Master Thesis
Moving towards Securitization
How the Paris Attacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Author: Christina Uhlig Supervisor: Dr. Lennart Wohlgemuth Examiner: Dr. Manuela Nilsson Faculty: Faculty of Social Sciences Date: June 2015 Subject: Peace and Development Work Level: Master of Science Course code: 4FU41E
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to, first of all, thank everyone who supported me in working towards my degree, in one or the other way.
I would like to especially thank my supervisor Dr. Lennart Wohlgemuth for his guidance and feedback that he provided to me at any time. Also, I would like to thank Dr. Manuela Nilsson for her helpful feedback in the seminar. Furthermore, I would like to thank the lecturers of this programme for preparing me for this paper academically.
Furthermore, I would like to thank my class mates for helping me in broadening my horizon and helping me to reflect on my assumptions through group works. I would like to especially thank Naomi for thinking along with me in challenging moments of the thesis writing process and Zia for his feedback as my opponent. I would also like to especially thank Alexandra, Linn, Julianne, Fiza, Bai Yu and Maria for their cheerful and loving company.
Also, I would like to thank my family, my boyfriend, and my friends both in Sweden and abroad, who showed patience and support at all times and were there for me not only in easy but also difficult moments, irrespective of our locations and distance between us. In particular, I would like to thank my siblings Peter and Annett for enabling my stay abroad and their endless patience with me - without their support this experience would never have been possible. My heartfelt gratitude also goes to Sebas for his support at all times, for bearing with me also in hectic moments and for doing everything in his power to make the transition towards a shared life possible.
Moreover, I would like to thank Pernilla, Gabriel, Evelina and Lovissa who, next to the academic studies, provided me with interesting and valuable insights into Swedish society and lessons of life.
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ABSTRACT
In January 2015, three terrorists killed 17 people in Paris. In a time in which fears of immigrants and Muslims are spread in Europe and right wing movements are gaining support, this event built a foundation for actors of centre right and right wing parties to use the attacks in their favor. The aim of this study was to investigate how French and German media reported on the attacks, which measures were suggested in response to the attacks by political actors and how media facilitated possible securitization moves. By conducting this case study for which French and German newspaper articles were collected through the database Lexis Nexis and analyzed through content and discourse analysis, a contribution to security studies was made. The analytical framework used, Securitization Theory with an integration of Framing Theory, proved valuable as it indicated that media, by framing the issues connected to the Paris Attacks in favor of securitizing actors, facilitated securitization moves. Securitizing actors were mainly centre right politicians in Germany and the French right wing party National Front. Furthermore, German newspaper articles on the attacks outnumbered French newspaper articles, indicating the high level of media attention to the key event. However, the role of Islam was mentioned in more French newspaper articles than it was the case in German newspapers. Overall, terrorism and Islam were portrayed as a threat to the referent objects of the West, its citizens and values, fostering an essentialist and dichotomist understanding of the West and Islam.
KEY WORDS: terrorism, right-wing and centre right parties, media, securitization, Paris Attacks
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... I ABSTRACT ...... II TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... III LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... V LIST OF TABLES ...... VI LIST OF FIGURES ...... VI 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Debates around the Research Topic ...... 2
1.2 Research Objective and Questions ...... 4
1.3 Research Problem and Relevance ...... 5
1.4 Analytical Framework ...... 7
1.5 Methodology ...... 7
1.6 Ethical Issues ...... 8
1.7 Disposition ...... 8
2 BACKGROUND ...... 9 2.1 Terrorism in Europe ...... 9
2.2 Muslim Population ...... 12
2.3 Right Wing Movements ...... 14
2.4 Paris Attacks ...... 15
3 METHODOLOGY ...... 17 3.1 Design ...... 17
3.2 Cases and Sample ...... 17
3.3 Operationalization ...... 19
3.4 Data Collection and Analysis ...... 19
3.5 Reflections on Primary and Secondary Sources ...... 23
3.6 Delimitations ...... 24
3.7 Limitations ...... 24
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4 ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 26 4.1 Securitization Theory ...... 26
4.2 Framing Theory ...... 31
4.3 Summary ...... 34
5 FINDINGS ...... 35 5.1 Media Coverage of the Paris Attacks – a Key Event ...... 35
5.2 Suggested Measures and Reflection of Actors ...... 37
6 ANALYSIS ...... 44 6.1 Securitizing Actors and their Audience ...... 44
6.2 Securitized Topics and Diagnostic Frames ...... 45
6.3 Referent objects ...... 47
6.4 Chances of Securitization and Frame Resonance ...... 49
6.5 The Timing of Securitization Moves ...... 50
6.6 Threat Construction ...... 51
6.7 Repetition of Articles in Newspapers ...... 52
6.8 Contribution by the Media ...... 55
6.9 Concluding Remarks ...... 56
7 CONCLUSION ...... 60 7.1 Contributions Made ...... 60
7.3 Suggestions for Further Research ...... 61
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 63 ANNEX I: OVERVIEW OVER ANALYZED DATA ...... VII
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
LIST OF ACRONYMS
CDU Christian Democratic Union of Germany
CS Copenhagen School
CSU Christian Social Union in Bavaria
DA Discourse Analysis
EU European Union
FN National Front
IS Islamic State
NGOs Non-governmental Organizations
NPD National Democratic Party of Germany
PEGIDA Patriotic Europeans Against the Islamization of the West
UK United Kingdom
UMP Union for a Popular Movement
UN United Nations
US United States of America
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Operationalization of aspects related to Securitization Theory ...... 30 Table 2: Operationalization of concepts related to Framing Theory ...... 33 Table 3: Overview over media coverage of the Paris Attacks ...... 37 Table 4: Measures Suggested in Germany...... 39 Table 5: Measures Suggested in France ...... 41 Table 6: Measures Suggested in France...... 42 Table 7: Number of German Newspapers reporting the same Articles ...... 54 Table 8: Number of French Newspapers reporting on the same Articles ...... 55
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Geographical distribution of terrorist plots 1994-2013 ...... 9 Figure 2: 13 years of terror in Western Europe ...... 9 Figure 3: Eurobarometer data ...... 11 Figure 4: Estimated Muslim Population per European country in 2010 ...... 12 Figure 5: Estimated Muslim Population per European country in 2030 ...... 12 Figure 6: Proportion of Muslim population in France and Germany in 2010 in % ...... 13 Figure 7: Topics reported on in French media ...... 36 Figure 8: Topics reported on in German media ...... 36 Figure 9: Securitized topics in German media ...... 45 Figure 10: Securitized topics in French media ...... 46 Figure 11: Referent objects in German Media ...... 48 Figure 12: Referent objects in French media...... 48
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years the number of terrorist attacks in Europe has been on the rise. Already in response to the terrorist attacks on 9/11, terrorism was perceived to be the “the key threat for international peace and security […] (and) it was linked with other security concerns” (Rychovská, 2014: 10). Subsequently, extensive debates around causes and counter terrorism1 measures have been held, not only in the United States of America (US) but worldwide (Rytter and Pedersen, 2014, Cesari, 2012). At the same time, various groups of people have been increasingly depicted as security risks. Since some terrorists of recent attacks were born in the countries in which they performed the terrorist attacks while having parents with immigration background, discussions around home-grown terrorism evolved (Hussain and Bagguley, 2012, Kundnani, 2014, Rytter and Pedersen, 2014, Bakker, 2006). This applies to immigrants in general as well as to Muslim immigrants and/or Muslims in particular (Huysmans and Squire, 2010, Hussain and Bagguley, 2012, Rytter and Pedersen, 2014, Cesari, 2012, Jamal and Yusuf, 2014). This trend also applies to the European Union (EU) where immigrants have increasingly been depicted as a risk rather than a benefit (Munster, 2009). Indeed, security concerns regarding immigrants prevailed as compared to normatively motivated appeals to support them (Munster, 2009). Whereas some years ago Western Europe seemed to be interested in attracting labor forces from abroad, recent debates are not that clear anymore on how much, if at all, immigration is wanted (Munster, 2009). While some scholars argue that immigration policy has been increasingly securitized (Jackson and Parkes, 2008, Munster, 2009) research on the role of the media in this context still lacks attention. After the major2 terrorist attacks in Madrid and London in 2004 and 2005, the third major wave of terrorism has reached the EU when three assassins killed 17 people in Paris in
1 Up to this day a legal definition of the term “terrorism” has not been decided upon. Indeed, even the UN has not come to a legal definition of the term (Schmid, 2013). For this paper, the following aspects of terrorism will be taken into consideration. Schmid (1983, quoted in Richards, 2015: 375) constitutes that “terrorism is a method of combat in which random or symbolic victims become targets of violence”. Richard (2014: 221) adds that “the essence of terrorism lies in the intent […] to generate a wider psychological impact beyond the immediate victims”. Therefore, terrorism follows a political aim which it intends to reach by terrorizing a certain audience and influencing the latter psychologically. 2 Major terrorist attacks in this case means that more than 10 people died due to the attacks. 1
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures the name of Al-Qaida and the Islamic State3 (IS), in January 2015 (hereafter referred to as ‘Paris Attacks’). With the geographical approximation of terrorism attacks to the EU, it is therefore interesting which extraordinary4 measures were suggested in the aftermath of the Paris Attacks by whom as reported by the media. Furthermore, since in recent years, right wing movements5 have received growing support, it will be investigated how those movements reacted to the Paris Attacks and in which way they tried to use the attacks in order to introduce special policies. The following sections summarize debates around the research topic, the research objective and questions, the research problem and relevance, the analytical framework that is used to analyze the issue, the methodology to be used as well as limitations, delimitations and ethical issues that should be considered for the suggested paper.
1.1 Debates around the Research Topic
Various scholars have attested in the past that securitization of immigration and/or Muslim communities is taking place and that media can influence the perception of immigrants and/or minorities. This section will provide a short review over literature on the context of immigration, perception of immigration and/or Muslims and in which ways the role of media has been investigated. To start with, Gallagher (2003) examines how whites perceived the amount of different societal groups in their country, finding that media influences that perception. Nevertheless, this study referred to America only (Cisneros, 2008, Brader et al., 2008). Similarly, Strabac (2011) finds that the perception of the number of immigrants in Western Europe is unconnected to the real size. Whereas the latter does not assess media in detail he does find that education plays a crucial role. Similarly, Semyonov et al. (2004) find that Germans overestimate the number of foreigners in their country while at the same time finding anti-foreigner feelings to be present. Besides, Semyonov et al. (2004) find the perception of immigrants as a threat influences how residents in host countries perceive
3 However, the IS did not confirm that Amedy Coulibaly acted on their behalf. 4 Due to a lack of conceptualization in the studied scholarly literature of the concept “extraordinary measures” the author operationalized the term herself as follows: if a goal can be achieved with less extreme measures that infringe the rights of the target groups to a smaller extent and do not clash as much with the basic values of the target group, then the measure is unproportional. 5 In this paper, right wing movements are considered as conservative groups that promote the restriction of immigration and/or voice concerns against certain groups of immigrants. 2
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures immigrants. The latter finding is reinforced by Scheepers et al. (2002). However, neither Scheepers et al. (2002) nor Semyonov et al. (2004) focus on the role of media in portraying immigrants as a threat. Secondly, Edward Said (1997) investigates how media portrays Islam and finds that the negative connotations outweigh the positive ones. Yet, the work of Said is several years old and is not explicitly linked to terrorism. More recent work on the impact of terrorism on Islam has been conducted by Cesari (2012), Hussain and Bagguley (2012), Rytter and Pedersen (2014), Amin-Khan (2012), Kundnani (2014) etc. In this context it is also noted that the way media react to those terrorist attacks is crucial for the definition and future treatment of those social groups that are considered to be responsible for the events (Hussain and Bagguley, 2012). However, the author believes, that the investigation of the most recent case of terrorism that led to the death of more than ten people increases the understanding of the impact such events can have on securitization moves.6 In recent years, various European anti-immigrant movements, such as right wing parties and movements, seem to flourish. This might be, as Strabac (2011) finds, due to the role education plays in this context. Fetzer and Soper (2003) replicate the finding that education is crucial in the context of how European Muslims are perceived. Buzan et al. (1998: 124) argue that media play an important role in the “definition of situations”. Therefore, media could be considered as a crucial source of knowledge in this context, creating possible influences on how immigrants and/or Muslims are perceived (Löbbert, 2015, Strabac, 2011, Esses and Medianu, 2013) – although evidence for a rather dehumanizing perspective concerning immigrants by media is said to lack evidence (Esses and Medianu, 2013). Additionally, few sources investigating Western European media influences call for more research in this area (Strabac, 2011). Further scholars have investigated the link between terrorism and migration control but examine this link regarding 9/11 and therefore referred to terrorism in the US (Boswell, 2007, Messina, 2014). Whereas Boswell (2007) focuses on political discourse, Messina (2014) investigates the role of mass media, mentioning investigations following 9/11 and the
6 Securitization moves in this paper are understood as “events, in which actors (securitizing actors) speak of people or objects as a threat that needs to be fought urgently by implementing extraordinary political measures, in particular new practices or laws”
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures potential of media as a securitization agent. Yet, one could assume that now that terrorism moved closer to Europe, political discourses might have changed. Karyotis and Skleparis (2013) as well as Jackson and Parkes (2008) investigate the securitization of immigration but examine different stakeholders than this study will investigate and also do not examine the role of the media in shaping the discourse. Similarly, Munster (2009) wrote a book about ‘securitizing immigration’ but does not investigate the role of the media in depth. Therefore there is a vast amount of literature available that indicates that there are anti- immigrant and anti-Islam feelings in Europe, that immigration and/or Islam are securitized, that education can fight prejudices and that terrorism can influence migration control and the perception of different societal groups. However, an in-depth investigation of the role media play in facilitating securitization seems to remain relatively unexplored.
