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Routledge Handbook of Gender and Environment

Sherilyn MacGregor

The Dilemma of Dualism

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 Freya Mathews Published online on: 19 Jun 2017

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To make thisclaimisnot merely toarguethatdualisthabitsofthoughtcannotbebroken ofpracticethatcounterthedualizing tendenciesinherent in a dualistmind-setwilllieinforms politics basedonthem, willnothelp usshake offtheshacklesofdualism.Theway toescapefrom Ifthisistrue, itself. theorizing thencounter-dualisttheories, of andeven forms emancipatory ofthepolitics ofgenderbut, forms not merely inhistorical insidiously, inthevery activity of Ishallthensuggestthatthe roots ofdualismlie analysis before examiningthat analysis itself. itive totheecofeministanalysisofdualism.InthischapterIreview toher form thebackground such aholdonWestern thought, norwillitbepossibletoescapeitsgrip. are fullyidentifieditwillnotbepossibletoexplainhow orwhyorigins dualismhasacquired To issurely ofdualismcorrectly important, answer thisquestionoftheorigins sinceunlessthose wonder merely toideology, whetheritcanbeattributed asmuch ecofeministanalysisimplies. ofthoughtissoprofound,influence ofdualismasanorganizingprinciple however, we might world may lensofdualism.Ifthe beemancipatedunlessthinkingisfreed fromthedistorting perse. Itfollows that, fromanecofeministperspective, neitherwomen northenatural notonly conceptionsofgenderandnaturedegree but alsothevery foundationsofWestern tobedeeplyentrenched,dualizing schemaisheldby ecofeministtheorists tosome structuring the masculineandfemininebut alsoranksmenabove women andculture above nature. Sucha opposition tothatofculture; thisoppositionisanhierarchical onethatnotonlydichotomizes inoppositiontothatofmasculinity,constructed in ofnature isconstructed whilethecategory stems fromarecognition that, inWestern traditionsofthought, ofthefeminineis thecategory lar, isthatthedominationofwomen linked isideologically withthedomination ofnature. This Adefiningtenetoffeministenvironmental scholarship, inparticu- feministtheory andecological Mostwould thatitwas agree theenvironmental philosopher, , whogave defin- THE DILEMMAOFDUALISM Freya Mathews Mathews Freya Introduction Introduction 3 54 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 political dominationgenerally (Leiss 1972).Inmany ways, thequestto dismantledualismwas a at thetime. theorists, For critical thedominationofnature served template for astheideological anotionofnaturetal reason astheultimateobjectofdomination, inconstructing was alsostrong theory, Schoolofcritical The legacyoftheFrankfurt withitsemphasisontheroleofinstrumen- feminists eventually situatedtheirown approachtodualismwithin adeconstructive framework. (1970).Many Derrida Jacques thatwas of struction unfolding inFranceundertheleadership ronmental philosophers, oppositionswas fortheanalysisofbinary core totheprojectofdecon- . served wasmaledominationor, tonaturalizeandlegitimate inthelexiconof1980sfeminism, andwas heldinplacebya politicalpurpose powerful it politicalinterests. The politicalpurpose Western hadproved imagination resistant becauseitserved toargumentandhencecorrection and itrequired analysisnotmerely but inlogical in and MacGregor inthisvolume). Infeministtheory, however, gendered dualismwas intrinsically 1974; thatemanatedfromit(Ortner culture/nature binaries Merchant 1980; seealsoThompson dualismandthesystemofhuman/nature,subtended it.For feministstoo had beenpondering andthemind-matterdualismthat ofanthropocentrism ing tofeminismforcluestheriddle Richard Routley intheearly1980s, Val, whonow tookthenamePlumwood, look- foundherself with corrective arguments?Intheyears couldputright followingphilosophers herdivorce from rested onmoreSurely thanamere anthropocentrism mistake, aninnocentmisunderstanding, that wood was perhapsalittlemore scepticalthanhercolleaguesabouttheefficacyofargument. view. be rectified: awholenew respect fornature, figured asanenvironmental ethic, willcomeinto onwhichitrests, fallacies Cartesian they argued,Clean upthe andthedevaluation ofnature will humans alonepossessmind, thenhumansaloneare entitledtomoralconsideration. that seeksitsown goodorisinvested initsown ends, issurely entitledtomoralconsideration.If it cannothave meaning, value, interests orendsofitsown. Abeingthatdoesmattertoitself, ofsomedescription,Without mentalattributes anentitycannot mattertoitselforinitself, since possess mentalattributes, value onthings. thatconferintrinsic where itisonlymentalattributes onethathumansalone Cartesian assumption underlyingthisconviction appeared tobethe bias infavour ofhumanityhave becomejustified?Whatwas sospecialaboutthehuman?The the measureofnature. ofallmeaningandvalue facticity againstthebrute Buthow couldthis setting thehuman, intheshapeofculture, fromandabove apart nature. Thehumanstoodas had developed intheWest. Itwas clearthatsomekindofdichotomizingtendencywas atwork, whyEnglish-speaking world suchablindingmoralprejudice inexploring infavour ofhumanity Routley, was ofthisdiscipline. oneofthepioneers They joinedahandfulofcolleaguesaroundthe need for ‘a new, anenvironmental, ethic’, anethicofnature (Routley 1973). kind ofutilityforhumanity. Environmental challengedthisview, philosophers anddeclared the anything elsematters, itdoesso, perspective, fromananthropocentric onlybecauseithassome presumption thatonlyhumanbeingsmatter,the groundless morallyspeaking; totheextentthat built intothevery foundationsofWestern thought.Thiswas theattitudeof upshot notmerely offlawed policiesbut ofanunderlyingattitudetothenaturalworld thatwas recognized thattheenvironmental problemsthatwere comingintoview atthetimewere the Environmental philosophy emergedasadisciplineinthe1970s.Environmental philosophers Feminist theorists were Feminist nomore theorists ofcourse aloneintheirfocusondualism thanwere envi- Many environmental was soughttoshow philosophers misguided. thatanthropocentrism Val Plumwood (or, asshewas thenknown, Val Routley), together withherhusbandRichard 1 Astheonlywoman ofenvironmental amongthoseearliestpioneers philosophy, Plum- dualism of Environmental philosophy andthecritique The dilemma of dualism of The dilemma 55 political terms. Theholdofdualismonthe terms. anthropocentrism , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 to whichcultural feminismassignedthemaswomen inrelation toit.They recognized thatthe to feministpoliticalcausesrejoiced inthenew position ofnature valorization andtheprivileged 1978; 1978; Griffin 1985).Women Irigaray whosecommitmentwas asmuch toenvironmental as ostensibly feminineattributes, suchasthecapacities tonurture, feelandcare (Rich1977;Daly - ofour existence)was (or tobeardentlyexuberant andfecundmatrix embraced.Gynocentric of life, purpose, creativity, vulnerability, ofintelligenceandsentienceinathousandguises, the (with fertility, procreation, eros, nurturance, andhencewithnature andcorporeality) (theterrain identity.feminists wanted ofpatriarchal nopart Theassociationofwoman withembodiment No! Thenew radical,it? and then ‘gynocentric’ –or, asthey cametobeknown, ‘cultural’ – impartial, the proverbial ‘men ofreason’, the ofnature’, andpossessors ‘masters put Descartes as like men, oratleastasmensupposedthemselves