Human Physique and Sexual Attractiveness: Sexual Preferences of Men and Women in Bakossiland, Cameroon

Arch Sex Behav (2007) 36:369–375 DOI 10.1007/s10508-006-9093-8

ORIGINAL PAPER

Barnaby J. Dixson · Alan F. Dixson · Bethan Morgan · Matthew J. Anderson

Received: 7 November 2005 / Revised: 28 April 2006 / Accepted: 2 June 2006 / Published online: 30 November 2006 C Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2006

Abstract Men and women living in a rural community in sexual selection, human morphology and attractiveness in Bakossiland, Cameroon were asked to rate the attractiveness the U.S., Europe, and elsewhere. of images of male or female figures manipulated to vary in somatotype, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), secondary sexual Keywords Sexual attractiveness . Evolution . Masculine traits, and other features. In Study 1, women rated meso- somatotype . Feminine waist-to-hip ratio . Secondary morphic (muscular) and average male somatotypes as most sexual traits . Cameroon attractive, followed by ectomorphic (slim) and endomorphic (heavily built) figures. In Study 2, amount and distribution of masculine trunk (chest and abdominal) hair was altered Introduction progressively in a series of front-posed male figures. A significant preference for one of these images was found, but Classical sexual selection theory predicts that traits which the most hirsute figure was not judged as most attractive. yield an advantage in intrasexual competition for mates or Study 3 assessed attractiveness of front-posed male figures which enhance an individual’s attractiveness to members of which varied only in length of the non-erect penis. Extremes the opposite sex should be favored during the course of evolu- of penile size (smallest and largest of five images) were rated tion (Andersson, 1994; Darwin, 1871). Where human beings as significantly less attractive than three intermediate sizes. are concerned, it is, therefore, possible that some morpholog- In Study 4, Bakossi men rated the attractiveness of back- ical differences between men and women (physique, facial posed female images varying in WHR (from 0.5–1.0). The traits, secondary sexual characters) might have been influ- 0.8 WHR figure was rated markedly more attractive than enced by sexual selection. Examples include cues indicating others. Study 5 rated the attractiveness of female skin color. fat distribution and reproductive health in women (waist- Men expressed no consistent preference for either lighter to-hip ratio (WHR): Singh, 1993, 2002; Singh & Young, or darker female figures. These results are the first of their 1995; body mass index (BMI): Tovee,´ Maisey, Emery, & kind reported for a Central African community and provide Cornellisen, 1999), muscular physique and somatotype in a useful cross-cultural perspective to published accounts on men (Dixson, Halliwell, East, Wignarajah, & Anderson, 2003; Lynch & Zellner, 1999; Maisey, Vale, Cornellisen, & Tovee,´ 1999), small foot size in women (Fessler et al., 2005), B. J. Dixson · B. Morgan · M. J. Anderson Department of Conservation and Research for Endangered height in men (Mueller & Mazur, 2001; Pawlowski, Dunbar, Species, Zoological Society of San Diego, & Lipowicz, 2000) and various facets of facial morphology San Diego, California in both sexes (Barber, 1995; Grammer & Thornhill, 1994; Penton-Voak et al., 2001; Perret et al., 1998). It has recently A. F. Dixson () School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, been shown, for example, that female faces are consistently POB 600, Wellington, New Zealand rated as most attractive, if the women concerned have high e-mail: [email protected] levels of estrogen during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle (Law-Smith et al., 2006).