1.2 Research Objective and Questions
The objective of this research is to investigate how Western European media reported on political reactions to the Paris Attacks and which measures were suggested in the aftermath of the Paris Attacks. In order to reach the mentioned objective, the following empirical research questions were tackled: 1) Which political measures were suggested by which political actors as a direct response, according to the media, to the Paris Attacks? Which of those reactions indicate securitization moves and which do not?
2) Which arguments were used by whom to justify measures that indicate securitization moves?
3) If securitization moves can be identified, did the media possibly facilitate those and if so, how?
Whereas the first research question will be answered in the findings chapter (Chapter 5), the second and third research questions will be answered in the analysis chapter (Chapter 6). In this context it is noteworthy that the author intends to investigate the media debate as an external observer, adapting to the findings of the research rather than assuming that the media facilitated securitization. Furthermore, whereas the research questions 1) and 2) focus on the suggested political measures that were reported on in the media, research question 3) focuses on the role of the media itself.
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
1.3 Research Problem and Relevance
Solely, the gap in research outlined above may not seem to be sufficient to justify research on the measures suggested in response to the Paris Attacks as well as on the role of media. Therefore, the following section outlines why such an investigation could be beneficial. In the past, terrorist attacks have resulted in increased anti-Islamic feelings (e.g. Hussain and Bagguley, 2012, Shuster, 2015, Kundnani, 2014, Amin-Khan, 2012, Rytter and Pedersen, 2014, Cesari, 2012). For example, after Theo van Gogh, a movie producer from the Netherlands who criticized Islam, was shot down in 2004, anti-Islam feelings spread in the Netherlands (Bakker, 2006). Those emotions were taken up by Geert Wilders who is a right- wing party representative in the Netherlands. His party has gained support in the last years (Shuster, 2015). Indeed, so called “key event(s)”7 (Hussain and Bagguley, 2012: 731) trigger the new creation of discourses around certain groups and may lead to the securitization of those groups (Hussain and Bagguley, 2012, Rytter and Pedersen, 2014). It is therefore considered as important by the author to investigate if this was also the case after the Paris Attacks and if already at this point of time such tendencies could be identified. In general, it is mentioned repeatedly in scholarly work that immigrants face negative attitudes, racism and xenophobia in receiving countries (e.g. Nuscheler, 2006, Strabac, 2011, Kahanec et al., 2013, Meuleman et al., 2009). This is, amongst others, indicated by the recent rise of the German movement “Patriotic Europeans Against the Islamization of the West” (PEGIDA) which showed that much about the immigrants, especially those practicing Islam, in Germany is unknown.8 In response, polarization was taking place, drawing people either towards support of PEGIDA or into an anti-PEGIDA movement. Although in the beginning of 2015 support for PEGIDA decreased (SPIEGEL ONLINE, 2015a), those fears, in particular of the Islamization of German culture, seem to have been reinforced by the terrorist Paris Attacks in Paris in January 2015 and probably did not vanish entirely (Hebel and Elmer, 2015, SPIEGEL ONLINE, 2015b).9
7 Key events in this paper are understood as events that lead to a high extent of media coverage due to their enormity that can lead to reframing of issues 8 Interestingly, the population in Saxony that was the core audience of the movement has a Muslim population of below 1% (Shuster, 2015). This indicates that perceptions of immigration and Islam differ significantly from statistical data. 9 This manifests, amongst others, in increased attacks on asylum seekers’ homes in 2015 (Spiegel Online, 2015b) 5
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Also, in France, the right-wing party National Front (FN), led by Marine Le Pen, has increasingly gained support over the last years. Since France has been marked by debates about its identity and has been faced with a high level of immigration, in particular marked by an increase of Muslim immigrants, it is argued that a party that takes up issues like unemployment, immigrants and Islam, is getting increasingly popular (Harriss, 2011). Those political and social debates and contexts emphasize the importance of studying the role of ‘key events’ on political discourses as well as on media discourses and the consequences they may have on topics and or actors that are portrayed as a threat. When studying security it is crucial to bear in mind overall context and the exact place and time in which security issues were debated (Rychovská, 2014). Therefore, the author believes that by studying a relatively recent event, new insights on how topics are securitized in a specific context, namely after the Paris Attacks and in French and German media, can be gained. It is argued that media play a crucial role in defining issues and shaping connotations as well as meaning (Hussain and Bagguley, 2012). Indeed, by taking up certain issues in the media, the self image of a country can be portrayed, according to Buitrago (2013). Therefore, it would be interesting to investigate newest developments by studying the reactions of French and German media to the Paris Attacks. By investigating the measures that were suggested and taken up by French and German media after the Paris Attacks, the impact of a key event will be investigated. Since those measures will be analyzed through the lenses of Securitization Theory and Framing Theory, it will be examined which topics were securitized by whom and how. By outlining those trends, this thesis can serve a baseline for further research on the topic. Additionally, the role of media will be given attention since in prior studies it was not studied extensively how it could facilitate or contribute to securitization by framing topics in a certain way or putting emphasis on some aspects while neglecting others. Therefore, some findings of prior scholarly work can be validated by investigating a further situation with special context and new findings and tendencies can be explored. Therefore, it seems relevant to investigate whether media facilitated securitization moves of topics, such as immigration and/or Islam in this context, and how it may have contributed to the securitization moves of securitizing actors. In case that media facilitated securitization moves future research could link the findings with public opinion on immigration and possibly investigate whether a correlation between media reports and public
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures opinion can be found, addressing the research gap mentioned by Messina (2014). Hence, this thesis will address the existing research gap and could allow creating adequate media conduct that may help to prevent more anti-immigrant feelings as well as further escalation – if not even conflict – in Western Europe.
1.4 Analytical Framework
The paper will seek to explore how media reported on the political reactions to the Paris Attacks. Since the terrorist attacks laid the foundation to securitize against various topics, such as immigration and/or Islam, a suitable framework to investigate this seems to be the Securitization Theory. Since it is furthermore the author’s interest to investigate the role of media in securitization, Framing Theory was integrated in the Securitization Theory. That means, that the study will take into account how information was presented by the media and how meaning therefore was constructed by the media.
1.5 Methodology
This desk study will follow a mixed methods approach, containing both qualitative and quantitative elements, as well as descriptive and interpretative elements (Mikkelsen, 2005). It will investigate how German and French media reported on the Paris Attacks and reported on suggested measures responding to the attacks. The study follows a most similar multi-case study design. Due to the location of the Paris Attacks the paper will investigate French media. Additionally, against the background of immigration debates, the rising of PEGIDA and the strong media attention of German newspapers to the Paris Attacks, Germany was also selected as a case. Since Germany and France are both West European countries that have experienced major influx of immigrants and are hosting a considerable amount of Muslims (Eurostat, 2014) while having restrictive immigration laws in place (Block and Bonjour, 2013, Groenendijk, 2011, Felbermayr et al., 2010), it seems relevant to conduct a most similar case study on those two cases. Therefore, the unit of analysis of this study will be how the Paris Attacks were dealt with in media and by political actors, selecting those articles from media that cover this topic (Altheide and Schneider, 2013). More precisely, newspapers were selected for this purpose. The database Lexis Nexis provided the author with access to diverse German and French newspapers. All sections of newspapers, rather than just headlines etc. were searched. Overall, 478 articles were found,
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures among which 328 stem from German newspapers and 150 from French newspapers. Those newspapers provided the author with the data based on which this study was conducted. The timeframe investigated was publication dates between 7th January 2015 and 30th March 2015 in order to assess which political measures were suggested in response to the Paris Attacks according to the newspapers. Data of the study was collected and analyzed in line with content analysis and the DA approach to study how meaning was created through language and texts. This is based on the assumption that language is a tool to construct social reality. Therefore, a social constructivist position is applied, questioning existing knowledge and emphasizing the dependence of perceived reality on historical and cultural context (Rychovská, 2014).
1.6 Ethical Issues
Since the proposed research is a desk study it is at this point of time assumed that no ethical considerations have to be taken into account.
1.7 Disposition
The thesis has the following structure: After chapter 2 will provide an overview over topics and developments relevant for this thesis, chapter 3 will introduce the methodology used in this paper. Subsequently, chapter 4 will outline used the analytical framework, including its detailed statements and assumptions. Afterwards, the findings will be presented in an organized manner in chapter 5 and then be analyzed using the analytical framework in chapter 6. Last but not least, chapter 7 entails the conclusions of this thesis.
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
2 BACKGROUND
As outlined above, when studying securitization, it is crucial to bear in mind the context of the events (Rychovská, 2014). For this reason, the following section provides background information on the discourses around terrorism in Germany and France, right wing movements in the two countries as well as an overview over the events in Paris in January 2015.
2.1 Terrorism in Europe
Ever since 9/11 terrorism has been a topic all over the world. Reinforced by Islamist terror attacks in Europe in the last years, the topic as well as war on terrorism have gained much attention (Archetti, 2004). Particularly after the attacks in Madrid in 2004 and in London in 2005, in which respectively more than 10 people died, attention in Europe to the topic has risen (see Figures 1 and 2 for an overview over terrorist attacks in Europe). With the Paris Attacks in January 2015 a new attack that has cost over 10 deaths, may have put the topic back to the European agenda (The Data Team, 2015). Overall, though, the number of incidents and people killed through terrorism in Europe does not imply a real threat – but rather a perceived one (Bakker, 2006).
Figure 2: 13 years of terror in Western Europe. Figure 1: Geographical distribution of terrorist Copied from The Data Team (2015) plots 1994-2013. Copied from Nesser (2014)
Despite the growing doubts concerning Muslims in Europe ever since 9/11, it is noteworthy that Islamic radicalism is not the core cause of terrorism in Europe. For example, in Spain and France, there are more Basque nationalists that are accused of terrorist attacks than Islamic terrorists (Cesari, 2012).
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
This section seeks to investigate which discourses have surrounded the topic of terrorism in Germany and France in recent years.
2.1.1 Germany
Germany traditionally fought rather domestic than international terrorism (Foreign Affairs, 2004). It has experienced comparatively few (jihadist) terrorism attacks in recent years (Nesser, 2014). Indeed, between 1968 and 2005 there were 486 terrorist incidents in Germany and 99 fatalities (Bakker, 2006). The Guardian (2015) reports that Germany is one out of five danger zones for terrorism in Europe (Rodrigues, 2015). The argument brought forward in that context is that there are 270 German citizens that fought in Syria (Rodrigues, 2015) and that in January 2014 two people were arrested for expectedly being part of an extremist cell (Rodrigues, 2015). When looking at which issues are perceived to be the most important ones by Germans between 2003 and 2014 one can see that the perception varies greatly over time and increased again in November 2014 (Eurobarometer, 2014) (see Figure 3). Since Germany was the major base where 9/11 was planned, it has reformed its policies concerning terrorism ever since (Foreign Affairs, 2004). In 2002, Germany introduced a range of new policies that strengthened the power of police and forbade religious groups which are perceived to risk the democratic order of the country (Cesari, 2012). Furthermore, police gained the rights to obtain insights into financial records, communication of digital or written form and into records regarding transportation (Cesari, 2012). According to the Federal Ministry of the Interior, Germany considers “Islamist- motivated international terrorism […] (to be) the greatest threat to the security of the Federal Republic of Germany” (Federal Ministry of the Interior, 2015).
