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Motiuation:History of the Concept

strategiesof setting,and goal implementation Ryan R M, SheldonK M, KasserT M. Deci E L 1996All thatare easy to perform. arenot createdequal: An organismicperspective on the nature of goals and their regulation.In: Gollwitzer P M, Bargh J A (eds.) 7"fte Psvchologv of ; Linking and Seealso: Motivation. Deve- Motiuation to Behauior.Guilford Press,New York, pp. 7-26 lopmentol Action Theory:Psychological; Activity Taylor S E, Pham L B, Rivkin I D, Armor D A 1998Harnessing Theory:Psychological; Attitudes and ; Auto- the imagination: Mental simulation, self-regulation, and maticityof Action, of, ControlBehavior: coping. Ameritan Psy-chologi.rt53: 429-39 PsychologicalPerspectives; Group DecisionMaking, WernerB 1992Human Motiüation.Sage, Newbury Park, CA SocialPsychology ol IntrinsicMotivation, Psycho- Wright R 1996Brehrn's theory of motivation asa model of effort logyof; Self-regulationin Adulthood and cardiovascularresponse. In: Gollwitzer P M, Bargh J A (eds.) Tlre Psy-chologv ol Action: Linking Cognition and MotiDationto Bahauior.Guilford Press,New York,pp.424-53

P. M. Gollwitzerand G. Oettineen Bibliography Atkinson J W 1957 Motivational determinantsof risk-taking behavior.Psychologiml Reuiew 64: 359-'72 Bandura A 199'1SeU:elhcac),; The Exerci.teo/ Control. \N.H. Freeman,New York Bargh J A, Chartrand T L 1999The unbearableautomaticity of being. American Psvthologist 54: 462-79 Motivation: History of the Concept Brunstein J C. SchultheissO C, Grässmann R 1998 Personal goals and emotional well-being: The moderating role of Evolutionary theory, the study of learning, and the motive dispositions.Journal oJ Personalityand Social Psy- cholog1,75:49+508 psychoanalytic study of mental illness have been Cantor N, FleesonW 1994 Social intelligenceand intelligent committed to see motivation as a primary cause of goalpursuit: A cognitiveslice of motivation.In: SpauldingW behavior, and this is also true of behavioral biology (ed.) Nehraska Sympo.siumon MotiDation. University ol and physiological psychology, as they prefer to think NebraskaPress, Lincoln, NE, Vol. 4l,pp.125 79 in terms of homeostasis(Cofer and Appley 1964). Carver C S, ScheierM F 1998On the Selt'-regulationoJ Beha- When hunger occurs,for instance,behavior is insti- rioar. CambridgeUniversity Press,Carnbridge, UK gated (e.9., finding and eating food) that is instru- Dweck C S 1999 SeU-theories.Tlteir Role in Motiuation, Per- mental to rectifying the imbalance caused by tissue sonalitt', anct Derelopmenl.Psychology Press. Philadelphra, needsand deficits.The named theoretical perspectives PA have barricaded the simple insight that behavior can Emmons RA 1996 Striving and feeling: Personalgoals and (e.9., subjectivewell-being. In: Gollwitzer P M, Bargh J A (eds.) occur under externally applied forces as well a The Psychology ol Action: Linking Cognition and Motiaalion shove).Even more importantly, the physical structure to BehaL:ior.Guilford Press,New York, pp. 313-37 of the organism, its sensoryand perceptual capacities, GollwitzerP M 1990Action phasesand mind-sets.In: Higgins its cognitive and motor abilities, and so forth, qualify E T, Sorrentrno E M (eds.) Handbook of Motitation and as causal factors. Even habits, once formed, can be Cognilion; Foundationso/ Sotial BehaL:ior.Guilford Press, seenas such. New Yolk, Vol. 2, pp. 53-92 Research on motivation has recognized early on Gollwitzer P M 1999Implementation : Strong effects that motivation can only be one of the many causesof o[ simple pldns.Ameritan Psvthologist54: 493-503 behavior, and this extends to the causation of affect Gollwitzer P M, Bargh J A 1996 The Psvthologl, o/ Action: and cognition as well. Accordingly, the leading ques- Linking Cognitionand Motiuation to A.tion. Guilford Press, New York tion became: What are the aspects of cognition, HeckhausenH l99l Motitotion and lrtron. Springer-Verlag, affect, and behavior that benefit most from a moti- Berhn vational analysis?Traditionally, the following issues Higgins ET 1997 Beyondpleasure and pain. AmericanPsy-- havebeen addressed: First, thereis the questionofthe chologist52: 1280 1300 lacilitation and energizationofcertain responses.This Klinger E 1975Consequences of commitmentto and disen- issue has been analyzed by the classic proponents of gagementfrom incentives.P,sychologital Retiew 82: | 25 learning theory (Hull 1943,Spence 1956)who sug- Kuhl J. BeckmannJ 1994Volition ancl ; Action tersu:; gestedthat motivational processesas such (assumedto State Orientotion.Hogrele & Huber, Seattle,WA be rooted in general drive or states) do not McClelland D 1985 Motiualiox. Scott, Foresman, necessarilycontrol or guide specificforms of behavior Glenview,IL but may at times invigorate innate or learned as- McClelland D 1995 Achievement motivation in relation to achievement-relatedrecall. performance.and urine , a sociativetendencies. Second, thoughts, feelings,and marker associatedwith releaseofvasopressin. Motiuation and actions are often characterized as guided, directed, 19: 59-76 goal-oriented,persistent, or purposive.Such qualities Oettingen G 2000 Expectancyeffects on behavior depend on relate to making ,but also to short-term or self-regufatorythought. l8: l0l-29 long-term efforts in implementing the choices made.

