrigated area accounting for 13,800 hectares, to achieve 100% cropping intensity during Khariff season. The total estimated cost of the project is Rs 226.20 lakhs towards creating irrigation and drinking water facility in the proposed command area.
In this context, the Government of Karnataka has proposed the Sri Rameshwar Lift Irrigation Project, which would be drawing water from the Ghataprabha river by means of a lift irrigation. It is proposed to pump water from Jack well. Construction of intake channel, pump house chamber, canal network for the project involves, inevitably submersion of land and few residential sites. Therefore, prior to commencement of such projects, it is necessary for the
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 180 Water Quality government to assess the extent of loss of properties and infrastructure in the project area. It is also necessary to implement effective Rehabilitation and Resettlement (R & R) programmes for villages and people affected from the project. In this regard, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the proposed Sri Rameshwar Lift Irrigation Project has been undertaken. In this section the assessment of socio-economic conditions of the project area and perception of the local people on the R & R programme is assessed and presented.
The EIA conducted at the Sri Rameshwar Irrigation Project, describes the socio- economic features of the project area, extent of land and number of residential sites directly and indirectly affected due to the establishment of water pipe line and canal network. The report provides a general profile of the project area, and in particular the existing socio-economic features of the villages. Further, study conducted in six villages, provides extent of land affected under proposed project and a few residential sites coming under the project. The study has attempted to collect household level information on various personal and socio-economic components, and besides the perceptions of the resident households have also been collected, on the nature of R and R policy and its implementation.
9.1The study location The proposed lift irrigation scheme involves construction of the intake point with powerhouse and delivery chamber at Aralimatti village, located at 40 km from Gokak town. This is followed by drawing pipeline and creation of canal network. The geographic coordination of the location is at longitude of 75 o 04’ 15” East and latitude of 16 o 19’ 30” north.
9.2 Salient features of the site The proposed irrigation scheme is to utilize 2.2 TMC of water, which is inclusive of 0.30 TMC for drinking purpose from the Ghataprabha river to create gross command area of 18,000 ha. This command area forms a part of Ghataprabha sub-catchment in the main Krishna river, above the confluence of Bhima catchment of Krishna basin.
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In General, the area covered under Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation scheme presents a gently undulating landscape with a linear belt of hills running in almost east-west direction dividing the region into two parts. The region has gentle easterly slope forming largely a plain interspersed with isolated low hills. The irrigation scheme is located at 522 meters above MSL, and the mean rainfall of the area is about 503 mm with 50 rainy days in a year. The region is characterized by general dryness except during monsoon season. The summer season between March and May is driest period of this region, dusty and very hot, with maximum temperature going up to 42 O C, and during winter temperature falls to 18 o C. Further humidity varies from 20% during summer to 85% during monsoon period.
9.3 Submersion details of the project The proposed project requires only acquisition of land for drawing pipeline and creation of canal network in the command area. Also, residential sites at one village will be acquired and it does not affect any village habitation/population as a whole. The salient features of the proposed project are provided in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1. Salient features of the Shri Rameshwar Lift Irrigation Scheme
Sl. No. Particulars Features 1 Gross command of the Scheme 18022.73 ha 2 Net cultivated area 13800 ha 3 Area under Khariff Hybrid Jowar 10000 ha 4 Area under Ground nut 3800 ha 29 villages in Ramdurg, 5 Number of villages benefited Gokak and Soudatti taluks 6 Estimated cost of the scheme 226.20 Crores 7745.67 ha spread over 12 7 Gross command area in Gokak taluk villages 7673.23 ha spread over 13 8 Gross command area in Ramdurg taluk villages 2603.84 ha spread over 4 9 Gross command area in Soudatti taluk villages
The proposed project is expected to create irrigation potential for 29 villages, 12 villages in Gokak taluk, 13 villages in Ramdurg taluk and 4 villages in Soudatti taluk. The project will benefit a population of more than 60,000 by providing
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 182 Water Quality irrigation to 10,000 ha of area belonging to Khariff hybrid Jowar, and 8000 ha of groundnut area. Besides providing 0.30 TMC drinking water to four villages namely Koujalgi, Hulkunda, Bagojikoppa and Venkatapura. Table 9.2 describes the number of villages benefited from the proposed project; it provides estimated area which will be covered under irrigation facility and total population in the village likely to be benefited from the scheme.
Table 9.2. Villages benefited from the scheme: estimated area and population
Sl Area benefited from Population Name of the village No scheme (in ha) benefited GOKAK TALUK 1 Budhi Buzurg 619.2 NA 2 Dhavaleshwar 48.03 2095 3 Hanamsagar 92.66 NA 4 Kalliguddi 1192 1123 5 Koujalgi 1610.3 9227 6 Kuligod 1398.9 5390 7 Mannikeri 666.26 1790 8 Raddratti 453.22 1355 9 Timmapur 125.01 1262 10 Venkatapur 234.9 1586 11 Yadwad 1282.4 8809 12 Yaragudari 22.74 1123 Total for Gokak taluk 7745.7 RAMDURG TALUK 13 Bhagojikop 431.48 1781 14 Bichaguppi 5.72 1593 15 Chikkop K S 47.8 1979 16 Chippalkatti 496.37 3130 17 Hulkund 2293.5 4703 18 Kunnal 417.97 1821 19 Gudgoppa 389.21 1470 20 Hirekoppa K S 184.08 2639 21 Hosahalli 1820.1 NA 22 Kasba Chandragi 312.62 2139 23 Komankoppa 402.54 2082 24 Land of bhogajikoppa 366.08 NA 25 Murkutnal 285.06 992 26 Sidhnal 220.72 1960
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Total for Ramdurg taluk 7673.2 SOUDATTI TALUK 27 Dasanal 400.3 746 28 Itanal 57.71 1027 29 Mellikeri 1374.4 845 30 Mugalihall 771.84 3444 Total for Soudatti Taluk 2603.8 Grand total for the project 18023
The details of land and residential sites affected due to construction of intake point with delivery chamber, drawing pipeline with service road all along pipeline and creation of irrigation canal network are provided in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3. Land and residential sites affected under Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme
Land and residential Extent of area Name of Legal status of sites affected under or number of The village acquisition proposed scheme houses Kalligudi Land 1.32 acres Notice 4 (1) issued Mannikare Land 0.39 acres Notice 4 (1) issued Koujalgi Land 17.15 acres Notice 4 (1) issued Kulgoda Land 9.38 acres Notice 4 (1) issued Venkatapur Land 4.65 acres Notice 4 (1) issued Noticed during socio- Residential sites 6 economic survey Aralimatti Land 15.31 acres Notice 4 (1) issued Total Land 48.2 acres Notice 4 (1) issued Noticed during socio- Sites and houses 6 economic survey Note: Refer Appendix 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6
The area affected in these six villages for establishment of intake point with delivery chamber and power house at Aralimatti and drawing the pipeline, which passes through villages namely Venkatapur, Kulgoda, Koujalgi, Kalliguddi and Mannikere. Further it is required to identify and estimate the area required for creation of irrigation canal network in the command area. The following table 9.3.1, provides details of canal net work in the command area and its estimated length. Table 9.3.1. Proposed canal network and its estimated length (in km)
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Sl. No Name of the canal network Length (in km) 1 Hulund main canal 13.40 2 Radderahatti main canal 4.53 3 Kulgod main canal 2.26 4 Venkatapur main canal 5.0 5 Mannikere branch canal 2.70 6 Kalliguddi main canal 5.40 7 Mugulihala branch canal 8.28 8 Bagajikoppa main canal 27.17 Total 69.05
9.4 Socio-Economic appraisal of the project area The socio-economic appraisal of the Sri Rameshwara lift irrigation project was carried out during May and June 2006, which included survey of six villages in the project area. The objectives of the study are presented below.
1. To construct a general profile of the villages in the project area: this includes socio-economic development, existing infra-structure facilities and agricultural pattern in the villages. 2. To document and assess the family conditions and assets possessed by the households in the project area. 3. To ascertain the perceptions of the families towards R and R policy and its implementation, for which stratified random sampling technique at farmers level is adopted. 4. To conduct group discussions with local people, to elicit response on R and R policy and to document problems if any, as expressed by local people. 5. To estimate R and R cost for the six villages in the project area.
9.5 General profile of the villages In this section, general profile of six villages to be affected under the proposed project has been assessed. Some of the key issues attempted to assess in the present study are geo-political features, demographic and household details,
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 185 Water Quality basic facilities available such as education, health and transportation, land use pattern and cropping patterns, trade and commerce, livestock possession and natural resources present in the study area.
9.5.1 Geo-political features of the villages The geographical identity of six villages in Gokak taluk of Belgaum district are presented below.
9.5.1a Aralimatti As already stated, Aralimatti village is located at Gokak taluk of Belgaum district, and in the vicinity of this village the intake point, delivery chamber, power house and pipeline will be installed by acquiring of total land area of 15.31 acres. Apart from these two houses (mostly non-residential) located near delivery chamber will also be affected adversely, as noticed during socio-economic study. Therefore, the Irrigation Department was requested to collect details and conduct survey of these two residential sites. The village is located 40 km away from Gokak town and the village comes under Gokak Assembly constituency and Belgaum Parliamentary constituency.
9.5.1b Venkatapur The Venkatapur village is located 38 km away from Gokak town. The pipeline of the proposed project will pass through this village and the total area affected for the purpose is 4.36 acres. It was also noticed during the socio-economic study, that the pine line and the connecting service road will pass through six residential sites within the village. However the village will be benefited from the proposed irrigation scheme, since an estimated area covered under irrigation is 234.90 ha and the total population benefited will be 1586, amongst which around 6% of the population belongs to SC/ST community. It is also proposed to provide drinking water for Venkatapur village under this proposed project.
9.5.1c Kuligod Kuligod is comparatively a big village with a total population of 5390 with 15% belonging to SC/ST. The village is located 39 km away from the Gokak town. The total land affected due to proposed project is 9.38 acres. The village is found
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 186 Water Quality to benefit from the project, by providing irrigation facility to 1398.93 acres and most of the agricultural area in the village will be covered under irrigation and farmers can cultivate more than one crop in a year.
9.5.1d Koujalgi The Koujalgi village belongs to Gokak taluk, located 35 km away from the Gokak town. This village has population of 9227, with 14% SC population and five families belonging to ST. Being a very big revenue village in the project area, it has better infrastructure facilities than the other five villages, such as Panchayat office, bank, bus facilities, education, trade and commerce. The extent of land affected under proposed lift irrigation project is 17.15 acres, comparatively higher area among the other five affected villages in the project area. However area covered under irrigation is also much larger, among all six villages of the project area, and around 1610.30 acres will be irrigated under the proposed project and it is also planned to provide drinking water to this village.
9.5.1e Kulguddi The Kulguddi village is located 34 km away from the Gokak town. The village has a population of 1123 with 13% belonging to SC category. The total extent of area affected under the proposed project is 9.38 acres. The area covered under irrigation is 853.44 acres and most of the farmers will stand to benefit from the proposed lift irrigation project.
9.5.1f Mannekeri The Mannekeri village is located 37 km away from the Gokak town. The village has a population of 1790 with 9% of population belonging to SC and 9% belonging to ST category. A very minimum extent of land (0.39 acres) will be affected under the proposed project and 227.29 acres will benefit from the irrigation facility under the proposed project.
9.5.2 Demographic and household composition The population details and household composition of the villages are presented in Table 9.3. Some of the indicators assessed to understand the demographic pressure in the project area are mentioned below:
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• Population in the villages; total, male and female population, • Density of population expressed in persons per unit area (ha). • Sex ratio expressed as number of females per 1000 males. • Number of total households in the villages
The population data for selected villages in the project area shows that Koujalgi is the biggest village with a population of 9227, followed by Kuligod with more than 5000 population. Other four villages have moderate population ranging from 1123 in Kalliguddi to 1790 in Mannekeri (Table 9.4). The demographic pressure in the study area indicates that all six villages are thinly populated and density of population among study villages varies from 2.95 persons per ha of land in Aralimatti, to almost one person per ha of land in the rest of villages.
The sex ratio between female and male population among six villages shows that, each village is distinctly different e.g., gender composition in Aralimatti and Kalliguddi indicates that female population is higher than male population: i.e., there are 1099 female for 1000 males in Kalliguddi and it is 1050 in Aralimatti. It is also observed that female population in the other four villages is also quite significant as it ranges from 951 females per 1000 males in Koujalgi, to 995 in Venkatapura village. The graphical representation of the gender composition of the six project villages is given in the Fig 9.1.
Table 9.4. Population and Housing composition in the villages of project area
Particulars Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikeri Kuligod Koujalgi Population 1706 1586 1123 1790 5390 9227 (total) Male 832 795 535 902 2715 4729 population Female 874 791 588 888 2675 4498 population Sex ratio (number of 1050 995 1099 984 985 951 female per 1000 male) Number of 294 273 231 308 1071 1729 households Mean family size (number 5.80 5.80 4.86 5.81 5.03 5.33 of members in
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 188 Water Quality the family)
1100
1050
1000
950 Female per 1000 male 900
850 Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikeri Kuligod Kowjaligi Fig. 9.1. Gender Composition in project villages
The household’s composition data in the six villages provides that Koujalgi has 1729 households with a mean family size of 5.33 members per family. The mean family size in the other villages in the project area indicates that in Aralimatti, Venkatapura and Mannikeri, there are 5.8 members per family; it is more than the state and national average. The family size in Kalliguddi is low among all other villages in the project area.
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Mean family size (number of members in the family)
6
5.6
5.2
4.8
4.4
4 Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikeri Kuligod Kowjaligi Fig 9.2. Average family size among project village
The household details for the six villages are presented in Table 9.4. The number of households relate to the number of families present in the village as recorded by the Panchayat office. Further SC/ST composition in each village is given in the Table 9.4.1. The summary of the household composition in the study area is given below: • Aralimatti has 294 families; the SC population in the village accounting for 17% of the total population and less than one person out of 100 belongs to ST. • Venkatapura village has 273 families with SC population accounting for 6%, no ST population found in the village and it is dominated by backward class families. • Kalliguddi is a small village amongst the six villages in the project area. It has 231 families and 13% of population belong to SC. • Mannikeri has 308 families with 9% of SC population, and it is also observed that there is significant ST population in the village, as it accounts for 9% of the total population. • Kulgod with more than 1000 families, has 14% of population belonging to SC and less than one person out of 100 belonging to ST. • Koujalgi has 1729 families with an SC population of 17% and very few belong to ST. The village is dominated by backward class families.
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Table 9.4.1. SC/ST Population in the villages of project area
Particulars Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi SC population 284 92 141 169 751 1550 (total) Male 136 37 68 84 381 784 population Female 148 55 73 85 370 766 population Percentage SC 17% 6% 13% 9% 14% 17% population ST population 13 0 0 161 47 25 (total) Male 6 0 0 77 22 14 population Female 7 0 0 84 25 11 population Percentage ST 0.76% 0 0 9% 0.87% 0.27% population 9.5.3 Transportation facilities existing in the project area Transportation facilities existing in the project area have been assessed and presented in Table 9.5. The indicators/parameters selected for the assessment of transportation facilities are given below:
• Road, Railway and Air network: Existing road, railway and air network in the villages are documented, and in case of absence of such a facility in the village, nearest facility is indicated by distance. • Bus facilities: bus facilities available at the village are assessed with reference to connected and most connected places from the village and frequency of buses and presence/absence of bus shelter etc.
The survey relating to transportation facilities existing in the project villages provide that, primary road networks are present in most of the villages. Zilla Panchayat roads are present in all the five villages except in Mannekere. Some of the salient observations emanating from the survey are as follows:
• Panchayat road network is present in all the villages. • Better road networks such as district, state and national highways are located much away from the project area. Villagers have to reach Gokak road leading to Soudatti, to avail of these facilities
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• The nearest national highway for all the six villages is available at Soudatti Town • The railway network is at Ghataprabha station. • The nearest airport connecting to the villages of project area is Belgaum city. • In all the six villages surveyed, bus facilities have been provided to limited places with less frequency. All the villages are connected to Gokak, which is the Taluk Headquarters.
Table 9.5. Transportation facilities existing in the villages of project area
Particulars Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi ZP roads Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Panchayat Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes roads District highway and state No No No No No No highway Nearest Gokak Gokak Gokak Gokak Gokak Gokak highways National high Soudatti Soudatti Soudatti Soudatti Soudatti Soudatti way (nearest) Ghatapra Ghataprab Ghataprabh Ghatapr Ghatapra Railway station Ghataprabha bha ha a abha bha Belgau Airport Belgaum Belgaum Belgaum Belgaum Belgaum m Bus facilities Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Gokak, Gokak, Connected to Gokak Gokak Gokak Gokak Koujalgi Soudatti Every Every Two trips Every three Every two Every Frequency three three per day hours hours one hour hours hours Bus shelter No no yes No Yes Yes
9.5.4 Educational facilities in the project area The educational facilities present in the project area are examined and presented in the Table 9.6. The issues documented to assess education status in the project villages are given below:
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• Literacy rates: This is expressed in percentage to total population and percentage of male and female literacy is also calculated. • Number of schools: various schools available in the project villages. • Welfare centers: data related to child centers and social welfare hostels have been examined (assessed only for villages directly affected).
The educational profile of the villages in the project area indicates that Koujalgi and Kalliguddi villages have better educational facilities with different type of schools available in the village. The different types of schools available in the project area are primary, higher secondary and high school. A summary of the educational facilities available in the selected villages of the project area are given in the Table 9.6. For higher education they have to travel to Gokak and Belgaum towns. The literacy level among six villages indicates that except in Kuligod, literacy level of all the five villages is very low and it ranged from 41.3% in Aralimatti to 48.8% in Koujalgi. However literacy rate in Kuligod is around 61.3% with 75% male literates and 47.6% female literates. It is observed that among the six villages, female literacy rate is very low as it varied from 23.9% in Aralimatti to 47.6% in Kuligod. The male literates among sampled villages varied from 59.4% in Aralimatti to 75.0% in the Kuligod, and average 60% of males and 30% females are literates in the project area. The literacy level among population in six project villages is represented in Fig 9.3 and Table 9.6.
Table 9.6. Educational facilities existing in the villages of project area Particulars Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi Total Literacy 41.3 47.3 45.65 44.7 61.3 48.8 (%) Male (%) 59.4 62.9 62.1 64.0 75.0 62.1 Female (%) 23.9 31.9 30.9 24.9 47.6 35.3 Child care 1 1 1 1 2 3 centers Primary Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Schools High No No Yes No Yes Yes schools
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Public No No No No No Yes library Colleges No No No No No Yes Higher No No No No No No education
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Total Literacy (%) Male(%) 80 Female(%)
60
40
20
0 Arlimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Kowjaligi Fig. 9.3. Literacy Level - Total, Male and Female poulation among Project village
9.5.5 Health facilities in the villages of the project area The status of health facilities in the project villages is presented in Table 9.7, and the indicators selected to measure health facilities for six villages are given below. However, in the absence of such health facilities in the project affected villages, health facilities available at the nearest village has been assessed and reported in this section. • Primary health centers and other health centers available in the village, distance indicated in the case of those villages dependent on other places for such facilities. • Assessment of extent of facilities available in PCH and its sub-centers. • Existence of veterinary facilities in the study villages
The health scenario surveyed in the selected villages indicates that out of six villages only three villages namely Koujalgi, Kulgod and Kalliguddi have Primary Health Center; the other three villages have sub-centers of the respective PHC. Family planning centers are also operating in these villages. Further public have to travel to Gokak and Soudatti for higher and better medicinal facilities.
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The PHC at Koujalgi has better facilities in terms of full time doctor available with two beds for internal patients. More than 55 out patients are treated per day, as many villages around this area depend on this PHC. The PHC at Kalliguddi and Kulgod are not active, as they depend upon an in-charge doctor who visits PHC twice a week. Similarly sub centers are also inactive in all the three villages and people have to visit nearby PHC, for treatment.
Veterinary hospitals also exist in the three villages in the project area; however veterinary hospital in Koujalgi is active with a full time doctor and various facilities. Th other two hospitals in Kullgod and Kalliguddi are visited by outside doctors and operate two days in a week.
Table 9.7. Health facilities existing in the villages of project area
Particulars Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi Primary health No No Yes No Yes Yes center 1 in No of doctors - - 1 doctor - charge 1 doctor doctor No of beds - - - - 2 No of out 50 per 55 per - - 40 per day - patients day day PHC sub Yes Yes - Yes - - center In charge In charge In charge No of doctors - - - doctor doctor doctor No of out 25 per day 20 per day - 15 per day - - patients Family planning Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes center Veterinary - - Yes Yes - Yes hospital
9.5.6 Basic amenities in the villages of project area The basic facilities available in the five villages of the project area have been documented and presented in Table 9.8. The indicators considered for the assessment of basic amenities in the selected villages are given below: • Electricity connections: number of domestic connections and IP set connections at individual family level.