tobe – sober, detached, measured, objective, venerableDid women liberaltraditionoffeminismwas really hotlychallenged. want tobecome nature status. andeverything associatedwithittoinferior from nature andmere creatureliness, thatdemoted implicitly condonedtheanthropocentrism as good’ asmen, meaningjustasendowed withthecapacityforreason, andhencejustasremoved ofliberalism(Jaggar1984).Theirattemptstodemonstratethatwomenunderpinnings were ‘just hindsightwe canneverthelesshistorical questionliberalfeminists’ acceptanceofthedualistic thereby eventually openingupthepublicsphere andallitspowers to(some)women, with debt toliberalfeminists, ineducation, toequalityofopportunity whodidindeedwintheright the capacityforreason towomen 1963; as well asmen(Friedan Beauvoir 1965). thenotionsofwomande-gender thesecategories,apart andnature topry andattribute striving the reason/nature, liberalism; human/nature dualismsthatunderpinned to they merely tried the estateofnature andbecomefullyhuman.Inotherwords, liberalfeministstacitlyaccepted (Jaggar 1984).Any innatedeficiencyinreason was above seenasrepresenting torise afailure stonecraft inupholdingtheliberalview ofhumannature asconsisting inthecapacityforreason progressive politicsintheseventeenth century ‘Age ofReason’, they by andlargefollowed Woll- ilation ofwomen tonature. withintheliberalframework for Writing thathadsettheterms of men(Wollstonecraft 1985). tastes ofmen.Given achanceateducation, women would soonprove themselves tobetheequals were kept insuchaconditionofcreatureliness because thiswas inaccordance withthesexual human. They were accordingly considered uneducable. But, Wollstonecraft insisted, women to theestateofanimals, of minddefinitive deficientinthosehigher–rationalfaculties ofthe Womenthe Rightsof 1789, Wollstonecraft Mary noticedtheassociationofwomen withnature inher offeministthoughtintheWestwhole history backas withdualism.Asfar hasbeenastruggle in feministthought.Indeed, Inasensethe feministshadremarked fromthestart. onitright Recognition ofdualism, theassociationofwomen andinparticular withnature, was notnew oftheenvironment. tothefate as they pertained thepoliticalrootsofdualism thatPlumwoodinseekingtoclarify thought inparticular turned streams oftheWesternof thedisciplinary academy. However, itwasoffeminist tothehistory defining preoccupation ofthetwentieth century, astheinfluenceofdualismspread acrossmany Whenso-calledsecondwave explodedontothescenein1970s, however, the Whilethere ofWestern isnodenying thatasignificantproportion women today owe ahuge For almosttwo hundred years thereafter, assim- feministstirelessly protestedatthemetaphoric centred) feministsrepudiated reason astheyardstick ofhumannessandreplaced itwith . Women, sheobserved, were regarded ascreaturely beings, closerthanmen dualism of The feministcritique Freya Mathews 56 Vindication of Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 the requirements of inthe immersed agreed onwhattosalvageagreed ofthetraditional(dualistically defined)feminineand whattodiscard. domination ofher. nature, mantranscended–thatistosay, raisedhimself above –woman, andthereby justified his a everything identified asfemininewas invariably merely given by nature. Thusmeninhabited masculine inthesystemrepresented atranscendenceofeverything identifiedasfeminine, where oftheuniverse atlarge.the masculineappearasanaturalcharacteristic Everything identifiedas mate aparticular, specificallypatriarchal, systemofdominationby makingthedominanceof lower, sidewere right-hand associatedwith, andserved todefine, thefeminine. werebinaries systematicallyassociatedwith, andserved todefine, masculinity, whilethoseon the ciple oforganizationhadbeeninherently gendered: onthehigher, theterms left-handsideofthe (Ruether 1978;Jaggar 1984; Lloyd 1984).Itwas alsoclearthat, fromthestart, dualismasaprin- private inthecontextofliberalismandproduction/reproduction inthecontextof Innew theoretical domainsthisdualisticcore continually threw upnew binaries, suchaspublic/ provided key thebasisforfurther These binaries oppositions, suchas around acore ofdichotomous, hierarchically-ordered categories, suchasthefollowing: with theproblemofdualism.Itwas clearthatWestern thoughthadalways beenorganized women ultimatelywas notthepoint. defined, stillremained intact, aschemafor domination –whetherofwomen by menorby masculine andfeminine, were andalltheexclusive ofwhichthesecategories oppositionsinterms andpatriarchy,place ofandrocentrism gynarchy. hadenshrined gynocentrists Thetraditional andhierarchical oftheschemaitself(Lloyd structure exclusionary 1984; Plumwood 1993).In the ofthedualisticschemabutvalues hadnotsufficientlyscrutinized attachingtotheterms ofsubordinationing ideology –dualismthanliberalfeministshad.They hadreversed the whether forwomen ornature. feministshadnomore dismantledthe underly- Gynocentric empowerment andrecovery; however, itwas onlyahalfway ofcourse liberation, housetotrue (King1983; tosignalthisinextricability d’Eaubonne1994). fornature fromthefeministstruggle, wasstruggle inextricable andthey adoptedthebannerof public While feminist theorists agreed on the centrality of dualism to patriarchal ideology, onthecentralityof dualismtopatriarchal agreed Whilefeministtheorists they dis- The whole historical apparatusofdualismhadevolved, Thewholehistorical itseemed, tonaturalizeandlegiti- Asthe1980swore on, feministsofallstripes, includingecofeminists, continued towrestle momentoffemale feminismwas asanhistorical asgynocentric Exhilaratingandnecessary subject/object universal/particular abstract/concrete reason/intuition reason/emotion human/animal human/nature culture/nature mind/body mind/matter sphere of concrete abstract reproduction and and particular universal . Woman was, inaword, The dilemma of dualism of The dilemma realm ofthe , spiritual and 57 private mental , a nature concerns, whereas women remained domestic toman’s sphere, boundtothe culture . Intranscending body by by Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 inism and the Mastery ofNature inism andtheMastery ofWesternfunction ofdualismasamajororganizingprinciple thought. Inher1993book laser beamofanalysisintothefray, andideological structure thelogical andclarifying crystallizing between women andnature. define woman atall(Alcoff1986; Butler1990), anditvehemently rejected any actualaffinity ofpowerand legitimating relations. infeminismledtoreluctance Thedeconstructive to turn ties they subtendedindoubt, forthenaturalizing asapoliticalinstrument seeingallsuchdiscourse Julia Kristeva, whichtendedtoplacelargetheoretical frameworks andidenti- andthecategories movement inFrance, by andparticularly thework ofFrench feminists, and suchasLuceIrigaray identities thatsupervened onit.Many ofthesefeministswere influencedby thedeconstructive and nature asentirely fabricated, conceit, apatriarchal andaccordingly soughttoabolishallthe however eventually adoptedadeconstructive perspective: they saw thelinkbetween woman 1984, 2005; 1985; Hartsock offeministsintheAnglophoneworld Harding 1986).Themajority toaconsciousnessandidentityattunedtheselevelsdoes indeedgive rise ofexistence(Salleh ratherthantheabstractandpolitical, andthebiological embedded inthematerial andtherefore alist grounds: thereproductive work thathastraditionallybeentheprovince