2.1.2 France
Being a former colony with recent military interventions in countries with high proportions of Muslim citizens, France has been exposed to (jihadist) terrorism relatively often in the last few years (Nesser, 2014, Bakker, 2006). Between 1968 and 2005 1089 incidents happened in France, and 185 fatalities – therefore roughly twice as many incidents and fatalities happened in France as in Germany in the same period (Bakker, 2006). Yet, terrorism seems to be perceived of less a threat in France than in Germany if one looks at the data of the Eurobarometer (Eurobarometer, 2014) (see Figure 3). According to The Guardian (2015), France is also one of the five danger zones of terrorist attacks in Europe. It is mentioned that 10
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
700 French citizens fought in Syria so far (Rodrigues, 2015). Apart from the recent terrorist attacks in Paris, in 2014 one suspected terrorist was identified and two men injured several citizens, shouting “Allahu Akbar”10 like the terrorists that attacked Charlie Hebdo11 did (Rodrigues, 2015). In response to 9/11 as well as to other terrorist attacks, France has implemented various anti terrorism policies for which it became known as “counterterrorist powerhouse” (Foley, 2015). Those policies contained, amongst others, regulations on border controls and security (France Diplomatie, 2013). Additionally, the Law on Everyday Security was passed in 2001 which allowed police to control vehicles, to control premises and to investigate and file electronic transactions without notification for the purpose of counter-terrorism inquiries (Cesari, 2012). Nevertheless, criticism has been voiced on France’s ability to fight terrorism successfully, amongst others after it became known that the assassins of Paris had been known to French authorities (Foley, 2015).
Figure 3: Eurobarometer data on the question “What do you think are the most important issues facing your country at the moment?”, indicating the percentage of people that answered terrorism as one of the two response options, 2003-2014. (based on: Eurobarometer, 2014)
10 Translated: „God is great“ 11 Charlie Hebdo is a weekly magazine in France known for its satirical contributions. It has gained attention in the last years repeatedly, amongst others due its display of religious motives or the prophet Mohammed in its cartoons. 11
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
2.2 Muslim Population
According to the US-based fact tank Pew Research Center, the amount of Muslims in Europe has, from 1990, increased by 14.5 million to 44.1 million in 2010. The proportion of Muslims to the overall population has in spite of that only risen by 2.1% in this period. It is expected that, although in total the amount of Muslims living in Europe is expected to rise, the overall share of Muslims in Europe will remain small i.e. below 3% of the world Muslim population even by 2030 (Pew Research Center, 2011). To understand the context of the feelings and political responses regarding Islam and Muslims, the author believes it is important to provide some statistical background information on the share of Muslims in Germany and France.
2.2.1 Muslim Population in Germany
Figure 4: Estimated Muslim Population per Figure 5: Estimated Muslim Population per European country in 2010, based on Pew Research European country in 2030, based on Pew Research Center (2011) Center (2011)
The Muslim population in Germany amounted to 4 119 000 in 2010, at that time the second highest number of Muslims in Europe (see Figure 5). However, the share of Muslims was only 5% (see Figure 6), which was the third highest proportion and close to the proportion of Muslims in Greece, the United Kingdom (UK) and Denmark. The Muslim population in Germany is estimated to grow to 7.1% in 2030, which would be equal to the eighth biggest number in Europe (Pew Research Center, 2011). Although there is no law banning the wearing of a hijab in Germany, psychological pressure coming from teachers, school directors etc. is put on parents not to let their kids wear
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures a hijab. Debates have taken place in Germany in the past around including Islam in German school curriculums as a subject (Cesari, 2012)
Figure 6: Proportion of Muslim population in France and Germany in 2010 in %, based on Pew Research Center (Pew Research Center, 2011)
2.2.2 Muslim Population in France
Compared to Germany, the Muslim population in France is denser. In 2010 it was estimated that 4 704 000 Muslims lived in France which equals 7.5% of the French population (see Figure 6). If one considers the share of Muslims compared to the population, France therefore has the highest proportion of Muslims in Europe. Estimates show that France will likely remain the country with the highest proportion of Muslims in 2030, although closely followed by Belgium and Sweden (Pew Research Center, 2011). In this context it is noteworthy, that the law of secularism12 that was issued in 1905 (#336, #33713) and has marked France ever since, has triggered debates in recent years. Indeed, Power (2015) claims that the relationship between France and Muslims living in France has become tenser than it is the case in Germany. This may be due to the Algerian war or due to social hurdles and policies banning, e.g. the wearing of religious symbols, such as veils in schools or the public wearing of the niqab14 (Power, 2015, Cesari, 2012).
12 The law of secularism (translated from French “laïcité”) from 1905 serves the separation of churches and the state in France (#337) and refers religious practices to the private sphere of French citizens only. 13 When information in this paper is based on information retrieved from the data base Lexis Nexis, this paper will refer to the assigned number (#xy) of the respective newspaper article in the Annex of this thesis to increase transparency. 14 A niqab is a piece of cloth which is used to cover a woman’s face (BBC, 2011) 13
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
2.3 Right Wing Movements
Right-wing parties have been on the rise in several European countries in the past years (Harriss, 2011, Mayer, 2013). One of the reasons for this may be growing concerns regarding immigrants as well as Muslims, who have been portrayed as a major threat to the values of the Western world since 2001 (Mayer, 2013). In general, right-wing movements from various European countries were feared to use the Paris Attacks (#252, #268 etc.) for the purpose of mobilizing against immigrants, attempting to deepen the anti-immigrant feelings they tried to create in recent years (Boswell, 2000). This section will highlight the most important right wing movements in Germany and France at this point of time.
2.3.1 Germany
The most recent development concerning right wing movements in Germany is highlighted by the German movement PEGIDA since October 2014. For months the movement had attracted several thousand demonstrators against the Islamization of Germany and increased its audience in Dresden from 300 persons in October 2014 to 25 000 on the 12th January 2015, right after the Paris Attacks (Llana and Stern, 2015). Interestingly, the population in Saxony that was the core audience of the movement has a Muslim population of below 1% (Shuster, 2015). This indicates that perceptions of immigration and Islam differ significantly from statistical data. In response, polarization was taking place, drawing people either towards support of PEGIDA or into an anti-PEGIDA movement. When it became known that the former head of PEGIDA, Lutz Bachmann, was posing as Hitler on some photos, he quit the movement and support within and to the movement in general decreased (Regan, 2015, SPIEGEL ONLINE, 2015a). Despite decreasing support for the movement, the fears that had been voiced, in particular of Islamization of German culture, seem to have been reinforced by the terrorist Paris Attacks in Paris in January 2015 and probably did not go back much thereafter (Hebel and Elmer, 2015, SPIEGEL ONLINE, 2015b). Additionally, the far-right party National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD) and another right-wing party, the Alternative for Germany (AfD), voiced that the Paris Attacks emphasized the relevance of PEGIDA and indicated the danger of European multiculturalism (Shuster, 2015).
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2.3.2 France
In France, the FN, founded by Jean-Marie Le Pen in 1972, has enjoyed growing support lately (Harriss, 2011). Indeed, the party received more votes than any other French party in the last elections for the European Parliament (Drehle, 2015). Led by Marine Le Pen, the party hopes to win the elections next year in France. Giovanni (2011) argues that Marine Le Pen gained popularity by addressing issues around French identity and immigration. She argues that Muslim immigrants should assimilate and “accept France’s Christian heritage” (Harriss, 2011: 54) and that the Euro will collapse (Harriss, 2011). Since in 2011 some polls reported that French citizens considered Islam as an enemy, with Muslims being the major part of immigrants to France, Marine Le Pen chose those topics in order to get support (Giovanni, 2011). In fact, in recent years, the feeling of lost national identity and fear of Islam in France has been increasingly reported (Harriss, 2011, Llana and Stern, 2015, Cesari, 2012). As a response, Marine Le Pen’s main aims are to decrease immigration and to abolish the granting of citizenship based on the place of birth (Giovanni, 2011). Indeed, “Marine Le Pen has become a perfect ambassador of fear” (Giovanni, 2011). This is how she managed to be the focus of discourse both in France and Europe, as Harriss (2011) argues.
2.4 Paris Attacks
Between the 7th and 9th of January 2015 17 people were killed by three assassins in diverse places in Paris. The following section seeks to provide a short background about those incidents. On the 7th of January 2015, Saïd Kouachi and his brother Chérif drove to the place where the editorial board of Charlie Hebdo was meeting at that time. After visiting initially the wrong place, the two men managed to get access to the location where the meeting took place. Once they gained access they killed nine of the editors. After leaving the house, they killed a policeman. The two brothers then fled and were found only on the 9th of January 2015 in a printing company where they held a hostage. Al-Qaida confirmed that it was responsible for the attack. In the aftermath of the attack it became known that both assassins had been surveilled by the French secret service (#241). On the 7th of January 2015, a jogger was shot in a park in Paris – it is found later that the person who shot was Amedy Coulibaly. On the 8th of January he then shot police officers in Paris. Thereafter, on the 9th of January 2015, he went to a Jewish supermarket where he 15
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures held several people hostage and killed further four persons. Amedy Coulibaly spoke to various people on the phone and asked for France to withdraw all its troops from Muslim countries. Police stormed in simultaneously into the shop as the police that stormed into the printing company where the Kouachi brothers were at that time. Amedy Coulibaly claimed prior to his death that he acted on behalf of the IS (#241).
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
3 METHODOLOGY
The following section provides an overview over the methodology used to conduct this paper. Reflections upon the design, the selected cases, operationalization, data collection and analysis, delimitations and limitations will be presented.
3.1 Design
Based on an advocacy worldview15 of the author the study will follow a qualitative approach (Creswell, 2009) with quantitative elements. It will entail both descriptive and interpretative elements (Mikkelsen, 2005). It will be investigated which political reactions the Paris Attacks triggered in Germany and France according to online newspapers. The study will then analyze the findings through the glasses of Securitization Theory and Framing Theory.
3.2 Cases and Sample
This thesis is an interpretative study following a most similar multi-case study design (Yin, 2009, Gerring and McDermott, 2007, Mikkelsen, 2005, Creswell, 2007). Indeed, according to Balzacq (2011a), case studies are the most commonly used research design in scholarly debates around securitization. According to George and Bennett (2005: 83) “the primary criterion for case selection should be relevance to the research objective of the study”, in this case the investigation of how Western media reported on the political responses to the Paris Attacks. Media was chosen since discourse on societal level will be examined, asking for investigation of written communication that is distributed extensively (Phillips and Hardy, 2002). In that sense, the case study presents a case for I) how German and French media reported on political measures taken up in response to the Paris Attacks and II) the political reaction to the Paris Attacks by right wing movements itself. In order to avoid selection bias, the outcome of the case studies was not the criterion of selection, meaning that it was not considered in the selection of the cases if securitization
15 The advocacy and/or participatory worldview calls for attention to issues in society connected to social justice which are usually explored through qualitative methods. This worldview promotes an active approach towards challenges, meaning that it is aspired that change occurs in order to resolve the social issues (Creswell, 2009). However, this paper itself does not aspire to do advocacy but rather aims for raising awareness and triggering critical thoughts that can consequently lead to change. 17
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures was successful (Balzacq, 2011a). Instead, due to the location of the Paris Attacks the paper investigates French media. Additionally, against the background of debates in Germany at this point of time around the topics of Islam and immigration, the geographical closeness to France, as well as the reaction towards the Paris Attacks in Germany the latter was also selected as a case. Therefore, the unit of analysis of this study will be how the Paris Attacks are dealt with in the French and German newspapers, selecting those articles that cover this topic (Altheide and Schneider, 2013). The database Lexis Nexis provided access to diverse German- and French- speaking newspapers which can be searched by topic (Altheide and Schneider, 2013). Indeed, Lexis Nexis is a popular tool amongst those applying content analysis because it supplies newspaper contents of different media types, languages and over different periods of time (Riffe et al., 2007). Since the author was interested in direct links between the Paris Attacks and securitization all key words that were assumed to be mentioned in this context were searched in combination with “Charlie Hebdo”. All newspapers that were listed in the results were consulted in order to represent the media adequately. Further, all sections of newspapers, rather than just headlines etc. were searched. Overall, 478 articles were found, among which 328 stem from German newspapers and 150 from French newspapers. Those articles were used to search for measures suggested in the aftermath of the Paris Attacks that were taken up by French and German media. In that sense, the used newspaper articles provided the author with a method to study which political measures were promoted in which ways and with which justifications. Since key words that were later the search terms for the database Lexis Nexis were identified in order to answer the research questions connected to framing and securitization, the sampling technique used for this paper is called relevance sampling, or also purposive sampling. Indeed, this sample served the provision of answers to the research questions, which in turn were based on analytical assumptions. By selecting key words that imply securitization and/or are potential frames used by media, the sample was therefore identified and subsequently analyzed in its entirety (Krippendorff, 2004). The timeframe investigated was publication dates between 7th January 2015 and 30th March 2015 in order to assess which reactions were triggered according to the media from the first day of the Paris Attacks onwards as well as to identify possible changes in reactions over time.