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• Drinking water facilities provided in villages; number of households connected with public tap, use of ground water and open well from few households are also assessed. • Sanitation programmes implemented in the villages and number of households connected with toilets and community toilets in the villages have been documented.
Sanitation facilities have been recently provided under various state government schemes in all the five villages. Community toilets have been constructed and few families posses built-in toilets as part of their dwelling units.
Table 9.8. Basic amenities existing in the villages of project area
Particulars Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi Electricity Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No of domestic 56% 73% 78% 70% 81% 80% connections IP set 28% 36% 15% 22% 20% 23% connections Drinking water Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Water supply Panchaya No Panchayat ZP ZP ZP scheme t schemes Sanitation Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes facilities Household with 8 12 20 6 25 36 Toilet facility Community 2 3 4 2 5 6 toilets
9.5.7 Communication facilities in the villages of project area Some of the communication facilities available at selected villages of the project area have been assessed and reported in Table 9.8. The facilities existing at the villages are mentioned below:
9.5.7a Post and telegraph facilities: Two villages namely, Koujalgi and Kuligod have full post office and the other four villages are served by other post offices, which are situated at nearby villages. Koujalgi also has telegraph facilities and converge for insurance programmes.
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9.5.7b Telephone connections: These facilities have been extended to all the six villages in the project area, and Koujalgi and Kuligod have exchange centers. Number of households with telephone connection apart from Koujalgi and Kuligod are very few; it ranges from 10 households in Kulliguddi to 18 households in Mannekeri. In the case of Koujalgi, more than 125 households are connected, while in Kuligod 76 households are connected with telephones.
9.5.8 Trade and commerce scenario in the villages of the project area Trade and commerce situation in the six villages in project area has been assessed. The indicators assessed to generate trade and commerce in the study area is mentioned below:
9.5.8a Existence of commercial banks: In the project area, Koujalgi has better banking facilities, two banks operates in the village namely Karanataka Grama Vikas Bank and Co-operative Urban Bank. In Kuligod, Canara Bank is in operation. The other villages are depending on these banks, as there are no formal financial institutions operating within the villages.
The agricultural markets are available only at respective taluk headquarters, for all the six villages in the project area. Few small-scale industries operate in the project villages; crushing mills for sunflower and groundnut, Rice mills and Electric service shops are located in some villages.
9.5.9 Land use pattern and cropping pattern in the villages of project area Land use pattern of the five villages in project area is recorded. The broad pattern of land use surveyed in the project area revealed that more than 40% of area is under cultivation in five villages except Koujalgi village. The other land use categories in the villages are: area under Forest, Current Fallow, Common Lands and Gramthana (village habitation). Currently irrigation facilities have been extended by open well and bore wells. The cropping pattern in the project area shows that major crops cultivated are sunflower, maize, jowar, paddy, cotton and groundnut beside some other crops are grown in small area.
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9.5.10 Livestock possession in villages of project area The livestock owned among the families in the project area has been assessed. The most common animals reared among the families of the project villages are cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and poultry. These have been maintained for commercial and subsistence purposes by the farming and non-farming families in the villages. It is noticed that significant number of sheep and goat have been maintained by families belonging to wage labour and non-farming groups. The livestock details in terms of number of cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat for all the six villages are given in Table 9.9.
Table 9.9. Livestock possession existing in the villages of project area
Aralimat Particulars Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi ti Cattle 200 216 185 160 325 610 Buffalo 110 89 120 90 185 210 Sheep 380 410 290 280 510 825 Goat 170 210 110 95 235 310
9.6 Farmer profile and perception on Rehabilitation and Resettlement programme in the Project area In this section farmers profile is presented based on the stratified random sampling method and besides, people’s perception of R and R programme is presented. The sample population followed for collection of household level information and their perception of R and R Policy is presented in Table 1.10. The samples were drawn from all the six villages, where agriculture land will be impacted under proposed lift irrigation project. All the six householders in Venkatapura village were contacted, as their residential sites are likely to be acquired. The sampling details for the six villages is provided in Table 9.10
The sampling was structured in a manner that would represent the ethnic and socio-economic conditions of the farmers in the villages. In the study, 50 % of the general farmers were covered, followed by 30 % of SC/ST farmer and 30 % of the farmer belonging to backward castes. The survey group undertaking the programme was trained beforehand to collect information from farmers on relevant information such as land holding pattern, cropping pattern, livestock
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possession and importantly on the perception of individual farmer on the proposed Rehabilitation and Resettlement policy in the project area.
The population structure of the Kathedhars (farmers holding land are called Kathedhars) in the six villages indicated that more number of Kowjalagi Kathedars loose their land under proposed irrigation project in Koujalgi. Table 9.10 indicates, that total number of Kathedars indetified in the proposed project area are 574 and out of this 50% of them belong to Koujalgi village. The spread of Kathedars among six villages is highly uneven as it varies from 1% in Mannikere to 50% in Kaujaligi. This is because of the extent of the pipeline and the service road passing through the village.
In the study, proper sampling was ensured as more than 20% of Kathedars in all the six villages, depending on number of farmers available for personal interview during the visit to a particular village. However percentage of sampling in six villages varied and Table 9.10 describes, that 43% of Kathedars have been covered in Mannikere village, and 21% of Kathedars have been covered in Koujalgi. Table 9.10. Population and sample farmers covered in the project area
Religion/caste Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi Number of 40 96 19 7 126 286 Kathedar/s Percentage of Kathedar/s to total 7% 17% 3% 1% 50% kathedars in the 22% project area Number of Nil 6 Nil Nil Nil residential sites Nil Sample covred 14 30 8 3 60 among Kathedars 40 Sample covered among residential Nil 6 Nil Nil Nil sites Nil Percentage
Kathadars 35% 31% 42% 43% 21% 32% covered
General houses* 50% 50% 25% 35% 50% 30% BC 25% 25% 50% 40% 40% 25% SC/ST 25% 25% 25% 25% 30% 25%
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9.6.1 Farmers profile of the project area: classified by religion and caste The sample farmers covered in six villages have been classified into different religion and caste groups. The data from Table 9.11 provides that there are two major religions in the project area; predominantly a Hindu dominated society with a few Muslim farmers in Kalliguddi (16% of the farmers), and Koujalgi (9%) among the sampled households
The ethnic composition of the six villages indicates more farmers covred under the sample, belonging to general and backward class. In some villages there are no ST farmers and very few SC farmers among Kathedars, covered under sampling programme. However the study has ensured to cover all ethnic groups in the village to provide the best possible representation of the population.
The composition of SC farmers in the study area varied from 17% in Koujalgi to 4% in Venkatapura, and it is observed that very few ST farmers e.g. 9% in Mannikere to 1% in Aralimatti are part of the study. The farmers belonging to Backward class varied from 53% in Venkatapura to 38% in Mannikere. However rest of the farmers in the study area belong to general category, ranging from 50% in Aralimatti to 35% in Koujalgi.
Table 9.11. Farmers classified by religion and caste in villages of project area
Ethnic Aralima Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi composition tti Hindu 100% 100% 84% 100% 100% 91% Muslim - - 16% - - 9%
SC 8% 4% 11% 12% 15% 17% ST 1% - - 9% 5% 3% BC 41% 53% 47% 38% 41% 45% General 50% 43% 42% 41% 39% 35%
9.6.2 Farmers profile in the project area: Occupation Pattern The profile built on occupation pattern in the project area is presented in Table 9.12, which indicates that along with farming which is a major occupation, few farmers are also occupied with other income generating activities, such as wage labour, small business and service sector.
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It is observed that a few farmers in all the six villages in the study area are engaged in more than one occupation. The most common occupation along with cultivation is wage labour, since 52% of the farmers in Kalliguddi are working as wage labour during dry season.
Very few farmers are engaged in business, and the percentage of farmers in business sector varied from 11% in Koujalgi to 2% in Kalliguddi, and the nature of business practiced by the farmers among sampled villages is operating petty shops, vegetable marketing and running of floor mill, etc.
It is also observed that few farmers are engaged in service sectors, i.e. 6% of farmers in Koujalgi and 4% in Kulgod, some of them are teachers, while a few work in panchayat office etc.
Table 9.12. Occupation Profile of farmers in the project area Aralimatt Occupation Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi i Agriculture 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Wage 48% 32% 29% 52% 25% 47% labour Business 3% 5% 2% - 8% 11% Service - 2% - - 4% 6%
9.6.3 Farmers profile of the villages in the project area: income level The income level of the respondents in project area has been classified into six groups and the income is generated from four major occupations, such as farming, wage labour, business and service sector, and various combinations of these major occupations. The income level of farmers in the six villages is presented in Table 9.13. The farmers in the project area have been classified into five income groups such as Below Poverty Line (BPL) (less than Rs.10,000 per year), slightly higher than BPL (between Rs.10,000 and 25,000), medium income level (between 25,000 to 50,000), slightly higher than medium income level (between Rs.50,000 to 1.0 lakh), higher income group (between Rs.1.0 lakh to 2.0 lakhs) and slightly higher income group (more than Rs. 2.0 lakhs).
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Based on these six income group, farmers have been classified into three class income level such as, low income level (BPL and slightly higher than BPL), middle income level (by considering two medium income groups) and high income level by clubbing higher income groups. • In Aralimathi, 17% of farmers belong to below poverty income, and farmers in this group are occupied with wage labour, followed by 14% who are slightly above poverty line of income, and 37% of farmers are in middle income group and around 16% of farmers in high income group (Rs. 1 lakh to 2 lakh and more than Rs. 2 lakh of income per annum). • In Venkatapura, the income pattern among sampled farmers is similar to Aralimatti, as 34% of farmers belong low income group, followed by 36% having middle income and 30% farmers belonging to high income group. • The income level of farmers in Kalliguddi village indicates that more than 75% of the farmers are in the income group of low and middle, with a few farmers belonging to high income group. • In Mannikere, distribution of farmers across income group is very specific, as more than 60% are in high income group, followed by 25%, in slightly middle income group and very few are in low income group. • In Kulgod, more than 40% of farmers are in middle income group, and more than 30% are in low income group. • In Koujalgi, farmers distribution across six income groups is significant, and around 30% of farmers belong to low, middle and high income groups respectively.
Table 9.13. Farmers classified by income groups in the villages of project area Annual income Aralimat Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi (in Rs.) ti Less than 13% 17% 15% 19% 8% 14% 10,000 10,000 to 18% 14% 19% 25% 6% 22% 25,000 25,000 to 28% 22% 25% 22% - 16% 50,000 50,000 to 1 lakh 15% 11% 10% 25% 14% 21% 1 lack to 2 lakh 16% 16% 13% 55% 9% 12% More than 2 18% 16% 14% 11% 6% 15% lakh
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9.6.4 Farmers having access to PDS facilities in the Project area The sampled farmers in the villages of project area have been assessed for access to Public Distribution System (PDS) and presented in Table 9.14. It is evident from the study, that majority of farmers in the six villages have access to PDS: i.e., in Aralimatti 72% of farmers have access to PDS, amongst which 58% framers have Above Poverty (APL) card and 42% have BPL card. In Koujalgi and Kulgod, more than 90% farmers have either BPL or APL cards. However in Mannikere 69% of farmers have access to PDS in which 84% of farmers have APL cards.
Table 9.14. Farmers having access to PDS
Public Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi services Number of families 72% 86% 85% 69% 92% 90% having ration card BPL 42% 39% 48% 16% 51% 55% APL 58% 61% 52% 84% 49% 45%
9.6.5 Farmers in the Project Area: Type of family and Age pattern The study attempted to document type of family existing among sampled farmers in the project area and classified into nuclear family (with five persons in a family), big family (five to ten members) and joint family (more than ten members in a family). Table 9.15 shows that in all the six villages of the project area, around 10% of the farmers belong to nuclear family, and the rest account for joint and big families.
The age pattern of the farmers has been examined and presented in Table 9.15. The study shows that the trend of distribution of farmers across the age groups in all the six villages is almost similar. Around 40% of the farmers are in the middle age group of 45 to 60 years and 35% are in high age group of more than 60 years and around 25% are in low age group of 25-45 years.
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Table 9.15. Farmers in the project area: type of family and age pattern
Particulars Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi Type of family Nuclear family 10% 9% 12% 13% 10% 11% Big family 58% 55% 61% 65% 59% 63% Joint family 32% 36% 27% 22% 31% 26% Age pattern of the farmers Low age group 25% (25 to 45 20% 21% 20% 26% 25% years) Middle age 40% group (45 to 45% 39% 48% 46% 42% 60 years) High age 35% group (more 35% 40% 32% 28% 33% than 60 years)
9.6.6 Farmers in the project area: Gender composition In this section, farmers belonging to different gender among sampled farmers is reported and is presented in Table 9.16.1. The gender composition among the sampled farmers in the six villages indicated that most of the farmers are male and very few farmers belong to female category.
In the study area most of the farmers belong to male category, and this varies from 98% in Venkatapura to 72% in Mannikere. However the study has taken care to cover more than 90% of the female farmers in all six villages to record their perception on R and R in the project area.
Table 9.16.1. Farmers in the Project area - Gender composition
Gender Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi composition Male 85% 98% 89% 72% 87% 88% Female 15% 2% 11% 28% 13% 12%
9.6.7 Farmers in the project area: Education status Table 9.16.2 provides details of farmer’s education status in the project area. The education status of the farmers in six villages indicates that, the literacy level varies considerably.
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The number of farmers belonging to non-literate groups among six villages varied from 14% in Kalliguddi to 10% in Venkatapura, however non-literate farmers were not found in Mannikere village.
The education status of the farmers in the project area indicates that majority of farmers in the five villages expect Mannikere possessed just literacy status (read and write) followed by primary and higher primary education. Very few farmers have higher education status of high school and college education. In the case of Mannikere more than 35 % of farmers possess higher education.
Table 9.16.2. Farmers in project area: Education status
Education Aralimat Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi status ti Non-literate 12% 10% 14% - 13% 11% Literate 36% 39% 41% 20% 42% 36% Primary 26% 21% 16% 25% 13% 15% Higher 13% 15% 14% 20% 18% 21% Primary High School 10% 9% 8% 25% 9% 6% College and Higher 3% 6% 7% 10% 5% 11% education
9.6.8 Land holding details of farmers in the project area The land holding details of farmers in the six villages of the project area is given in Table 9.17 which indicates that most of farmers have dry land, followed by wet and garden lands, while some farmers possess various combinations of all these different land category.
It is observed in the project area that majority of the farmers in all the six villages have dry lands, which varies from 56% of farmers in Koujalgi to 39% in Venkatapura. Some of the farmers have wet land, as irrigation is provided through bore well and open well. The farmers having wet land among sampled villages, varied from 38% in Venkatapura to 21% in Koujalgi. Further farmers, who have garden land are very few, i.e. 15% of the farmers have garden land in
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Venkatapura and Mannikere, and just 6% of farmers in Kulgod have garden lands.
In the project area few farmers have both dry land and wet land, it varied from 18% of farmers in Kalliguddi 4% of farmers in Venkatapura. However very less number of farmers (6% in Mannikere to 1% in Kalliguddi) have all the three types of land holding.
Table 9.17. Land holding details of the families in the project area Type of Aralimatt Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi land i Dry land 46% 39% 51% 32% 53% 56% Wet land 35% 38% 22% 31% 28% 21% Garden 10% 15% 8% 15% 6% 9% More than 10% 5% 4% 18% 16% 12% one More than 3% 4% 4% 1% 6% 2% two
9.6.9 Land submersion details of the farmers in the project area The submersion details of lands in the six villages such as Aralimatti, Venkatapura, Kalliguddi, Mannikere, Kulgod and Koujalgi coming under the proposed project have been assessed and presented in Table 9.18. The Table shows that, farmers lose their dry land among six villages which varies from 61% in Koujalgi to 42% in Mannikere. This is followed by extent of wet land affected due to proposed project, which varied from 41% in Venkatapura to 30% in Koujalgi and Kalliguddi. The garden lands affected by project accounts for as high as 18% in Mannikere to 9% in Koujalgi and Kalliguddi. The total extent of land proposed as per, 4 (1) Notification for construction of delivery chamber, power house, drawing pipe line and service road is 383 ha. The Table 9.18 provides that comparatively Koujalgi and Aralimatti are the two villages, losing maximum area, than the other four villages.
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Table 9.18. Land submersion details of the farmers in the project area
Type of Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi land Dry land 51% 43% 61% 42% 60% 61% Wet land 38% 41% 30% 40% 33% 30% Garden 11% 16% 9% 18% 7% 9% Total extent of land (in 15.31 4.65 1.32 0.39 9.38 17.15 acres)
9.6.10 Livestock owned by the farmers in the project area The livestock in possession of the farmers in the project area has been assessed and presented in Table 9.19, which indicates that, most of the farmers own cattle (big ruminants) either for cultivation purpose or for milk production. It is also observed that considerable number of farmers have small ruminants such as sheep and goat.
Table 9.19. Live Stock possession among farmers in the project area
Type of land Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi CATTLE i) Just 1 13% 15% 18% 10% 16% 18% ii) 1 to 2 56% 45% 48% 55% 59% 46% iii) 2 to 5 15% 22% 17% 12% 10% 11% iv) More 6% 4% 10% 5% 12% 5% than 5 v) no cattle 10% 8% 12% 11% 9% 10% SHEEP AND GOAT i) Up to 10 42% 50% 46% 25% 55% 49% ii) 10 to 25 16% 15% 14% 15% 12% 10% iii) 25 to 50 7% 8% 3% 5% 4% 7% iv) 50 to 100 - 1% - - - 3% v) More than 29% 35% 26% 37% 55% 31% 100 POULTRY i) Up to 10 40% 25% 30% 10% 50% 45% ii) 10 to 25 5% 10% 3% 6% 5% 5% iii) 25 to 50 iv) 50 t o 100 v) More than 45% 55% 65% 67% 84% 50% 100
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9.7 Perception of the farmers towards Rehabilitation and Resettlement (R and R) policy in the project area This study has been attempted to assess perception of the farmers on R and R policy among six villages in the project area and the findings have been presented in the following section.
9.7.1 Sources of information of awareness about proposed project among households The awareness about the proposed project and sources of information available to the sampled farmers in the project area is assessed and presented in Table 9.20. Different sources of information available to the farmers in the project area are; Irrigation Department, Panchayat Office, Village Level Leaders, Political Leaders and Revenue Officials. Most prominent sources of information used by farmers is irrigation department followed by revenue officials, whereas in Aralimatti and Koujalgi, most commonly used sources of information are revenue officials followed by irrigation department. However political leaders have played a vital role in spreading information about proposed project followed by Panchayat office are the source of information for 5% of farmers in Koujalgi and 6% in Kalliguddi.
Table 9.20. Sources of information about project awareness among farmers Type of Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi land Irrigation 50 72 69 81 73 61 Department Panchayat - - 6 - - 5 Local 2 - - - - - leaders Political 2 - - - - - leaders Revenue 46 28 25 19 27 33 officials
9.7.2 Extent of information among the farmers towards land affected under proposed project Extent of correct information on submersion of agricultural lands among sampled farmers has been assessed and presented in Table 9.21.1. Farmers having information relating to the proposed project have been classified into three
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 209 Water Quality categories, i.e., complete, partial and incomplete information; farmers who have correct information about the project and the extent of land (acres) acquired under project and information about various legal issues connected with submersion are considered fully informed; those farmers having information about extent of loss of properties but do not have any knowledge about legal processes are considered as partially informed, and finally farmers who do not know much about both issues are considered under incomplete category. It is noticed that in project area, most farmers have partial information; this varies from 75% of farmers in Venkatapura to 55% of farmers in Koujalgi village. However, some farmers do posses complete information as 30% of farmers in Mannikere know about legal aspects also. Further it is noticed that 25% of farmers in Koujalgi have incomplete information and likewise very less number of farmers in the other villages have incomplete information about land submersion under proposed project.
Table 9.21.1. Extent of information among the farmers in the project area
Type of Aralimat Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi land ti Complete 18% 15% 16% 30% 26% 20% Partial 72% 75% 76% 60% 61% 55% Incomplete 10% 10% 8% 10% 13% 25%
The study also documented some ambiguity (rumors) about proposed project, which is presented in Table 9.21.2. Many farmers have received information, that the proposed project is very small and land affected due to project is also small, so there will be no effective R and R package for the farmers. Another belief encountered by public is that the project will be cancelled because of insufficient funds, or otherwise drawing pipe line will be delayed for another 10 years. The Table 9.25.2 indicates that the majority of farmers do not have any ambiguity about project, which varies from 45% in Aralimatti to 63% in Kalliguddi village.