ofwomen remains essentialism, but continued toseeanaffinitybetween women materi- andnature onhistorical 1993). Otherfeminists, asstandpointfeminists, oftendescribed steered away biology, (Plumwood ideology ofpatriarchal ratherthanconcedingthatthelinkwas anartefact and continued toinsistthatthelinkbetween themwas real, fromwomen’s deriving reproductive ofwoman valorization andnature tothegynocentric –clunguncritically Daly andSusanGriffin ofthewayDeep partings Somefeminists–includingsomeecofeminists, occurred. suchasMary hinges on a particular dualisticpairthatPlumwoodhinges onaparticular identified ascore tothesystem, viz the a ‘master identity’, whichisgendered but notexclusively Plumwood’s (1993)analysis, toconstruct function withinandacrossdiscourses suchcategories science/superstition, mental/manual, public/private, production/reproduction, self/other. In domination: thatserve tonaturalizeandlegitimate ries civilized/primitive, colonizer/colonized, schema oforganizationisconstantly re-applied innew discursive domainstocreate catego- oppositions, notmerely maledomination, legitimizes but domination generally.Dualism asa vast ofothers. array andvarious animal speciesamongastaggeringly in contradistinctiontothecategory ‘human’, thatthehumanisinreality onlyone despitethe fact specificity. So, again, allsentientlifeontheplanetislumpedtogether underthecategory ‘animal’ in thesensethatthey are viewed en masse, asablock, differentiated ratherthan intheirrichly areof theirown also specificexcellences.Lesserterms example, oftheirdeficienciesrelative tendtobemeasuredhumans ratherthaninterms interms to ofitslacksordeficienciesrelativeattaining definitiononlyinterms to thegreater. Animals, for is glossedover, may unacknowledged. alsobe Thelesser term andculture, tothesphere ofhistory background whilethedependencyoflatteronprivate also ofthepublic. The affairs conditionsfortheall-important is material ‘inferior’ ineachbinary term rather thanhaving significanceinitsown the right; oftheprivate isseenasassuring thepurpose of serving, ontheleft.So, theterm forexample, thebodyisseenmerely asavessel forthemind, hand sideofeachpairis right dichotomized or oppositionisnotmerelypost-colonial arguments.Heraimwas inabinary toshow thateachterm Ruether(1978) andKaren Warrenecofeminists suchasRosemary (1990), withenvironmental and Tracking fieldofdebatethroughoutthe1980s, thiscrisscrossed Plumwood eventually shota Throughthissystematicanalysisitfinallybecameclearhow dualism, orthesystemofbinary backgrounded withrespect tothe Thus,‘superior’. forexample, theprivate sphere figures onlyas hyper-separated , to sheskilfullywove instrumentalized fromitsoppositeand Freya Mathews to, ormadetoappearas ifcreated forthepurpose 58 gether feministarguments, includingthoseof ranked homogenized relative toit, onthe but thattheterm male incorporated . Moreover, thismasteridentity relative totheircounterparts, into the greater term, term, intothegreater from such biological from suchbiological Fem- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 in placenotmerely by defective reasoning but by apotentpsychosexualagendaofdomination. formoralconsiderability.criteria Plumwood’s analysis showed was held thatanthropocentrism it was doomedas apurely rationalistexercise preoccupied withfindingenvironmentally friendly anthropocentrism, thereby rescuing environmental philosophy fromtheineffectualitytowhich generally. forsubordinated groups indeed fromthestruggle Italsoexposedthepoliticalrootsof fortheenvironment forwomen,proposition thatthestruggle fromthestruggle was inextricable feminist analysisofdualism, expanding–theecofeminist intheprocess vindicating–andgreatly dualism. –couldafford discourse tooverlook ofany otheremancipatory or thetheorists theworkings of finding, neitherfeministsnorenvironmentalists –nor, forthatmatter, post-colonialists, socialists, notonlyofgender,pose ofrationalizingregimes but alsoofrace, class, andspecies.Inlightofthis tion generallyintheWest, ineachmajornew forthepur- discourse reiterating itselfhistorically not merely avehicle ofmaledomination, but isthecomplexandadaptableunderlay ofdomina- ordominationintrain. mastery also, inconsequence, expecttofindcomplex, mutually reinforcing, andramifyingprocessesof knowing, andexperiencing, there we asanullity. canexpectto findnature construed We can nature ontheother. Wherever over reason inthissenseisprivileged otherways ofthinking, Plumwood’s analysis, itrevolves conceptionofreason ontheonehandand aroundaparticular identity isadominatorthatcananddoesconstellateitselfanew inany context, andin even thoughthere isapre-established fitbetween classofmen.Themaster thisandacertain Inthiswayparts. Plumwood showed thatthemasteridentityismuch more thanamaleidentity, itive, andunstable, influencesandsoon, subjecttohormonal inrelation totheirmalecounter- rational) whitewomen, even thoughthosesamewomen asemotional, willbeconstructed intu- superstitious, animal, andclosetonature compared withthe ‘civilized’ and(inthatsensemore will beglossedasfeminine. Itisthenative peoplewhowillbeperceived asirrational, primitive, colonial contextmightassumeamasculine-tingedidentityinrelation tothenative people, who or colonized, onthelefthandside. alltheattributes Inotherwords, thewhitewomen inthe white women willassume, capacityandonlyrelative inakindofhonorary totheindigenous handsideofthetableopposites, ontheright oftheattributes whilethe interms constructed master identityrelative toindigenousorcolonizedpeoples, whowillthenbedichotomously identity issensitive tocontext.In a colonialcontext, educatedwhitewomen mightassumethe cated whitemales; they constitutedthereference forthemasteridentity. group Butthemaster group’s masteridentity. will bere-worked asdichotomy, willendupplaying andthesecondgroup nature tothefirst dualisticallyasineverygroup way exhibitingtheoppositeofreason: difference, inotherwords, canlay claimtoreasonsocial group agreater thananothergroup, thesecond itwillconstruct that whichdistinguisheshumansfrom, andraisesusabove, nature. To theextentthataparticular ontheleft-handsideoftableoppositesandis,meanings ofalltheterms mostimportantly, body andultimately, andmostespecially, nature. Reasonis, inthissystem, infiltratedwith the reason/nature pair: reason isdefinedinoppositiontoeverything associatedwithfeelingandthe together whatdualism hadsundered, mindtomatter, restoring resituating thehumaninnature, ism. Butinwhatwould suchadismantling consist?Would itbeamattersimplyofputtingback Ifdualismwas theproblem, thenthesolutionwould presumably lieinthedismantlingofdual- ThethesisofPlumwood’s (1993) Ofcourse, thatlaidclaimtoreason thepre-eminent was group theclassofedu- historically Feminism and the Mastery ofNature Feminism andtheMastery Dsatig dualism Dismantling Feminism and the Mastery ofNature Feminism andtheMastery The dilemma of dualism of The dilemma thushelpedcleanupandgive definitive tothe form 59 , insum, isthatdualism Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 causally or materially but atthe levelcausally ormaterially ofidentity. Thisisnottosay thatthey are thesame thing, reference tokrill: are BlueWhaleandkrill ABlueWhaleis,tiny krill. pointof view, fromthisecological acreature whose entire beingisa instance, seawater thatfilters –isonlyanoutward reflection ofitsconstitutive