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A challenge for studies of the evolution of human mor- siland, Cameroon. We examined whether women show any phology is the requirement to obtain data from a sufficiently significant preferences for males, depending on muscular, wide range of human cultures, given the variation which oc- lean, or heavy body build and whether secondary sexual char- curs in physique, skin color, facial cues, and secondary sex- acteristics (chest hair) influence male attractiveness. Given ual characters (e.g., body and facial hair) in different parts that the human male external genitalia are prominent and of the world. The finding that men in North America ex- that sexual selection may have influenced their development press a preference for women who have a 0.7 WHR (Singh, as visual signals (Potts & Short, 1999; Short, 1980), we 1993; Singh & Young, 1995) has not been replicated in some examined whether alterations in penile size (length) influ- other cultures (e.g., the Matsigenka of Peru: Yu & Shepard, enced women’s perceptions of attractiveness. For men, we 1998; the Hadza of Tanzania: Wetsman & Marlowe, 1998; examined their ratings of female waist-to-hip ratios in order see, however, Marlowe, Apicella, & Reed, 2005) although to compare results from Cameroon with studies conducted considerable evidence for the cross-cultural and historic rel- elsewhere. Given that there are sex differences in skin color evance of female WHR has been marshaled by Singh (2002). in many human populations (Darwin, 1871; Van Der Berghe Singh proposed that the WHR provides an honest signal of &Frost,1986), we also asked men to rate the attractiveness fat distribution in relation to health, and that a low feminine of female figures which were lighter or darker than those WHR is indicative of good reproductive health and fertil- which are typical for this population. ity. Skin color tends to be lighter in women than in men (Darwin, 1871) and it is possible that sexual selection may have played a role in favoring sexual dimorphism in this trait Method (Frost, 1988; van Der Berghe & Frost, 1986). Symons (1995), for example, pointed out that female skin color changes with Study site and participants reproductive condition (e.g., during puberty, pregnancy, etc.) and may provide visual cues relevant to reproductive con- Bakossiland is a region in the South West province of dition and aging. However, geographical factors and natural Cameroon. The region is mountainous and densely forested, selection have almost certainly played an important role in with some areas of primary lowland and montane forestation the evolution of human skin pigmentation, so that the pos- still remaining (Cheek, Pollard, Darbyshire, Onana, & Wild, sible effects of sexual selection must be viewed within this 2004). The human population of 50,000 to 70,000 people is broader context. The distribution of hair on the trunk (chest spread among more than 80 villages and small townships, and abdomen) is also sexually dimorphic and pronounced which form part of the Mbo group, as defined on linguistic trunk hair was rated as highly attractive by women in one grounds (Ejepedang-Koge, 1986). Subsistence farming and study conducted in the U.K. (Dixson et al., 2003). Secondary traditional hunting remain the major way of life. The region sexual characteristics, such as trunk hair in men and capes has been slower to modernize, perhaps due to the rugged of hair in some non-human primates, are stimulated by tes- nature of the terrain and poor road system. This study was ticular hormones (Dixson, 1998). However, the relevance of conducted in the village of Nyasoso, on the flanks of Mt. such traits to masculine sexual attractiveness in primates is Kupe and based at the small Presbyterian General Hospital. unknown. The occurrence of trunk hair varies tremendously This is the only functional hospital in the area and it is visited in men and currently there is no cross-cultural evidence that by people from all over Bakossiland. Questionnaires were in- this trait is attractive in a global sense. dividually administered by one of us (B.M.) who has been The current study was undertaken in order to obtain quan- conducting fieldwork on primate behavior in this area for titative information on the sexual preferences for physical three years. As a respected outsider to the community, B.M. traits of women and men living in Cameroon, Central Africa. was allowed to interview men and women who visited the The only previous studies conducted in Africa to examine hospital and to record their responses to the questionnaires. human physique and sexual attractiveness are those reported Interviews were conducted in either English or Pidgin En- by Wetsman and Marlowe (1998) and Marlowe et al. (2005) glish as Cameroon is an Anglophone region of Cameroon. on the Hadza, a hunter-gatherer society in Tanzania. If cross- This approach was necessary because there is a low level cultural comparisons are to have any validity, there is clearly of literacy in this area of Cameroon. A total of 171 people a need to expand data collection to include other parts of participated in the study (99 men and 72 women). Africa. This is particularly important because Homo sapi- Each questionnaire had a cover sheet for demographic ens originated in Africa and all other human populations data, including the participant’s sex, age, and marital status. ultimately derive from an African origin. At no time were participants asked to give their names. Al- Here, we report on women’s preferences for male soma- though the great majority of marriages are monogamous in totype, distribution of trunk hair, and size of genitalia, and this part of Cameroon, polygamy is legal provided that the men’s preferences for female WHR and skin color in Bakos- first wife agrees that a man can take additional partners. In