10109 Motiuation: History o.fthe Conc'ept

Researcherslike Atkinson (1957) and McClelland Recentresearch on individual differencesin terms ol (1955) locused on this issue and suggesteda moti- motivational orientations has replaced the need (mo- vational analysis. tive) construct with constructs that describea general To demonstrate how the conceot of motivation has goal orientation, such as personal projects, personal changed in history, this article describeshow two strivings, life tasks, or identity goals. Such personal central issues(i.e., basic needs and action control) strivings (Emmons 1996) are more limited in scope have been addresseddifferently by the traditional and (e.g., be a honest person) and can be characterizedin the modern psychologyof motivation. terms of expectanciesol success,complexity, high vs. low level of abstraction, avoidance vs. approach orientation, degreeofconflict betweeneach other, and integration vs. fragmentation. parameters 1, Basic Human Needs The named of personal strivings have been observed to relate to Whereaslearning theorists,following the lead of Hull, measuresof psychological and physical well-being. conceived of need as a general, content-free drive, personalitypsychologists were eager to put content into the concept of need. was rather 2, Action Control parsimonious by only suggestingtwo basic needs, namely the life and the death instinct. McDougall Early theoriesportrayed the human as a machine-like (1932) listed l8 basic needswhich he referred to as reactiveorganism compelled to act by internal and/or instincts (e.g., , sell-assertion,submission). external forces beyond our control (e.g., instincts, Murray's (1938) Explorations in Personality contains a needs,drives, incentives,reinforcers, etc.). Prototypi- catalog of 20 psychogenic needs (e.g., need for nur- cal theories are the psychoanalytic theory of Freud, turance, need for succorance) and Maslow's (1954) Hull's learning theory (and the reformulations by his Motiuation and Personality proposed a hierarchy of students),or Lewin's field theoretical approach. These needs whereby the lower need categories related to theoriesimply that if onejust pushedthe right button, deficiency needs (e.g., hunger, safety) and the higher motivation would result. There is no room for con- ones to growth needs(e.9., need to achieve,need to scious reflections and attemDts towards self-resu- realizeone's potential). lation. Instead, motivational lorces transmit th-eir The named approachesexcelled in generatingsoph- energy outside of awareness,establishing a state of isticated definitions and descriptions,but did not balance or equilibrium (referred to as arousal re- provide reliable instruments lor needassessment. They duction, self-preservation,or need satisfaction). also failed to answer the question of which of the many More modern theories construe human beings as needsare activated in a given situation and how such all-just and all-knowing final judges of their actions. activation processesrun off. Moreover, they did not Expectancy-valuetheories (e.g., Atkinson 1957) as- explore the origins of individual differencesin the sumethat peoplechoose goals in a rational way, based strengthofthese needs. In lateryears, Atkinson (1957) on the comprehensiveknowledge of the probability of and McClelland (i985) addressedthese problems with goal attainment and the goal's expectedvalue. It is respect to the need for achievement and the power proposedthat the subjectiveprobability olsuccessand motive. the incentivevalue of having performed a task (i.e., Still, the question remains: Which of the many pride or shame) conjointly affect task , both conceivable human needs is the most basic? variablesbeing influenced by the perceiveddifficulty of Baumeisterand Leary (1995) have recently raised this the task. Elaborations of this model (Heckhausen issue by applying criteria such as universality, non- I 991) added further expectation-relatedconcepts (e.g., derivativeness,satiation, and substitution.According action-outcome expectancies),and differentiated vari- to their analysis, the need to belong in the senseof ous aspectsof the incentive value (e.g., extrinsic side forming and maintaining strong, stableinterpersonal effects).Attribution theories (e.g., Weiner 1992) pro- relationshipsis suggestedto be a most basic need. oosethat the motivational determinantsof a oerson's However,this needseems to be in tensionwith another tehavior are causal explanations of prioi actron basic need, the to distinguish oneself and be outcomes. People are seen as amateur scientistswho different lrom others, as people are found to compete systematically explore the causes of their behavior. even with their intimates when it comesto performing The type ofcauses discoveredare expectedto affect a well on dimensionsthat are of high personal relevance person's readiness to engage in these or related (Tesser 1988). Indeed, the need lor high self-esteem by influencing affect and expectations. has been suggestedas the ultimate human motive, More recently, the motivational importance of becauseit buffers fear of death which is a consequence control beliefs has been analyzed. According to of being consciousof their mortality. Such Bandura's (1997) self-efficacytheory, self-efficacious awarenessengenders abject terror that needs to be individuals hold the firm that they possessthe managed as it could paralyze the ability to act potential to execute (i.e., control) the kinds of (Pyszczynskier al. 1997). behaviors that a given task demands. People acquire