relationship with one alsohastomentionkrill: how theanatomy oftheBlueWhale–itshugeballeenmouth, for isolable inthisway. To defineaBlue Whale, tosay whatitis, onehastodetailits anatomy, yes, but a BlueWhale. perspective, From anecological however, aBlueWhalewould notbelogically count asaBlueWhale, provided itpossessedthespatiotemporal configuration, theanatomy, of empty spacewould beatleastconceivable, inthesensethatentityquestionwould still exist allby itselfintheuniverse. Auniverse consisting ofjustaBlueWhalefloatinginotherwise speaking,in spaceandtime. (as opposed tocausallyormaterially) Logically aBlueWhalecould would aBlueWhalebeindividuated andidentified?Presumably viaitsphysical configuration Consider, forexample, How, thecase ofBlueWhaleandkrill. fromanatomisticperspective, constitutive oftheirvarious are definedinterms relations withotherelementsofanecosystem. viewpoint –ortobeprecise, ofecology –entities underaphilosophicalinterpretation ecology perspectiveAn ecological provided aready-made templateforsuchanalternative. Fromthe of individuation, oftheirinter-relations withotherentities. onethatdefinedentitiesinterms mind andmatterbeaccomplished(Mathews 1991). ofindividuationentities. Onlyby couldthedualizationof way ofsuchanatomisticcriterion a specialattribute, suchasmind, would thisattribute ‘leak out’, sotospeak, intosurrounding entities, here thatifcertain of otherentities.There isnorisk suchashumans, with are attributed could conceivably Itsidentityisnotafunctionoftheidentities existindependentlyofallothers. existences’, speaking, Logically independentofallothers. eachonelogically any given individual tion aboutthenature ofidentity: objectsorentitiesare posited, fromthisperspective, as ‘distinct recognizedEcophilosophers withanatomisticassump- thatmind-matterdualismiscorrelated strating, key ofrelationality (Naess1985, tothearticulation 1988; Fox 1990; Mathews 1991). ration, orhomogenization, ofcontinuity. but ratherinterms ofexclusion, thesenotinterms construing hierarchy, instrumentalism, backgrounding, incorpo- oftheirconstitutivein terms relations withoneanother, retaining difference anddistinctnessbut relationality was thekey toanew, paradigmthatwould emerging defineentitiesandattributes dualism. Ifdualismwasby hyper-separation, aparadigmthatdefinedentitiesandattributes then abounded, andtheseintimationsgenerallypointedtorelationality asthetheoretical antidoteto ronmental philosophy, intimationsofhow toputbacktogether whatdualismhadsundered inhumansocieties(Alcoff1986;of thoughtandintoprotocolsperformance Butler1990). it was astancethatsoughttoexposetheway inwhichpower systems intoprescribed was turned relations ofpower. Inotherwords, theirpolitical stancewas oneofrefusal, resistance, demolition; consisted, forthem, ofkeeping upresistance tothenarratives inevitably andongoinglycreated by no way interested inputtingtogether anew, post-dualistparadigm.Thepoliticsofemancipation sions, relations ofpower andreinscribe innew ways.Deconstructionists, waryofdiscourse, were in reason, mind, human, nature, andsoonwould justbetocreate new essentialisms, enactnew exclu- the problem, were To atleastwhere largeabstractcategories concerned. seeknew definitionsof Fordisposed toputbacktogether them, againwhatdualismhadsplitapart. definitionitselfwas emotion – redefining binary categories inways them? categories emotion –redefining thatintegrated binary ofcognition reason andconsciousness, withotherfaculties and integrating suchasintuitionand To overcome mind/matterdualism, then, itwastoproposeanalternative principle necessary was, Thenotionofecology asenvironmental were philosophers inthe processofdemon- streams (andincreasingly ofecofeminism, marginalized) Butintheminority andinenvi- Postmodern/poststructuralist –whatIcall Postmodern/poststructuralist Freya Mathews internally 60 deconstructive or logically – feminist theorists were –feministtheorists notatall related. They are related notjust Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 for reflexive thinking? Butinthedualistschema itfunctionsmore asasignifier ofidentity. really definesreason. Whatisreason, exactly? Isn’t andproceduraltools setoflogical it acertain old divisive, rationalityofdualism. instrumental thinking was, according toPlumwood, theprovince rationality, ofecological asdistinctfromthe relational alternatives todualisminpolitics, , psychology, andethics.Suchrelational followed thisrelational path, totheorize drawing onfeministstandpoint theory particularly down ona ‘lower’, blindnature, but an The humanbeingisnolongera ‘higher’, mentallyendowed self, fromandlooking setapart is constituted, throughandthrough, by itsrelations withotherspeciesandcommunities oflife. and divorced onefromtheother. Mind/matterdualismisimpossible (Mathews 1991). interactivity ofentities, mindandmatter, intelligenceandnature, cannotbedualisticallydivided In arelational schema, inwhichidentityandindividuation are constitutedthroughthe logically throughthesystemandsharedWhale but atanimplicatelevel distributed by thehumblekrill. oftheecosystem,it belongs.Intelligenceishere animplicateattribute explicatedintheBlue this intelligencedoesnotbelongexclusively toitbut emanatesfromtheecosystemtowhich are behaviourally aswell asanatomicallymutually configuring. orsubsumesthatofkrill,or thattheidentityofBlueWhaleincorporates but onlythatthey Re-reading ethical relationship between selfanditsworld. of conduct(Gilligan1982).Inallthesecontexts, relationality dissolves dualism andreinstates an codes spontaneously asaresult ofthe relational approachwithoutneedforrecoursetoformal of recognition ofone’s entanglement withthem.Anattitudeofcare own arises inextricable eral tradition(Jaggar1984; Miller1986). For therelational self, respectisacorollary forothers estate ofthehuman, thereby confuting thesocialatomismthathadbeenapremise ofthelib- relations withotherhumans, seesincommunalism ratherthaninindividualism thefundamental lethal and ‘dissecting’ –stanceoftheclassicalscientist(Keller 1985).Thesocialself, definedby its munication, rather thanby assumingthedetached, distanced, disinterested, affectless–andoften science, the ‘knower’ the seekstounderstand ‘known’ throughengagement, empathy, andcom- (Chodorowhad beenassumedintraditionalpsychoanalytictheory 1979; Benjamin 1988).In ratherthanonseparationfromthem,its identityoncontinuity andaffiliationwithothers as orpsychoanalysis, contexts.Inpsychology and epistemological therelational selfseekstobuild context inthe1980sandearly1990s, feministswere conductingsimilarexplorationsinsocial 2010;Dolphijn andvan derTuin 2012). Plumwood ofthepost-deconstructive 2009)totheso-callednew school(Bennett materialisms chism (Mathews 2003; Skrbina2009; Blamauer 2011)andphilosophicalanimism(Harvey 2005; philosophiesofconsciousness, withcontemporary sometimes intersecting rangefrompanpsy- century, civilization. remainsThesemetaphysical thefoundation-stoneformodern theories, metaphysic that,materialist despitedatingbacktothescientificrevolution oftheseventeenth tional perspective hasspawned awholenew toreplace generationofmetaphysical the theories 1988; Fox 1990; Mathews 1991).Bothwithinandbeyond environmental philosophy, therela- species, itsintelligenceafunctionoftheecosystems, ofthe biosphere (Naess1985, Humanidentity, according