Springer Arch Sex Behav (2007) 36:369–375 371 practice, this is more likely to occur among the chiefs and attractive, 4 = very attractive, and 5 = extremely attrac- wealthier Bakossi. None of these men took part in the study. tive. The rating scale appeared next to each image in the However, it is possible that some of the women in our study questionnaire, as in previous studies (Dixson et al., 2003). may have been in polygynous marriages. Study 4 examined men’s preferences for back-posed im- The ages of the female participants were distributed as ages of the same woman differing only in WHRs. Using follows: <20 years old = 12%; 21–30 years = 35%; 31– Photo Shop, six images were produced (WHRs: 0.5, 0.6, 40 years = 32%; 41–50 years = 14%; >50 years = 7%. 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, and 1.0). These images were presented in A total of 57% of these women were married. For the male random order on the same page of the questionnaire; par- participants, ages were distributed as follows: <20 years old ticipants were asked to select only the image that they = 7%; 21–30 years = 47%; 31–40 years = 25%; 41– found most attractive sexually. On a subsequent page, 50 years = 11%; >50 years = 10%. A total of 47% of the same stimuli were presented again, but participants the men were married. Neither age nor marital status were were asked to select the one they found most attractive found to significantly impact the pattern of responses in the for a long-term relationship. five studies. Study 5 assessed male preferences for variations for skin color of potential female partners. Five images of an Measures identical back-posed female figure (0.8 WHR) were used. One standard image had the skin color typical Women were asked to rate images of males, varying in so- for Bakossi women. Skin tone was altered (using Adobe matotype, distribution of body hair, and size of genitalia. Photo Shop) in a stepwise fashion (by 10 units of bright- To produce these images, photographs of back-posed and ness and 15 units of contrast) to produce two images front-posed men were scanned from Sheldon, Dupertuis, and which were darker than the standard image, and two McDermott (1954). Men were asked to rate the attractive- which were lighter in color. ness of images of women, varying in WHR or skin color. Each image was manipulated using Photo Shop version 7.0 in order to standardize images for height, posture, and skin Results color. Skin color was matched to that which is typical in Bakossiland by scanning photographs of individual Bakossi Study 1: Women’s ratings of masculine somatotypes into the computer and using these as the basis for coloring the images. Where front-posed images were used, the faces were A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) for blocked out, as our studies did not concern facial stimuli. somatotype showed a significant effect for ratings of the Study 1 assessed the preferences of women for four back- attractiveness of the four male figures, F(3, 213) = 25.36, posed male figures that varied in somatotype (ectomor- p < .0001. The mesomorphic somatotype was judged as the phic, endomorphic, mesomorphic, and average). most attractive, closely followed by the average somatotype; Study 2 assessed women’s preferences for front-posed im- the ectomorphic and the endomorphic images received ages of males that varied in levels of hirsuteness on the much lower average scores. Post-hoc Scheffe´ tests revealed trunk (chest and abdomen). Five images were presented, significant differences between scores for the mesomorph which varied only in the degree of trunk hair (from none vs. ectomorph, mesomorph vs. endomorph, average vs. to pronounced hirsuteness). ectomorph, and average vs. endomorph (all comparisons Study 3 examined women’s preferences for five male im- p < .001; Fig. 1). ages varying only in length of the (non-erect) penis. In one figure, the penis was of normal size (i.e., the same Study 2: Women’s ratings of male images varying in size as in the original photograph used to model the hirsuteness image in the computer). In the remaining four images, penile length was modeled to be either smaller or larger An ANOVA revealed a small but significant difference than normal size. We had intended to alter length to be in women’s attractiveness ratings for the five front-posed either 80% normal size or plus 20%, plus 30% and plus (mesomorphic) male figures which had increasing amounts 40% of normal size respectively. Measurement of the of hair represented on the chest and abdomen, F(4, actual images showed that they were 78% normal size 284) = 2.65, p < .05. Post-hoc Scheffe´ tests showed that and 122, 133, and 143% of normal size, respectively. the only significant paired comparison was between the first (hairless) and fourth (moderately hirsute) versions of the In all three studies, women rated each of the stimulus im- five images (Fig. 2). ages on a 6-point scale, where 0 = unattractive, 1 = only slightly attractive, 2 = mildly attractive, 3 = moderately