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Table 9.21.2. Nature of ambiguity about proposed project among the farmers in the project area
Type of Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi land Project 24% 25% 15% 30% 18% 22% cancelled. Project 10% delayed for 6% - 7% 12% 8% 10 years Limited R 20% and R 25% 20% 15% 22% 22% provided No 52% 45% 55% 63% 46% 48% ambiguity
9.8 Nature of complaints forwarded by the farmers in the project area Some of the farmers also put forth certain grievance and complaints relating to the project and its implementation. The nature of complaints forwarded to different agencies by farmers in project area have been assessed and presented in Table 9.22, which shows that very few farmers have submitted complaints to different authorities for necessary action. The complaints have been passed on to Revenue authorities, Irrigation Department, and Panchayat office. Most of the complaints relate to irregularities in survey and extent of land affected under the proposed project. These complaints have been passed on to Irrigation Department during the Engineers’ visits to villages.
Table 9.22. Nature of complaints forwarded from the families in the project area Type of Aralimat Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi land ti Revenue 2% - 3% 5% 3% 2% authority Irrigation 8% 13% 10% 11% 10% 10% Department Panchayat 3% - - - 4% 3% No 85% 82% 90% 86% 85% 85% complaints
9.8.1 Response from the agencies towards complaints received from farmers Table 9.23.1 presents necessary action initiated by different agencies in response to complaints submitted by farmers in the project area. Most of the
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complaints relate to irregularities in survey of lands, which have been rectified by the Irrigation Department, by conducting a re-survey. However complaints submitted to Revenue authorities and Panchayat Office on R and R implementation have not been responded to by the concerned agencies.
Table 9.23.1. Response from the agencies towards household complaints Type of Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi land Application 5% 8% 7% 5% 6% 4% received and filed Discussion 2% 2% - 3% - 2% held Action taken 2% - - - - 1%
9.8.2 Apprehensions of farmers towards proposed project The different apprehensions expressed by sampled farmers regarding the proposed project are assessed and presented in Table 9.23.2. Most of the families in the project area have serious apprehensions about the nature of R and R policy, and besides families in the fully affected villages are more concerned about R and R policy on agricultural lands as most farmers do not possess any information on compensation package offered and its adequacy to meet their realistic needs. Six families in Venkatapura have expressed lack of clarity about submersion of their housing sites and compensation package, available to them.
Table 9.23.2. Apprehension of the farmers in the project area Type of Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi land Nature of R 82% 86% 79% 81% 85% 86% and R package R and R for 80% 75% 80% 72% 75% 80% lands
9.8.3 Area proposed for R and R programme in the project area It was noticed during the present survey that no initiatives have been taken by Irrigation and Revenue Departments. To address the local concern the farmers do not have information about the R and R programme. Most of the farmers are
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 212 Water Quality under perception that after completion of laying under ground pipe line, the affected land will be given back to farmers for cultivation. However few farmers are aware that area taken for drawing pipeline and service road will not be given back and compensation will be provided only, for the extent of land affected. However six families in Venkatapura wanted to know about R and R package for their residential sites.
9.8.4 Awareness about legal acquisition of properties among farmers in the project area The process of legal acquisition of land is generally as follows; identification of extent of land, conducting survey, issue of notification under section 4 (1) for proposed land to receive any legal clarification from farmers, finally issue of notification under section 6 (1) acquisition of land from the farmers. In the study area land identification for construction of delivery chamber, powerhouse and drawing pipe line and service road is completed. Survey of the identified land is also completed by the Irrigation Department. However, legal notice 4 (1) has been served only to few farmers, and majority of farmers have not received notification. The extent of awareness about these legal processes among sampled households is surveyed, which brings out that most of the farmers do not have complete awareness about these legal steps. Further, in the project area for the establishment of canal net work, land identification survey is under progress.
9.8.5 Satisfaction of families towards R and R policy implementation in the project area Majority of the farmers amongst six villages do not possess any idea about R and R policy and its implementation. More than 80% of farmers in all the six villages have expressed that for those losing small extent of land under the proposed project must be given compensation in terms of cash. They are not satisfied with the status of work and its progress in the project area, as they are looking for quick completion of irrigation project, as this was planned long ago.
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9.8.6 Some suggestive measures expressed by farmers in the project area Most of the farmers in the project area have offered suggestions to speed up acquisition of land and completion of various works under project. The farmers have no idea about irrigation canal net work and the extent of area benefited among these six villages. The six households in Venkatapura have expressed lack of knowledge about submersion of their residential sites. Out of six, only one family is paying tax to Panchayat office towards residential site. It is noticed from the villagers that area coming under six residential sites is originally a Gomal area (grazing land) and quite sometime back (15 years) they have encroached this land. The families requested for alternative sites in case these are required for the project. They also need clarity on the schedule for completion of canal network and land acquisition. Apart from this, local people have also suggested to local leaders to organize a meeting with Revenue Authorities and Irrigation Department to decide on the R and R policy for agricultural land and a few residential sites.
9.8.7 Agency preferred for implementation of R and R policy The families in the six villages in the project area were asked to choose appropriate agency for the implementation of R and R programme. Creditworthiness of different agencies was evaluated among sampled farmers, and the data are presented in Table 9.24. Most of the farmers in the five villages except in Koujalgi agreed that Revenue Authority (District Commissioner/Assistant Commissioner) should take the responsibility of R and R implementation while some families preferred Irrigation Department to handle this task. However, it is significant that very few families have opted for political leaders, Panchayat and private agencies to take up such R & R work programme. In Koujalgi most of the farmers preferred irrigation department to be involved in implementation of R and R work.
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Table 9.24. Agencies opted for R and R implementation among the families in project area
Type of Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi land Revenue authority 82 89 85 90 79 32 (DC/AC) Irrigation 18 11 13 10 16 60 Department Political 2 - 1 - 3 4 leaders Panchayat 1 - 1 - 2 4 Private ------Agency
9.8.8 Benefits expected and problems expressed by families in the project area Various problems expressed amongst sampled farmers in the project area towards R and R implementation, socio-economic and problems of personal nature have been documented and presented in Table 9.25. Inspite of several pressing problems they are facing, more than 60% of farmers in Venkatapur, Kalliguddi and Mannikere have extended their unconditional support to project in the interest of regional development and anticipated benefits to farmers of the project villages, in a bigger way. In this context they also expected some direct and indirect benefits from the proposed project, which has been presented in Table 9.25.
Some of the benefits anticipated by the farmers in the project area are; effective implementation of R and R programme, followed by employment generation, income generating activities, infrastructure facilities, institutional, technical advancement and socio-economic development. However many farmers have opted for more than one benefit, accruing from the proposed project.
Various problems expressed by sampled farmers have been listed in Table 9.25. Some of the common problems expressed uniformly across six villages are slow implementation of project, providing irrigation benefit to all farmers in these six villages, adequate compensation package for agricultural lands etc. Many families expressed their psychological fear that no compensation will be given to
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agricultural lands lost under the project. Most common problem expressed by the farmers is that though a small central portion of land is acquired for the project, piece of land is left over along both sides of the pipe line. As such they need clarification from the revenue department about having same survey number for the left over two piece land, while giving the new survey number. In such case revenue department should consider this problem and provide necessary help to farmers. They need clarification on utilizing this piece of land for irrigation pipe. The farmers have also express varied opinion about the public relationship within and outside villages. Most of the farmers however, have expressed their concern over the adequacy of compensation package for agricultural lands, and more importantly on the re-investing problems of such amounts received as compensation. They are also very much on the look out for alternates opportunities for income generation besides employment avenues for their family members.
Table 9.25. Perceptions and problems expressed by the farmers in project area
Type of land Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi Do you support 53% 72% 75% 79% 49% 43% to the project Benefits expected Employment 52% 36% 28% 45% 41% 35% generation Income 22% 28% 31% 35% 26% 32% generation Infrastructure 12% 14% 10% 11% 9% 12% Institutional 2% - 1% - 3 4% Technical 2% 1% - 1% - 4% advancement Socio- 20% economic 21 32 36 25% 16% development Problems expressed Effective R and 65% 61% 66% 63% 71% 70% R Public 22% 26% 28% 30% 19% 25% relationship Compensation 56% 68% 71% 75% 61% 55% for land Livelihood 21% 22% 25% 19% 16% 18% activities Irrigation 88% facilities to dry 81% 86% 75% 79% 86% land
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9.9 Issues emerging from the perception of the farmers during survey Most of the farmers in six villages have expressed awareness about the proposed project and anticipated better compensation for their agricultural lands in the project. They are in general agreement that proposed project will promote regional development as this will provide irrigation facility for all the six villages besides many other villages in Gokak, Soudatti and Ramdurg taluks. However few farmers have expressed apprehension that are project will not benefit their village, as most of the dry lands in the village will not be covered under irrigation facility. The farmers in Aralimatti have requested that upper lands in their village must be brought under the network of irrigation by planning special canal net work to pump water to their upper lands. Six families in Venkatapura village are looking for intervention of Panchayat to approach government for providing alternate sites in place of residential sites they are losing.
Most farmers in six villages agree that, this project could bring technological advancement in the region and create better infrastructural facilities. Socio- economic conditions of the farmers in the region is also expected to improve by assured irrigation facilities. The villagers of Koujalgi have expressed the firm opinion that farmers in this village, should receive much better facilities following implementation of projects. • Some of the common problems expressed by all the six villagers are: effective R and R policy, valuation of land and its compensation package. It is noticed that uncertainty, ambiguity and lack of clarity persist among most of farmers in the project area particularly about the nature of compensation for their small pieces of agricultural land affected under proposed project. • It is noticed from the land survey that, area affected in each village is very small, as maximum area affected is 17.15 acres in Koujalgi and minimum of 0.39 acres, in Mannikere. However this small area covers several survey number and Kathedars (farmers holding land certification), It is observed that, in most cases land is owned jointly, viz., a small pieces of land is owned by more than five Kathedars. This is one of the emerging issues while planning compensation package to group of Kathedars.
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• In all the six villages, local communities have identified and suggested cash compensation for their land, but it is observed that there is no consensus among villagers to decide upon this issue as some farmers would like to opt for alternate land. • Provision of better facilities at R and R place, including transportation, education, health, institutional and infrastructural facilities, are some of the common demands put forth by the community. • Many families belonging to farming groups in Koujalgi have demanded compensation by way of provision of alternate lands instead of cash compensation for their agricultural lands lost, as they felt that monetary compensation will be rather low and not sufficient to re-invest on purchase of lands at the new place. Since their livelihood is wholly dependent on farming, they have to compulsorily re-invest this money on land only, but they fear about un-healthy competition and escalation in the land market price. Especially women are worried that cash compensation given for agricultural land will be invested in other areas such as petty business, trade, meeting debts etc., and not excluding irregular activities by men folk, which might in reality lead to frittering away the valuable compensation package received from the Government towards their rehabilitation. • Most of the people also expressed concern about delay in R and R work and rumours about cancellation of project. They have therefore demanded that the authorities should prepare a schedule of activities for all the stages of R and R work. • In Venkatapura, all the six households do not have clarity on the nature of R and R policy relating to their residential sites and are worried about delay in the re-settlement. Thus they are not in a position to plan any developmental activities, neither in the existing place nor at the new place. They have asked for sufficient time to shift over to the new place, as they have to shift their entire belongings, including livestock animals and agricultural equipments. • Some people needed clarification regarding 4 (1) notification issued by Assistant Commissioner (AC), as there are some problems relating to the
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extent of land and survey numbers mentioned in the notice. Many of them have complained that the submersion notice issued by AC covers only part of their agricultural lands with the remaining part in the same survey number left at the discretion of the farmers. In such cases they have demanded a compensation for whole land coming under a particular survey number, as it is very difficult to manage a small piece of land left out from submersion plan. This type of problem was common among families in all the six villages in the project area.
9.10 Socio-economic analysis of R and R policy The socio-economic analysis of R and R policy for the six villages affected under proposed lift irrigation project has been worked out and presented in this section. It covers cost of R and R implementation, compensation package for agricultural lands and creation of village infrastructure, among others.
The idea proposed for R and R in the six villages are as follows; most of the farmers in the six villages suffer from lack of knowledge related to nature of R and R for agricultural lands. Suggestions have been put forward by the farmers on allocation of new land. Some sections of farmers in each village have opted for cash compensation, while majority of farmers have demanded allocation of alternate land for agriculture in the village, which presently is available in the form of wasteland, gomal (grazing lands) and government lands.
The prevailing market rates for lands and residential sites in the project area has been assessed and presented in Table 9.26. These valuations have been expressed by the local people, which were also verified at neighboring villages. The prices reported from the villagers in the proposed project area appear to be tending towards slightly higher side, than the prevailing market prices in the adjacent villages, according to available information from the Sub Registrar’s office in the vicinity. However the average price is calculated by considering both the category of lands i.e. residential sites and agricultural lands, while estimating the R and R costs for the proposed project.
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Table 9.26. Prevailing market prices for land and house in the project area (in rupees) Type of Aralimatti Venkatapura Kalliguddi Mannikere Kulgod Koujalgi land Dry land 35,000 27,000 25,000 36,000 28,000 30,000 Wet land 75,000 to 90,000 to 80,000 90,000 75,000 85,000 1 lakh 1,10,000 Garden 1,00,00 1,20,000 95,000 1,10,000 1,30,000 90,000 0 Residential ----- 15,000 ------sites
The total cost of land required for rising main in the project area and land required for pump house and canal network is around Rs. 10.50 Crores (Tables 9.27 and 9.27a). The pipe line is crossing over ten roads in the project area, it is required to construct cross bridges and the cost estimated is Rs 1.0 lakhs per acre.
Table 9.27. Estimation of area and cost for rising main in the project area Land and Unit cost per residential sites Name of Extent of area or acre or per affected under Amount The village number of houses cross road proposed (in Lakhs) scheme Land 1.32 acres 1.00 132000 Kalligudi House 1 house 5.0 500000 Mannikare Land 0.39 acres 1.00 39000 Koujalgi Land 17.15 acres 1.00 1715000 Kulgoda Land 9.38 acres 1.00 938000 Land 4.65 acres 1.00 465000 Venkatapur 2.0 lakhs/house House and sites 9 houses and 11 sites 2350000 Rs. 0.5 Lakh/site Land 15.31 acres 1.00 1531000 Rs. 2.0 Aralimatti 3 houses House and sites lakhs/house 750000 And 3 sites Rs. 0.5 Lakh/site Land, House 48.2 acres 13 houses Total 1.00 84,20,000 and sites 14 sites
Table 9.27a. Estimation of area and cost for Pump house and Canal Network in the project area Land and Unit cost Extent of residential sites per acre or Name of area or Amount affected under per cross The village number of (in Rs.) proposed road houses scheme (in Lakhs) Land required for pump Land 12 acres Rs 1.00 1200000
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 220 Water Quality house Land required for main Land 511 acres Rs 1.00 51100000 canal Land required for Land 378 acres Rs 1.00 37800000 distributory and laterals Construction of 10 cross ------50 acres Rs. 1.0 5000000 roads Total 9,51,00,000 Grand Total (Table 9.27 and 9.27a) 10,35,20, 000
9.11 The broad contours of the proposed rehabilitation scheme - The concept In the previous chapter an account of the interview of land and residential site losers has been given. However, as a general principle it is necessary to ensure certain measures already stipulated by either the Government or such other enforcement agencies, which shall be introduced with the objective of confirming proper settlement of project affected people. A general account of such measures to be introduced during the project implementation stage is given in the following paragraphs.
The basic Tenet of Rehabilitation is to resettle the disturbed population in a new settlement with all facilities and amenities which could be even better than their old habitation. The rehabilitated community should also feel that new environ is good and congenial to continue their age old traditional or even new occupations. Following the guideline of the Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, the objectives of rehabilitation should aim at making the affected families attain a standard of living which might be even better than what they had in their traditional villages and certainty not less than the general standard of living of the people in and around the project area. Sufficient care should also be taken to ensure that their social and cultural identity are not disturbed, and which should be encouraged to continue as before, wherever possible.
9.11.1 The problems
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As a general policy the resettlement authorities should attempt to solve the problems of compensation to the affected families amicably in order to avoid litigations and delay in the implementation of rehabilitation scheme.
In addition to paying full compensation, the affected families may be permitted to carry their salvaged building materials through the provision of free transport facility provided by the Irrigation Division. The intention of providing this facility is to facilitate the affected families to transfer their materials and complete the construction of new houses as early as possible at the new rehabilitation centers. One should realize the fact that since the structures are too old, compensation paid to these families would be very small and would not be possible for them to build at least similar houses, if not better ones. Even this little compensation may be diverted to other purposes like purchase of food articles, performing religious functions, clearing of debts and such other non productive expenditures. It may also be relevant to point out, that the whole purpose of rehabilitation will be defeated, if the debts (if any) are deducted at the time of paying compensation to the affected families.
The rehabilitation center proposed may be developed in non – forest region preferably nearer to the present location, if possible. Each affected family may be allotted one site or one constructed house free of cost. The sites allotted may be big enough to accommodate the livestock within the area offered to the families. A positive outcome of the rehabilitation plan will be the provision of basic social amenities in the new center or at the proposed colony.
9.11.2 The strategy
The strategy suggested in this context is to persuade the affected families to invest their compensation package in income generating productive enterprises like fisheries, cottage industries, purchase of land etc. It is preferable to give land rather than land compensation, subject to availability of agricultural land instead of monetary / cash compensation. In case land –
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 222 Water Quality to – land compensation is not feasible, provision for liberal cash compensation should be made.
In the light of the experience gained from other projects already implemented, the Irrigation Department, should adopt such measures which mitigate the sufferings of the affected people under the current Irrigation Project.
9.11.3 Resettlement Centres
The total number of houses/families displaced are 13 and the total number of people affected could be around 65. For the purpose of transporting the displaced families, grant-in-aid for constructing houses, grant-in-aid for maintenance and rehabilitation grant-in-aid, a sum of Rs. 5.0 lakhs may be earmarked.
The Irrigation Department in consultation with the other Government departments shall be the nodal agency for implementing the resettlement programme of the displaced persons. The guidelines issued from the Government, either central or state from time to time should be followed while undertaking rehabilitation measures. One separate rehabilitation and resettlement division with adequate staff has to be created exclusively to attend to this work. One of the project engineers, preferably the concerned Executive Engineer of Irrigation Department shall be the Member-Secretary of the rehabilitation committee which will co-ordinate the process of rehabilitation programme.
9.11.4 Pattern of settlement
In the traditional settlement of the present Irrigation Project, we find more than one community. As such, villages / houses are not technically homogenous groups. In view of the varied opinion expressed by the Villagers, it
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 223 Water Quality would be desirable to plan a settlement on the proposed rehabilitation guidelines; the rehabilitation settlement can be developed for house site with approved dimensions for each house, after earmarking necessary areas for drainage, market, schools, hospitals and other infrastructure facilities.
Government should build all weather roads connecting the settlement with the main road, as provided in the resettlement guidelines. It should also develop other infrastructural facilities like schools and protected water supply in the resettlement township. The infrastructural facilities should be provided along with the development of the site, before the households are shifted.
Three villages are going to be fully affected at FRL and therefore, it is socially desirable and economically feasible to establish a full fledged independent rehabilitation center independently, for all the villagers. It may be advisable to find a place nearer to existing resettlement center. Further, this would help maintaining age old social milieu and traditions and customs, so dear to the village community.
On the basis of the above socio – economic philosophy, resettlement of the affected households may be undertaken on the basis of the following parameters :
9.11.5 Civic amenities
Civic amenities should be provided or strengthened in the new settlements with emphasis on the following:.
1. Drinking water facility 2. Electricity supply 3. School Building 4. Play ground / children’s park 5. Cattle shed / common cattle shed 6. Hospital, Veterinary clinics 7. Religious places of worship
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8. Village Panchayat / Auditorium for cultural activities 9. Cremation ground 10. Pond Gokatte, Wherever feasible 11. Grazing ground, if available 12. Proper sanitation facilities 13. Any other facility which were existing earlier in the affected villages.
Thus, it is difficult to estimate precisely the nature and cost of the task ahead. However, the task before us is to provide compensation for the land and / or structure. The magnitude of this will be known only when the project reaches the actual submersion stage. However, it may not be appropriate to wait till that time in the context of a majority of households being dependent on agriculture and where landless people are going to be uprooted from their traditional occupations.