10110 Motiuation: History of the Concept

such beliefs by reflecting on their own relevant past from distractions by making plans on how to deal with behaviors,observing the behavior of similar others, them, or they can plan the details (when, how, and being evaluatedby significantothers (e.g.,teachers), where) of the initiation and execution of the goal- and observingtheir own physiologicalreactions when directed behavior ahead of time, so that any challenged by a given task. High self-efficacybeliefs potentiallydisturbing self-states (e.g., being tired) can are associatedwith choosingaspiring goals, exerting no longer interfere (Gollwitzer 1999).People can also strong effort to attain thesegoals, and persistingin the step up their efforts when hindrancesare encountered face of obstaclesand hindrances. and turn to substitutegoals if increasedeffort still fails Present theories of motivation go beyond con- to guarantee goal attainment. Other effective action ceptualizing humans as all-just and all-knowing. Hu- control strategies relate to the regulation of one's man beings are construed as flexible strategists.The , the perceived attractiveness of the goal, focus is on the different tasks a person has to perform and to creating an environment that offers good when transforming wishes into actions (Gollwitzer opportunities lor making progress toward goal 1990).When choosinggoals, people try to liveup to the attainment (Kuhl and Beckmann 1994). ideal of being an all-knowing and all-just person by This recentrevival ofresearch on the self-reeulation processingall the availableinformation in an impartial of (Mischelet al. 1996)is reminisientnot manner. However, when the implementation of an only of the mentalists' analysisof willing (James1890), already goal is at issue,people are determined, but also of German psychology (Ach 1935,Lewin becomepartial, and the desirability and feasibility are 1926) before the heyday of . William seenin the most positivelight. James pointed out that any self-regulation either has Recent research on goals focuses on the deter- to do with strengtheninga weak tendency to perform minants and processesof goal settingas well as goal a desiredbehavior (i.e., issues of the obstructedwill) or implementation. With respect to , for with weakening a strong tendency to perform an instance, it has been discovered that people who unwanted behavior (i.e.,issues of the explosivewill). construetheir self as an ideal which they intrinsically James'analysis of willing is basedon the assumption desire to attain, set themselvespromotion goals that behavior can potentially be regulated by a focusing on establishingand keeping positive out- person's resolutions (or intentions, subjective goals), comes, whereas people who construe their seif as an even though in certain situations and at certain times ought which they feel compelled to reach, set them- this may be difficult. selves prevention goals focusing on avoiding and 's experimental work on the willful getting rid of negative outcomes (Higgins 1997). control of behavior also offers ideas on how such Moreover, people can regulate the processof goal control may come about, and the same is true for the settingin a more or lessproductive manner, by the way researchof Narziss Ach. Lewin suggestedthat goals they think about the future outcomes they want to assigna valenceto objectsand eventsin people'ssocial attain. When the desiredfuture is mentallycontrasted and nonsocialsurroundings. In Lewin's exampleof a with negativeaspects of impeding reality (e.g.,effect- personwho intendsto mail a letter,a mail box entices ively mastering a project is mentally contrasted with the person to