toecophilosophers, isnodifferent fromBlueWhaleidentity. It Bythesametoken, intelligence, whiletheBlueWhalemightimpress uswithitsprodigious In Meanwhile, however, were relational asecophilosophers selfhoodinanecological exploring Feminism and the Mastery ofNature Feminism andtheMastery Feminism and the Mastery ofNature,Feminism andtheMastery The dilemma of dualism of The dilemma But why reason? ecological self andher2003book, 61 one is struck bythatPlumwood oneisstruck thefact never , itsidentityameshofrelations withother Environmental Culture , Plumwood Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 fying the privilege of his own class and securing the conditions for its perpetuation. theconditionsforitsperpetuation. ofhisownfying theprivilege classandsecuring accessible toreason andalower, realm of nature, perishable ofjusti- served thepoliticalpurpose paradigmatically inmathematics.Plato’s thought, then, withitspositingofahigher, realm eternal animals –andentered insteadararefied realm ofabstractthought, mostfittinglyand articulated the world ofsensible, –themessyentanglementsoflabourers, mutable particulars women, and whohadmentallyleftbehind forthephilosopher-warrior Death wouldreason. holdnoterrors eternal, perfect, andideal, towhichhumanbeings, andonlyhumanbeings, couldgainaccess, via posited arealm oftranscendence, therealm oftheinsensibleForms, imperishable, unchanging, in warfare? Itwas ultimatelyinresponse tothisproblem, according toPlumwood, thatPlato in the was accordingly promotedasthepillarofstateinPlato’s politicalphilosophy, asevidenced warfare oftheAtheniansystemprivilege. Militarism was theconditionforperpetuation tual classtowhichPlatobelonged, andsinceslaves couldonlybeprocured throughwarfare, level towarfare. itpertained productive Sinceslaves theprincipal basefortheintellec- formed to Plumwood’s analysis, was oftheelite. notmerely amatteroftheself-legitimation Atadeeper sheer physical affordance thatwas theprovince ofthemenialclasses. and justifiedtheircontrolover, themessy, sweaty realm ofreproductive anddomesticlabour from, reasoning wasofthisclassapart thatsetthemembers accordingly selectedastheattribute was reasoning, asexemplified inphilosophicalandmathematicalthinking.Thecapacityfor menials. Thedistinctive activity oftheleisured class, belonged, towhichPlatohimself ofcourse distinctive ofthese dependedontheservices oftheleisured maleclasswhoseprivileges attributes of opposingeverything associatedwithmenials–suchaswomen, slaves, andanimals–tothe Plato. Itwas inPlatothatthecore dichotomy, reason versus nature, tookshapeforthepurpose chapter ofthebook, backto construct ofdualismasanideological Plumwood tracestheorigins Inthefourth ideological. to bethattheassociationofreason withadominatoridentityisstrictly other highlydeveloped modeofcognition have beenselectedasthemarker ofmind? inator identity?True, reason isamarker ofmindandhencevalue. Butwhy shouldnotsome have beenreason thatwas singledoutinthedualistschemaasdefinitive ofadom- attribute reflexively, asPlumwood insists, herself ofrelational identities.Why intheservice thenshouldit andreflexivelylogically ofamasteridentity, intheservice but and onecanalsothinklogically andreflexivelydomination. Butwhathasthinkinglogically todowiththis? Yes, onecanthink ofidentityitsignifiesisoneconstitutedthroughdivision,The form separation, distancing, and of humancognition. Assuchitwould have beendiscovered soonerorlater inhumanhistory argue, way ofacertain corollary ofthinkingthatwas aphenomenological aninnatepotential ical (oreven explanationssuchasPlumwood’s diffuselypsychological) allow.Dualism is, Ishall actual rootsofdualismliemuch ofthoughtthanadhoc, deeperinthestructure ideolog- strictly not reason. Sowhy shouldreason retain itscentralityindualisticschemas? teaching,Christian themarker ofthehuman,According to andindeedofimmortality, was soul, was soontooffer, afterPlato, onlyafew centuries an entirely different avenue toimmortality. of reason? Even ifreason asanantidotetodeathhadremained politicallyrelevant, Christianity slaves throughouttheirhistory, sowhy shouldthey maleclassesinterms continue todefineruling have notcontinued todependonslavery andhence on warfare fortheprocurement of socialrelationships andconditions?Western ofchanging throughsomany centuries category wonder why suchthinkinghasretained itsappeal.Why hasreason endured asthecore dualist Indeed, thepoliticalintentthatshapedreason/nature dualismofPlato’s thought, according Insofar asthere isananswer Insofar tothesequestionsin Iwould to dualism, suggestthatreason isindeedintegral asPlumwood claims, but thatthe IfPlumwood’s ofreason/nature dualismiscorrect, accountoftheorigins thenwe may well Republic . But how could one ensure a caste of warriors ready routinely to risk theirlives ready. Buthow routinely torisk couldoneensure acaste ofwarriors Freya Mathews 62 Feminism and the Mastery ofNature Feminism andtheMastery 2

, itseems Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 tator, that reflected alooker reality. inaninnermirror For theGreeks, however, approaching the andforemost,first anagentwithintheworld negotiatingone’s way aroundit, ratherthanaspec- its divinity ortappingintoitsagency. Inthinkingandknowing inthese oldways oneremained, act insomeway. Apprehending theworld via mythic narratives was inseparablefrominvoking from agency–humansthoughtinorderother ancientsocietiesthinking was to stillinextricable as itdidamongtheGreeks, andforthis reason philosophy isregarded asaGreek invention. In isanendinitself. of truth The goalofthoughtis, fromtheperspective ofthephilosopher, truth, tograsp andthegrasping and passaway,change. Thingsarise eternal: Itisinfact theworldand permanent. changes, abouttheworld but thetruth doesnot considers, discovered aboutreality, Thetruth truth. ofreality, orsomeaspectportion isideal abstract duplicateaschemaheregards asaccuratelyreflecting thenature ofthings, hehas, he (Mathewsthe processisnottoreason 2016).Assoonasthethinker but tomirror findsinthat laws ofdefinition, inference andcoherence, tothisprocess, isintegral of but theactualpurpose cate orconceptualmapoftheworld. Reason, andobservance of inthesenseofarticulation anabstractdupli- uptothemanifestworldheconstructs mirror ofthesenses.Inthat reality. mentalorcognitive Hismethodistoengageinaparticular operation: heholdsaninner Take thecaseofathinker who, like thepre-Socratics, afterthebasicconstitutionof isinquiring developed ofdualism. can befurther tothepointwhere itcanshedadeeperlightontheorigins Chinese sage Jullien betweensuggest thatthecontrastdrawn theGreek by philosopherandthe cable fromagencyratherthanbecoming, like thethinking oftheGreeks, Iwould anendinitself. ‘congruence’ withreality,Jullien seemstoimplythatthethinkingofsageremained inextri- did, onasinglerepresentation thesage asseeking exclusive (‘thetruth’) Indescribing ofothers. advantage. To thisendheremained opentoallpointsofview insteadofinsisting, asphilosophers thosetendenciesordispositionstohisownwork situationsinorder toharness best inparticular always maleinthesetraditions).Thesagesoughttoidentifythetendenciesordispositionsat representation ofit, thesagesetouttoadaptoraccommodatehimselfit(both figures are that whilethephilosophersetouttoexplainworld, toprovide anaccurateandexhaustive asagoal.Heobserves Chinese sagethatmadeplainthiscontingencyoftruth and thatofthe Jullienit was drew themeta-level between contrast thefigure oftheancientGreek philosopher ated ontruth?’ (2002), asthegoalofcognition. And signalledthepossiblecontingencyoftruth of aworldview basedonrelationality.Jullien’s But article, have‘Did philosophers tobecome fix- ofaworldviewsought toreplace theostensibletruths basedondualismwiththegenuine truths things. Asphilosophers, we saw –acontestinwhich we ourselves engagedinacontestoftruths ancient philosophicalideathatconsciousness–mindorsoul(psyche)isauniversal feature ofall adigm, thealternative favoured by mebeingarelational andpanpsychistone, drawing onthe the projectofdeveloping atheoretical alternative tothedualist, atomist, andmechanisticpar- setmethinkingalong theselines.Asanenvironmentalthat first philosopher, of Ihadbeenpart Jullien by article theFrench Francois andarresting philosophersinologist Itwas abrilliant act itselfoftheorizing. something thatis ing, oflogic. Itsdualisticcharacter israther merely interms but itcannotbeadequatelydescribed regardless way ofpoliticalcontingencies.Thisparticular ofthinkingdidindeedinvolve reason- Such a notion of truth had not crystallized inotherancientsocietiesquitethe sameway hadnotcrystallized Suchanotionoftruth Letusconsidertheactualprocesswhereby –seekstruth. aphilosopher–ancientormodern enacted in consciousness via a particular cognitive inconsciousnessviaaparticular operation, specificallythevery Theoria moment by moment, aboutthemistimeless. but thetruth The dilemma of dualism of The dilemma and 63 strategia

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 the world fromwithinbut comprehensively objectifyingitinthe ‘mirror’ of dented scale. Butthiswas of agency, anew form theagencyofasubjectnolongernegotiating exercise itsagency, whichhadinitiallybeenbracketed inthesearch fortruth, onanunprece- –thebodyofknowledge knowntheorization tousasscience–humanity would beenabledto hadledtoamore accurate, purposes purely explanatory detailed, andcomprehensive of form allow subjectivity totheworld atlarge. willeffectively oftheorizing will beethicallyproblematic. blockany attemptto Theexperience of re- presented To others. theextentthatself-otherrelations are then, mediatedby theory they subject isdevelopmentally torecognize, disposedtofail inany deeplyfeltway, thesubjectivity built-in autism, orradicalself-centrism, inthestandpoint ofthesubject, inthesensethat from, andaloofnessto, theworld thatwe ofdualism.Indeedthere isa witnessinthehistory that itprojectsontoitsmentalscreen, andasaresult itinevitably feels thesenseofapartness Qua active knower, different fromthemere after-imageofthe world thesubjectiscategorically of thementaloperationinvolved or ofknowing astheory here inthatform described dualism: dualismisafunctionofthesubject-objectbifurcation thatinevitablyasaresult occurs merely acted-upon, object, constructed of inwhichIwould suggestwe further findtheorigin or agencyofitsown. Anditisinthisseparationofactive, world-constructing subjectfromthe an objectforthehumanmind, anduntouchablecompletelydevoid inert ofreal presence tion involved in theatre ofthesubject’s mind, object.Itwas, theoriginal inotherwords, viathesubtlereifica- I would suggest, subject, theoriginal andtheworld asidealprojection, orre-presentation inthe include theknower amongitscontents. derived fromtheGreek, is constitutingtheory. Thismentalprocesshasleftitstraceinetymology: theword ‘theory’ is or idealizedschemaoftheworld ontoakindofabstractscreen inaninnertheatre, themind Inprojectingamental reflection orre-presentation itself. of theactoftheorizing nomenology But inpositingtheForms, Platowas really nomore thandescribing, inreified terms, thephe- this abstractrealm andapprehend reality underatimelessratherthananever-changing aspect. which any actual, concrete, world Thegoalofthoughtwas musttoaccess perishable conform. were TheForms ofForms. theabstract,the Theory eternal, perfect, imagesto andunchanging philosophizing ofthepre-Socratics, itdidbecomedramaticallyexplicit inPlato, intheshapeof accomplishedallatonce,not historically andtracesoftheoldermythic narratives lingered inthe upon byoftheidealduplicatethatwas them.Whilethisinertness theobjectofknowledge was untouchable aspect, reflective ofwhat-isbut inert, unabletoactupontheobserver orbeacted presented tothemindthroughsenses, reality appeared underapeculiardisembodied, ideal, world throughthismentaloperationofdoubling, ofre-presenting inabstractwhatwas initially ated and actualized astechnology, outtoentrainundreamed ofefficacy. turned Suchefficacy, ofagency,lated form inwhichthevery meansforactionwere themselves theoretically medi- reflexively itoutinactuality. premeditating andrehearsingactionbefore carrying This calcu- model – in outline, but theimmediateworld alsotocompleteit.Thoughtotal, ofexperience thismapor amapormodelthatwas Themindconstructed intendedtoreflect,idealization ofexperience. re-presented reality. Thedramaitself, thespectacle, was viaextrapolationfromand constructed in thissenseinvested withastatusdifferent fromtheelementsofthatdrama, theelementsof reality’s spectator, anobserver ofthedrama, invisible dramaitselfand fromwithin theconstructed Much further down the historical track, down Muchfurther thehistorical whentheinitialGreek objectificationofreality for Theknower whocouldnotbeincludedinhis/herown idealre-presentation ofreality was, Intheprocessoftheorizing, thehumanmindsubtlyremoved itselffromreality andbecame theoria – theoria was nevertheless atotalitythat, assomethingcreated by theknower, couldnot theoria , theintrojective actofreflective knowing, thatthe world became first theoria , alookingat, thinglooked at; Freya Mathews 64 theoros , spectator; and theoria thea , spectacle. , and then theoria . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 ‘objective’ oftheworld. rendering In tion’; and the Greek theorized,philosophers sages ratherthanindiscursivereceivedDaoist arts inquiry. andother theirtraininginmartial Where or practiceswhichincrease sensitivity andresponsiveness.Chinesesagestypically Thisiswhy schemas (where theseimplicatebut are oflogic), notreducible totherules but rathersetsexercises faculty, onedoesnotteachreason, whichistosay, thementalprocedures thatproduceabstract sensitivity, and asonemoves To aroundinitthisrangeisconstantlychanging. trainthestrategic is nosenseofthisworld asacompletedtotality; astherangeofone’s itextendsjustasfar own ronmental pressure increasing and decreasing asoneresponds now thisway andnow that.There about thenature ofreality inorder tothisfield: torespond strategically onecanfeeltheenvi- on theiragency, andtangibly, corporeally inthepresent moment.Onedoesnotneedatheory aspect, but with theirown immediatesituationandhow theinfluencesatplay initare impinging notwithanidealized are concerned dualism. Strategists ‘world’, conceived underitsuniversal which thatfieldimpactsupontheiragency, then we forourescapefrom mightlooktostrategy withtheimmediatefieldofinfluencesinwhichtheyare andtheway concerned immersed in 1992;swimming (Lafargue againstthecurrent Mathews 2009). in agency.Cognition isrequired forsuchcoordination, but thisisnot thekindofcognition involved of this, withthecoordination ofcollective may asconcerned strategy beunderstood