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lengths, as revealed by post-hoc Scheffe´ tests comparing scores for various images (Fig. 3). These were rated as moderately attractive by most women, whose scores were similar, but slightly lower than those given for the attractiveness of a back-posed mesomorphic figure in Study 1 (see Fig. 1). All the images used in Study 3 were of the same, mesomorphic front-posed male figure, identical except for the genitalia. These images lacked chest hair and the figure depicting a normal (unaltered) penile length was also presented in Study 2 on masculine hirsuteness. In the study which examined hirsuteness, this figure scored 2.0 ± 0.19 whereas in the study on penile size the same image scored 2.84 ± 0.16 (p < .001). The higher score awarded in the study on genital size may relate in some way to the fact that the image appeared adja- cent to others which were judged as markedly less attractive sexually due to having smaller (78%) or larger (143%) penile lengths.

Study 4: Men’s ratings of female waist-to-hip ratios

The overwhelming majority of men rated the female image depicting a 0.8 WHR as most attractive sexually, and most attractive for a potentially long-term relationship (Fig. 4). Thus, 47 and 41 men, respectively, rated 0.8 WHR image Fig. 1 Women’s mean ratings ( +SEM) for sexual attractiveness of as most attractive as compared to the scores expected by back-posed male ﬁgures of four different somatotypes: ENDO: endo- chance (χ 2 test, p < .005). The 0.7 WHR image was the morphic; ECTO: ectomorphic; MESO: mesomorphic; AVER: average body build. (∗∗p < .001) second most favored choice, but the scores attained did not differ from expected levels for this or for the other WHR values (Fig. 4). Study 3: Effect of penile size Study 5: Men’s ratings of female skin color Women rated the shortest penis size represented (reduced to 78% of normal length) and the largest (43% longer than The number of men expressing a preference for any one of normal) as the least attractive. The ANOVA revealed an the ﬁve female images did not differ from expected levels as overall effect of penile size upon attractiveness ratings, F(4, revealed by χ 2 tests (see Fig. 5). 284) = 20.67, p < .0001. This was due to preferences expressed for the normal and intermediate ( +22% and +33%) **

5 ** ** 5 * 4 ** ** 4

3 3

2 2 ATTRACTIVENESS ATTRACTIVENESS 1 1 NONE MAX 1 2 3 4 5 MALE TRUNK HAIR PENILE LENGTH Fig. 2 Women’s mean ratings ( +SEM) for attractiveness of front- Fig. 3 Women’s preferences for images of male ﬁgures varying only posed male ﬁgures which vary only in hirsuteness of the trunk (chest in length of the (non-erect) penis. (1–5 in order of increasing size). Data ∗∗ and abdomen). None = no trunk hair; Max = pronounced hirsuteness are means ( +SEM) ( p < .001) (∗p < .05)