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3.3 Operationalization
As a first step, key words that were assumed to be mentioned in line with the Paris Attacks were assembled. Those search terms included general key words about the Paris Attacks, key words connected to Islam, key words connected to immigration and key words connected to securitization, such as ‘threat’, ‘security’ or ‘urgency’. Overall, all key words were expected to be used in order to identify securitization moves of certain topics. Secondly, all articles that were found in this search process were read and searched for possible securitization moves and threat constructions. Also, through reading all articles, impressions of overall discourses surrounding the Paris Attacks could be gained. In this process it became clearer how to best operationalize securitization moves in this paper: securitization moves were identified if actors spoke of threats that needed to be fought by implementing extraordinary political measures, in particular new practices or laws. In case that newspaper articles portrayed threats to exist without mentioning corresponding measures, this was considered as threat construction rather than as securitization move. Thirdly, the articles were read again, identifying which actors tried to securitize or build threats about which topics, with which level of urgency and which referent object. Fourthly, it was investigated in those articles that reported on securitization moves, how threats were described and how measures that should address those threats were presented.16
3.4 Data Collection and Analysis
This section investigates in which way data was collected and analyzed for this paper.
3.4.1 Content Analysis
Content Analysis serves the systematic investigation of texts. This method gained significance in particular from the 20th century onwards, when mass media developed. It enables the researcher to study extensive amounts of texts to identify patterns and to study how certain topics or actors are represented in the news (Krippendorff, 2004). Since no prior academic work on the results of the Paris Attacks existed at the moment this paper was written, it was necessary to first of all investigate which topics were taken up in response to the Paris Attacks, whether topics such as Islam and immigration were generally
16 Further operationalizations are discussed in Chapter 4, Analytical Framework. 19
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures put into the context of the Paris Attacks and whether any securitization moves took place. For this purpose, content analysis was chosen since it provides an overview over how often certain key words or topics were mentioned in a context and since it is “a very established means of frame analysis” (Schmidt, 2014: 119). It is, however, difficult to differentiate between quantitative and qualitative content analysis as every text has to be read in order to then measure variables in numbers, implying the qualitative nature of every content analysis. In particular due to those qualitative elements of content analysis, this study is not only descriptive but also entails major interpretative elements (Krippendorff, 2004). Based on the author’s assumption that the more often a topic is brought up in media in the context of threats, the higher the will to securitize it, content analysis can provide valuable insights into priorities and importance assigned to certain key words (Svantesson, 2014). Content analysis, as a first step, usually involves the investigation of different content which is then often investigated in order to identify trends in the content of texts (Riffe et al., 2007). It is therefore a process, involving several stages which serve the reduction of units that are to be analyzed for a study (Krippendorff, 2004). Consequently, content analysis can be used in order to investigate as a first step which topics are represented to which extent in media, such as newspapers, and as a second step, to investigate how topics were represented. Therefore, this tool is suitable for this paper as it allows examining which topics were taken up by media, which focuses were put and which topics were rather neglected when looking at the number of articles that reported on certain key words in their texts. By operationalizing phenomena in media to quantitative units, the data can be handled and may allow for trends that facilitate the understanding of patterns and trends in the media. By measuring different variables, content analysis serves the study and analysis of media communication (Riffe et al., 2007). In this paper, content analysis will be mostly applied in the sense that frequencies and proportions will be studied in order to get insights into the meaning and significance assigned to different topics by French and German media.
3.4.2 Discourse Analysis
The data of the study that sought to respond to the question of how topics were securitized was collected and analyzed in line with the DA. The latter serves the analysis of media discourses and provides a “framework to problem-oriented social research” (Wodak, 2008: 2).
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Based on the theoretical underpinnings of Jürgen Habermas and Michel Foucault, DA serves to investigate language and symbols and their role in constructing meanings and reality (Schulze, 2012, Phillips and Jørgensen, 2002, Gee, 1999, Fairclough, 2003, Wodak, 2008, Schmidt, 2014). Indeed, Buzan et al. (1998: 25) argue that “the way to study securitization is to study discourse and political constellations: When does an argument with this particular rhetorical and semiotic structure achieve sufficient effect to make an audience tolerate violations of rules that would otherwise have to be obeyed?”.
Indeed, it is crucial to search for arguments that can be defined as security, which is commonly done by applying DA (Buzan et al., 1998). In this thesis, discourse is to be understood to build the basis for
“the things that make up the social world – including our very identities […] without discourse, there is no social reality, and without understanding discourse, we cannot understand our reality, our experiences, or ourselves” (Phillips and Hardy, 2002:2).
This approach therefore stresses the importance of language for our perception of reality (Mikkelsen, 2005, Phillips and Jørgensen, 2002). DA serves, in the context of the suggested study, the linguistic analysis of a text. More precisely, DA “explores how texts are made meaningful […] and how they contribute to the constitution of social reality by making meaning” (Phillips and Hardy, 2002: 4). When applying DA one therefore studies texts in an organized and ordered way (Phillips and Hardy, 2002). This includes the examination of “intratextuality […], intertextuality […] and the recurrent patterns of linguistic characterization that constitute the storylines” (Balzacq, 2010: 66). Hence, DA usually assumes and serves the investigation of the link between discourse, text and the context and is based on the assumption that language is a tool to construct social reality (Phillips and Jørgensen, 2002). Overall, it is in particular the linguistic investigation of a text which is facilitated by DA that makes the latter seem to be an appropriate tool for this study (Phillips and Hardy, 2002). DA applies the social constructivist position on social realities (Mikkelsen, 2005, Phillips and Hardy, 2002, Phillips and Jørgensen, 2002, Fairclough, 2003). This means that
21
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures the study will be based on certain assumptions. Those include the questioning of existing knowledge, the acceptance that perceptions of reality vary by historical and cultural context, that the perception of the world is rather shaped by social mechanisms than by reality and the aim to investigate how perceived reality and practices are interrelated. DA therefore is considered a suitable approach to ask ‘how’ rather than ‘why’ as the above mentioned research questions suggest (Mikkelsen, 2005). According to Securitization Theory, there are three units of analysis that are taken into account in this study: referent objects, securitizing actors and functional actors. Referent objects are those that are threatened in their survival and are to be protected, in this paper, the German and French society, whereas securitizing actors are those that securitize a topic by declaring the referent object to be threatened in its existence, in this paper the German and French politicians, who make securitization moves. Last but not least, functional actors are those that affect the outcome or decisions in the security sector without being the securitizing actor or the referent object, in this case the German and French newspapers (Balzacq, 2011a, Buzan et al., 1998). Overall, applying DA serves the understanding of how the social realities in the context of securitization are created via the media, increasing the understanding of how social realities are created and preserved. Further, the DA approach enables to investigate how discourse and reality relate to each other which facilitates to understand which role media plays in shaping reality. By facilitating the investigation of how social realities are constructed through language, how and why meanings are given to certain phenomena and how social realities can be recontextualized, DA provides a valuable tool for data collection and analysis (Phillips and Hardy, 2002).
3.4.3 Data Analysis with Microsoft Excel
After reading the newspaper articles, information, such as indicated securitization moves, securitizing actors, securitized topics and referent objects were collected in a Microsoft Excel Sheet. In order to gain an overview over trends in the data it was then analyzed using Pivot Tables with which particularly interesting data and correlations could be verified. Furthermore, the numbers of articles and key words implied the importance and priorities assigned to topics, issues, actors, threats etc. In order to gain a better overview, small categories were clustered during the data analysis process in order to get an impression of topics rather than detailed key words that
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures were mentioned. Since several aspects had similar meanings, this procedure allowed to further investigate which categories were represented to which extent (Krippendorff, 2004).
3.5 Reflections on Primary and Secondary Sources
When conducting research, it is relevant to declare transparently on which sources the study is based and how the sources can be assessed. Therefore, the following section reviews the primary and secondary sources based on which this paper was compiled and evaluates them in terms of reliability, relevance, limitations and resulting consequences.
3.5.1 Primary Sources
As outlined earlier, this paper is based on newspaper articles that were collected and analyzed. Those articles were selected based on search terms that were perceived to be in line with the analytical assumptions made by the author. In that sense, the data is perceived to be relevant. However, due to the selection based on key words and in particular since translation of these key words was undertaken, it cannot be ruled out that relevant newspaper articles on those concepts are fully covered in this paper. This is hence a limitation to bear in mind. Furthermore, some reports, web sites etc. were consulted in particular for the gathering of background information. If, for example, one consults a US based fact tank on the Muslim population, the political culture and discourses in the US may play a role. Therefore, it was attempted to portray the information in a balanced way. Due to lack of alternative data, however, the author had to consult these sources.
3.5.2 Secondary Sources
Secondary sources on which this paper is based are mainly journal articles, books and reports. In most of those sources it was outlined transparently based on which assumptions information was gathered and presented, so that it was possible for the author to critically assess, which information would fit with the own assumptions and which frameworks or information would be incompatible with this study. Furthermore, due to the large body of scholarly work on securitization, a selection of sources had to be undertaken. However, the author selected sources that critically assessed their own and other’s strengths and weaknesses, so that a rather critical approach was sought and information was read against the background of those aspects.
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Overall, the author believes that both the secondary and the primary sources were well chosen in order to answer the research questions. Yet, for future studies, it would be interesting to search for more key words and investigate articles that are listed in the respective lists. Also, it could be interesting to take into account the political orientation of newspapers in a more meaningful way to assess this impact on the way newspapers report on certain issues.
3.6 Delimitations
The research is delimited by the amount of cases: Germany and France were investigated, in a limited timeframe regarding the discourse in media around the Paris Attacks. In that context it is to be noted, that the discourse related to certain key words, not overall surrounding the Paris Attacks, was analyzed in order to increase the feasibility of the study. As Creswell (2007: 76) states the danger otherwise would be that “the more cases and individual studies, the less the depth in any single case”. Further, the paper will focus on how security is articulated in selected media. This choice was made since it is recommended to rather focus on a limited number of texts and rather represent securitization fully than taking into account too many texts and not investigating securitization in detail (Buzan et al., 1998). Further, the reaction by the audience will not be examined in this research. Therefore, the Securitization Theory is only applicable to some extent:
“a discourse that takes the form of presenting something as an existential threat to a referent object does not by itself create securitization - this is a securitizing move, but the issue is securitized only if and when the audience accepts it as such” (Buzan et al., 1998: 285).
Those delimitations were, however, helpful in identifying a feasible research topic that takes into account the author’s resources.
3.7 Limitations
The research was limited by access to data, such as certain newspapers that were not accessible via the Lexis Nexis database. In this context it is noteworthy, that data of this study was to a major extent collected from newspapers whereas social media were not taken into account. A further limitation of the study might occur in the area of reliability, meaning 24
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
“demonstrating that the operations of a study - such as the data collection procedures - can be repeated with the same results” (Yin, 2009: 40). Indeed, whereas the choice of methodology was undertaken with care and is estimated to fit the research objective, DA seems to be prone to weaknesses such as “relativist interpretations and emission in speculation” (Mikkelsen, 2005: 187). Therefore, the author intends to lay out assumptions, definitions, motivations and how results were gained in detail to increase transparency and reliability of the study. Additionally, it is to be considered that although the author believes to have substantial language skills in French it is not her native language so that possible influences on interpretations of articles or phrasings can occur. Furthermore, DA itself has certain limitations as it would require that “all aspects of discourse (are studied), and we inevitably have to select a subset of texts for the purpose of manageability” (Phillips and Hardy, 2002: 10). Also, Securitization Theory includes weaknesses, e.g. it advocates textual analysis, meaning that images etc. that could provide valuable further insights, are not perceived to be crucial and were also not investigated in this thesis; also the role audience plays in securitization processes is often, also in this paper, not paid major attention to (Balzacq, 2010, Schulze, 2012, Léonard and Kaunert, 2011). Moreover, since selection of texts that were studied as the basis for this paper had to be taken, certain aspects may be more reflected in the sample than others. Nevertheless, although reaching saturation in DA is difficult, arguments made in this paper were based on data that was judged as sufficient by the author. Also, since data was analyzed digitally with Microsoft Excel, the possibility that typing or alike mistakes happened, cannot be excluded. Last but not least, the author herself being German may have shaped how she perceives reports in the country through her ‘filters’. Concerning validity, meaning if reality is approached through the research, it has to be considered that the underlying assumption of DA states that “there is no “real” world other than one constructed through discourse” (Phillips and Hardy, 2002: 80). Furthermore, reliability in DA is to be assessed in a particular way since interpretations of situations can vary (Phillips and Hardy, 2002). Therefore, this work is rather to be judged by the insights gained through the offered interpretations, the historical and contextual embedding of the findings and the political context of the gained material (Phillips and Hardy, 2002).
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
4 ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK
The paper will seek to investigate which political reactions were taken up by media in response to the Paris Attacks in January 2015 and how this was done. For this purpose, two theories seem to be relevant: I) the Securitization Theory and II) the Framing Theory. Whereas Securitization Theory may help in creating understanding how certain issues were associated with security in order to implement extraordinary measures, Framing Theory investigates the role of media in portraying issues in a certain way and hence in influencing how people receiving the information interpret it (Davie, n.d.). By combining those two frameworks, the contribution of the media in facilitating securitization moves will be investigated. Since the study follows an abductive approach, this will be done by using the two theories for the recontextualisation of the findings. The following section provides an overview over the background of the two theories, the conceptualization of different variables and the utility of the theories for this paper.