orindividual world ratherthansetapart; ofagency. itishonedintheservice Chinese traditionas than cuttingagainstitinanattempttoimposeone’s willuponitby sheerforce, in isenshrined own bestadvantage. Thisstanceofaccommodation, ofworking ofreality rather withthegrain situationsnotinorder themtohis but tocaptureparticular inorder themintheory toharness modating oneselftoreality. Hesoughttoidentifythetendenciesordispositionsatwork in effectively. Hisdefinitive discovery was thatonelives mosteffectively by adaptingoraccom- with concrete reality. but inacapacitytolive Thewisdomofthesageconsistednotintheory own thought, andretreated toa ‘life ofthemind’, thesageremainedinandengaged immersed sage. by Whererepresentation thephilosopherbecamemesmerized andtheproductsofhis Jullien’sChinese ofdualismbebroken? to bifurcation. Letusreturn How thencanthegrip ofthinkingthemre-enacts subject-object atasubconsciouslevelthe very experience theoriginal more recently, willlackphilosophicaltraction, attest.Butsuchtheories new materialists because possible todoso, ofnumerous feministsandenvironmental and, asthetheories philosophers theworldsay innon-dualistandrelational thatitisimpossibletotheorize ways. Itiseminently then itfollows, ofcourse, Thisisnotto thatwe cannotescapedualismbytheorizing. further wholesale ofhumanends. intheservice –ofearth –anddegradation transformation combined withtheautistictendencywithindualisticorientation, hasintimeenabledthe ization ofthought. Western civilization, inancientphilosophy, withits origins is uniquely longevityextraordinary andconsistencyofdualismasafundamentalschema fortheorgan- Ifdualismisindeedinherent intheactoftheorizing, thenitwould account, Ithink, forthe theoria Etymology ishelpfulhere, Etymology asitwas inthecaseofterm ‘theory’: ‘strategy’ isderived from Chinese sageas theapproachof Ifwe describe If this argument that the origins of dualism lie in the very activity of theorizing isaccepted, ofdualismliein thevery activity oftheorizing Ifthisargumentthattheorigins , agency ofthesubjectinorder toattainamore whichabstractsfromtheempirical agein strategia , ‘to lead, guide, drive, andfromSanskrit off’; carry , ofageneral’;‘office orcommand orart from wu wei dualism of theecofeminist critique Reviewing , action, thestanceofeffortless ofswimming withtheflow ratherthan cultivated . The dilemma of dualism of The dilemma strategia , cognition remains non-dualist, inthe immersed 65 strategic and define strategists asthosewho anddefinestrategists stratos ajirah , ‘multitude, army, expedi- , ‘moving, active’. Inlight Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 seeks to dismantle grand narratives without constructing new narratives ones, withoutconstructing seeks todismantle grand nomatter how ecological weightfurther to, thedeconstructive approach tofeministtheory, touched onearlier, which and mutuality may bebuilt. modalities willhelptoinstilnew habitsofconsciousness, ofaffiliation onwhichnew patterns thereby re-instating ourfeltsenseofthemoralsignificance ofthenaturalworld, strategic ofintelligenceandresponsivenessifold forms atplay inthelargercommunity oflifeand buttressed dominationintheWest. andlegitimated Moreover, by re-attuning ustotheman- will resolveopposed toatheoretic orientation thesubject/objectsplit thathaspowerfully are inventiveNonetheless, developing indevising oflegitimation. as ideologies astrategic fromexercising power over weakerDominant groups ormore vulnerableparties. a basicallyrespectful attitudeto ward nature, in itwillnotofitselfpreclude stronger parties the reverence inwhichitwas traditionallyheld. to prey,Chinese culture isindicative forexample. of normative Thatnature in isinthisfashion play intheorder ofnature, thisorder ismaintainedby way ofnaturalhierarchies –ofpredator inasmuchall beingsare asthey deemedequallyimportant eachhave theirown to intelligentpart orientation, takes thatthisideology isevident itscuefromnature fromthefact itself: although ination canco-existwitharespectful attitudetoward nature,China’s correlative strategic with whole that the ruled must submittotheruler.whole thattheruled this sensegenuinely complementary: itisforthesake atthelevel ofharmony ofthesystemasa isin totheruler.seen asnaturallysubordinatetoruled Therelationship but ofruler notinferior theentire yin-yangturing systemofheaven scenario, Inthisideological andearth. are theruled them assub-human, thatisregarded ofacore relationship butasstruc- ofruler/ruled interms notindualisticterms,been legitimated by denying thesubjectivity ofwomen orconstructing outlook,its predominantly strategic Maledominationhas ithasalsobeeninsistentlypatriarchal. maintainedadeepreverencecivilization hasfromthestart fornature, asonewould expectfrom the absenceofadualisticmind-set, asitdidanddoes,Chinese forexample,China. Although in race, class, andsoon. Only contingently, historically, becomeassociatedwithgender, doesthisschemafurthermore inevitably human, atthecore ofdualismisthathumanversus theconceptualbinary nature. and above subject is Sincethetheorizing everything thatcanbecomeanobjectoftheorization. isthatofsubjectversusby object: theactoftheorizing from thesubjectisinherently setapart relationship ofdominationentrained toescapedualism.Theprimary we inourefforts shallfail ofdualism, isconflatedwiththeactualsource ororigin sequel totheactoftheorizing ideological andserve asavehicle to genderedofdomination.Butifthis categories forthelegitimation rise object bifurcationshouldeventually enactedintheconsciousnessofearlyphilosophers give male-dominated society, suchasancientGreece was, itwas subject/ inevitable thattheprimal merely evolutionary contrivance but anideological theoutcomeofaparticular trajectory. Ina by dualisticlogic. core driver ofWestern civilization, theWest hasremained acivilization uniquelyfashioned ascendancy oftheWest Since period. inthemodern (Merchant 1980). enabledtheWestconferred to colonizeothersocietiesandsubjugatecivilizations nation –indeedtheapotheosisof rooted in The theory-averseness of the strategic approach seemstochimewith, Thetheory-averseness ofthestrategic andperhaps add willhelptoinduce orientation China signalsthatwhileadoptingastrategic Thecaseof Maledominationby no means inherently requires Itcanexistin dualismforitslegitimation. To ofdualisminthisway istoseethatthedualisticoutlooknot theorigins understand theoria . Science made its first appearance intheWest. Sciencemadeitsfirst becausescienceisanema- Theoria , intheshapeofscience, hasbeen thekey, parexcellence, tothe theoria Freya Mathews . Theimmensepower over nature thatscience 3 That such ideological legitimation ofmaledom- legitimation Thatsuchideological 66 4