9.11.6 Other facilities
1. The affected families, falling in the acquired area may be given priority in employment in the project.
2. In order to ensure that the displaced persons are gainfully employed additional training facilities may be provided.
3. All religious places coming under submergence may be reconstructed. Articles of archaeological importance may be preserved in museums existing in the vicinity.
4. In order to ensure consistent involvement of the affected families in the resettlement and rehabilitation scheme, Advisory Committees may be constituted covering Villagers, Tahsil and District Level Officers.
5. Full exemption of registration fees and stamp duty may be given to the affected families for purchase of land in the area.
6. Preference may be given to displaced persons in the allotment of shops at the project site.
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7. Free transport facilities may be provided to ensure safe shifting of displaced persons and their livestock, and household goods.
9.11.7 Transport Assistance
The Irrigation Department or the Resettlement and Rehabilitation Project shall be responsible for the free transportation of households from the affected area, according to detailed movement plan, to the relocation sites / houses. Transportation includes transport of families, livestock, personal effects, salvaged / dismantled building materials, agriculture produce and equipments.
9.11.8 Concession of stamp duty
No stamp duty is required for taking possession of lands, according to legal process of rehabilitation. Cement, tin sheets, and such other materials may be provided to the affected persons. To each affected family, 50 cement bags may be provided free of cost in the new rehabilitation center for constructing houses. The proposed plan may suggest alternative schemes to the landless workers. Farmers may be encouraged to start their own enterprises by providing loans with subsidy. The interested persons may be given vocational training in a chosen craft, apart form providing employment to one person per each affected family in the Project. It is proposed to maintain a register for those who require employment.
The following quantum of rehabilitation grant is proposed to be adopted for land losing households as prescribed by the Government of Karnataka, vide its Government Order No. RD 118 REH 91, Bangalore, dated 18-12- 1992 and RD 21 REH 94 (P) Bangalore, dated 15-5-1995.
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1. Families losing more than 5 acres of Wet land or Rs. 40,000/- equivalent extent of Other categories of land 2. Families losing between 3 to 5 acres Rs. 30,000/- Of wet land 3. Families losing up to 1 acre of wet land Rs. 25,000/- 4. Families losing up to 1 acre of dry land Rs.20,000/- 5. Landless agriculture labors / artisan & others Rs.15,000/-
The actual rehabilitation grant to be paid could be decided by the rehabilitation committee. The purpose should be, to focus on the needs of oustees which calls for strengthening infrastructure, especially in the field of animal husbandry training, to assist affected families etc. It is obvious that an organization will have to be established to execute these programmes, in an efficient manner
9.11.9 Construction of houses
Even though compensation is given for the loss of houses, the Government should extend all possible facilities such as loans through co- operatives, free water supply for construction, provision for construction of the houses under Government sponsored schemes such as Ashraya, low cost housing, etc., for the displaced families.
9.11.10 Rehabilitation
The rehabilitation planning should be at two levels
1) Short Term Plan and 2) Perspective or Long Term Plan
There are two stages in the organizational pattern as in the case of planning. The job at the first stage, is to oversee the acquisition of land, houses, paying compensation, shifting and resettlement of the population
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 227 Water Quality in the new centers etc This is the short term plan of Resettlement and Rehabilitation.
In the second stage, viz a long term plan, an organization should take care of the development of basic infrastructures and amenities of the region in general, both in economic and social terms, generation of employment and other long term activities concerning the organization. The oustees should be involved, especially the weaker sections, both in the decision making and implementation processes. This would not only ensure active participation of the affected but also help translating the planning into reality, thereby assuring a good success of rehabilitation programme. The stage of organization may have four cells each dealing with one specific activity. They are:
Land and House Estimation Cell : This would be assisted by grievances, legal and reconciliation units. The purpose of these units would be to resolve the grievances of the affected families amicably and thus, quicken the process of smooth rehabilitation besides providing legal assistance. The cell should educate the aggrieved regarding the laws pertaining to land acquisition etc., and consequence of resorting to courts of law. This would be especially useful for the weaker sections. This would also eliminate the middlemen who would like to make use of the opportunity, for their ulterior ends.
Acquisition and Compensation Cells: For taking follow up actions - this unit will have to be assisted by the accessory bodies spread over different villages in the affected region.
Area / location Identification Cell: Their job is to find out suitable site for rehabilitation with the help of officials, experts and the local population and,
Resettlement cell: This deals with the shifting of population to new rehabilitation centers by providing free transportation etc. This should be
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 228 Water Quality assisted by grievances and problems solving unit. Once the affected families are shifted and resettled in the new area, the task is to oversee that the affected are properly resettled in the new center. It is also the job of Stage I organization to provide alternative house sites and land to the affected families, apart from the compensation.
The second stage has broadly three cells, one looking after infrastructure development assisted by various levels of officials inclusive of the local community. Second, takes care of land development assisted by officials, experts etc. Finally, the last unit will have to provide basic social amenities, employment and take care of other development activities.
In addition to most seriously affected households, assistance should also be provided for artisan families. Preference should be given to members of project affected families in the matter of employment while making appointment in any sector / department located in and around this region. Here, the co-operation of different governmental agencies, industrialists, philanthropists, voluntary organizations, etc. would be highly desirable for the all round development of the region and the affected families.
Besides, the first and the second stage organization, a planning cell is also necessary to plan out the entire rehabilitation scheme and for overall regional development. Similarly, a monitoring cell is also essential to review the activities of the first and second stage organizations at regular intervals and help the planning cell. This, in turn, will sharpen the planning process and its actual operationalisation to achieve better results. The entire activity will have to be coordinated by a rehabilitation co- coordinating cell. Thus, organization pattern should be well knit and it should work, hard - in - glove with affected population and the planning experts, officials etc. The whole process should by dynamic, inspiring and imaginative.
The following action plan may be considered for achieving better results, to minimize the gap between the rich and the poor and usher in general
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 229 Water Quality prosperity of the region. The emphasis is on reducing the conflict and to encourage co-operation between the displaced and the locals and with themselves.
9.11.11 Action plan
The action plan is designed to serve not only purpose of rehabilitation, but also the long term interests of the region. It is envisaged that the action plan should not only initiate the physical rehabilitation of the population, but also provide for an in - built mechanism that could sustain the vigor of the plan and pace of development, irrespective of monitoring. i.e. the need is to create a kind of an organizational pattern and perspective plan, that could invigorate the entire process of development.
The concerned officials should consult the affected families for the final selection of their settlements in the proposed rehabilitation center. There should not be an alternative choice to the oustees. This kind of approach should be avoided in the interest of the project itself. Any large scale discontentment that emerge due to lapses on the part of officials may lead to unrest which will be exploited by the vested interests. This negates the whole purpose of rehabilitation and the developmental activity. The Project authorities and concerned officials in the Government should see to it that the displaced families are properly rehabilitated and comfortably settled in the new center. It is always necessary to optimize distance between the affected villages and the rehabilitation centers. Once it is established, the affected villages could be shifted to the nearest rehabilitation centers. This would benefit especially those who are affected partially, either losing lands or houses. It is important to note that the population ratio of the rehabilitation centers will have to be maintained in consonance with other areas or villages in the region to avoid any impale or conflicts.
This does not imply that it fulfils the other aspects of rehabilitation. For instance, the non – availability of surplus agricultural land that could be made available to the affected families imposing restrictions (Constraints)
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 230 Water Quality on developing agriculture as an avocation. It should be left to individual affected families themselves under these circumstances, and it is necessary to adopt land-to-land compensation policy. However, there is no alternative for creating non – agricultural employment avenues, whether one appreciates (likes) it or not. Even if labour intensive, profit oriented, agricultural crops are introduced, it may help largely the local land owners and landless labors rather than the displaced families. This may come in conflict with the aspirations of the affected families.
Majority of the displaced families preferred agriculture to other occupation. This may be because of the possibility of irrigation facility, following project commissioning which has triggered their aspirations, as it would be profitable. Besides, the hope of acquiring a piece of agricultural lad as an asset is too strong. This may also be because of the agricultural background of the displaced community and their attachment to land.
9.11.12 House sites and proposed land layout
House sites have to be allotted to the oustees on the basis of household size and also taking into consideration livestock and other agricultural implements like bullock cart owned by each family. For the landless, the house sites could be of smaller size, but the non – farm occupation will have to be provided. Efforts should be made to provide adequate number of drinking water wells with the norm of, one well to serve at least 100 households.
The house sites to provided should be such that the building could be oriented in any direction, respecting the beliefs and customs. After house construction, occupants may develop the inbuilt area for poultry, dairy, cultivation of vegetables etc.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 231 Water Quality
9.11.13 The basis
In order to plan for the employment generation and economic needs of the oustees, it is necessary to know the locally existing occupational structure, skills, cropping pattern etc. It may be difficult for the Government to find out and acquire surplus land, especially nearer to the submersible village, for distribution among the displaced. In the event of Government’s inability to provide agricultural land to all the affected families, some employment avenues have to be planned. The oustees have to be convinced and motivated to accept non – agricultural occupations, also those willing could be provided with suitable jobs in different Government Departments.
Apart from this, some basic agro-based industries could be started. This would not only provide employment to the displaced, but also would create market. Encouragement has to be given to the entrepreneurs or industrialists by way of subsidy or incentives in this regard. In order to impart skills, oustees who have aptitude, should be given training through industrial training institutes etc. Liberal financial assistance and advice have to be provided to the displaced as well as local residents who wish to start their own enterprises. Employment oriented developmental programmes like IRDP, RLEGP, NREP should be implemented with greater vigor. Apart from this, other developmental programmes have to be undertaken to help the displaced in getting productive assets. The programmes pertaining to the rehabilitation activity, aimed specifically to help the weaker sections among the displaced.
In other words, there should be a committed emphasis on amelioration of the lot of weaker sections. Further, activities like dairying, animal husbandry etc., have also to be encouraged.
It is suggested that the villages which have to be shifted to the new rehabilitation centers should be arranged in a cluster, so as to retain their independent identity. Further, it is easier to provide basic physical and
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 232 Water Quality social amenities, communication and other facilities, to these cluster villages. Market centers have to be located in the midst of a few cluster villages. That is, the cluster of villages will have to be linked with other nearby markets, in order to develop not only the villages around, but also the entire region. Thus, these rehabilitation centers will have to be developed as model villages or towns.
Physical plan has to be drawn for these rehabilitation centers (Cluster villages) by taking into consideration the cultural and sociological factors. As far as possible, the earlier settlement patterns should be retained to avoid any conflicts between the displaced and the local community. The rehabilitation centers will have to be provided with all the basic physical and social amenities like drinking water, public lavatories, drainage, roads, medical facilities, educational institutions, electricity, postal services, transport system, co-operative societies, banking and other credit institutions, marketing, burial grounds and all such other facilities. In all, the rehabilitation centers should act as catalysts of development, prosperity and change, and certainly not, as centers of conflict, leading to misery, retrogression; and despondency.
Note: 1. The national policy on Rehabilitation and Resettlement for project affected families vides resolution no. Aeg.1401.1/04/2003-LRD dated 17 th February 2004 is applicable to those projects which displace 250 families in hilly areas and 500 families in plain area. 2. Though the national guideline are not applicable to some of the already approved projects like Varahi Irrigation project, Markandeya Irrigation Project, etc., the Government of Karnataka has already agreed to follow the guidelines in good spirit. Besides similar commitment has been made in respect of other to be approved projects like Singatalur lift irrigation project, Bellary nala irrigation project etc., where the number of affected families are less than 500 and the project does not fall under the national policy on R & R, the same has been suggested by the Government of Karnataka.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 233 Water Quality
3. It is estimated that a total of 383 ha of land is likely to be acquired on account of the project of which 5 ha is for pump house and project site and the remaining 378 ha of agricultural land is for canal network, needs to be acquired from farmers. 4. The Government of Karnataka vide order No. RD46/REH/05 dated 21.05.2005 as established an R & R Committee and a meeting of the committee was held on 06.09.2005 under the Chairmanship of the Revenue Minister, in the Irrigation Department, in respect of the Singatalur irrigation project to be executed by the Karnataka Neeravari Nigam. The committee is therefore requested to prepare a similar draft plan, take it to the affected people, get their opinion and preferences and finally prepare an acceptable plan. It is better to issue final acquisition notice once these plans are finalized. 5. A preliminary enquiry has revealed that the displaced families prefer to settle down in the nearby village. As such the district authorities are requested to identify land for Rehabilitation programme in consultation with the project affected persons although it is a small number (Thirteen households). As no resettlement area has been identified so for efforts must be made immediately to identify the same. The rehabilitation committee (headed by a Minister of Cabinet rank), the irrigation department shall make genuine efforts to ensure that it identifies and provides the required land and other facilities before the commencement of the project enabling smooth re- settlement. 6. The budget provision for providing infrastructure facilities like health care centre, etc., suggested as per the R & R policy must be made. Such allocations and the actions taken thereon must be people friendly as for as possible.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 234 Water Quality
Chapter X Environmental Management Plan and Occupational Health Hazards
10.0 Safeguarding Health of the Labour groups in the Construction Site The proposed Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme envisages the intake structure near Aralimatti village, Gokak taluk, Belgaum district and the command area for the project is distributed in Ramdurg and Saudatti taluks of the Belgaum districts. With respect to the construction of the barrage, significant aspects of the project need to be explained towards a holistic appraisal of its benefits to the local community. A detailed study of existing ground water and surface water regimes is considered, because the water sources mainly constitute the major drinking water needs of the future and in addition be supportive to the agricultural needs. The detailed ground and surface water sources in the area are given below:
10.1 Ground Water Sources Preliminary observation of the region was carried out followed by selection of groundwater sampling locations for the collection of ground water samples. The parameters selected were based on soil condition, agricultural and non- agricultural lands, approach availability of water, power etc. Existing hygienic conditions of the environment in the entire command area were assessed in the selected sampling locations. Groundwater samples were collected mainly from hand pumps as they are the main drinking sources in addition to some surface waters, municipal water supply, etc. It was noticed that hygienic condition around the hand pumps was poorly maintained due to (a) household activities such as washing of utensils used in day-to-day food preparation, washing of clothes, leading to the formation cesspools around the sources. This is the major source for spreading epidemic diseases, in addition to its percolation to groundwater sources; (b) the dumping of solid waste and other domestic wastes around the water sources generated mainly from agricultural activities consequently led to
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 235 Water Quality adverse effects on health and a root cause of infectious diseases among the community.
10.2 Estimated cost for medical facilities The inhabitants of the project area as well as the inhabitants of the villages in the project vicinity, in addition to labourers, are prone to general diseases like diarrhoea, malaria, dysentery, jaundice, etc, which may lead to decline in immunity among the community, particularly children. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the Project Authorities to set up a Primary Health Center to overcome the problems as a part of R & R programme (see Table 10.1 for cost estimates).
Table 10.1. Estimated cost for setting up medical facilities
Sl. Amount Particulars No. (Rs. in lakhs) 1 Non –recurring i) Building 2.50 cost ii) Cost of ambulance (1No) 1.75 iii) Equipment, laboratory facility, 1.75 furniture etc. Total 1 6.00 2 Recurring cost ii) Medicine and other 4.50 (3 years) miscellaneous expenditure iii) Maintenance of ambulance @ 1.80 Rs. 5,000/- per month Total 2 6.30 3 Lump sum grant for strengthening of 1dispensaries @ 2.00 Rs. 1.5 lakhs per PHC 4 Public Health Engineering Works 1.70 Grand Total (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) 16.0
Note : Salary and wages components are not shown, as Health Department will be requested to transfer/depute the personnel.
The poor or lack of maintenance of hygienic conditions around the ground water sources have often led to outbreak of common diseases, such as malarial fever, cholera and digestive system problems, which routinely could be observed in the study area.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 236 Water Quality
The formation of cesspools around the ground water source appeared to be the major threat to the ground water quality, i.e., the entry of some of the hazardous constituents leading to the contamination of ground water. For instance, the ground water quality data of study area covering a number of samples, showed that the concentration levels of number of water quality parameters useful for a healthy community exceeded very often the prescribed acceptable standards of the drinking water quality.
The dumping of solid domestic wastes around the sources also contributes to the contamination of ground water, which causes adverse health effects on the community. Some of the water samples showed excess levels of nitrate and sulphate and the excess nitrate levels in drinking water leads to a significant ailment, particularly among children, commonly termed as Blue baby Syndrome.
The excess of sulphate in the drinking water also sometimes contribute to turbidity in water and has a health impact, if present in excessive concentrations.
Following the field survey and scrutiny of ground water analyses data, it is found essential to maintain the ground water sources and their surroundings in a high degree of sanitary fitness, which can be achieved as follows: 1. All domestic activities should be carried out, well away from the ground water sources. 2. Washing of clothes and household utensils should be restricted around the ground water sources, in order to maintain hygienic conditions around the sources. Well canalized drainage system and washing facility should be provided away from the sources. 3. Cesspool formation around the source should be checked and this can be achieved by construction and proper management of platform around source. 4. Dumping of domestic solid wastes should be prohibited around ground water sources. 5. Disposal of domestic wastewater around the ground water sources should be stopped completely.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 237 Water Quality
10.3 Surface Water Sources The canal water is the main surface water source in the study area, except for a few tanks when they get charged during wet season. To collect the surface water samples, sampling stations were fixed along the stretch of the canal of the study area. During the collection of water samples and field survey, a number of contaminating activities were noticed, which directly contributes towards the contamination of canal water during its passage in the study area.
The domestic activities in the rural areas such as agricultural activities, clothes washings, household utensil washing, direct disposal of domestic waste water, dumping of solid wastes into the surface water body, which were some of the major contaminating activities noticed, which are the main causes for polluting the water bodies, and following the use of such contaminated water, results in some of the diseases such as cholera, digestive system problems, etc., particularly among children.
Open defecation was commonly observed on the banks of the canal which is the main contributory agent of infectious diseases and the biological pollution of the canal water. As a consequence, many water samples showed excess levels of E.coli which proved the biological contamination aspects and its serious dimensions.
The direct disposal of domestic wastewater into the canal/river system has a serious impact on aquatic life by way of decreasing the Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content as evident in many canal water samples analyzed during study. In most of the water samples analyzed DO levels were found to be less than 5 mg/L, which is mainly arising due to disposal of domestic waste water, which leads to a rise in the BOD values. This contaminated canal water becomes unfit for drinking purposes in the areas adjacent to the contaminating point. However, since canals do posses a certain self-purification capacity, a few kilometers downstream the water quality gets relatively better. Hence the surface water should be maintained hygienically fit from health point of view in the study area.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 238 Water Quality
A health survey has been conducted to assess health effects following use of both ground and surface water in the study area through a questionnaire distributed randomly. Following the survey, the collected field data through questionnaire, were analyzed. The results showed that 2) More than 80 % of the community are affected by diseases like malarial fever and digestive problems and undesirable conditions due to unhygienic conditions (Cesspool and dumping of domestic solid wastes) prevailing around ground water sources. 3) Open defecating activities, and disposal and domestic activities are main causal agents for the spread of communicable diseases and the community requires the necessary awareness to maintain the hygienic condition around the ground water sources.
With a view to maintain the quality of canal waters, both for drinking purposes and agricultural activities, strict measures should be undertaken to restrict/control the spread of pollution generation activities as given below:
1. Disposal of agricultural wastes generated in rural areas should be checked and properly managed. 2. Disposal of domestic waste waters should be restricted in the vicinity of ground water sources. 3. All domestic activities resulting in pollution along the bank of canal should be restricted and properly controlled. 4. Open defecation along the canal banks should be prohibited and appropriate alternative community systems should be provided in addition to maintaining the sanitary system.
The labour camp set up during project work is likely to have nearly 50 inhabitants consisting of at least 4 members in a house at a place nearer to construction site. Proper management of drainage system for disposal of wastewater, construction of septic tanks for the discharge of faecal matter, suitable arrangements for the disposal of domestic waste are essential to maintain the hygienic conditions in the labour camp area (Table 10.2).
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 239 Water Quality
Table 10.2. Estimated waste water and solid waste generation in a labour camps Number Water Waste Wat er Solid waste Members/ of requirement/ generation generated/ family families household/day /household/day Person/day 50 4 120 L 96 L 0.6 Kg
The estimated generation of waste water indicated that 19.2 m 3/day of waste water will be generated in the camp area and proper discharging method has to be adopted for this problem and to maintain hygienic condition (Table 10.2).