4.1 Securitization Theory
Securitization Theory was created in the 1990s by the societal security theorists Ole Wæver, Barry Buzan and Jaap de Wilde (1998) from the Copenhagen School (CS) (Theiler, 2010) . Their aim was to build a new theoretical framework based on scholarly work that had dealt with the military and the state. However, there existed no framework yet that would connect those two elements so that there was need for unification of the different concepts (Buzan et al., 1998, Schulze, 2012, Léonard and Kaunert, 2011). This early concept of Securitization Theory has been debated by various authors (e.g. Rychovská, 2014, Schulze, 2012, Balzacq, 2011c, Balzacq, 2011b, Stritzel, 2007). Indeed, Securitization Theory is rather popular among scholars investigating security studies in recent years (Rychovská, 2014). Therefore, the author attempted to take those scholars’ criticism regarding neglect of context and power of the securitizing actors as well as aspects regarding the audience into account to the extent it was possible in this study. Securitization Theory deals with how public issues emerge, distribute and vanish (Rychovská, 2014, Balzacq, 2011b, Balzacq, 2011a). More precisely, it is about how threats are securitized. The theory argues that “language is not only concerned with what is ‘out there’, […] but it is also constitutive of that very social reality” (Balzacq, 2010: 56). It should be noticed that the theory is applied to international relations only (Buzan et al., 1998).
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
4.1.1 Conceptualization of Security and Securitization
The following section illustrates how security and securitization are conceptualized in the Securitization Theory (for an overview see Table 1).
4.1.1.1 Security
According to Schulze (2012) security is always connected to insecurity, e.g. if dangers are absent security could be considered to be given. Further, Buzan et al. (1998) argue that security is not only to be found in the military sector and goes beyond war and force. Security in this context is considered as a speech act (Balzacq, 2010, Léonard and Kaunert, 2011): “by saying it something is done […] the word ‘security’ is the act” (Wæver, 1995: 55 quoted in Balzacq, 2010: 59). They further argue that security may be a way to stabilize fragile relations but that usually even a secure relationship is still marked by major conflicts. In that sense, security itself should not be perceived as desirable but rather desecuritization should be aspired, meaning “the shifting of issues out of emergency mode and into the normal bargaining process of political sphere” (Buzan et al., 1998: 4). Schulze (2012) adds that security is constructed via language and in special contexts.
4.1.1.2 Securitization
Securitization is a process “by which ostensibly non-security issues, such as immigration, are transformed into urgent security concerns” (Messina, 2014: 530). Security issues are therefore portrayed as “existential threats to a referent object by a securitizing actor who thereby generates endorsement of emergency measures beyond rules that would otherwise bind“ (Buzan et al., 1998: 5). A referent object is usually the state but it can be other political units as well that are perceived as to be protected to guarantee survival (Buzan et al., 1998, Schulze, 2012). In such a case, the respective threat requires
“the use of extraordinary measures to handle (it) […] Traditionally, by saying ‘security’, a securitizing actor, usually a state representative, declares an emergency condition, thus claiming a right to use whatever means are necessary to block a threatening development” (Buzan et al., 1998: 21).
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In this sense, securitization is a more severe step than politization. It is important in this context to understand that non-politization happens if a state does not work on an issue and the issue is also not subject of public debate. Further, the issue is not perceived to be a task of the state but rather non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can try to raise the issue on the agenda of politics. In contrast, politization means that a topic is integrated in public policies and that government decisions as well as investment of resources are required. Hence, in politization state actors cover an issue and work on it. Securitization, however, goes even further since an issue is portrayed as a major threat that justifies exceptional measures that go beyond normal political procedures. This may also happen if normal political measures are not perceived to be sufficient anymore. Securitization can get problematic if speech acts get securitized in order to prioritize issues for the sake of implementing debated measures. This is why the CS argues for desecuritization which means that a topic is moved back to public discourse (Buzan et al., 1998, Schulze, 2012). Applied to the societal sector, the referent object would be collective identities, nations or religions for example. Since identities are not stable but subject to change it can be difficult to establish what exactly the threat is. Further, it is crucial if the changes are perceived to be invasive, so that the cause of change might be perceived as a threat. Consequently, whether a cause of change, such as migrants or other identities, are securitized depends on how open- minded a collective is about their identity and its persistence (Buzan et al., 1998). Furthermore, it is crucial to note that “the media is an important actor that contributes significantly to the definition of situations” (Buzan et al., 1998: 124). In this context, it is crucial to distinguish between a securitization move and successful securitization. On the one hand, as Buzan et al. (1998: 25) mention, “a discourse that takes the form of presenting something as an existential threat to a referent object does not by itself create securitization- this is a securitizing move, but the issue is securitized only if and when the audience accepts it as such”. On the other hand, successful securitization includes “existential threats, emergency action, and effects on interunit relations by breaking free of rules” (Buzan et al., 1998: 26). In that sense, the authors contradict each other slightly since the latter definition does not give account to the role the audience plays. However, as other authors (e.g. Schulze, 2012, Léonard and Kaunert, 2011, Balzacq, 2011a) stress, the role of the audience is crucial to bear in mind when applying the theory, so as to ensure that the audience empowers the securitizing actor by accepting his securitizing move (Balzacq, 2011c). In this context it is also always interesting to investigate who benefits from a
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures securitization move and who uses speech acts how in order to securitize (Schulze, 2012, Theiler, 2010). Further, the impact of a securitization move is interesting to study as well (Buzan et al., 1998) There are conditions that may facilitate transforming a securitizing move into successful securitization (Theiler, 2010, Stritzel, 2007, Schulze, 2012). Firstly, the securitizing actor must have enough authority and the necessary legitimacy to perform a securitization move (Schulze, 2012, Theiler, 2010). Secondly, there must be pre-existing fears and doubts within the audience (Theiler, 2010). Thirdly, basic values of the audience should not be violated with the securitization move (Theiler, 2010). And fourthly, certain features of the threat may hamper or facilitate securitization (Buzan et al., 1998). Theoretical assumptions on how this is performed rely on the speech act theory, meaning that certain expressions are acts and that grammar can have such a structure that enables the speech act to be successful. Therefore, via the speech act priorities and urgency are created so that actors can claim to be able to solve the issue by introducing certain policies or rules (Schulze, 2012). The overall rhetoric hence is: “if the problem is not handled now, it will be too late, and we will not exist to remedy our failure” (Buzan et al., 1998: 26) This happens on two levels: it is referring to the linguistic relation between the actor, the referent object and the audience as well as connected to social context (Schulze, 2012, Stritzel, 2007). This means that the social status of the speaker and his/her relation to the audience that is to be convinced is crucial for the outcome of the securitization (Schulze, 2012). It is important to notice that it is not about explicitly mentioning security in the discourse but rather about creating the association of a topic with a threat (Schulze, 2012, Buzan et al., 1998). The interest of the theory is hence to investigate how, and in which context securitization is (not) used (Buzan et al., 1998). Therefore, securitization includes the charging of a topic with the connotation of threat, assigning it urgency to be dealt with and demanding the introduction of debated measures or rules that are said to serve defense against the issue (Schulze, 2012, Theiler, 2010, Rychovská, 2014).
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Concept Operationalization
Security A speech act that is constructed through language
Securitization A process by which issues that are not per se connected to security are put on the security agenda, demanding for extraordinary measures to combat a threat that endangers a referent object. Other than a securitization move, securitization is successful in convincing an audience of the threat and legitimacy of the suggested measures. Securitization move Events, when actors (securitizing actors) speak of people or objects as a threat that needs to be fought urgently by implementing extraordinary political measures, in particular new practices or laws Audience The audience is the group of people the speech act is aimed to. The audience’s consent is needed for a securitization to be successful. If the reaction of the audience is not assessed, one can only talk about a securitization move. Referent object A unit, usually a state that has to be protected in order to survive
Threat Change that impacts the referent object negatively and endangers its survival Securitizing actor The actor speaking security that seeks to introduce extraordinary measures to assure survival of the referent object Extraordinary If a goal can be achieved with less extreme measures that infringe the rights of the measures target groups to a smaller extent and do not clash as much with the basic values of the target group, then the measure is unproportional. Table 1: Operationalization of aspects related to Securitization Theory (based on: Balzacq, 2010, Léonard and Kaunert, 2011, Schulze, 2012, Buzan et al., 1998)
4.1.2 The Utility of Securitization Theory
Since securitization is socially constructed and media plays a crucial role in defining concepts and meanings, Securitization Theory seems like a suitable framework to analyze the data of this study with. This allows the author to “understand the processes of constructing a shared understanding of what is to be considered and collectively responded to as a threat (Buzan et al., 1998: 26). By applying this theory, it can be understood how securitization moves were made in the context of the Paris Attacks, which political choices were made, which actors securitized which issues, what/who is portrayed as the threat, with which motives, and what the conditions were in which this was done (Buzan et al., 1998). 17 Consequently, by analyzing discourse it can be investigated “when and how something is established by whom as a security threat. The defining criterion of security is textual” (Buzan et al., 1998: 176).
17 In that context, it is important to notice that this study focuses on the suggestion of extraordinary measures, hence a later stage of the securitization process. This choice was made once it became evident in the data that already shortly after the Paris Attacks a number of extraordinary measures were suggested, allowing for an investigation of those measures. 30
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
4.2 Framing Theory
Framing Theory has its very origin in Edward Said’s work on discourse surrounding orientalism, hence on how the selection and choices made by the media portray a certain image of Arabs. Framing Theory later became part of sociology, media research and later on social sciences, psychology, communication and linguistics, becoming increasingly popular in the 1980s (Schmidt, 2014, Pinto, 2014). Framing constitutes that meaning is assigned through frames in order to achieve the aims of respective actors by organizing information in certain directed ways (Buitrago, 2013, Pinto, 2014, Powell, 2011, Schmidt, 2014). Further, it facilitates the creation of a link between events and the perceived meaning of the latter for people in a certain context (Pinto, 2014, Schmidt, 2014). Framing can be applied in any case in which a certain actor tries to mobilize and convince an audience of an argument (Pinto, 2014). When investigating framing it is crucial to examine how actors communicate about issues and/or affairs and how those issues are simplified. By framing issues they are broken down to less complex topics, often without full consideration of the context they evolve from, and hence a different meaning is constructed. By applying those filters, some aspects of a topic are left out whereas others are emphasized. In that sense, framing creates an own meaning which is constructed by the actor that is speaking, the audience and the context (Svantesson, 2014). Framing processes in media are based on the underlying assumption that by providing information to an audience, the media construct frames. This in turn can affect how the public perceives the provided information and how it understands social issues. Therefore, it is assumed that media frames can influence public opinion (Schmidt, 2014).
4.2.1 Conceptualization of Framing Theory
The following sections investigate how different terms are conceptualized in Framing Theory (for an overview see Table 2).
4.2.1.1 Frames
According to Schmidt (2014) frames are like windows through which people see the world. This implies, that the perception of the world is limited and rather selective, emphasizing the
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures importance of frames in constructing and influencing the perception of reality (Schmidt, 2014).
4.2.1.2 Framing Actors
According to Rychovská (2014) framing is a process of negotiation between different actors which then arrive at a common understanding of an issue that seems to be in need of further adjustments. Therefore, framing actors envision change by portraying persons or objects as a threat or burden and by suggesting measures that can evoke change.
4.2.1.3 Types of Frames
There are three types of frames: I) diagonostic, II) prognostic, and III) motivational frames. Whereas diagnostic frames define persons or objects and create connotations of them as burdens or those responsible for the problem, prognostic frames suggest solutions for the identified issues and motivational frames call for action that triggers change (Rychovská, 2014).
4.2.1.4 Frame Resonance
Frame Resonance seeks to provide an explanation why certain frames are more powerful as compared to others by investigating how a frame is connected to the values of the audience (Rychovská, 2014, Pinto, 2014). Therefore, preferences of the audience play a crucial role and are taken into consideration in the communication of the speaking actor (Pinto, 2014). This can also be linked to estimating how successful a potential securitization move will be, as Theiler (2010) suggests it in the context of Securitization Theory. Therefore, similarly to Securitization Theory, there are factors impacting the effects of framing, namely Frame Resonance. More precisely, it is assumed that if a frame is
“consistent and logically coherent, empirically credible, linked to broader cultural narratives, values and beliefs of the audience, and articulated by a credible agent, whose credibility is understood especially in terms of status and knowledge” (Benford-Snow, 2000: 619-622 cited in Rychovská, 2014: 17),
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the Frame Resonance is believed to be high (Rychovská, 2014, Pinto, 2014). In this context, it is to be noticed, that Frame Resonance could be enhanced if the threat formulation is adapted to the audience and pre-existing discourses (Rychovská, 2014, Pinto, 2014, Schmidt, 2014).