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of “dating service.” These kinds of misunderstandings are much less likely to occur in studies conducted in university- based settings, but the inclusion of data from a range of ethnic groups and socioeconomic backgrounds is essential if a true cross-cultural perspective on the evolution of human morphology in relation to sexual attractiveness is to be obtained. Bakossi women, ranging from teenagers to women over 50 years of age, showed clear preferences for those images of men which depicted either a muscular (mesomorphic) or average build. In contrast to data collected in the U.K. and Sri Lanka (Dixson et al., 2003), Bakossi women did not find the mesomorphic image significantly more attractive than the average masculine somatotype, although it did re- ceive the highest rating overall. Ectomorphic and (especially) endomorphic images received significantly lower ratings for Fig. 4 Men’s preferences for back-posed female figures varying in their sexual attractiveness. waist-to-hip ratios (WHR) from 0.5–1.0. Participants were asked to choose the most sexually attractive image. Dashed line = expected Previous studies have shown that possession of a broad number of males preferring a given image; histograms = observed chest, narrow waist, and muscular torso is rated as attractive scores (∗∗p = .005; chi-square test) by many women (Lynch & Zellner, 1999;Maiseyetal.,1999; Mealey, 1997; Schultze, Knussmann, & Christiansen, 1991). Discussion Such traits may provide reliable signals of masculine health and fitness. Indeed, these traits may have played an impor- The results reported here are the first of their kind for a Cen- tant role in human evolution given the requirement for men tral African population and they provide some useful com- to offer protection to women, and competence in hunting and parisons, and contrasts, with the findings of similar studies other physical skills essential for survival and successful re- conducted in other parts of the world. The number of partici- production (Bramble & Lieberman, 2004; Buss & Schmidt, pants in this study was comparatively small, but the difficul- 1993; Ellis, 1992). Heavily built (endomorphic) or very slim ties of carrying out such work in Bakossiland limit the ability (ectomorph) men may, by contrast, exhibit greater risk of car- to obtain large-scale samples. Literacy rates are low and it is diovascular problems and possess less stamina for pursuits necessary to administer questionnaires on an individual basis requiring sustained physical exertion (Bolonchuk, Siders, and to be very careful about explaining the purpose of the Lykken, & Lukaski, 2000; Katzmarzyk, Malina, Song, & studies to avoid misunderstandings. Thus, some men, when Bouchard, 1998). asked to participate initially, thought that the female images The danger of drawing general conclusions from data represented actual, potential partners, as part of some form collected in only one country is emphasized by the results reported here on masculine hirsuteness and sexual attractiveness to women. Bakossi women showed only a small pref- 30 erence for one of the five front-posed mesomorphic figures incorporating varying degrees of trunk (chest and abdominal) 20 hair. The figure lacking any hair was rated least attractive on average, but only marginally so. Earlier studies conducted in the U.K. had previously shown a strong positive effect 10 of trunk hair on masculine attractiveness to women; figures

Male Preference incorporating trunk hair were also rated as being older than

0 those which lacked any hair (Dixson et al., 2003). At present, LIGHTER AVERAGEDDARKER we do not know how typical the occurrence of masculine chest and abdominal hair is, as a secondary sexual character- FEMALE SKIN COLOUR istic, in the Bakossi population, although our impression is Fig. 5 Men’s preferences for back-posed female figures varying in skin that many men lack trunk hair. Clearly, it would be valuable color. Average = a figure whose color is typical of Bakossi women. Two figures were lighter in color and two figures were darker than aver- to collect data on this trait in order to better understand fac- age. Dashed line = expected number of males preferring a given image; tors which may influence female preference. This criticism histograms = observed scores. No statistically significant differences also applies to studies conducted elsewhere in the world, if in color preferences were found