Regarding the solid waste, if 0.6 kg/day is generated per person i.e. 120 kg of solid waste will be generated from 50 families in the camp area, resulting in 43.80 tonnes of solid waste generation in a year. In order to overcome subsequent problem of the generated solid waste, proper management of solid wastes by way of a scientific transport system and appropriate disposal methods has to be adopted. It is desirable to construct a common septic tank for a unit of ten families, which will work out to 4 septic tanks for 200 inhabitants.
It is also important that the civil engineers or safety officers at the project site should be conscious of occupational hazards arising from the project in all its dimensions and treating it as a priority humanitarian mission. Frequently, the supervision of construction activities is the task of a civil engineer, and the Engineer in-charge should be able to recognize potential health hazards and be aware of the measures to provide the necessary safeguards.
There are several important approaches to the subject of safeguarding health in construction activities; one is that of safety Engineer who may limit his interpretation of health protection to the prevention of injury by accident; another is that of the Health Safety Engineer in charge of health and safety who believes that health conservation may be influenced by almost everything. For this reason the concept of the latter is apt to be broader than that of the Health Safety Engineer. The subject is thus to be discussed from the view point of the Health
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 240 Water Quality
Safety Engineer, but however, certain purely safety engineering practices also have to be considered.
A widely used construction material is cement and the health maladies that may be traced to it, or to concrete, are varied. Perhaps the most commonplace ailments result from burning, or irritation of the skin. Chemical analysis has shown some cement that contain as high as 10% caustic alkali, although this may be higher than the average. Frequently concrete or cement gets on clothes, or in shoes and the constant rubbing of the stiffen wearing apparel abrade the skin and opens an avenue to infection. Some deafness, due to cement caking in the ears, and eye injuries, limited usually to conjunctivitis, are some of the occupational health hazards associated with the use of cement and concrete. Prolonged inhalation of dust from finished cement produces such slight physiological reaction that little or no abnormality is seen in the roentgenogram. Preventive measures are largely a matter of personal hygiene; i.e., clean clothes and appropriate goggles are indicated for the protection of the eyes.
There are many other exposures in construction work that may result in ill-health but reference will be made here to only a few of them. Many skin ailments have been traced to frequent contact with oil and grease and with friction tape. Frequently dermatitis may be due to washing the hands and forearms in gasoline. Such practice is emphatically condemned as it removes all the natural fats and waxes and leaves the skin dry and stiff, in which condition it readily cracks and becomes susceptible to infection as open wound. Besides bruises and bore injuries due to constant pressure; or friction; or posture necessary to operate a machine; excessive heat; or wet conditions; all may constitute occupational health hazards. The water bucket and the common drinking cup are likely to be a source of disease hazard; portable pressure tank fountains are recommended. Heat stroke due to excessive loss of minerals by excessive perspiration is a real hazard in many jobs and they may be controlled by the wise use of salt.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 241 Water Quality
10.4 Solid Waste Management During the project construction, manpower comprising of laborers, technical staff and other officials will be residing in the area. The manpower engaged during construction phase will be of temporary nature and they are likely to leave the area after the completion of the project. Since, substantial amount of solid waste is generated from the temporary colonies, proper management of the same becomes essential. An estimated population of about 150 comprising of labourers and their families and other staff are expected to reside in the proper area at any given time.
The project authorities need to undertake sufficient precautions to develop a proper system for the sewage treatment for the colonies of labourers and workers. Therefore, septic tanks and soak pits have to be provided for individual dwellings or for a small cluster. The project authorities should ensure proper waste disposal practices by facilitating various disposal methods like incineration, composting, land filling etc.
Average per capita solid waste generated per day is reported to be 0.6 Kg (dry weight). Therefore, from about 70 households with an average family size of 5 residing in the labour and staff colonies an estimated amount of about 76.65 tonnes (0.6 Kgx5x70x365 days = 76,650 Kg) of solid waste will be generated per annum. No dumping of solid waste shall be allowed near any water body or a stream to exclude any health hazard problem to the community.
The solid waste shall be collected in masonry vats with a minimum of 30 cm 3 capacity constructed at suitable sites near the colony area. The garbage generated should be transported to the land fill sites located with a minimum distance of 0.5 Km away from the colony area. The organic waste should be suitably processed to form compost, which can be used as manure. In addition to the above facilities, proper sanitary facilities should also be provided at the labour colonies. Septic tanks of required size shall be constructed. The waste water generated from the colony should be collected and disposed in specifically designed soak pits. It shall be ensured that waste water and sewage generated from households should not be allowed to enter into the river or any other stream
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 242 Water Quality in the area; however the same could be utilized for maintaining landscape and gardening purposes at the proposed project site.
Proper sanitary facilities should be provided at the colonies as per standard municipal design, designed for hilly areas. Five community latrines of at least ten seat facilities should be constructed at suitable locations in the colony area. The estimated cost of solid waste management works out to about Rs. 27.35 Lakhs for three years (Table 10.3).
Table 10.3. Cost estimates for solid waste management *
Sl. Specification Amount * No. (Rs. in Lakhs) 1 Community Toilets @ Rs.1.50 Lakhs per set, for 6.00 4 sets 2 Septic Tanks and Soak pits @ 1.25 lakhs, 4 No. 5.00 3 Land fill 1.95 Lumpsum @ Rs.0.65 lakh per year for 3 years 4 Salaries for cleaning workers and collectors 3.60 2Nos for 3 years @ Rs.5000/-per month 5 Miscellaneous expenditure including Implements, 2.40 Transport etc. Lumpsum @ 0.8 lakh per year, for 3 years 6 Water supply system 8.4 Lumpsum @ Rs. 2.80 lakhs per year, for 3 years Total 27.35 * The outlay given as 27.35 is for three years. As such the annual outlay works out to be around 9.11 Lakhs (9.116 Lakhs).
10.5 Management Plan Although agriculture is usually associated with its positive impacts on human life, irrigation practices may be associated with adverse impacts on environmental conditions, which may eventually curtail the sustainability of irrigation projects. For this reason, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has been recognized as an integral part of the early planning studies of irrigation projects in order to identify any expected negative impacts and suggest the necessary mitigation plans to curb these impacts. We have prepared mitigation plan for Command
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 243 Water Quality and Catchment area treatment plan, Canal afforestation plan and restoration plan of water diversion site.
10.6 Command Area Development plan The major problems associated with dry land irrigation are water logging and Salinity and other command area development related activities are construction of field channels and drains with related structures, land shaping including grading, leveling, handling and related structures and lining of field channels with suitable materials. The Water logging and salinity can be mitigated by bio- drainage methods, as discussed below.
10.6.1 Bio-Drainage to Mitigate Water Logging To prevent the rise of water table above the critical level, attempts are usually made to lower it by installing sub-surface drainage systems. Such systems are expensive and generally an individual farmer cannot afford to adopt this practice. Moreover, these pose a problem for the disposal of drainage effluent and hence they are of limited utilities. However, bio-drainage, which is defined as the process of removing the excess soil water through transpiration using bio-energy of the plant, can be a supplement or an alternative to this engineering solution, to avoid unwanted rise in the water table and subsequent development of secondary salinisation problems.
The “bio-drainage” scheme can thus be undertaken to minimize and control water logging and salinity. This has to be carried out by planting trees to transpire water and absorb salts from the soil so that the waterlogged and saline areas can be successfully reclaimed. It should be a preferred option to prevent the development of waterlogged and saline soil, especially in land locked area, where there is no possibility of disposing of saline drainage effluent. Trees should also be planted along the link canal to protect embankments and to check the water logging due to seepage, if any. Trees like eucalyptus and bamboo are effective in controlling water logging. One more positive aspect of the plantation is that it can supplement to the afforestation programme in the area.
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Tree species mainly Nilagiri ( Eucalyptus toriticomis ) and bamboo ( Bambusa arundinacea ) are capable of preventing water logging by controlling the rise of water table. The eucalyptus species can control water table rise up to 1 .95 m in the first year and up to 3.56 m in the fifth year. Similarly, bamboo species can control water table rise up to 1.09 m in the first year and up to 3.05 m in fifth year.
The trees continue to absorb and transpire water throughout the year, the capacity being more in summer and rainy season than in winter. The bio- drainage capacity of the trees is significantly affected by the salinity of the ground water due to its impact on root growth, biomass production and leaf area index. Due to high transpiration capacity and an ability to extract water from deeper layers containing saline ground water, bio-drainage by trees can control the rise in water table in irrigation command areas and prevent the formation of water logging and eventually the saline water land. Hence, bio-drainage is the best way to lower water table and avoid the problems of disposal of drainage effluent, which otherwise could cause problems of increased salinity of natural drainage and fresh water resources. This technique, in addition to improving the environment and providing firewood to the farmers, is economically effective and does not need extra energy for controlling the water table.
10.6.3 Bio-Drainage to Mitigate Salinity Tree species discussed above, viz., Eucalyptus toriticornis and Bambusa arundinacea only help in removing the drainage surplus water by absorbing it through the roots and transpiring from the leaves, thus lowering the water table and help in counteracting the harm done by excessive irrigation, or a seepage of the water through the canal. These trees don’t bio-harvest the salts as such and don’t remove the salt from the soil. But by controlling the water table rise and decreasing the capillary water fringe, the trees help in preventing the accumulation of salts in the root zone. However, an assortment of plant species can play a beneficial role in the restoration of water and salt balances of irrigated areas, which can additionally provide income diversity to agricultural properties affected by rising water table and increased salinities. This can be brought about
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 245 Water Quality by a programme of bio-drainage which includes several tree species, food crops and vegetables.
Among the tree species, which are highly tolerant to water logging/salinity are, Casuarina and Acacia . Food crops tolerant or moderately tolerant to salinity include grains such as barley and wheat. Food crops such as maize, beans and many vegetable crops are sensitive or moderately sensitive to salinity. Pulses such as moong and pigeon peas are relatively more sensitive to irrigation salinity than cereal crops. Thus when soils are affected by salinity, this type of crops are to be done away from local cropping systems, and replaced with more tolerant grain crops like barley and wheat. The direct environmental consequence of abandoned land due to salinity problem is that it creates demand for more new land to be brought under cultivation. Thus, it negates environmental benefits in the form of potential land savings, which result from productivity-enhancing technologies.
The potential positive impact of irrigation is the increased productivity or other wise stated the “land savings”, and all environmental benefits resulting from these savings. Whereas, the potential negative impact of decreased productivity due to irrigation induced salinity is the use of more land to produce the same output (i.e. reduced “land savings” or “land-use augmentation”). To strike an appropriate balance between the two, so that the negative environmental consequence is corresponding to “land savings” generated, yield-increasing agricultural technologies should be implemented. As it has been observed, the higher cropping intensity and irrigation frequency are associated with greater yield losses and in the long run, may result in declining crop diversity. To mitigate this, adequate measures should be taken to give economic policy incentives to grow other alternative crops. When the soil conditions deteriorate, the farmers may be advised to revert to low input traditional crop varieties and practices. To minimize the yield loss, intensity of cropping practices and frequency of irrigation should be maintained at optimum level of performance.
10.6.3 Conjunctive use of surface and ground water to multiple cropping and proper utilization of available area resources
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Conjunctive use of surface and ground water in the command areas will enable maximization of agricultural production and optimal and judicious use of available water. This will also help in reducing ill effects of water logging. Crop planning in the command areas should be developed on this basis so that greater emphasis is given for ground water exploitation through both public and private investment in the command area.
10.6.4 Cost of Command Area Development A total area of 18,000 ha is going to be irrigated from the proposed project covering 29 villages of Soudatti, Ramdurg and Gokak taluks of Belgaum district. The bio-drainage strategy proposed above to mitigate water logging and salinity is estimated to cost around Rs. 50,00,000.
10.7 Catchment Area Treatment Plan The River Ghataprabha takes its origin in Sundergad of the Western Ghats at an altitude of 858 m and flows eastwards for 59 km through Maharashtra state and forms the border between Maharashtra and Karnataka for a length of about 10 km. It enters the district near the village Shedihal and here it receives the Tamraparni from the south and runs about 40 km in a northeasterly direction through Chikodi taluk before it is joined from the west by the Hiranyakeshi river. The river then enters the Gokak taluk near the village Sultanpur and from this point it takes a sharp turn towards north, running along the boundary of the taluk. The total catchment area of the Ghataprabha river from the source and its tributaries is 8,829 sq km but their principal source of supply is about 64 km length of the Western Ghats and about 64 km width on the east of these hills. In this area, the annual rainfall drops from about 300 to 100 cm.
In order to compensate adverse impacts such as soil erosion, land slides, sedimentation due to various project activities during construction and operation phase of the project, Catchment Area Treatment plan has been proposed. The CAT plan addresses important issues such as damage to infrastructure, changes in drainage pattern, increased pressure on natural resources, impacts on wildlife and damage to visual & aesthetic nature of the catchment area.
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10.7.1 Catchment Area Treatment The areas which are already eroded or prone to erosion will be undertaken to provide land stability. The treatment of such areas include provision of engineering measures such as check walls, protection walls, gully plugging, diversion channels, for stabilization of area. In order to improve soil status of the area vegetative measures such as vegetative shrub barrier, brush wood check dams, planting of grasses etc, would be necessary. The watershed wise cost details are given in Table 10.4.
Table 10.4. The details of Erosion control Measures for sites under catchment Area of Project
Sl. Sub % are falling in Amount (% of No. watershed name each watershed Total Cost)
1 Tamraparni 30 40,00,000
2 Hiranyakeshi 20 25,00,000
3 Sultanpur 20 25,00,000 4 Dhavaleswara 10 10,00,000 Total 100,00,000
10.7.2 Habitat development works in Catchment area Water management is an important part of the forest management. It involves locating areas without surface water during the pinch period and providing water supply. Few water bodies are present in nearby villages, but it is very important to identify ponds, small tanks and streams within forests.
For realizing the full habitat potential, vital resources, must be distributed uniformly in the desired composition. This involves detailed survey of existing resources. Rare species such as Gloriosa suparba, Santalum album, Gardenia gummifera etc., should be rehabilitated outside the forest as a ex-situ conservation plot. A detailed inventory of flora and fauna has to be carried out and recorded on permanent file and registers. Similarly patches supporting threatened fauna must be identified and mapped for preservation. The degraded portions, patches with Eupatorium and Lantana etc, should be replanted with
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 248 Water Quality appropriate species suited to serve the wildlife. Mainly fruit bearing species such as Flacourtia montana, Bridelia retusa, Vitex altissima, Saraca indica, Madhuca indica, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Ficus religiosa etc., should be considered for reforestation in the fringes of human settlements at the edges of the forest and not elsewhere in the region. The area surrounding cultivated field and the hamlets should be tackled by planting fruit yielding trees and non timber forest products species and not with the Eucalyptus , species.
10.7.3 Regeneration model – for biodiversity conservation One of the major silvicultural interventions in forest management is regeneration operation. The regeneration strategy depends on various factors and ultimately on the overall management objectives. The regeneration strategies are aimed at maximizing the uniformity in the stand structure and promote economically important species. Similarly artificial regeneration is aimed at creating plantations with only timber species ignoring the biodiversity aspect. However with biodiversity being main theme of the current management policy, the regeneration model needs to be developed by taking both biodiversity and economic objectives into consideration. The species proposed for in the gaps are mainly fast growing timber species like teak and for open degraded areas, the exotics like Acacia auriculiformis, Casuarina equsetifolia have been suggested. Due to high density of planted exotics, with their fast growing nature they have suppressed the under growth. The ground flora is also suppressed under exotic plantations affecting the biodiversity.
This model area can be closed for grazing by digging cattle proof trenches around the degraded forest area, which will also protect the same during any incidence of fire. The old rootstocks in the degraded forest in moist and dry deciduous forests will respond to the protection. These models have been implemented and the results are very promising in other parts of Western Ghats. As the natural regeneration takes care of both biodiversity and other Non timber forest products needs, it would be appropriate to use this approach to reforest the degraded forest of the sanctuary. The model is also cost effective and ecologically, a sound measure.
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10.7.4 Natural Forests eco-restoration There is a very good potential for the prevailing natural rootstock to regenerate and recoup itself and establish themselves into well-stocked forests. A covert attempt has been tried, just to provide protection to such areas and this has resulted in very good results, where protection from fire and biotic pressure has been checked.
10.7.5 Species choice for Reforestation Native species should be preferred for compensatory reforestation. Forest department in the region has extensively promoted exotics species plantations such as Acacia auriculiformis and Silver oak. But it must be pointed out that these species provide only fuel wood or poles, but are lacking in yielding fruits to sustain wildlife and a fauna; also and beside bird community can’t build nests on such tree species. It is this very important to promote native species in afforestation efforts.
10.7.6 Measures to rehabilitate the endangered species in the region Four species belong to rare and endangered categories and few are of endemic to the region are listed from the project site. It is very important to conserve these species in gene bank. In the present context field gene bank for conservation and preservation of wild gene pools of medicinal and aromatic species is a new endeavor in the country and simulated in-situ conservation practices is a pioneer approach for its establishment. This new method of conservation practice functions as a viable link between nature on one hand and man-made conservation methods on the other, by maintaining a healthy mutual interaction among the populations and among species. It is also observed that simulated in-situ conservation has an effective role in ecological balance as well as watershed management of the region.
10.7.7 Terrestrial weed management Already the region is occupied by the Wild growth of Eupatorium and Lantana, which effectively suppress the regeneration of rare species and also curbs growth of grass, which is very crucial for the survival of herbivores in the region The Eupatorium dominate in disturbed areas, which is totally unpalatable to all
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 250 Water Quality herbivore animals. It also renders forests more susceptible to fire and to losses of soil minerals through leaching.
10.8 Canal bank Afforestation In many arid and semi-arid countries, wherever rivers are available, efforts have been made to utilize the water for irrigation purposes through the construction of dams or using lift irrigation for the agricultural needs. A total of 69.05 km length canal area is coming up in the project area of which six are main canals and remaining two are branch canals. Among these, the major canal portion lies in Bagajikoppa village area. The details of canal network are provided in Table 10.5.
The lateral canal network that comes within the command area has not been considered for afforestation.
Three rows of trees at 5 meter interval on both sides covering a length of 70 km (102000 m) requires 10200 seedlings for one row, and hence for three rows on one side of canal, 30600 seedlings are required.
Each seedling cost Rs. 200/sapling, hence for 30600 seedlings (include cost for raising, and planting and maintenance for five years), the cost is Rs. 61,20,000/- for one side of the canal and thus, for another side is Rs. 61,20,000/-. Hence, overall cost for Canal bank afforestation is Rs. 1,22,40,000/- (One Crore twenty two lakhs and forty thousand)
Table 10.5. Proposed canal network and its estimated length (in km) Sl. No. Name of the canal network Length (in km) 1 Hulund main canal 13.40 2 Radderahtti main canal 4.53 3 Kulgod main canal 2.26 4 Vankatapur main canal 5.0 5 Mannikere branch canal 2.70
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6 Kalliguddi main canal 5.40 7 Mugulihala branch canal 8.28 8 Bagajikoppa main canal 27.17 Total 69.05
The suitable species proposed for the canal bank afforestation are given in Table 10.6.
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Table 10.6. Species for compensatory afforestation Sl. No Species Family Fast growing colonizer dry deciduous forest species 1 Gmelina arborea Verbinaceae 2 Tectona grandis Verbinaceae 3 Emblica offcinalis Euphorbiaceae 4 Acacia nilotica Fabaceae 5 Acacia auriculiformis Fabaceae 6 Ficus bengalenesis Moraceae 7 Anogissis latifolia Combrataceae 8 Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Fabaceae 9 Pterocarpus marsupium Fabaceae 10 Terminalia bellirica Combrataceae 11 Terminalia paniculata Combrataceae 12 Adenanthera pavonina Fabaceae 13 Cassia saimia Fabaceae Medium to slow growing deciduous and semi-evergreen species 14 Syszygium cumini Myrtaceae 15 Artocarpus heterophyllus Moraceae 16 Artocarpus hirsutus Moraceae 17 Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae 18 Legerstromia lanctiolata Lytharaceae 19 Diospyrous candalena Ebinaceae 20 Santalum album Santalaceae 21 Dalburgia latifolia Fabaceae 22 Persea macrantha Lauraceae 23 Lophopetalum wightianum Celastraceae 24 Ficus sp Moraceae
10.9 Restoration and Landscaping of Jack well Site The construction of the proposed project, including its various appurtenances e.g. power house, approach roads, labour camps, project colony, etc. would disturb the existing topography and physiography. Since the project site is
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 253 Water Quality located in hilly area, it is prone to erosion and land sliding, unless the area is restored and maintained properly. It is proposed to landscape the area, so that it integrates with the natural surrounding reserve forests and the aesthetic scenario of the area is restored. Accordingly, it is proposed to develop a small garden and few view points, for sight seeing.