4.2.1.5 Key Events
Key Events are understood to be events that lead to major attention in the news. This is due to their enormity and sensational nature. Consequently, those key events are usually reported on in vast numbers. Due to the large impact those events have on media coverage, former frames can be changed or replaced through them (Schmidt, 2014).
Concept Operationalization
Frames The windows through which people look at the world, implying selectivity and limitation in what is perceived and constructed as reality Framing actors Actors envisioning change through portraying persons or objects as a threat or burdens and by suggesting measures that can evoke change Diagnostic frames Those frames define persons or objects and create connotations of them as burdens or being responsible for the problem Prognostic frames Those frames suggest solutions to the issues Motivational frames Those frames call for action that triggers change Frame resonance If the values and preferences of the audience are taken into account in the communication of the credible framing actor and a frame is credible and consistent, the frame resonance is expected to be high Key events Events that lead to a high extent of media coverage due to their enormity that can lead to reframing of issues Table 2: Operationalization of concepts related to Framing Theory (based on: Rychovská, 2014, Pinto, 2014, Schmidt, 2014)
4.2.2 The Utility of Framing Theory
Since framing is about how a topic is portrayed, which aspects are emphasized and which topics are left out, in this paper the theory serves the analysis which actors, which measures, which reactions media paid attention to in the aftermath of the Paris Attacks and which topics or measures and actors were neglected or ignored. Therefore, the contribution of media in constructing perceptions of issues surrounding the Paris Attacks can be studied. This will in particular be done bearing in mind aspects surrounding Securitization Theory. Therefore, by investigating which actors, referent objects, measures, securitization moves and constructions of urgency were taken up compared to others and which issues, such as Islam and/or migration were put in a context to the Paris Attacks, it can be assessed, how the media contributed to a certain understanding of their audience concerning the terrorist attacks.
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Since Framing Theory constitutes that this process of filtering is a part of an overall context, it is also related to overall discourses that are taking place around issues. By investigating which issues and/or frames are reported on, an impression over the overall discourse that is led can be gained. In that sense, Framing Theory fits well with the discourse analysis conducted in this study.
4.3 Summary
Similarly to Rychovská (2014), this paper therefore seeks to integrate elements of Framing Theory into the analysis based on Securitization Theory. This means, that it will be investigated, which role the communication and creation of threats via language plays for the securitization of certain issues. By investigating how issues were framed by the French and German media after the Paris Attacks, it can therefore be assessed how media possibly facilitated securitization moves and shaped the perception of its audience concerning selected issues. Since it was stressed repeatedly in this paper that the context of text is crucial to understand and create its meaning, it is noteworthy that the two mentioned theories that serve the analysis build the framework of this context. The context the specified texts are studied in is therefore of a constructed nature which affects the role that can be attributed to the later findings. As stated before this study will apply an abductive approach, starting from the Securitization and Framing Theory as a framework in order to understand the suggested measures as well as reactions to the Paris Attacks in a new context. Abduction serves the recontextualisation of “individual phenomena within a conceptual framework or a set of ideas […] to be able to understand something in a new way by observing and interpreting this something in a new conceptual framework” (Balzacq, 2010: 80). Hence, new insights on the securitization of that took place in France and Germany in response to the Paris Attacks can be gained by applying an abductive approach. Overall, the author believes that the analytical framework that was chosen for this thesis facilitates the understanding of how connotations and contextualization of securitization issues are created and shaped.
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
5 FINDINGS
The following section seeks to present the findings of this research in a descriptive manner. The aim is to answer the research question that was asked above: Which political measures were suggested by which political actors as a direct response, according to the media, to the Paris Attacks? Which of those reactions indicate securitization moves and which do not? The findings will be presented by country and research question, followed by a comparison of the results in Germany and France.
5.1 Media Coverage of the Paris Attacks – a Key Event
As mentioned before French and German media were searched for key words in combination with “Charlie Hebdo” in the Lexis Nexis database in order to identify which topics were directly linked to the Paris Attacks. This section investigates mostly the findings gained through content analysis and to a limited extent insights gained through discourse analysis. Whereas in German media, overall 328 articles were found, French media reported in 150 articles about the same topics. Although some articles were repeatedly listed in Lexis Nexis, this number alone indicates, that German newspapers – in a numeric sense – paid greater attention to the Paris Attacks. Also, overall, a high level of media attention is indicated by those numbers which implies that the Paris Attacks were a key event that can impact how frames are constructed (Schmidt, 2014).
5.1.1 Coverage of the Paris Attacks in German media
There were 177 German newspaper articles published on the key words “Charlie Hebdo attack” - more than in the total amount of French newspaper articles on all keywords. The key words “Charlie Hebdo Paris” and “Charlie Hebdo fear” yielded further significant amounts of newspaper articles in German newspapers (for an overview over covered key words see Figure 8).
5.1.2 Coverage of the Paris Attacks in French media
In France, however, the majority of articles showed the link “Charlie Hebdo terrorism”, followed by “Charlie Hebdo Paris” and “Charlie Hebdo Islam”. This amount indicates the
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures relatively high degree of attention that Islam, for example, gained in France (for an overview over covered key words see Figure 7).
Figure 8: Topics reported on in German media, Figure 7: Topics reported on in French media, constructed by the author. constructed by the author.
5.1.3 Comparison
Furthermore, it was found that the topics “migration”, “immigration”, “imam” and “integration” were surprisingly rarely mentioned in the context of the Paris Attacks in both German and French media. It would be interesting to conduct another study in this context whether migration or the religion Islam was sought to be securitized increasingly after the Paris Attacks without making an explicit link to the Paris Attacks though. One indicator for this could be that in both German and French media “Islam” was connected with the Paris Attacks. In this context it is noteworthy, that, when looking at the amount of articles, French media produced that link more often. It was also noteworthy that “fear” was mentioned in 19 articles in German media in connection to the attacks, while not a single time being mentioned in French media- although the attacks were geographically seen more endangering to France (for an overall comparison of key words used in French and German media, see Table 3).
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Translation Keywords Results French Keywords Results Keywords German French Newspapers Newspapers Charlie Hebdo Attack Charlie Hebdo Anschlag 177 Charlie Hebdo attentat 0 Charlie Hebdo Paris Charlie Hebdo Paris 93 Charlie Hebdo Paris 43 Charlie Hebdo Islam Charlie Hebdo Islam 8 Charlie Hebdo Islam 20 Charlie Hebdo fear Charlie Hebdo Angst 19 Charlie Hebdo peur 0 Charlie Hebdo terror Charlie Hebdo Terror 9 Charlie Hebdo terreur 0 Charlie Hebdo Charlie Hebdo 4 Charlie Hebdo 47 Terrorism Terrorismus terrorisme Charlie Hebdo Charlie Hebdo 0 Charlie Hebdo 1 immigration Einwanderung immigration Charlie Hebdo Charlie Hebdo Migration 0 Charlie Hebdo migration 0 migration Charlie Hebdo Charlie Hebdo Sicherheit 1 Charlie Hebdo sécurité 11 security Charlie Hebdo threat Charlie Hebdo Bedrohung 1 Charlie Hebdo menace 7 Charlie Hebdo urgent Charlie Hebdo Dringend 0 Charlie Hebdo urgent 3 Charlie Hebdo Charlie Hebdo 0 Charlie Hebdo défense 0 defense Verteidigung Charlie Hebdo Charlie Hebdo Maßnahme 0 Charlie Hebdo mésure 0 measure Charlie Hebdo law Charlie Hebdo Gesetz 0 Charlie Hebdo loi 3 Charlie Hebdo Charlie Hebdo 7 Charlie Hebdo 3 radicalization Radikalisierung radicalisation Charlie Hebdo prison Charlie Hebdo Gefängnis 0 Charlie Hebdo prison 2 Charlie Hebdo Imam Charlie Hebdo Imam 0 Charlie Hebdo imam 2 Charlie Hebdo Charlie Hebdo Prävention 0 Charlie Hebdo 0 prevention prévention Charlie Hebdo Charlie Hebdo Integration 2 Charlie Hebdo 0 integration intégration Charlie Hebdo Charlie Hebdo PEGIDA 7 Charlie Hebdo PEGIDA 8 PEGIDA Total 328 150 Table 3: Overview over media coverage of the Paris Attacks in French and German media. Constructed by the author.
5.2 Suggested Measures and Reflection of Actors
This section investigates which measures media suggested to be introduced in direct consequence of the Paris Attacks. The section will first outline measures suggested in German media followed by measures suggested in French media. Both sections will be divided into measures introduced in Germany itself and in France.
5.2.1 Measures Suggested in German Media
Overall, 112 newspaper articles reported on measures suggested in France, Germany or the EU in Germany newspapers, which relates to 34% of German newspaper articles. This indicates a relatively high amount of newspapers covering this topic. 37
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
5.2.1.1 Measures Suggested in Germany
The following section investigates which measures were suggested to be introduced in German media in Germany itself (for an overview see Table 4). After investigating more general security measures, potential security measures will be elaborated on, followed by indicated securitization moves. Whereas more general security measures are interpreted to be proportional measures increasing security, potential security measures could be interpreted in diverse ways and rather un-proportional measures could indicate securitization moves. It is important to bear in mind in this context, that securitization in this paper is understood to have the function of using threats in such a way that debatable policies are legitimate to be established (Schulze, 2012). Firstly, a number of measures that are more broadly linked to security were introduced. This refers to the reintroduction of local security forces in Germany as suggested by the Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU) (#23-25), and police officers visiting diverse newspapers in order to investigate their security standards (#259). Those measures could be considered to seek to enhance security itself and could be considered proportional measures. Secondly, a number of measures could be interpreted to be proportional – but depending on the motivation could also indicate securitization moves. To start with the introduction of stricter legal rules as suggested by the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU) (#328), as well as of stricter security measures in Germany (#141-157) as suggested by Thomas de Mazière from the CDU could, depending on the extent and areas in which exactly laws are to be made stricter, indicate securitization moves. In these cases, it depends on the exact measures and how they are proposed, whether this is indicating a securitization move or not. Thirdly, a number of measures suggested seem to be un-proportional18 to the events in Paris. To start with, the CSU and CDU reintroduced the debate around a data retention law19 in Germany, justifying the method with security concerns connected to the Paris Attacks
18 In line with the operationalization mentioned above, the author investigated if measures were un- proportional to the events in Paris, e.g. by investigating if less severe measures could serve the same purpose. 19 The data retention law has been discussed in Germany for several years. In 2007 a first data retention law was drafted. However, the law was found to be unlawful. The law is supposed to allow the storage of telecommunication data, such as telephone and internet data, for a duration of ten weeks of German citizens (n.a., 2015). 38
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
(#328). Similarly, the CDU suggested further rights for institutions in Germany working on security (#328). Both measures could be argued about. E.g. the perpetrators in France were well known and yet, the Paris Attacks were not prevented (#194). Furthermore, the entire German society would be under general suspicion and be affected by this measure. Since this would decrease liberties and there could be less extreme laws made following the same aim, this indicates a securitization move that has been noted before in similar contexts (Schulze, 2012). Therefore, terrorism is named as the reason while already prior to the Paris Attacks the centre right parties20 CDU and CSU tried to implement such a law (Schulze, 2012).
Actor Measure Reference General Security Measures CDU Reintroduction of local security #23-25 forces Police Visits to newspaper agencies #259 Potential Security Measures CSU Stricter legal rules #328 CDU Stricter security measures #141-157 Securitization Moves CSU & CDU Data retention law #328 CDU Further rights for security institutions #328 Table 4: Measures Suggested in Germany. Constructed by the author.
5.2.1.2 Measures Suggested in France
Concerning measures suggested in France that were mentioned in German newspapers, the following was found (for an overview see Table 5). Firstly, a number of security measures were suggested. E.g. French ministers suggested positioning more soldiers in sensitive places (#138, #320, #321). Also, Manuel Valls, the French prime minister of the Socialist Party (PS) suggested to employ more staff working for secret services (#320, #321), to have more legislative staff (#320, #321) and to keep the army in France large (#237). Secondly, some measures suggested in France and reported on by German media could be securitization moves depending on the interpretation. E.g. the stricter legislation concerning weapon trade in France (#237, #308-12). Considering the fact that the weapons of the Kouachi brothers were acquired illegally, it is questionable how this measure would have prevented such an attack. Nevertheless, the measure is not unacceptable to society. Additionally, the suggested involvement of imams in France (#320, #321) as suggested by
20 Centre right parties are right of the centre but are nearest to the centre as compared to right wing parties 39
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Manuel Valls to help fighting radicalization of Muslim prisoners, on first sight, seems to be tailored for security reasons. Nevertheless, the focus on the Muslim community, indicates that a very specific group is focused on, indicating that a religious group is indirectly portrayed as a threat. Manuel Valls also asked for stricter legislation and more rights when observing online media (#320, #321). This step as well limits online users in their rights – due to unclarity which measures are envisioned, the measure could be proportional to the aim. Furthermore, Mr. Valls suggested to fight the “apartheid” in French suburbs (#28, #30), indicating a link between terrorism and citizens in suburbs. The act of putting those two aspects into connection however might contribute to people’s attribution of terrorism mostly growing in French suburbs, indicating a diagnostic frame and potentially even fostering exclusion of those that live already at the border of society. Nevertheless, the extent of securitization depends on the exact measures the prime minister envisions for the suburbs. Thirdly, there are securitization moves in France that German newspapers reported on. Firstly, the reintroduction of death penalty in France, suggested by Marine Le Pen from the right wing party FN (#7, #92, #274, #279, #291), blaming immigrants for the events in France (#274). This measure would clash however with fundamental values and would be an exceptional measure in this case. Besides, Le Pen suggested that the French citizenship of those fighting in jihad should be withdrawn (#249), making a link between immigrants and terrorism. Further, her suggestions to discontinue relations with Qatar (#249) indicate mistrust towards a certain country and threat construction of other countries. Last but not least her suggestion to disarm the suburbs in France (#249) indicates that she tries to portray the citizens in suburbs as the main threats in the context of terrorism.