Springer 374 Arch Sex Behav (2007) 36:369–375 any valid conclusions are to be reached concerning effects the population under examination. Another important issue of sexual selection upon masculine trunk hair. concerns the importance of the female buttocks in sexual A similar consideration relates to the interpretation of attractiveness to men. Only front posed images were used our data on men’s ratings of female images which varied by Yu and Shepard (1998) in their studies of the Matzigenka in skin color or WHR. Lighter skin color in women, as in Peru. In their studies of WHR and female attractiveness compared to men, has been noted as a possible index of in the Hadza of Tanzania, Marlowe et al. (2005) found that reproductive potential, age, hormonal status, and fecundity preferences for higher WHRs diminished when men could (e.g., Symons, 1995). For example, during pregnancy, many view side-posed images of women, to include the buttocks, women exhibit increased skin pigmentation which wanes, rather than front-posed images. but not completely, when gestation is over (Sodhi & Sausker, The studies reported here on women’s preferences for 1988; Wong & Ellis, 1984). Ethnographic comparisons in- male images differing in genital morphology are interest- dicate that men apparently prefer women who have lighter ing and have not previously been attempted to our knowl- skin (Van Der Berghe & Frost, 1986). Bakossi men in the edge. Reducing penile length by 22% resulted in significantly current study showed no significant preference for female lower ratings for attractiveness. Likewise, lengthening of the images which were modeled to be lighter or darker than is penis by 43% was associated with significantly lower scores typical for this population. Thus, our findings provide no than those given to the normal (i.e., unaltered) image or support for the hypothesis that men find lighter skin tones those in which the penis was 22 and 33% larger than nor- more attractive. However, there have been no studies of pop- mal. We conclude that size (length only was altered in this ulation differences in skin color for women in Bakossiland. study) of the non-erect penis did influence women’s ratings As outsiders (although all the authors of this article have vis- for attractiveness of male figures and that extremes of size ited and worked in Bakossiland), we have not noticed a sex (smaller or larger than normal) were rated as significantly difference in skin pigmentation among these people. Thus, less attractive. Thus, the suggestion that the prominent ap- it would be important to determine whether meaningful sex pearance of the male external genitalia may play some role differences in skin color occur in this region. in attractiveness receives some support from these results Likewise, there are no quantitative data available on vari- in Bakossiland (Diamond, 1997; Potts & Short 1999; Short, ability in the WHR ratios of women in Bakossiland. Men 1980). However, our results are preliminary and concern in our study population clearly rated back-posed female im- only limited changes in length of the non-erect penis. It re- ages with a 0.8 WHR as being most attractive. This was mains to be seen whether these findings will be replicated in the only image where scores were significantly higher than further cross-cultural studies of human morphology and sex- those expected by chance. This rating applied also to judg- ual attractiveness. It will also be important to include other ments of attractiveness of such a woman for a long-term re- measures of genital morphology. lationship. The 0.8 WHR was intermediate between a more curvaceous shape (0.7 WHR as preferred in North Ameri- can studies: Singh, 1993; Singh & Young, 1995) and a more References “solid” appearance as apparent in the 0.9 and 1.0 WHR images. Few human cultures remain which have not been ex- Andersson, M. (1994). Sexual selection. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni- posed to influences of western media and the possible biases versity Press. in rating female attractiveness which such influences might Barber, N. (1995). The evolutionary psychology of physical attractiveness: Sexual selection and human morphology. Ecology and cause. Sociobiology, 16, 395–424. Yu and Shepard (1998) conducted a valuable study of Bolonchuk, W. W., Siders, W. A., Lykken, G. I., & Lukaski, H. C. the Matsigenka, an indigenous population in the remote and (2000). Association of dominant somatotype of men with body protected Manu Park in southeast Peru. Interestingly, men structure, function during exercise, and nutritional assessment. American Journal of Human Biology, 12, 167–180. rated “overweight” females with a higher WHR (0.9) as most Bramble, D. M., & Lieberman, D. E. (2004). Endurance running and healthy and attractive, especially so men from the Yomybato the evolution of Homo. Nature, 432, 345–352. village in the most isolated population studied. We note that Buss, D. M., & Schmidt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An Yu and Shepard only presented figures with a high WHR evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204–232. (0.9) or low (0.7) WHR rather than a range of images (e.g., Cheek, M., Pollard, B. J., Darbyshire, I., Onana, J. M., & Wild, C. no 0.8 WHR was available). The images used were of Cau- (Eds.) (2004). The plants of Kupe, Mwanenguba and the Bakossi casian appearance (in hair-style and color), front-posed, and Mountains, Cameroon: A conservation checklist. Richmond, Sur- clothed in western-style bathing costumes (as adapted from rey, England: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. Singh, 1993). For cross-cultural studies to be truly represen- London: John Murray. tative, we suggest, however, that the images used should be Diamond, J. (1997). Why is sex fun: The evolution of human sexuality. modeled to be appropriate (e.g., in skin and hair color) for New York: Basic Books.

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