Garden establishment - A garden with local ornamental plants and trees shall be developed near the project colony site. All plants will be properly labeled with scientific and/or common names.
The native species consisting of fruit yielding, ornamental, key stone species can be considered for garden and also all the along the boundary and avenue;
Artocarpus heterophyllus. Mangifera indica, Azadirictha indica, Ficus religiosa,
Ficus benjaminaria, Tamarindus indica, Dalburgia sp., Syzyzium cumini,
Pongamia pinnata, Switenia sp., Anthocephalus cadamba, Michelia champaka,
Tabebuia sp., Careyota urens (palm), Calophyllum inophyllum, Mimopsus elengii, Terminalia arjuna, Cassia sp., Alstonia scholaris, Stereospermum sp.,
Legerstromia sp., Madhuca sp., Emblica officinalis, Pterocarpus marsupium etc.
10.9.1 Landscaping Various sites in the area will be stabilized by constructing a series of benches. The walls that will be constructed for containing the slope will be embedded with local stones to integrate and enhance the aesthetics of the area. The native trees and shrubs can be positioned based on the site condition. The species for this purpose can be picked from the above mentioned, groups of plants.
A lumpsum amount of Rs. 10,00,000 can be earmarked for development of various measures outlined for landscaping and restoration of construction sites.
10.10 Agro-forestry
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Agro-forestry refers to the practice of Agriculture and Forestry in the same piece of land. The KFD has accorded high emphasis of Farm forestry as an important component in the afforestation programmes. The sector of Agro-forestry or Farm Forestry holds high promise and potential as most of the agriculture lands are devoid of any tree population in the district. The trees if planted on the bunds and on the boundary of the lands protects the crops from the desiccating high winds and additionally would provide surplus income from the trees to the farmer apart from providing fodder and fuel as well.
10.10.1 Silvi-Pasture: This Refers to the planting of the trees in a predominately grassland so as to provide fodder all year round. The region has large areas under grasslands especially the higher reaches of reserve forest areas in the region. This afforestation is aimed not only by way of addition of tree species, but also addition of high nutritive and palatable grass species in the area, thereby providing, and much needed nutritious fodder is aimed through this intervention.
10.10.2 Natural Regeneration: This refers to providing protection to bring back as much as possible the degraded natural forest to its original state. Nature follows its own way of restocking the forests. Normally the seeds shedded from the trees will germinate and establish themselves as trees and shrubs.
However even in nature several agents assist the process of natural regeneration. High winds aid the disposal of seeds over a large area. Floods carry the seeds further away and assist regeneration. Birds and animals feed on the fruits and seeds and their droppings aid regeneration. Bees and other insects carry pollen and aid regeneration.
The Forest Department is also assisting substantially the natural processes of regeneration by dibbling of seeds in bushes where the chances of the germinated seed to develop into a tree are high. Low viability (potential of seed to germinate) seeds are sown in potential areas etc., to develop into trees.
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 255 Water Quality
10.10.3 Cost estimates for implementing agro-forestry plan for project affected villages Total trees to be cut on both the corridors = 46 Compensatory afforestation at 1:10 comes to 460 trees Cost of 460 saplings @ Rs. 1000/sapling = Rs. 4,60,000/- Rs. 1000/ includes the cost of pit making, fertilizers, tree guard, watering, control of pest and weed, thinning and maintenance etc. for 5 years
Table 10.7. Overall cost for implementing Biodiversity and Ecosystem restoration plans Sl. No. Mitigation Plan Amount (Rs) 1 Compensatory afforestation 460000.00 2 Canal Bank afforestation 12240000.00 3 Catchment’s area treatment plan 10000000.00 4 Command Area Development plan 5000000.00 5 Restoration of Jack well site 1000000.00 6 Agro-forestry plan for 29 villages in command area 16895000.00 Grand total 4,55,95,000.00 (Rupees Four crores fifty five lakhs ninety five thousand)
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Chapter XI
Environmental Monitoring Programme
11.0 Water Resource Monitoring Programme
11.1 Surface and ground water quality monitoring It is now documented that with expanded irrigation facilities in the project area, water quality monitoring is gaining importance, mainly because of considerable rise in deterioration of water resources, due to the consumption of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture sector. Also, the water regime is bound to experience transformation on account of percolation and movement of water through geological formations. With commissioning of reservoir as part of the project, the dissolved salt content of ground waters is subjected to changes. Thus, proposed monitoring network will collect the water quality data for the surface and ground waters system in order to predict changes in water quality on a regular basis.
11.2 Types of monitoring programme As with any type of monitoring, it is significant that evident objectives are set before initiating data collection activities. Also, it is of importance to decide sampling sites and their frequency of analysis to meet the objectives. In the past, formulation of water quality assessments and designing of monitoring programmes were carried out to fit in with the existing infrastructure. But, this method of monitoring was generally a failure in addressing the most vital problems and in giving a complete picture of all the problems being monitored at that point of time. In this regard, the Department of Environmental Sciences, Bangalore University, Bangalore proposes the following monitoring scheme to effectively supervise the quality of water regimes (both surface and ground water) in the project site, which shall be useful for meeting appropriate management objectives.
11.3 Significance of key monitoring parameters Monitoring programmes were designed to keep a constant examination on all those water quality parameters which are well-known to have adverse impact on
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 257 Water Quality human health as well as on agriculture. Thus, it is essential to monitor physico- chemical parameters on a regular basis, particularly those components whose concentrations are likely to change. This is largely determined by the geological characteristics of the area and accordingly the monitoring plan is evolved.
11.4 Objectives of monitoring of surface and ground water status Assessment of ground and surface water quality in the catchment and command area. Evaluation of impact of various water quality parameters on the ground water quality in the command area. Assessment of the effects of various water quality parameters on biophysical and socio-economic activities. To identify the major sources for ground and surface water pollution.
11.5 Establishment of optimal network for ground water monitoring Monitoring of the groundwater status is carried out by selecting monitoring points in the critical regions of the command area by making use of conventional and modern equipments such as automatic water level recorder etc. The data will be collected continuously for the groundwater levels in the selected points to establish a stable platform for depicting observations on the impact of the Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme before its operation and after the operation. Further, selection of the sampling stations was carried out in such a way to acquire representative data related to the ground water behavior in the study area.
11.6 Sampling scheme for ground water monitoring
In order to monitor annual changes in the ground water regime of the study area, samples from the monitoring stations will be collected in all the four seasons, viz, Pre-monsoon, Monsoon, Post Monsoon and winter. The sampling stations identified are presented in Tables 11.1, 11.2, & 11.3. The report format for analytical results of water sample parameters are given in Table 11.4.
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Table 11.1. Details of Sampling Sites at Command Area (Ground Water)
Tube/open Depth of Sl. Location Well/surface water No water (ft) Gokak Taluk 1 Basappa Mallapa Shetar, Koujalgi T 170 2 Redrahatti HP 200 3 Pattan shetty, Janatha Colony, Koujalgi T 300 4 Kalliguddi, Roadside HP 180 5 R.K.Sambal, Kalliguddi T 400 6 Kalliguddi, inside village T 300 7 Hulkund, Roadside T --- 8 Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri, Chenal T 210 9 Ramappa Hanumappa, Chipalkatti T 400 Gurusidappa Lakshmappa Dalwagi, 10 T 425 Roadside b/w Manikere & Kuligodi Saudatti Taluk 11 Dasanala Cross, Road side HP 150 12 Mugalihaal PWS 450 13 Mallikere Thota T 500 14 HPS near temple, inside Mallikere village MWS 500 15 Bagochikoppa, infront of yogeshwara matt HP 80 16 Hirekoppa, Near temple MWS --- 17 Chikoppa, Road side, Opp to Bus stop HP 500 Ramdurga Taluk Balappa Yavanappa Parakanatti, 18 T 160 Murukattnal 19 Hosur HP 300
Table 11.2: Details of Sampling Sites at Command Area (Surface Water)
Tube/open Sample Depth of Location No. Well/surface water water (ft) 20 Dhavaleshwar Barrage RW --- 21 Aralimatti RW --- 22 Venktapura RW --- 23 Siddramaiaha, Kalliguddi OW 40 24 Mannikeri Manthose OW 45
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Table 11.3: Details of Soil Sampling Sites at Command Area
Sl. Elevation Soil No Location (m) Type GOKAK TALUK 1 Venktapura 595 Grey 2 Kollugodu 619 Grey 3 Basappa Mallapa Shetar, Koujalgi 617 Grey 4 Koujalgi 605 Grey 5 Redrahatti 623 Black 6 Meresab Honnur 626 Grey 7 Koujalgi, Roadside 641 Grey 8 Anand Yellapa Adimani, Koujalgi, Roadside 625 Grey 9 Sidramaiah, Kalligudi 633 Black 10 R.K.Sambal, Kalliguddi 654 Black 11 Krishnappa Venkappa Heregudre, Hulkunda 628 Grey 12 Ramappa Hanumappa Hannegeri, Hulkunda 610 Black 13 Ramappa Hanumappa, Chipalkatti 617 Grey 14 Between Hulkund & Chipalkatti, Roadside 638 Grey 15 Mannikeri Manthose 626 Black Gurusidappa Lakshmappa Dalwagi, Roadside 16 644 Black b/w Manikere & Kuligodi SAUDATTI TALUK 17 Dasanala Cross, Road side 614 Grey 18 Mallikere Thota 629 Grey 19 Mallikere Roadside, BagojiKoppa 666 Grey 20 Chowraddi, BagojiKoppa 645 Grey 21 Gurupadappa Guruningappa Gondhi, Hirekoppa 668 Grey 22 Chikoppa, Road side 674 Black RAMDURGA TALUK 23 Murkattnal 648 Grey 24 Hosur 620 Grey
11.7 Sampling sites for the purpose of monitoring surface and ground water quality during and after the project period
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The exact locations of the stations shall be determined after a series of sampling survey to locate the precise sites for future sampling.
Sl. No. Locations No. of Sites 1 Gokak Taluk 9 2 Saudatti Taluk 8 3 Ramdurg Taluk 7 Total 24
Methodology
The analytical methodology adopted for assessment of water quality parameters is based upon the widely followed Standard American Public Health Association methods (APHA, 1995) which are given in Table 11.4.
Table 11.4. Analytical Methodology to be adopted for Water Parameters
Sl. No. Parameter Methodology 1 pH Elctrode Method 2 Conductivity Electrode Method 3 Alkalinity – Carbonate and Titrimetric Method Bicarbonate 4 Turbidity Nephlometric/ HACH Colorimeter 5 Total dissolved solids Electrode Method 6 Redox potential Electrode Method 7 Total Hardness EDTA Method 8 Calcium EDTA Method 9 Magnesium EDTA Method 10 Manganese AAS Method 11 Nitrates Spectrophotometer 12 Sulphates Turbidimetric 13 Iron AAS 14 Boron Titrimetric 15 Lead Spectrophotmetric 16 Chromium AAS 17 Chlorides Argentometric 18 Phosphate Spectrophotometer 19 Nitrites Spectrophotometer 20 Ammoniacal Nitrogen Kjeldahl Method 21 Sodium Flame Photometer 22 Potassium Flame Photometer
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23 Fluoride SPADNS Method 24 Sodium Absorption Ratio By Calculation 25 Percent sodium By Calculation 26 E Coli (MPN Technique) Membrane Filter Technique
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Field Protocol format for water sampling
Sample : Collection Date: By:
Sample Code :
Location : Latitude: Longitude:
Village :
Taluk :
Details of Sampling Well/ Area:
Depth :
Water Level Fluctuations: Previous: Present:
Usage status :
Feed back from Farmer
Any other observations
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Seasonal and Annual Report Format
Table 11.5. Report format for Analytical Results of water Sample parameters
Deviation if any Concentration (mg/l)* Parameters from the
Previous results pH Conductivity (µmhos/cm) Alkalinity – Carbonate and Bicarbonate Turbidity (NTU) Total dissolved solids Redox potential Total Hardness Calcium Magnesium Manganese Nitrates Sulphate Iron Boron Lead Chromium Chlorides Phosphate Nitrites Ammonical Nitrogen Sodium Potassium Fluoride Sodium Absorption Ratio Percent sodium E Coli (number per 100ml)
*All values in mg/l except for pH, Turbidity and Conductivity
Note: a) Critical observations – Parameter b) interventions required if any -
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 264 Water Quality
11.8 Soil Resource monitoring programme Presently considerable emphasis is placed over the problems regarding land degradation, associated loss of soil productivity and declining soil quality. In order to monitor the soil resource and soil health to a greater degree, two reasons must be taken into consideration, namely (a) Soil degradation undermines the productive capacity of an ecosystem, and (b) It affects global climate through alterations in water and energy balances leading to disruptions in natural cycles of carbon, nitrogen, Sulphur and other elements. Soil degradation has its impact not only on agricultural productivity and environment, but also can enhance the rate of deforestation, intensive use of marginal and fragile lands and emission of unwanted gases into the atmosphere, besides causing social problems at the community level. Infact, soil degradation adversely affects the very fabric of mankind (Lal and Steward, 1990).
11.8.1 Soil Resource Monitoring Scheme Soil parameters such as erosion rate, sediment load rate, water logging etc., will be studied in following locations of the Markandeya river basin of Rameshwara Lift Irrigation region of the sub-watershed in catchments and command area (Table 11.6).
Table 11.6: Soil resource monitoring locations Sl. No. Locations No. of Sites 1 Gokak Taluk 9 2 Saudatti Taluk 8 3 Ramdurg Taluk 7 Total 24
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 265 Water Quality
Methodology for soil analysis
The methodology for soil analysis has been drawn from a number of
sources/literature and the same are summarized in Table 11.7.
Table 11.7. Analytical Methods for soil Analysis
Parameter Methodology Re ference pH Electrode Method Jackson, 1973 Conductivity Electrode Method Jackson, 1973 Organic Carbon Walkley & Blacks Method Jackson, 1973 P2O5 (Average) Spectrophotometer Olsen et al,. 1982 K2O (Average) Flame Photometer Jackson, 1973 Exchangeable Calcium EDTA Method Jackson, 1973 Exchangeable Magnesium EDTA Method Jackson, 1973 Exchangeable Sodium Flame Photometer Jackson, 1973 Exchangeable Potassium Flame Photometer Jackson, 1973 Cation Exchange Capacity Neutralization Method Jackson, 1973 Boron Curcumin Method Sippola & Ereco, 1997 CaCO 3 EDTA method Jackson, 1973 Exchangeable Sodium By calculation (Percentage) Particle size distribution Pipette Analysis/ Sieving Jackson, 1973 Textural class Pycnometric Method Jackson, 1973 Water holding capacity Keen’s Cup Method Soil analysis Manual,1999 Sodium Absorption Ratio By calculation Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen Macro Kjeldahl Jackson. 1973
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 266 Water Quality
Field Protocol format for soil sampling
Sample : Collection Date: By:
Sample Code :
Location : Latitude: Longitude:
Village :
Taluk :
Details of Sampling Area:
Depth :
Soil status: Earlier: Present:
Present land use:
Feedback from Farmer
Any other observations
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 267 Water Quality
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 268 Water Quality
Soil Resources report format
The sample format is given below.
Sample no.
Village:
Taluk
Existing Concentration (mg/kg)* Standards as Soil Parameters prescribed by CPCB, BIS & FAO Particle size distribution Textural class pH Conductivity (µmhos/cm) Organic Carbon Average P 2O5 Average K 2O Exchangeable Calcium Exchangeable Magnesium Exchangeable Sodium Exchangeable Potassium Cation Exchange Capacity Boron CaCO 3 Exchangeable Sodium Percentage Note: Critical parameter, needing intervention if any to be indicated
*All values in mg/kg except for pH, Turbidity and Conductivity
11.9 Flora and Fauna Monitoring programme
The conversion of forestlands to non-forest lands is a common phenomenon throughout the developing countries like India, and this has been a matter of great concern for forest functionaries, environmentalists and policy makers in the
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 269 Water Quality last few decades (Lanley, 1982). As per the EIA guidelines of Ministry of Environment and Forests, compensatory afforestation and Flora and Fauna conservation has to be undertaken compulsorily for conversion of any forest area. Flora and fauna conservation related activities should also be undertaken. This includes a sustained programme of awareness building related to biodiversity conservation among the local community.
Researchers and Environment managers have often stressed the importance of regular monitoring of Rare, Endangered and Threatened (RET) ex-situ and in-situ species plots (Goldsmith 1991; Solbrig 1991; Noss and Woperrider 1994). Therefore, there is a need to monitor and document changes during the course of development of plantation at field gene bank and also at catchments area aiming at various biotic and abiotic interactions which are taking place there. To detect, measure and assess changes in the status of biological diversity, appropriate monitoring methods should employ specific indicators of health of ecosystem attributes, as well as indicators of socio-economic changes. Long-term monitoring of such activities is pivotal for testing many concepts associated with attempts to conserve RET species under ex-situ mixed conditions, and to oversee as to how it promotes native species colonization thus enhancing the regional biodiversity.
The present study aims at considering the RET species adaptation in terms of nutrient and water use and uptake efficiency, their growth behavior, and interaction with biotic or abiotic factors in the field gene bank. It will be useful not only to emphasize the body of basic principles of each species but also to improve the existing field gene bank system through appropriate management practices.
11.9.1 Objectives of Flora and Fauna monitoring programme This study has been visualized with the following objectives, 1. Field gene bank establishment by collecting RET species. 2. Development of butterfly garden by considering the rare butterfly species of the area and recognition of plant species that attracts these butterflies. 3. Census of plants and animals to maintain biodiversity register. 4. Assessment of nutrient uptake and use efficiencies; discern the growth and architecture patterns and in turn monitoring the performance of RET species in gene bank. 5. To assess the impact of forest submergence on habitat fragmentation specially species association and wildlife corridors in the basin. 6. Conducting awareness programme for the local community on biodiversity conservation and steps to promote eco-tourism in the Jack well site.
11.9.2 Initiatives in RET species conservation The Professor and Principal Investigator, Department of Environmental Sciences, Bangalore University could be actively involved in undertaking flora and faunal conservation related activities as mentioned below (Table 11.8). In this regard, it may be stated that the Department of Environmental Sciences, has already undertaken a field gene bank establishment project sponsored by Department of Biotechnology, Government of India, in which several rare species have been successfully collected from the Western Ghats, including Thungabhadra river
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 270 Water Quality basin and is presently maintained at Bangalore University Field Gene Bank with very encouraging results. The Department project staffs are having considerable experience and expertise in establishing, maintenance and monitoring field gene bank related activities, which would be a good asset for undertaking a similar programme in the Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Scheme environs. The number of In-situ and ex-situ sites for monitoring are given in Table 11.8.
Table 11.8. Details of In-situ and ex-situ sites for the purpose of monitoring Biodiversity
Location Number of Location no. sites 1 Catchment area right bank – in-situ plots 4 2 Catchment area left bank – in-situ plots 4 3 Upstream area 7 4 Around the Jack well site – in-situ plots 3 5 Compensatory afforestation 4
11.9.3 Field data collection format Conservation related information for in-situ and ex-situ aspects are given in Tables 11.9 and 11.10.
Table 11.9 . In-situ information sheet related to RET species
Sl. Conservation Activities/ No. parameters Data 1 Species (common and scientific name) and Family 2 Distribution of species 3 Locality name and address 4 Locality longitude and latitude 5 Altitude (m) 6 Mode of collection Seed/germinating seeds/ wildlings/seedlings from nursery 7 Condition of forest or % of Disturbed/partially disturbed and canopy cover undisturbed 8 Number of individuals and age (months/years) 9 Date of collection 10 Collector’s name and designation 11 Mother tree details (Approximate age) 12 Species regeneration details – Poor/ partial/good visual observation 13 Local use/threats 14 Trade/ industrial use and past
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exploitation from Forest Department 16 Topography Flat/slope 16 Soil type 17 Presence of litter mat Litter is intact/partially removed
Table 11.10. Ex-situ information sheet related to RET species conserved in Field Gene bank
Sl. No. Parameters Data Name of the Block 1 Individuals species code (A, B, C, etc.,) and location in the field rows and its position 2 Number of days the wilding/seedling kept in hardening chamber 3 Date of wilding transplanted to field 4 Kind of treatment given to each species after planting i) Watering ii) Manuring iii) Shading iv) Mulching 5 Planted species Height and Girth when planted 6 Other locations and Institutions where the above species has been conserved or propagated
11.10 Monitoring Air and Noise parameters On account of construction activities, it is not only surface and ground water quality likely to be affected, but also air environment and noise. Therefore, monitoring for SPM, RSPM, oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur also should be carried out both during project and post-project phases to meet the environmental air quality parameters. Besides, noise levels have also to be monitored. The sampling sites for air and noise monitoring are given in Table 11.11.