deposit the letter much as food enticesa obstaclesstanding in its way), relevantexpectations of hungry person to eat. As needs can be satisfied by successfullyrealizing one's fantasiesbecome activated various typesof behaviorswhich may all substitute for and used. Accordingly, people form goal commit- each other in reducing need tension (e.g., eating fruit, ments in a rational manner (i.e., lorm strong goal vegetables), many different goal-directed behaviors commitmentswhen expectationsof successare high, qualify for satisfying the quasi-need associatedwith and leave the field when probabilities of successare a set goal. Lewin's tension state metaphor thus low). When people only dream about positivefuture effectivelyaccounts lor the flexibility ol goal striving. outcomesor solelyruminate about the negativereality, Ach's approach to the analysis of willing was however, respectivegoal commitments are moderate different. He assumedthat the linking in one's mind and expectancy-independent(Oettingen 2000). of an anticipated situation to a concrete intended 'determination' Regarding the determinants of successfulgoal im- behavior creates what he called a plementation, how goals are framed makes an im- which in turn automatically triggers the intended portant difference. For instance, when achievement action when the soecifiedsituation is encountered.The goalsare framed as learninggoals (i.e., goals geared at strength of the äetermination was not assumed to trying to learn more about how one can successlully relate to the importance of the person's or carry out the task at hand) as compared to per- goal, but rather to the degree of concretenesswhen formance goals (i.e., goals gearedat trying to find out specifyingthe situation and to the intensity of the act how capable one is), failure experiencesare coped with of willing. For Ach, concepts like need relate to the more effectively and thus people are more likely to importance of goals and thus were assumed to be reach their goals (Dweck 1999). It also matters how critical for choosing between goals, whereas the goal pursuit is regulated by the individual. For implementation of set goals was an issue of willing. instance,people can protect an ongoing goal pursuit The suggesteddistinction betweenmotivational issues

10111 Motiuation; History of the Conc'ept

of goal choice and volitional issuesof goal lm- Higgins ET, Kruglanski AW (eds.) ; plementationis reflectedin recentresearch on goals Handbookol Ba.sitPrint'iple.r. Guilford Press,New York, pp. that distinguishesbetween goal settingand goal 329 60 implementation. Murray H A 1938Explorations in Personalit-r,.Oxford University Press.New York OettrngenG 2000 Expectancyeffects on behavior depend on Seealso'. Action Planning,Psychology ol Attribu- self-regulatorythought. SocialCognition l8: 101,29 tional Processes:Psychological; Behaviorism; Be- PyszczynskiT A, GreenbergJ, SolomonS 1997Why do we need haviorism,History ol CognitivePsychology: History; what we need?:A terror managementperspective on the roots FreeWill and Action;Mental Representations, Psy- of human socialrnotivation. Psvchologiul Inquiry 8: l-20 chology of; Motivation and Actions, Psychology Spence K W 1956 Behauior Theory and Conditioning.Yale of; Motivation, Learning,and Instruction;Moti- University Press,New Haven, CT TesserA 1988Toward a self-evaluationmaintenance model of vation, Neural Basis ol PersonalityStructure; social behavior. In: Berkowitz L (ed.) Aduancesin Experr PersonalityTheories; Self-regulation in Adulthood; mental Social Psychologv.Academic Press,New York, Vol. Self-regulationin Childhood 21, pp. l8l-22 Weiner B 1992Human MotiDation.Sage, Newbury Park, CA