theoria hasinthissenseremained the Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 with thepreconceived theoretical impositionsofexclusively approachesbased on managerial systems would bereconfigured sense spontaneousandinexhaustible, reality. ofapush-and-pull engagementwithanalwaysthe openhorizon unobjectifiable, andinthat altogether abandoned.Rather, sciencecould bere-situatedwithin asonetool among others be corollary thetheoretical approachofsciencewithitsmanagerial scenario in astrategic Thisisby nomeanstoinsistthat societiesasourlargerorientation. reinstated inmodern strategia toidentifyordevise taskforecofeministscholars practiceswherebythen itisacontemporary for creating new, normative practicesthatcultivate faculty. andhonethestrategic Perhaps ofone’son intimateengagementwiththeparticularities environment, may provide abasis sympathies they produced, however, together with sympathy forindigenouslifeways based en’s traditionalpracticeswere inthemselves outlook.The sufficienttoengenderastrategic the dispositiontoaccommodateandadaptthataccompanies it.Thisisnottosay thatwom- societiesmay bewellmodern placedtoappreciate theimmersive modalityof public sphere. Inlightofthislegacytraditionaldomesticexperience, somewomen in contrast tothedetachedoutlookofmenpreoccupied withtheabstractgeneralitiesof fostered inwomen thatwas anengagement withtheconcrete andparticular instriking how thetraditionaldomesticpracticesofwomen –childcare, care oftheinfirm, housework – depths ofreality? Inthe1980sand1990s, standpointfeminismattemptedtodemonstrate the bubble ofsubject/objectdualismandre-immerseourselves intheliving, unpredictable of modern, industrialized, masssocieties?Are there practicesby whichwe cantoday burst accommodate andadapt–thedispositiontoward own agency. Intimacy, inotherwords –even theintimacyofchase–begetsaninclinationto fellow feelingandrespect andhence anaturalreticence tooverstep thepropersphere ofone’s withit,is drawn intoaffinityofpurpose whichengenders collegiality intoakindofecological of fleshwithflesh.Incomingtosuchanintimateengagementtheparticular, however, one follow italltheway backtoitslair. Thisisnosubject/objectstandoff, but apush-and-pullcontest need anddangerthatopenone’s eyes tothesignificanceofparticular, andtrainone’s gazeto thatisguided,particular like one’s context, responses inamartial by one’s own vitalinterests. Itis ofseasonality.patterns ofknowing ofattentiveness but Thisisnotadetachedform aform tothe Onemust knowhistories. thelandscapeintimatelyandintricately, itsterrain, itsaffordances, its ity, theirhabits, preferences, idiosyncrasies, theirrelationships withoneanother, theirparticular cally but concretely, inallitsparticularity: Onemust know theplantsandanimalsoflocal- order tohuntandgatheronemust apprehend one’s own immediateenvironment not theoreti- andwidespreadthat was inearlysocieties, normal inhunter-gatherer societies.In particularly exercises really onlyrepresent therefinement ofaway ofagency– ofbeing–anengagedform dation, andadaptivenessDaoist exercises, through andcalligraphy. arts suchasmartial Butsuch China, aswe Inancient have already observed, thesagehonedhiscapacityforacuity, accommo- an epistemicremove fromit. agentic modalitiesthatre-immerseusinreality ratherthanleaving at usstrandedasspectators is that, ratherthanremaining inastanceofrefusal andresistance, seekalternative, strategists or relational suchprospective new narratives mightbe. Butthedifference fromdeconstruction In modern societiesreconfigured Inmodern alongthe However, thereader may bewondering: How is canbeactively cultivated, andsociallevels, atbothpersonal inorder tobecome with Strategic modalities modalities Strategic The dilemma of dualism of The dilemma the grain ofin situinfluencesratherthaninaccordance thegrain 67 wu wei wu wei . strategia lines of a strategic orientation, linesofastrategic social 5

tobecultivated inthecontext strategia and Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:43 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315886572, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315886572.ch3 Relying on critique andanalysisalonemay re-entrapRelying oncritique us. reality, ofdualismwithitsunavoidable which will release legacyofdomination. usfromthegrip consciousness.Butitwillbethepracticesthemselves,intended totransform uswith re-engaging so profoundlyshapedby theory, may theory berequired tomotivate ustoundertake practices course, aplacemay be–indeed, Ithink, must be–retained fortheory, sinceinaculture already modesofself-andsocial-cultivationcontemporary conducive consciousness.Of tostrategic the domesticsphere orofhunter-gatherer peoplesinthesubsistence sphere, but ofdeveloping a matterofreviving, fornormative purposes, traditionalpractices, suchasthoseofwomen in anunderlyingdualismofsubjectversus object.Toperpetuate devise suchpracticesisnotmerely at thecultivation that, ofconsciousnessratherthandiscourses by theirvery nature asdiscourses, discipline ofpractice,Daoism, inthemanneroftraditionssuch as whichofferexercises aimed a devising theoretical asprimarily alternatives to it.Ecofeminismmightratherbeconstrued sophically speaking, we cannotescapedualismmerely by itorby theoretically deconstructing ofVal by thewritings informed Plumwood. ButIhave suggestedinthischapterthat, philo- Theproblemofdualismisindeedthepivot whichcontinues tobe ofecofeministtheorizing landa than rendering science. Food production, forexample, rather localecologies couldrespond toandnourish phy’, in N. N.phy’, TrakakisN. andG. in Oppy (eds), Chapter 18, Someofthetextinthischapterhasbeenadaptedby theauthorfrom ‘Environmental Philoso- and politicscouldbeconductedon respect tomaterials, energy, ventilation, water capture, cycling, Even anddispersal. economics could follow oflocaltopography thecontours andmake fulluseoflocalaffordances with (McDonough2002).Architecturetwin loopsofproductionandecology andengineering could follow thecircular, no-waste backintothe allresource modelthatreturns materials 5 I am not for a moment suggesting that hunting – a prime exercise Iamnotforamomentsuggestingthathunting–prime in 5 appreciation thatakeen fornature Thefact hasalways aestheticandspiritual been adefiningstrandof 4 See,Chinese text forexample, intheancient many3 passageselaboratingthis principle ofreason, Theideathatthevalorization underitsdualistconstruction, was somehow 2 tiedupwithtran- ofenvironmental For anexcellent introductiontothehistory philosophy,1 seeBrennan (2008). fromSpringer. pp. withpermission 543–591.Reprinted son-Graham etal.2013). and intelligence, localinitiative andresponsibility, aswell aslocalphysical resources (Gib- approach, thenurturing, again, oflocalaffordances: localknowledge andculture, localtalent (Mathews 2012). remains morallydefensible asapracticeintheradicallyaltered societies circumstances ofmodern Zedong actuallydeclared a ‘war on nature’. Communist revolution,dated –asitbecameafterthe when, undertheinfluenceofWest, Mao reasons.rather thanideological Itmighthave been much more severe man- haditbeenideologically China,2004). Butsuchdamagehas, beeninflictedforpragmatic untiltheadventin ofmodernization itsenvironmentChina fromdegrading Chinese civilization over hasnotprevented themillennia(Elvin were Thesepapers process itself. collectedposthumouslyinPlumwood (2012). notina tion formortality ‘higher’ continuities realm ofthelife ofabstractexistencebut inthematerial powerful ondeathandpredation, articles shesoughttore-situate deathwithinecology, findingconsola- scendence ofdeathwas athemetowhichPlumwood later inhercareer returned when, of inaseries tabula rasa for industrial monoculture (Benyus 2002).Manufacture forindustrial wu wei A History ofAustralasianA History Philosophy Freya Mathews Conclusion Notes lines, where thiswould involve adecentralized 68 strategia , Springer,Dordrecht, 2014, inindigenouscontexts– I Ching . 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