Table 11.11. Location for air and noise monitoring
Number of Number of sampling sites sampling sites for Sl. Location for air noise monitoring No. monitoring (one reading for (on 8 hr basis) every 10 min) Aralimatti (At the end of village 1 1 10 close to pumping station) 2 Koujalgi (Near bus stand) 1 10 3 Kulgod (Near bus stand) 1 10
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4 Mallikeri (Near bus stop) 1 10 5 Bhagojikoppa (Near bus stop) 1 10
11.10.1 The sampling frequency of Air and Noise parameters For monitoring air quality, it is proposed to collect samples on random basis during one working day in a month. Simultaneously it is proposed to collect the data on noise levels. For the purpose of monitoring air quality and noise levels, the stations have already been identified as in Table 11.11.
11.10.2 Details of sampling sites for the purpose of monitoring Air and Noise quality during construction period are given in Table 11.11 .
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Methodology
Analytical methods to be adopted for Air and Noise quality parameters are given in Table 11.12.
Table 11.12. Parameters and methods used for air and noise monitoring
Parameters Methods Recommended by Air Quality Respirable Suspended Cyclonic Flow Particulate Matter (RSPM) APHA, 1995 Technique (below 10 micron) Suspended Particulate Gravimetric APHA, 1995 Matter (SPM) West and Ordiveza Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ) Titrimetric method (1962) Jacob and Oxides of Nitrogen (NO x ) Titrimetric Hochheiser (1958) Noise level Noise level Sound level meter APHA. 1995
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Field Protocol Format for Air and Noise monitoring
1) Data collection date:
2) Air quality sample code:
3) Noise level :
4) Location Latitude & Longitude :
5) Village:
6) Taluk :
7) Details of sampling station/area:
8) Human settlement distance from the sampling point :
9) Details of any other extraneous noise-emanating source near the sampling point:
Local community opinion
Any other observation
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Department of Environmental Science, BUB 276 Water Quality
The Report Format for evaluating air and noise levels measured with respect to existing standards is given below.
For Air and Noise quality
a) Village b) Taluk c) Critical Parameters and their significance d) Intervention needed, if any? e) Critical observations
Existing standards as Parameters Concentration prescribed by CPCB, BIS & FAO Air quality Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (below 255.5 150 10 micron) Suspended Particulate 83.3 500 Matter (SPM)
Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ) 2.0 120
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO x ) 1.7 120 Noise level Noise level 81.6 75
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11.11 Overall Cost Estimates for Implementing Environmental Management Plan As per the general guidelines of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, a total budget of approximately 1.5 % of the total cost of the project, is required for EIA, EMP and Monitoring. An amount of Rs.105 Lakhs has been allocated for the implementation of different environmental management plans. The summary of total cost estimates for the execution of different plans is given in Tables 11.13.
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Table 11.13. Item wise budget for the Environmental monitoring programme
Sl. Amount No Monitoring programmes (Rs. In Lakhs) 1 Surface & ground water quality monitoring 40,00,000.00 Soil resource monitoring in catchments 2 (Erosion & Sedimentation rate) and 30,00,000.00 command area (Salinity & Water logging) 3 Air & Noise monitoring 20,00,000.00 4 Monitoring of Flora & Fauna 15,00,000.00
Total 105,00,000.00
Note: The above monitoring costs are estimates for two years of construction and four years of post construction period.
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Annexure I
Overall species Density and Diversity of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation
SL. Species Density Diversity No 1 Acacia sp. 17 0.143 2 Acacia nilotica 12 0.112 3 Aegle marmelos 3 0.084 4 Annogesis latifolia 8 0.039 5 Albizzia odoratissima 5 0.059 6 Artocarpus integrifolia 5 0.059 7 Azadirachta indica 29 0.201 8 Bambusa arundianacea 5 0.059 9 Bauhinia racemosa 2 0.028 10 Bignonia sp. 5 0.059 11 Bombex ceiba 8 0.084 12 Butea monosperma 13 0.119 13 Careyota urens 4 0.049 14 Carica papaya 3 0.039 15 Carissa carnanda 4 0.049 16 Cassia fistula 7 0.076 17 Cocus nucifera 12 0.112 18 Eucalyptus torticornis 13 0.119 19 Ficus sp 19 0.154 20 Hardwickia binata 6 0.067 21 Holoptelia integrifolia 7 0.076 22 Legerstroemia reginae 7 0.076 23 Mangifera indica 15 0.131 24 Morinda tinctoria 5 0.059 25 Pandanus furcatus 6 0.067 26 Phylanthes reticulatus 2 0.028 27 Phyllanthus cerasoides 7 0.076 28 Pongamia glabra 21 0.164 29 Prosopis juliflora 12 0.112 30 Randia dometorum 4 0.049 31 Santalum album 4 0.049 32 Sapindus laurifolia 5 0.059 33 Shorea talura 7 0.076 34 Stereospermum sp 6 0.067 35 Streblus asper 5 0.059 36 Syzigium cumini 13 0.119
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37 Tamarindus indica 5 0.059 38 Tectona grandis 6 0.067 39 Terminalia arjuna 25 0.183 40 Terminalia bellirica 7 0.076 41 Terminalia paniculata 8 0.084 42 Trichilia connaroides 4 0.049 43 Vitex altisima 5 0.059 Total 358 3.552
Annexure II
Tree species Density and Diversity of Command area of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation project
Sl. No. species Density Diversity 1 Acacia arabica 17 0.243 2 Aegle marmelos 8 0.154 3 Annogesis latifolia 3 0.077 4 Albizzia odoratissima 5 0.111 5 Artocarpus integrifolia 5 0.111 6 Azadirachta indica 9 0.166 7 Bauhinia racemosa 2 0.056 8 Butea monosperma 7 0.141 9 Bambusa arundianacea 5 0.111 10 Cassia fistula 7 0.141 11 Carissa carnanda 4 0.095 12 Ficus sp 5 0.111 13 Hardwickia binata 6 0.126 14 Holoptelia integrifolia 7 0.141 15 Morinda tinctoria 5 0.111 16 Mangifera indica 4 0.095 17 Pongamia glabra 7 0.141 18 Prosopis juliflora 12 0.199 19 Randia dometorum 4 0.095 20 Santalum album 2 0.056 21 Shorea talura 7 0.141 22 Streblus asper 5 0.111 23 Syzigium cumini 4 0.095 24 Terminalia arjuna 7 0.141 25 Tamarindus indica 5 0.111 26 Phylanthes reticulatus 2 0.056 Total 154 3.135
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Annexure III
Species Density and Diversity of project site Sri Rameswara Lift Irrigation project Sl. No Species Density Diversity 1 Mangifera indica 3 0.178 2 Cocus nucifera 12 0.351 3 Eucalyptus torticornis 13 0.357 4 Acacia nilotica 4 0.212 5 Carica papaya 3 0.178 6 Tectona grandis 6 0.266 7 Santalum album 2 0.136 8 Azaridictha indica 3 0.178 Total 46 1.856
Annexure IV
Species Density and Diversity of Riparian vegetation of Sri Rameswara Lift Irrigation project
Sl. No Species Density Diversity 1 Acacia nilotica 8 0.145 2 Azaridichta indica 17 0.232 3 Bignonia sp. 5 0.105 4 Bombex ceiba 8 0.145 5 Butea monosperma 6 0.119 6 Careyota urens 4 0.089 8 Ficus sp. 8 0.145 9 Ficus sp. 8 0.145 11 Legerstroemia reginae 7 0.132 12 Mangifera indica 8 0.145 14 Pandanus furcatus 6 0.119 15 Phyllanthus cerasoides 7 0.132 16 Pongamia pinnata 14 0.207 17 Sapindus laurifolia 5 0.105 19 Stereospermum sp 6 0.119 21 Syzygium cumini 9 0.157 22 Terminalia arujuna 18 0.239 23 Terminalia bellirica 7 0.132 24 Terminalia paniculata 8 0.145 25 Trichilia connaroides 4 0.089 26 Vitex altisima 5 0.105 Total 168 2.951
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Annexure V
Plant Species scientific & common name, family and habitat of Sri Rameshwara Lift Irrigation Project area
SL. No. Scientific name Family Habitat 1 Acacia arabica Fabaceae T 2 Acacia nilotica Fabaceae T 3 Aegle marmelos Fabaceae T 4 Albizzia lebbeck Fabaceae T 5 Albizzia odoratissima Fabaceae T 6 Amaranthus polygamus Amaranthaceae H 7 Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthaceae H 8 Andrographis serpyllifolia Acanthaceae H 9 Argemone mexicana Papaveraceae H 10 Argemone sp. Acanthaceae H 11 Artocarpus integrifolia Moraceae T 12 Asparagras racemosus Asparagaceae H 13 Azadirachta indica Meliaceae T 14 Bambusa arundianacea Arundiaceae T 15 Bauhinia racemosa Fabaceae T 16 Bignonia sp. Bignoniaceae T 17 Bombex ceiba Bombacaceae T 18 Borreria articularis Rubiaceae H 19 Butea monosperma Pabaceae T 20 Calotropis gigantea Apocynaceae S 21 Canthium parviflorum Rubiaceae S 22 Careyota urens Palmae T 23 Carica papaya Caricaceae T 24 Carissa caranda T 25 Carissa spinarum S 26 Cassia auriculata Fabaceae S 27 Cassia sp. Fabaceae S 28 Cassia fistula Fabaceae T 29 Chloris barbata Asteraceae H 30 Clematis gouriana Rananunculaceae CL 31 Cocus nucifera Palmae T 32 Croton bonplandianum Euphorbiaceae H 33 Cynodon dactylon Poaceae H 34 Cyperus odoratus Cyperaceae H 35 Desmodium triflorum H 36 Digitaria marginata H 37 Dioscorea oppositifolia Diosoraceae CL 38 Dodonea viscosa Verbinaceae S 39 Eleusine indica Poaceae H 40 Eucalyptus torticornis Myrtaceae T 41 Eupatorium odoratum Asteraceae S 42 Euphorbia tirucalli Euphorbiaceae S
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43 Euphorbia sp. Euphorbiaceae S 44 Evolvulus alisinoides Convovulaceae H 45 Ficus sp Moraceae T 46 Flueggea leucopyrus Euphorbiaceae S 47 Gloriosa superba Liliaceae CL 48 Gymnosporia montana S 49 Hardwickia binata Fabaceae T 50 Hemidesmus indicus Asclepiadaceae CL 51 Hemidesmus sp. Asclepiadaceae H 52 Holoptelia integrifolia Fabaceae T 53 Ipomaea mauritiana Convolvulaceae CL 54 Ixora arborea Rubiaceae S 55 Jasminum sp. Oleaceae S 56 Kyllinga brevifolia H 57 Lantana camara Verbinaceae S 58 Legerstroemia reginae Lythoraceae T 59 Leucas aspera H 60 Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae T 61 Mimosa pudica Mimosaceae H 62 Morinda tinctoria T 63 Ocimum adscendens Lamiaceae H 64 Oldenlandia fruticosa Borreria strictus H 65 Oxalis corniculata Oxaliaceae H 66 Pandanus furcatus Pandanaceae T 67 Parthenum hystophorus Asteraceae H 68 Passiflora foetida Passofloraceae CL 69 Phylanthes reticulatus Euphorbiaceae T 70 Phyllanthus cerasoides Euphorbiaceae T 71 Phyllanthus sp. Euphorbiaceae S 72 Pongamia glabra Fabaceae T 73 Prosopis juliflora Fabaceae T 74 Randia dometorum Rubiaceae T 75 Santalum album Santalaceae T 76 Semicarpus sp. T 77 Sapindus laurifolia Sapotaceae T 78 Shorea talura Pipterocarpaceae T 79 Sida acuta Sterculiaceae H 80 Sida cordata Sterculiaceae H 81 Sonchus sp. Asteraceae H 82 Stereospermum sp T 83 Streblus asper T 84 Syzigium cumini Myrtaceae T 85 Tamarindus indica T 86 Tarenna asiatica S 87 Tectona grandis Verbinaceae T 88 Tephorsia purpurea Fabaceae H 89 Terminalia arjuna Combrataceae T 90 Terminalia bellirica Combrataceae T
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91 Terminalia paniculata Combrataceae T 92 Toddalia aculata Rutaceae S 93 Tribulus terestris Xylophyllaceae H 94 Trichilia connaroides Meliaceae T 95 Tridax procumbens Asteraceae H 96 Vitex altisima Verbinaceae T 97 Zizyphus rugosa Rhamnaceae S
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Appendix 1.1 Aralimatti - Land affected under proposed project: survey number hissa number, extent of area in acres and name of Khathedar/s
Survey Hissa Area in No. No. Acres Name of the Khathedar/s Pateela Paragauda Nandagauda Pateela Adiveppa Nandigauda 1, 2,3 Pateela Shivagauda 94 and 4 9-03 Pateela Vidhyashee
Alaguda Pateela Pateela Ramdagauda Nandagauda Mahalingappa Ramappa Allapparayappa 1 and 2 95 1-11 Mahadhevappa
Guruva Kalavva Madivalayya Lokayya Mophatha Gayarana Executive officer, Taluk Panchayath 74 1 2-28 Karya nirvahaka Abhiyanthavu, K.P C limited. Ghataprabha Pateela Thrikala amara Simha 2 2-28 Pateela Poornima Amara Simha Kudrimani babanna basappa Rayappanavara dundappa 1A, Shidagowda 60 1B/1, 1-09 Nadhigunnavara satheppa kenchappa 1B/2 Nadhigunnavara basappa kenchappa Nadhigunnavara rayappa basappa Ajjanakatti basalingappa basappa Ajjanakatti hanamathappa basappa Ajjanakatti basappa shiddappa Ajjanakatti subhasha shiddappa 61 - 0-31 Ajjanakatti venkappa shiddappa Ajjanakattinagappa shiddappa Ajjanakatti rayappa basappa Ajjanakatti kareppa basappa Hallura laxmana birappa Hallura maruthi venkappa 1, 2, Hallura maruthi venkappa 3/1, Hallura lakkappa venkappa 3/2, 63 0.29 Hallura girimallappa venkappa 3/33/2, Hallura narayana venkappa 3/4p2, Hallura nigavva co ettappa 4,5,6 Hallura halappa laximeshppa Hallura hallappa laximeshppa Total 15 - 31
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Appendix 1.2
Venkatapur - Land affected under proposed project: suvey number, Hissa number, Extent of area in acres and Name of Khathedar/s
Survey Area in Hissa No. No. Acres Name of the Kathedar/s
Hulakunda kallappa mahadhevappa
Pateela ashok shankaragauda Kanti dyamappa laxmana
Kanti saththevva 1A, 1B, 1K, 2, 75 0-17 3A, 3B, 3K Hebbaala shivappa Ajanakalpu ramappa basappa Ajanakalpu subhash sidhdhappa
Pateela ashoka shankaragauda Pateela ashoka shankaragauda
Pujari urf konnoora Dhundappa shidhdhappa Pujari urf konnoora
Rayappa gurusidhdhappa Pujari somappa shivarayappa 1A, 1B, 1K, 76 0-37 2A, 2 Pujari nagappa shiyarayappa Pujari bheemappa shivarayappa Hulakundha kallappa Mahadhevappa
Pujari mahithi gulappa Pujari gadigeppa kaleppa
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Pujari yallappa kaleppa Pujari gulappa gadhigeppa
Gaji hanumantha bheemappa Gaji yallappa bheemappa
Gaji kashippa ramappa Gaji yallappa ramappa Gaji yankappa ramappa
77 1, 2A, 2B, 2K 0-13 Badakalurf budhkiramappa laxmappa
Gaji thimmappa yallappa Gaji kallppa appanna
Gaji kashippa ramappa Gaji yallappa ramappa
Gaji yankappa ramappa
Uddavagola laxmappa balappa Uddavagola basappa balappa
Uddavagola yankappa balappa Uddavagola mahadheva balappa
Uddavagola sakashivva balappa 78 1, 2, 3 0-17 Uddavagola yamanappa balappa Jelli urf Uddavagola laxmappa balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola venkappa balappa Jelli urf Uddavagola mahadevappa balappa
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Jelli urf Uddavagola nagarappa balappa
Jelli urf Uddavagola yamanappa balappa Jelli urf Uddavagola basappa balappa
Jelli mayappa bhemappa 78 2, 4, 4A 0-17 Jelli shiddappa appanna
Dalavayi maruthi hanumappa Kalavayi bheemappa hanumappa 79 1, 2A, 2A, 2B 0-24 Dalavayi bheemappa hanmanthappa
Dalavayi yankappa laxmappa
Phakeerappagola appanna yallappa
Phakeerappagola hanmantha yallappa Phakeerappagola appeesha yallappa
Phakeerappagola hanmantha yallappa Vanti yallappa hanumantha 1A, 1B, 2, 3, 4, 80 0-04 Vanti hanumantha shidhdhappa 5 Malli vittala shiddappa Vanti shidhdhappa hanumappa Vanti bhemappa hanumappa
Vanti rayappa shiddappa Vanti yankappa shiddappa
Neelappagola hanumanthappa venkappa
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Neelappagola basappa mahadhevappa
Neelappagola venkappa hanumantha
Phakeerappagola muththeppa venkappa
Mophatha gayarana 93 0-25 Executive Officer Talluk panchayath gokak
Hadimani chinthappa yallappa Hadimani chinthappa yallappa
Hadimani bheemappa hanumappa Hadimani kareppa hanumappa Hadimani maruthi hanumappa
Hosamani ballappa ramappa
1A, 1B, 1A, Hosamani hanumappa kalleppa 1K, 4A, 4, 2A, 2B, 5K, 4A, Hosamani kalleppa ningappa 4B, 2, 3A, 3K, 109 1-01 3D, 1A, 1B, Hosamani kallappa kareppa 5K, 4A, 4B, 1A, B 1A, 1K, Hosamani ballappa ramappa 4A, 4, 3B Hosamani hanumantha ningappa Hosamani sadhaashiva ningappa
Hadhimani chinthappa yallappa
Hadhimani chinthappa yallappa Sannabalappagola hanmantha ningappa Sannabalappagola shiddappa ningappa
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Gangavva Sannabalappagola kallappa kareppa
Dhavaleshwara thammanna basappa 110 1, 2 0-38 Dhavaleshwara thammanna basappa
Appendix 1.3
Mannikere: Land affected under proposed project: survey number, hissa number, extent of area in acres and name of Khathedar/s
Survey Hissa Area inAcres Name of the Kathedhar/s No. No. Hulakunda kallappa mahadhevappa Pateela ashok shankaragauda Kanti dyamappa laxmana 1A, 1B, Kanti saththevva 1K, 2, 75 0-17 Hebbaala shivappa 3A, 3B, Ajanakalpu ramappa basappa 3K Ajanakalpu subhash sidhdhappa Pateela ashoka shankaragauda Pateela ashoka shankaragauda Pujari urf konnoora Dhundappa shidhdhappa Pujari urf konnoora Rayappa gurusidhdhappa Pujari somappa shivarayappa 1A, 1B, Pujari nagappa shiyarayappa 76 1K, 2A, 0-37 Pujari bheemappa shivarayappa 2 Hulakundha kallappa Mahadhevappa Pujari mahithi gulappa Pujari gadigeppa kaleppa Pujari yallappa kaleppa Pujari gulappa gadhigeppa Gaji hanumantha bheemappa Gaji yallappa bheemappa Gaji kashippa ramappa 1, 2A, Gaji yallappa ramappa 77 0-13 2B, 2K Gaji yankappa ramappa Badakalurf budhkiramappa laxmappa Gaji thimmappa yallappa Gaji kallppa appanna