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Actor Measure Reference General Security Measures French ministers More soldiers in sensitive places #138, #320, #321 PS More staff in secret services #320, #321 PS Keep French army large #237 Potential Security Measures * Stricter legislation on weapon trade #237, #308-312 PS More involvement of imams in #320, #321 prisons PS Stricter legislation on online media #320, #321 PS Fight apartheid in French suburbs #28, #30 Securitization Moves FN Reintroduction of death penalty #7, #92, #274, #279, #291
FN Disarm French suburbs #249 FN Withdrawal of citizenship of those #249 fighting in jihad FN Discontinue relations with Qatar #249 *= no explicit references mentioned in the article Table 5: Measures Suggested in France. Constructed by the author.
5.2.2 Measures Suggested in French Media
The following section investigates which measures French media reported on following the Charlie Hebdo Attacks. Overall, 22 newspaper articles were found that reported on measures directly responding to the Paris Attacks. This amounts to 15% of French newspaper articles, hence a relatively low number compared to German newspapers. As the section before, it section will be divided into measures introduced in Germany itself and in France.
5.2.2.1 Measures Suggested in Germany
There were no explicit measures suggested in Germany that were taken up in French media.
5.2.2.2 Measures Suggested in France
French media reported mostly on measures and reactions to the Paris Attacks in France itself (for an overview see Table 6). Overall, French media reported in 22 articles on measures in response to the attacks, amounting to ca. 15% of French newspaper articles. First of all, the emergency plan “Vigipirate” (#418-422) for sensitive places in France was put into place which seeks to protect rather than to interfere with citizens’ rights.
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Furthermore, depending on the reasoning and exact steps, the idea of allocating imams to prisoners (#337, #338, #354) could enhance the image of Muslims being a particular threat in terrorism. Last but not least, the stronger measures envisioned to control people in France could potentially be a securitization move, depending on the details of such measures (#354). Interestingly, French media only reported on one securitization move, which was done by the UMP, suggesting amongst others the withdrawal of citizenship of French terrorists (#418-422).
Actor Measure Reference General Security Measures * Vigipirate, emergency plan #418-422
Potential Security Measures * Allocate imams to Muslim prisoners #337, #338, #354 * Stronger controls of French citizens #354 Securitization Moves UMP List of measures, among other withdrawal of #418-422 citizenship for French terrorists *= no explicit references mentioned in the article Table 6: Measures Suggested in France by French media. Constructed by the author.
5.2.2.4 Comparison
All in all, the following was interesting when comparing French and German media: Despite the attacks happening in France, German media reported, in relative numbers, approximately in twice as many newspaper articles on measures taken responding to the Paris Attacks. Furthermore, German media indicated that German actors showed at least as much engagement and will to securitize after the attacks as France. Concerning the actors that suggested the measures, mostly politicians, from the centre- right to right spectrum and in case of France also from the rather left wing, tried to use the attacks for their purposes. Further, in France and Germany, efforts to collect more data on citizens were increased dramatically after the attacks, indicating that security would be a higher priority than liberty. It was also found that experts voiced a number of measures that could be implemented, both in French and German media. Also, German media reported a variety of measures suggested by the EU. Due to the scope of this study, this was not investigated in depth though. Whereas German media took up measures suggested in Germany and France, French media focused mostly on domestically suggested measures. Due to this focus on the region where measures were introduced, German media mentioned the German centre right parties, 42
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures and the French right wing party, experts in different countries, and the EU as actors that suggested securitization moves. In contrast, French media only reported on the securitization move of UMP, the centre right party. Securitization moves by Marine Le Pen, however, were not taken up by French media.
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6 ANALYSIS
The following chapter will present the analysis of the findings that were gained through content and discourse analysis. The findings will be analyzed through the glasses of Securitization Theory with an integration of Framing Theory. The following research questions will be analyzed: 2) Which arguments were used by whom to justify measures that indicate securitization moves?
3) If securitization moves can be identified, did the media possibly facilitate those and if so, how?
6.1 Securitizing Actors and their Audience
The following section compares which securitizing actors could be found in France and Germany, what they have in common and what differentiates them. In that context, the audiences of the securitizing actors will also be investigated. Therefore, this section purely focuses on measures indicating securitization moves. Furthermore, due to the high amount of actors, the focus of this section will be on representatives of political parties.
6.1.1 Securitizing Actors in Germany
In Germany, among the most active securitizing actors were the centre right parties CDU and CSU. In particular concerning the data retention law this may not be surprising as this party has been pushing towards this policy for several years (Schulze, 2012). The audience in this case is built by the opposition parties. Since the CDU is a major party it could be expected that it is taken very seriously. However, in particular the opposition and the Social Democratic Party (SPD) are expected to oppose to the law (Deutscher Bundestag, 2015). As mentioned above, the German parties AfD and NPD supported the reaction of PEGIDA to the Paris Attacks – however, this was not taken up in any of the newspaper articles in German media that was investigated. By leaving this information out, media selected certain securitizing actors and seem to have assigned them more importance than the German right wing parties.
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Figure 9: Securitized topics in German media, constructed by the author.
6.1.2 Securitizing Actors in France
In France, the major securitizing actor is Marine Le Pen from the FN. Since the FN is a rather large party in France, she is able to have some influence on her audience, in this case other parties and citizens. Her main interest is probably to attract more support, in particular for the elections that are coming up (Mayer, 2013).
6.1.3 Summary
Whereas in Germany mostly centre right parties, such as CDU and CSU sought to use the Paris Attacks, in France Marine le Pen was the main representative of right wing movements on whom media reported in such a way that securitization moves were indicated.
6.2 Securitized Topics and Diagnostic Frames
The following section seeks to investigate which topics were sought to be securitized, indicating which subjects were displayed as threats and hence were portrayed as burdens, implying diagnostic frames. The section focuses purely on topics mentioned in the context with securitization moves.
6.2.1 Securitized Topics in German Media
Overall, out of 112 securitization moves (for an overview over securitized topics see Figure 9) in Germany, 30 times terrorism was mentioned as the threat that is to be fought, followed by 8
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures times in which carnival21 aspects were seen to pose a threat to security which led to various discussions about whether or not certain floats on Charlie Hebdo should be shown or not. In the latter case it was not always clear whether carnival would be threatened or create a threat itself. In seven cases (aspects of) Islam was implicitly stated as a threat, and a few times, jihadists/jihadism, salafists, radicalization, and migrants were mentioned in contexts indicating that they were the root of the problem. For a majority of 63 securitization moves it was not clearly indicated which threat was to be fought with the suggested measures. By portraying those topics as threats, the media applied diagnostic frames. This means that negative connotations of the mentioned topics were created by including them in a context of security and threat.
6.2.1 Securitized Topics in French Media
In French media fewer securitization moves were found: Out of 22 securitization moves, 13 media articles portrayed terrorism to be the main threat (for an overview over securitized topics see Figure 10). In six media articles (aspects of) Islam was portrayed to be the cause of terrorism whereas integration was mentioned four times as a problem, and immigration and radicalization were mentioned three times respectively. In seven cases no explicit threats were mentioned.
Figure 10: Securitized topics in French media, constructed by the author.
21 Translated from German „Karneval“. Based on Christian traditions, carnival is celebrated every year in various locations in Germany. Traditionally, people wear costumes and in some parts of Germany, e.g. Köln and Düsseldorf, so called floats, similar to cars, with often political motives drive through streets as a part of a parade. 46
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
6.2.3 Comparison
In both German and French media the main threat that was identified in the context with securitization moves was terrorism. This replicates the findings of Rychovská (2014), that terrorism after 9/11 was considered as an emerging threat and there was a strong dichotomy between ‘us’ and ‘them’. This finding also implies that the argument of the threatening terrorism was most often used to justify extraordinary measures. Whereas in Germany, carnival played a major role, in both France and Germany (aspects of) Islam were identified to pose a major threat that was to be fought. Radicalization and immigration played a slightly more important role in French media if considered in relative amounts. It is however to be noted, that in many cases no explicit threat or issue was pointed out in connection to the measures that were suggested by securitizing actors.
6.3 Referent objects
Referent objects, according to Securitization Theory, are objects that are threatened but must be protected and whose survival has to be guaranteed. Referent objects should further be of a certain scale so that they are important for a vast number of people (Schulze, 2012). If one applies the Securitization Theory to the societal sector, the referent object can be collective identities or values, for example. Although perceived identities can change, change invoked by the outside can be perceived as a threat, defining also if a topic will be securitized or not (Buzan et al., 1998). This section investigates which referent objects were mentioned by German and French media in response to the Paris Attacks.
6.3.1 Referent objects in German Media
Overall, in German media nine referent objects were identified in 29 articles that mentioned any referent objects at all (for an overview see Figure 11). Mostly, basic values and citizens were mentioned as being threatened and needing protection. The West and citizens of the US also gained significant attention. Particularly the latter is interesting against the background that the US has been involved in discourses surrounding terrorism increasingly since 9/11 and yet, geographically was barely affected by the Paris Attacks.
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Figure 11: Referent objects in German Media, constructed by the author.
This implies, that the change of values, or more precisely, the interference with “Western” values is perceived as threatening and unacceptable. Indeed, according to the media in particular freedom of expression was perceived to be attacked by the assassins. Since this argument was frequently taken up in media, the chances that securitization moves which argue with the protection of values are successful, rises.
6.3.2 Referent Objects in French Media
In French media only nine articles mentioned referent objects (for an overview see Figure 12). Those were to a major extent values and citizens. Like in German media, the formulations of values being threatened creates not only a dichotomy between the values in the Western world and the assassins but also puts identity on the agenda. Through stating that values are attacked, the likelihood of successful securitization increases.
Figure 12: Referent objects in French media, constructed by the author.
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6.3.3 Comparison
Therefore, both in France and Germany, the values of the West, France or Europe were portrayed to be vulnerable and threatened due to the Paris Attacks, asking for protection and measures to defend them. Therefore, due to this portrayal by the media, securitization of topics that might interfere with those attacked values, is rather likely to be successful.
6.4 Chances of Securitization and Frame Resonance
The Securitization Theory stipulates that chances of securitization are particularly high if there is a relation between the securitizing actor, the audience and the referent object. If the audience is directly impacted by the threat the likelihood that the securitization move results in successful securitization is even higher (Schulze, 2012). Furthermore, the measures that are suggested should not clash harshly with basic values of the audience which is also connected to the frames that are used being in line with the beliefs and values that the audience shares (Theiler, 2010).
6.4.1 Chances of Securitization in Germany
Concerning the centre right parties CDU and CSU that are opting for a data retention law in Germany, it was mentioned before that first of all they would have to convince the opposition parties in order to pass the law. In general, the parties are related to each other and the basic values and citizens they seek to protect. However, the suggested measure is in such sharp contrast with German privacy engagements and the constitution (Deutscher Bundestag, 2015), that a successful securitization is rather unlikely.
6.4.2 Chances of Securitization in France
Marine Le Pen, who suggested measures such as death penalty, withdrawal of French citizenship etc. is speaking to parties that are supposed to adopt the laws as well as to, mainly, citizens and voters. Again, the referent object, securitizing actor and audience are related to each other. However, the measures could also be considered rather un-proportional and conflicting with French values. In this case, it will be crucial to which extent fears are created to help Marine Le Pen put through such measures and potentially, increase support from voters.
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6.4.3 Comparison
Both in France and Germany referent objects, audiences and securitizing actors are related to each other. Yet, as long as suggested measures clash with basic values of the respective audiences, it is rather unlikely that securitization will be successful.
6.5 The Timing of Securitization Moves
The following section seeks to investigate if there are any patterns in the timing of the securitization moves following the Paris Attacks. Based on the assumption that early timing of suggestions implies a level of urgency, it seems relevant to identify patterns in timing concerning German and French media, securitizing actors and securitized topics.