P. M. Gollwitzerand G. Oettinsen Bibliography

Ach N I935 Analy'sedes Willen.s.Urban und Schwarzenberg, Berlin Atkinson J W 1957Motivational dererminants of risk-taking behavror.Psythological Retien, 64: 359 12 Bandura A 1997Sel/-efficaty-'. Tlte Exertise o/ Control. W.H. Motivation, Learning,and Instruction Freeman.New York BaumeisterR F, Leary M R 1995The needto belong:Desire for In popularlanguage, motivation is equatedwith goal- interpersonalattachments as a fundamental human moti- directedbehavior and is, as such,easily understood. v ation. Ps yc ho logit -529 al B ullet in ll7 : 497 However, educationalresearchers who wanted to Cofer C N, Appley M H 1964Motiuation: Theorv-and Research. Wiley, New York includethis seemingly clear construct into theirmodels Dweck C S 1999 Self-theories.Their Role in Motiuation. Per- oflearningand instruction soon discovered that it is a sonalit,-,and Deuelopmenr.Psychology Press, Phtladelphia blanketterm which refersto a varietyof interrelated Emmons R A 1996Striving and feeling:Personal goals and self-perceptionsand affects,including outcome ex- subjectivewell-being. In: Gollwitzer P M, Bargh J A (eds.) pectations,self-emcacy, goal orientation, goal setting, The Psvthologvof Action: Linking Cognitionand Motiuation perceptionof control,interest, self-concept of ability, to Behauior.Guilford Press,New York goal intentions,goal striving,persistence, and effort Gollwitzer P M 1986Action phasesand mind-sets.In: Higgins expenditure.Each of thesefacets of the motivation E T, Sorrentino E M (eds.) Handbook of Motiaation and constructhas beenintensively researched within its Cognition: Foundations of Social Behauior. Guilford Press, New York, Vol. 2 own conceptualniche, a situationwhich has resulted Gollwitzer P M 1999Implernentation intentions: Strong effects in a kaleidoscopeof overlappingconstructs and of simple plans. Anreritan 54: 493-503 complementarymeasurement instruments. Quite HeckhausenH l99l Motitation and ,4r'tion.Springer-Verlag, clearly,the presenceof too many motivation-related Berlin constructshas hindered the integration ofthe concept Higgins E T 1997 Beyond pleasureand pain. American Psy- withinmodels of learningand instruction. This article chologist52: 1280-1300 beginswith a brief historicaltour of the motivation Hull C L 1943Printiple.t ol Behauior.Appleton-Century, New theoriesthat arerelevant to the studyof learningand York instruction.Next, somerecent developments in mo- James W 1890 The Principles of Psychologv.Holt, New York tivation researchwill be discussed.These develop- Kuhl J, Beckmann 1994 J and Personality:Action mentshave been instrumental in giving Ver.rusState Orientotion.Hogrefe and Huber, Seattle,WA motivationthe Lewin K 1926 Vorsatz. Wille und Bedürlnis. Psychologische prominentplace in pedagogicalpractice and instruc- For.schung7: 330 85 tion modelsthat is longoverdue. Maslow A H 1954Motit:ution and Per.sonalll.r-.Harper & Row, New York McClelland D C (ed.) 1955 Studiesin Mottuarion. Appleton- Century,New York I. A BrieJHistory oJ'Motiuation McClelland DC 1985 Human Motbatlon. Scott, Foresman, Glenview,IL An examinationof the historyof motivation reveals McDougall 1932 The Energies of Men; A Studv of the Funda- that the significanceof the motivationconstruct was mentalsof Dynamit P.sychologv.Methuen, London acknowledgedin the 1940sand 1950s,when interpret- Mischel W, Cantor N. Feldman S 1996 Principlesof self- ationproblems plagued the study of goalachievement. regulation:The nature of will power and self-control.In: Researchersargued that individualshave access to a 10112

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