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Gaji kashippa ramappa Gaji yallappa ramappa Gaji yankappa ramappa Uddavagola laxmappa balappa Uddavagola basappa balappa Uddavagola yankappa balappa Uddavagola mahadheva balappa Uddavagola sakashivva balappa Uddavagola yamanappa balappa 78 1, 2, 3 0-17 Jelli urf Uddavagola laxmappa balappa Jelli urf Uddavagola venkappa balappa Jelli urf Uddavagola mahadevappa balappa Jelli urf Uddavagola nagarappa balappa Jelli urf Uddavagola yamanappa balappa Jelli urf Uddavagola basappa balappa Jelli mayappa bhemappa 78 2, 4, 4A 0-17 Jelli shiddappa appanna Dalavayi maruthi hanumappa 1, 2A, Kalavayi bheemappa hanumappa 79 0-24 2A, 2B Dalavayi bheemappa hanmanthappa Dalavayi yankappa laxmappa Phakeerappagola appanna yallappa Phakeerappagola hanmantha yallappa Phakeerappagola appeesha yallappa Phakeerappagola hanmantha yallappa Vanti yallappa hanumantha Vanti hanumantha shidhdhappa 1A, 1B, Malli vittala shiddappa 80 2, 3, 4, 0-04 Vanti shidhdhappa hanumappa 5 Vanti bhemappa hanumappa Vanti rayappa shiddappa Vanti yankappa shiddappa Neelappagola hanumanthappa venkappa Neelappagola basappa mahadhevappa Neelappagola venkappa hanumantha Phakeerappagola muththeppa venkappa Mophatha gayarana 93 0-25 Executive Officer Talluk panchayath gokak 1A, 1B, Hadimani chinthappa yallappa 1A, 1K, Hadimani chinthappa yallappa 4A, 4, Hadimani bheemappa hanumappa 2A, 2B, Hadimani kareppa hanumappa 5K, 4A, Hadimani maruthi hanumappa 109 4B, 2, 1-01 Hosamani ballappa ramappa 3A, 3K, Hosamani hanumappa kalleppa 3D, 1A, Hosamani kalleppa ningappa 1B, 5K, Hosamani kallappa kareppa 4A, 4B, Hosamani ballappa ramappa 1A, B Hosamani hanumantha ningappa
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1A, 1K, Hosamani sadhaashiva ningappa 4A, 4, Hadhimani chinthappa yallappa 3B Hadhimani chinthappa yallappa Sannabalappagola hanmantha ningappa Sannabalappagola shiddappa ningappa Gangavva Sannabalappagola kallappa kareppa Dhavaleshwara thammanna basappa 110 1, 2 0-38 Dhavaleshwara thammanna basappa Halaki suresha phakeerappa Halaki vithala phakerappa Thotagi mayappa ningappa 84 2,3,4 0-39 Thotagi ningavva Thotagi bheemappa Thapashi rayappa hanumanthappa Mukannavara uddavva
Appendix 1.4
Kalliguddi: Land affected under proposed project: survey number, hissa number, extent of area in acres and name of Khathedar/s
Survey Hissa Area in Name of the Kathedhar/s No. No. Acres Pinjara naidusaba Husenasabu pinjari babu Saba husenasaba pinjara Appalaal husenasaba Mavinagidadha gireppa bheemappa Dalavayi urf alagodi Adiveppa shivarayappa 1,2,3A,3 Dhalavayi bheemappa adiveppa 128 K,3B,4A, 0-36 Alagodi phakeeravva 4K, 4B Anmanthappa Alagodi bheemappa adiveppa Dhalavayi gurushiddappa Huchchappa dalavayi venkappa Guchchappa dhalavayi Sharanappa balappa dhalavayi Bheemappa koleri Dhalavayi venkappa huchchappa Jothani basappa laxmappa 1A, 1B, Mallapura hanumantha ningappa 126 0-36 2 Jothennavara govindhappa thippanna Hurakadli mallappa eerappa
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Appendix 1.5
Koujalgi: Land affected under proposed project: survey number, hissa number, extent of area in acres and name of Khathedar/s
Survey Hissa Area in Name of the Kathedhar/s No. No. Acres Sannakki saththeppa ningappa Sannakki ningappa neelappa Sannakki sidhdhppa guththeppa Mahadhevappa mallappa Sannakki ningappa sannaneelappa 1A, 1B, Sannakki thippanna sanna neelappa 729 2, 3A, 0-09 Sannakki pundaleekappa sidhdhappa 3B Dholappanavara sidhdhappa sannappa Dholappanavara yamanappa Ningappa mirchimuththanna Shankrappa Dholappanavara viththala lachchappa Meeshi doddahanumantha ningappa 1, 2, 3, 727 0-19 Meeshi sanna hanumantha ningappa 4, 5, Meeshi sidhdhappa dho ningappa Doni hanmantha bheemappa Doni appanna laxmappa Doni mallappa laxmappa 726 Doni bheemappa laxmappa Khaanannavara ningappa bheemappa Kahaanannavara sidhdhappa bheemappa Khanannavara hanumantha bheeemappa Maladhinni hanmantha basappa Sannakki thippanna sanna neelappa Dholappanavara viththala Mahadheva valeshwakara balaji venkatesha Valeshwakare govindha venkatesha 724 1, 2, 3 0-17 Valeshwakara ananda Valvekara raveendra s/o ramachandra valvekara Sudheendra Valvekara ramesha Aneppanavara adiveppa yallappa 745 0-07 Sathhthigeri kareppa mallappa Thippamani saththevva Bhajanthri ramesha basavanthappa 742 1,2, 0-17 Bhajanthri mahesha basavanthappa Lokannavara basavaraja Multhani peerasaladasaba 1, 2A/1, 741 0-14 Parushetti shivanandha allappa 2A/2, 2B Multhani noorasala kaseemasaba
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Parushetti prakasha eeshwarappa 0-08 Karnataka govt. 739 2-24 Pateela hanmanthagauda bheemanagauda Pateela bheemanagauda pakeera gauda Pateela mahadhevagauda pakeeraguda 762 1,2 0-11 Pateela venkanagauda pakeeragauda Dhesayi govindha hanmantharao Desaayi aruna hanmantharao 763 0-10 Karnataka govt. 737 0-03 Karnataka govt. Kalavayi ayyappa bheemappa 765 1 0-14 Kalavayi parashurama bheemappa No.2’s asadhaera no. 1 2 0-11 Lakkappanavara garigatti Dombara ramappa mahanthappa Dombara ashoka maankathappa 766 1, 2 Dombara venkatesha mahalingappa Dhalavayi ayyappa bheemappa Dhalavayi parashurama bheemappa Nadagaudara annappa yamanappa Nadagaudara jagadheesha yamanappa No.2’s asatha saththeppa 1A, 1B, Doni mahadhevappa abbaleppa 2A, 2B, 768 0-28 Sannakki sidhdhappa saththeppa 2C, 2D, Doni bheemappa abbaleppa 2E Sannakki sidhdhappa ningappa Sannakki sidhdhappa ningappa Doni mahadhevappa abbaleppa Meeshi dhodda hanmantha dhodda nagappa 772 0-09 Meeshi sanna hanmantha dodda ningappa Meeshi sidhdhappa dhodda ningappa Pujari kashavva Barki gangappa Pujari hanmantha viththala Pujari mahadheva vittala 773 1, 2 0-10 Sidhdhanala sidhdhappa saththeppa Sidhdhanala shivappa saathappa Thattimani prakasha balappa Thattimani mahanthesha balappa Sankinnevara mahadhevappa Sankinnavara kalasappa Sankinnavara govindhabasappa 0-07 Itakannavara basappa hanumantha 774 2-17 Sannakiki mahadheva Mallappa sankinnavara venkappa Hanmappa sankinnavara balachandra Hanmappa sannakki ramappa sidhdhappa Mohare vittala venkappa 775 0-06 Mohare hanmanthappa vekappa
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Mohara laxmana venkappa Ulagadhavara neerappa ayyappa Mumbai govt. Ulagadhavara kallappa sidhdhappa 776 1, 2 0-06 Ulagadhavara re4vappa Ulagadhavara hanmantha sidhdhappa Ulagadhavara huchchappa ayyappa Ulagadhavara revappa Hanmanthappa ulagadhavara guruppa 3 0-06 hanmanthappa ulagadhavara Mahadheva shivarayappa Karnataka water shed dept. Bagaladha naidhusaba mukthasaba Bagaladha rajesaba mukthasaba 480 0-12 Bagaladha bisabi Bagaladha shyanusaba mehaboobusaaba Bagaladhara mukthamsaba maiboobusaba Dhalavayi sidhdhappa shinappa Dhalavayi sanna sidhdhappa shinappa 451 0-19 Dhalavayi ravappa shinappa Dhalavayi kareppa shinappa Karnataka water shed dept. Sarakara dhesayi A-B Mohare sambayi venkappa Asi thayi krishnabayi Mohara shivaji hanmanthappa Mohare govindhappa hanmanthappa 1, 2A/1, 447 0-09 Mohare vittala hanmanthappa 2A/2, 2B Doni rayappa kenchappa Mohare sambaji venkappa Asadhara krishnappa Doni rayapp kenchappa Yadahalli baba shidhdhappa Dhalavayi panchappa maddeppa 521 0-08 Nalabandha imamasaba sheele Manasaba multhani ramesha Dhoddamani rangayya krishnayya 518 1, 2 0-23 Dhoddamani narayanayya krishnayya Dhoddamani krishnayya venkayya Karnataka govt. 1, 2A, 516 0-07 Dhalavayi laxmappa 2B Dhalavayi ayyappa Dhesayi AB 0-03 Maragatti udhaya ananthayya 515 2-19 Maragatti raghavendra ananthayya Asa thayi sumithrabayi Karnataka govt. Hulishrara santhappa kenchappa 513 0-09 Hulishrara thammanna laxmappa Hulishrara parasappa yamanappa
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Asa thayi santhavva Karanataka govt. Hulishrara pakeerappa yamanappa 512 0-10 Hulishrara shanthavva Hulishrara santhappa kenchappa Kudhariyallappa golappa Kudhari kareppa goleppa Kudhari shivalingappa sidhdhappa Kudhari mallappa siddappa Kudhari sheeshaila basappa Kudhari Kudhari yallappa basappa Kudhari sidhdhappa basappa 1, 2, 3, 14 0-18 Saththigeri mudhukappa guruppa 4, 5 Saththigeri hashivalingappa guruppa Saththigeri hanumantha guruppa Saththigeri ramappa parappa Saththigeri mallappa parappa Saththigeri gulappa parappa Sanmanya rajyapalaru, Karnataka Rajya rajabhavara, bangalora B.E.O, mudalagi Kankanawadi eshawara bhimappa Nayya kallappa vasappa 1, 2, 3A, Nayya rayappa hanmantha 541 0-17 3B Nayya basappa hanmantha Bijaguppi gurupadappa kareppa Bijaguppi gulappa shidhalingappa Karnataka Government Badigera uparnuthra Rangappa basappa 1, 2, 3, Haggappa basappa 18 2-19 4, 5, 6B Shri hanumanthappa mankarajari Guru yallinga maharajaru Mugalakhodha Dhoni shidhappa Bhimarayappa Bisanakoppa viravva nigappa Chararahutha yallavva co jayavantha chararahutha Mamhanthesha jayavantha 549 1,2,3 0-15 Chararahutha madev jayavantha Chararahutha renuka jayavantha Chararahutha Basappa jayavantha Chararahutha mahanthesha jayavantha Chararahutha annappa jayavantha Theradala shiddappa sabanna Theradala bagavva co sabanna 1A, 1B, 37 0-14 Theradala vittal shiddappa 2 Tayi kathri co shiddappa Chararahutha mutthappa mahadev
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Chararahutha dundappa mahadev Khanatti hanumanthappa bhimappa Godhikoppa lakkappa bhimappa Godhikoppa dundavva co bhimappa Godhikoppa balappa bhimappa Godhikoppa yallvva co bhimappa Benne sidhrama munneppa Benne kempanna munneppa Benne vital munneppa Chararahutha muthappa mahadeveppa 1, 2, 1A, Chararahutha dundappa mahadeveppa 38 1B, 1C, 0-17 Kudhari shivarudhrappa nigappa 1D, Kudhari Mahadev nigappa Kudhari sangappa nigappa Kudhari yellappa nigappa Kudhari srishalappa nigappa Kudhari shidhappa lakkappa thayi muthivva Etana basappa eswarappa Kudhari manju lakappa thayi lakkavva Kudhari srishala singappa A B Desayai Eti basappa lakshmappa 35 - 0-18 Eti ajjappa lakshmappa Eti pundilika lakshmappa Eti balappa lakshmappa Nayya thulasavva co hanmappa Hasarannavar yellapa mahanthappa Multhani babusab thnmila 550 - 0-19 Sab multhani mahamdsab Thum mirasab multhani Rajesab thum mirasab Multhani mirasab badisab Government of Karnataka Gargada basappa mahanthappa Gargada golappa mahanthappa Gargada yellappa mahanthappa 1, 2, Talavara hanamatha basappa 2B/1A, Babrannavar holevva gangappa 47 2B/1B, 0-15 Talavara govindappa hanamathappa 2B/2, Talavara basappa hanamathappa 2B/3 No 23 asadhara no 1 Talavara ramappa hanamathappa Nagarji biyama co dasthageri Nagarji husenasab dasthageri Kotina thota pravena Ashoka Kotina thota sunila Ashoka Desayi laksmibai co krishamurthiraju 50 P2 0-15 Desayi arundathi bhimappa Desayi asha co ramachand 51 - 0-13 Nagarji shamanasab malikasab
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Nagarji mahabubasab malikasab Nagarji rajesab malikasab Nagarji dasheserasab malikasab Nagarji kashimsab malikasab Khanatti bhimappa hanmantha Khanatti shidappa hanmantha Khanatti mahadeva hanmantha 58 P2 0-09 Khanatti sannashidappa hanmantha No 234 asadhara no1 Thotina thoti Srikantha shidappa Desayi M B Dhombara shankra bhimappa Dhombara bhimappa sathappa Dhombara allappa sathappa Dhombara balavva sathappa 1P2, Dhombara rukmavva sathappa 59 2P2, 0-08 Dhombara nagavva sathappa 3P2 Nagarji thashirusab charusab Hallura shivaraya allappa Hallura shiralingppa allappa Hallura erappa allappa Hallura ramappa allappa Shinde lakshmana kedhareppa 1P2, Arera uprashinde ramojappa hanamanthappa 63 0-06 2P2 Arera uprashinde shidappa bhimappa Arera uprashinde yananavva co Bhimappa Theredala shivanagowda shivalengappa Syaed jungabisab 62 1P2 0-17 Buddesab multhani dasthegerisab Husenasab multhani Dasthegerisab ameerasab 44 - 0-09 Nagarji mamathajabegum co sayidhusab 45 - 0-16 Dalavyai dareppa shirappa Horatti rangappa ramappa Horatti maruthi ajjappa thayai lakkavva Horatti nigappa yamanappa 1,2,2B, Horatti basappa yamanappa 2A3, Horatti ramappa yamanappa 2B/1P2, Horatti yellappa hanamantha 68 2B/2P2, 0-18 Horatti bhimappa balappa 2A/2P2, Horatti arjuna balappa 2A/4, Horatti rushendra balappa 2A/5, Horatti lakshmana balappa Horatti rathnvva co thamanna Horatti sathappa rayappa 1+2/1, Khanapura parasharama nengappa 1+2+3, Khanapura dundeppa keshavappa 66 1+2/3, Khanapura venkappa keshavappa 1+2/4A, Khanapura gereppa keshavappa 1+2/4B, Khanapura kallappa keshavappa
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Khanapura kallappa kasavappa Khanapura dundappa kasavappa Khanapura shereppa kasavappa Khanapura venkappa kasavappa Khanapura barmappa hanamnathappa Khanapura mallippa hanamnathappa Khanapura krishnappa hanamnathappa Khanapura venkappa bhimappa Khanapura rangappa bhimappa 71 P2 0-24 Aramani venkappa dhrmappa 553 P2 0-32 Aramani venkappa dhrmappa Total 17-15
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 300 Water Quality
Appendix 1.6
Kulgod: Land affected under proposed project: survey number, hissa number, extent of area in acres and name of Khathedar/s
Survey Hissa Area in Name of the Kathedhar/s No. No. Acres Sannakki shiddappa shidappa Sannakki yamanappa shidappa 1, 2, 3, Sannakki kareppa shidappa 400 0-27 4. 5, 6 Sannakki nelappa shidappa Sannakki pundileka shidappa Sannakki vittal shidappa 1A+1B/1 Gorava laxshmappa mallappa , Mishi maruthi laxshmana 395 0-14 1A+1B/2 , 2A, 2B Dalvayai shivalingappa 396 0-08 Venkappa dalvayai basappa 1+2/A, Dalvayai thamanna shidhappa 397 1+2/B, 0-23 Channala basappa huthippa 1+2/K Karigara shiddaruda shivakayai Dalvayai shiddappa shiddappa Mishi shivalingappa thamanna Mishi basappa thamanna Mishi prakasha thamanna 393 1 and 2 0-21 Mishi mahadeva maruthi Mishi subhasha maruthi Mishi shivalinga maruthi Mishi sadashiva hanumatha Mishi shankar hanumatha Ranganna thippanna venkappa Dhamaraddi thayavva co venkappa Channal pavanivva co krishnappa Channal satheppa krishnappa Channal ashoka krishnappa 1A, 1B, Nayaka bhagirithi co rangappa 381 0-12 2 Naymegowdar kasthuri co sudhesha huddar Sharadha co venkappa Channal hanamtha krishnappa Channal parvathavva co krishnappa Channel satheppa krishanappa Nayaka bhagirithi co Suresh Lakya appanna nigappa Badakalla rangavva co ramappa 257 1, 2, 3 0-07 Badakalla venkappa hanamanthappa Badakalla savithrivva hanamanthappa 377 1, 2, 3, 4 0-05 Lakya appanna nigappa
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Badakalla rangavva co ramappa Badakalla shrimathi paddavva co hanamanathappa Badakalla mandhakappa mudhakappa Sonavalakar rangappa thamanna Channal krishnareddy govindhappa 258 1, 2, 3 0-13 Channal hanamantha govindhappa Panchagandhi sundharvva co sheshappa Panchagandhi srikanth sheshappa Badhakalla bhagavva co holebasappa Sanna balappa gola upar Nagachete hanamappa yellappa 1, 2, 3, 252 0-24 Jalli bhimasheppa mayappa 4, 5 Nayak paddatta co thimappa Jalli uprva udhavvagola Kareppa lakshmappa yellappa Nayak krishnappa erappa 249 1, 2 0-06 Nayak hanamantha erappa Mulavada somappa shidhappa Gulaganjubagi upravabi Patel sathappa gowdappa 250 1B, 2B 0-05 Nilappa gola hanamanthappa Yenkappa nelappa gola Mahadevappa yenkappa Pujeri dundappa shidhappa Pujeri bhemappa shivarayappa 242 - 0-11 Pujeri somappa shivarayappa Pujeri nagappa shivarayappa
Devara venkappa hanamappa 1, Avaradhi shekrappa dhenappa 2A+2B, 246 0-06 Avaradhi eshwrappa dhenappa 3, 4A, Avaradhi mallappa dhenappa 4B/2 Herematta mallikarjuna shivalingappa Mattadha mahalingaiah shivalingaiah 247 1A, 1B 0-05 Karigannavar basappa thimappa Ajjanakatti basalingappa basappa Ajjanakatti Hanmanthappa basappa Ajjanakatti subhasha shidhappa Ajjanakatti sangappa shidhappa 239 - 0.05 Ajjanakatti venkappa shidhappa Ajjanakatti rayappa lachappa Ajjanakatti kareppa lachappa Kulgod mallappa balappa Kulgod basappa balappa Devara laxshmana thamappa Devara basappa ramappa 240 - 0-04 Devara gowdappa ramappa Devara manjula co hanamantha Devara vishala hanamantha
Department of Environmental Science, BUB 302 Water Quality
Devara laxmi bai co bhemappa Devara vijaya hanamantha Konnar Bhimappa shivarayappa Konnar Somappa shivarayappa 231 1, 1P 2-05 Konnar Rayappa shivarayappa Hosamani shidhappa dundappa Hosamani Hanamappa dundappa Aralimatti Laxshmppa thimappa 230 1,2 0-33 Nasi maruthi hanamappa Pujari sangappa rayappa Badakalla rangappa rayappa 236 - 0-10 Badakalla sayavva co rayappa Hosamani narayana shiddappa Phakirappa gola annappa yellappa 237 - 0-04 Dalavayai yamanappa bhimappa Hosamani dolappa ningappa Pujari ningappa gurupadappa Pujari thimanna gurupadappa Pujari suresh gurupadappa Konnur dundappa shiddappa Konnur maruthi golappa 232 1, 2 0-33 Konnur ramappa gurushiddappa Konnur hanamantha gurushiddappa Konnur bhimappa shivarayappa Konnur somappa shivarayappa Konnur nagappa shivarayappa Sannakki shiddappa shiddappa Sannakki yamanappa shiddappa 1, 2, 3, Sannakki karippa shiddappa 400 0-27 4, 5, 6 Sannakki nilappa shiddappa Sannakki pundalika shiddappa Sannakki vittal shiddappa
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Department of Environmental Science, BUB 304