6.5.1 Timing of Securitization Moves in German Media
German media reported from 8th of January 2015 until the 21st of March on securitization moves. Particularly on the 10th and on the 29th of January Germany reported on a variety of securitization moves. Apart from those peaks, German media reported rather regularly on securitizing measures. Therefore, Germany reported very quickly on securitization moves, implying a high level of urgency in putting forward suggestions.
6.5.2 Timing of Securitization Moves in French Media
French media reported from 7th of January 2015 until 10th of February on securitization moves. The amount of newspaper articles per day published on securitization moves did not vary greatly. As it was the case for German media, the fast reaction by French media implies a high level of urgency concerning the suggested measures.
6.5.3 Timing by Actors
When investigating when which actors suggested securitization moves, it becomes clear that Marine le Pen was one of the first securitizing actors. Yet, already two days after the Paris Attacks the German government was reported on to have debated stronger measures, followed by the US and EU on the 10th of January. This indicates that Marine Le Pen also acted with most urgency as compared to the other actors.
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
6.5.4 Timing by Topics
Whereas on the 8th of January 2015, terrorism was still the main threat displayed in the context of suggested measures, on the 9th of January 2015, Marine Le Pen also started talking about immigrants in the context of the Paris Attacks. Over time, radicalization, jihadism and integration (of Islam) were taken up in the context with securitization moves. This implies that terrorism was the issue that was assigned most urgency by the securitizing actors.
6.5.5 Summary
In France newspapers reported mostly directly after the Paris Attacks on securitization moves, whereas in Germany, media still reported in March on the matter. This indicates that immediately after the Paris Attacks already extraordinary measures were considered. Concerning actors, French actors were the first suggesting securitization moves, followed by German centre right parties and then by the US and EU. Whereas in the very beginning terrorism was portrayed as the main threat, during the days after the Paris Attacks also immigration, radicalization, jihadism and integration (of Islam) were put on the agenda.
6.6 Threat Construction
As mentioned above, a threat construction in this paper is understood to take place if an object or a group is portrayed as a threat opposed to a referent object, whereas no exact or unproportional measures are suggested.
6.6.1 Threat Construction in German Media
Overall, 26 articles containing explicit threat constructions were found in German media. This happened mostly directly after the Paris Attacks and in some cases still in February. Most of the articles portrayed terrorism and/or Islamism as the main threat, implying through diagnostic frames that those issues are a burden to the referent objects. In many cases, PEGIDA was the actor that was cited in articles portraying arguments about threats. In those cases, in which measures were suggested to fight those burdens, prognostic frames were applied, seemingly providing solutions. Therefore, by framing those issues in that particular way, German media facilitated securitization moves.
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6.6.2 Threat Construction in French Media
In French media, 13 articles containing explicit threat constructions were identified. This happened mostly directly after the Paris Attacks, with one exception in the beginning of February. In French media, the most commonly mentioned threats were Islam and Islamization. Like in the German media, by applying the diagnostic frames of Islam and Islamization, those topics are portrayed as threats, implying negative connotations. Likewise, the prognostic frames, such as death penalty and withdrawal of citizenship as selected measures to fight this threat, imply a set of assumptions that portray the issues in a certain way to the audience and increase the likelihood of acceptance among the latter.
6.6.3 Summary
Both in French and German media threat construction was part of the newspaper articles published on the Paris Attacks, using both diagnostic and prognostic frames. However, in Germany terrorism was mentioned repeatedly as the threat whereas in French media discourses around the dangers of Islam and Islamization, were brought up more often. In that sense, through publishing articles of this kind, media facilitated securitization moves that were said to tackle Islam and/or terrorism.
6.7 Repetition of Articles in Newspapers
As mentioned above, if messages are repeated one could argue that they are assigned more importance than others.22 Therefore, this section will investigate which articles were printed in different newspapers and what the articles dealt with.
6.7.1 Repetition of Articles in German Media
In German media, 81 articles were published repeatedly. That means that roughly 23% of German articles were repetitive in their nature. However, in this context it is important to notice that articles that were listed repeatedly by Lexis Nexis but were published in the same
22 Similarly, one could argue that news on the front page are assigned a high level of importance. However, due to a lack of data on the sections in which the articles were mentioned, this could not be explored in this paper. 52
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures newspaper are part of this number.23 Since, however, it is crucial to investigate which articles were published in diverse newspapers, the following elaborations only take the latter articles into account. The article that was mentioned the most was article #7 which was mentioned in ten different newspapers. This article reported on Marine Le Pen’s intention to reintroduce the death penalty in France. Moreover, several articles appeared in three different newspapers (#131, #141, #164, #23, #325, #47, #61, #89). The majority of those articles did not report on securitization moves whereas some (#141, #23) might, depending on the exact measures, indicate securitization moves. Also, some articles were mentioned in two different newspapers (#10, #118, #160, #171, #200, #227, #238, #267, #28, #306, #31, #320, #58, #71, #82, #85, #99). Whereas the majority of those articles did not report on securitization moves (see Table 7), two did (but securitizing actors were not centre right/ right wing party representatives). The only article that reported on a measure suggested by a right wing movement also took up Marine Le Pen’s suggestion to reintroduce death penalty. The one article that could be reporting on a securitization move and was repeatedly published dealt with the measures in French suburbs suggested by Manuel Valls.
23 E.g. The article that was mentioned the most in the data provided by Lexis Nexis was article #141. Indeed, in the 328 results this articles was mentioned 16 times. When having a closer look though, it became evident that the article was only published in two different newspapers, therefore the importance of this repetition should not be overestimated. This article was classified above as containing potentially securitizing measures as stricter security measures in Germany are suggested. The same applies to article #308 that was listed four times by Lexis Nexis but was published only in one newspaper.
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Article Number of newspapers Securitization Move publishing the article #7 10 Yes #131 3 No #141 3 Partly #164 3 No #23 3 Partly #325 3 No #47 3 No #61 3 No #89 3 No #10 2 Yes #118 2 No #160 2 No #171 2 No #200 2 Yes (but reader) #227 2 No #238 2 No #267 2 No #28 2 Partly #306 2 No #31 2 Yes (but EU) #320 2 No #325 2 No #58 2 No #71 2 No #82 2 No #85 2 No #99 2 No Table 7: Number of German Newspapers reporting the same Articles. Constructed by the author.
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
6.7.2 Repetition of Articles in French Media
In French Newspapers 24 articles were repeatedly listed in the Lexis Nexis results. However, as in the German case, many of those were published by only one newspaper. Only 6 out of 150 French articles were published in various newspapers, which equals about 4%. However, of those articles, only one included a securitization move – suggested by an expert. Article Number of newspapers Securitization Move publishing the article #389 4 No #356 2 No #407 2 No #411 2 No #417 2 Yes (but expert) #476 2 No Table 8: Number of French Newspapers reporting on the same Articles. Constructed by the author.
6.7.3 Summary
Both in French and German newspapers articles were published repeatedly with the same content. However, this was the case to a higher extent in German newspapers as compared to French ones. Also, in German newspapers the most repeated article concerned Marine Le Pen’s intention to reintroduce the death penalty. However, apart from that, few of the articles that were published covered securitization moves.
6.8 Contribution by the Media
As discussed earlier, media plays a significant role in defining situations and transferring messages to the audience. As outlined above, media paid much attention to the Paris Attacks as well as to measures responding to the assassinations. By mentioning the attacks frequently, media put the events high on the agenda and reached the same audience many politicians are trying to reach with their measures: citizens. Furthermore, by framing the issues mostly through diagnostic and prognostic frames, media contributed to the interpretation of the events by the audience. Furthermore, by talking about threats and about security, media contributed to the link between the characteristics of the assassins and threats. They therefore enabled the securitizing actors to speak security more successfully by enforcing the threat images that are attempted to be built. 55
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Additionally, it is interesting to bear in mind that in the case of the media reporting on measures that were portrayed as the direct response of the Paris Attacks, there is no interaction of them with their audience. Whereas for example, in the parliaments threats can be discussed and negotiated, the media reporting in itself is barely a two-way communication. Except for reader’s replies, the definitions provided by the media about threats, are hence not negotiable, indicating the major importance media plays in the context of securitization and shaping perceptions and meanings. Moreover, by creating the dichotomy between Western values, such as democracy and freedom of expression and terrorism and/or Islam as the securitized topics, the message of Islam being incompatible with Western premises is spread. The variety of religious beliefs within the broader religion Islam therefore is neglected, whereas an essentialist understanding of the religion is spread further by the media in response to the Paris Attacks as it has been the case before (Rytter and Pedersen, 2014, Gündüz, 2007, Said, 1997). Furthermore, the fact that French media, for example, like German media, mostly reported on centre right parties using the attacks and making securitization moves, rather than reporting on the FN’s engagement, shows that the media applied a frame here. It is interesting to see, that the most extreme measures, suggested by Marine Le Pen, were only taken up by German media. Last but not least, the explicit mentioning of the request made by Amedy Coulibaly, namely that France should withdraw its troops from Muslim countries, was interestingly enough not taken up majorly by the newspapers. Instead, the Western positions were repeatedly taken up, enforcing the impression that the West is threatened by (Islamic) terrorism without investigating in depth what causes this phenomenon.
6.9 Concluding Remarks
This paper started by formulating the aim of answering the following research questions: 1) Which political measures were suggested by which political actors as a direct response, according to the media, to the Paris Attacks? Which of those reactions indicate securitization moves and which do not?
2) Which arguments were used by whom to justify measures that indicate securitization moves?
3) If securitization moves can be identified, did the media possibly facilitate those and if so, how?
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For this research a case study on French and German newspaper articles reporting on the Paris Attacks was conducted. Search results were gained through looking at different key words in combination with “Charlie Hebdo” and then analyzed regarding discourses, indications of securitization moves and frames. It was overall noticed that the number of German newspaper articles on the topics were significantly higher than in French media, indicating the high interest in the topic. Furthermore, the topic Islam gained more attention in French media than in German media. Both French and German media reported on measures that were directly linked to the Paris Attacks. Yet, measures suggested in Germany and on the EU level were only taken up by German media. Also, securitization moves in France were mostly taken up by German media – except for the securitization move of the UMP in France. Most political actors that sought to securitize topics can be assigned to the centre right or right political spectrum. Whereas in Germany, mostly centre right parties movement sought to use the attacks, in France the right wing party suggested a number of exceptional measures. When investigating the focus by media, the German media covered more actors and measures than the French media. Both in German and French media the main threat that was identified was terrorism. This replicates the findings of Rychovská (2014), that terrorism after 9/11 was considered as an emerging threat and there was a strong dichotomy between ‘us’ and ‘them’. This also indicates that this threat was used as a justification for exceptional measures. Furthermore, in German media major discourses evolved around carnival being threatened by terrorism whereas both French and German newspapers outlined the role of Islam in creating a threat. In French media, radicalization and immigration also played a role in reporting on threats in relation to the attacks. Both in French and German media, the referent objects that were to be defeated were the values of the West (in particular democracy and freedom of expression). Since those values are deeply embedded in those two countries, this makes securitization moves arguing with those factors more likely to yield successes. At the same time, this dichotomy between Western values and Islam creates tensions and connotations which assign Islam the meaning of being incompatible with the West. Here, essentialist formulations both of Islam and the West were found to be overly present. Nevertheless, the suggested measures, in particular death penalty and the collection of data, are not always compatible with the values and/or proportional to the suggested aims.
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Therefore, it is estimated that despite the relation between referent objects, audiences and securitizing actors, securitization moves are unlikely to succeed in France and Germany. Concerning the timing of securitization moves, they were made surprisingly fast both in France and Germany. Yet, in German media the debates were continued for a longer period. Whereas initially mostly terrorism was reported on as a threat, some days after the attacks, issues such as immigration, radicalization, jihadism and integration (of Islam) were added to the discourses. Furthermore, it was found that the article that was printed most often containing securitization moves, was concerning the suggestion by Marine Le Pen to reintroduce death penalty in France. Therefore, this message seems to have been assigned most importance. Those findings indicate which connotations were created by the respective media and how important their role is in defining and recreating meanings after key events. By paying attention to the topics, creating threat images and emphasizing securitizing actors in their newspaper articles, media created a frame that facilitates securitization moves and seems to give securitizing actors legitimacy. It was overall, interesting that the explicit request Amedy Coulibaly made, namely that France should withdraw its troops from Muslim countries, was neglected in French and German media. Instead, the threatened West and Western values dominated the news coverage on the Paris Attacks. This is interesting against the background that “foreign occupation” is perceived as key cause of terrorism by some scholars (Dr. Robert Pape in Jamal and Yusuf, 2014). This also concerns the definition of terrorism. As the legal definition of terrorism by the UN is lacking (Bakker, 2006, Schmid, 2013), it is debatable how successful any counter terrorism strategies can be. If one applies the definition of Dr. Robert Pape, the political cause that is defended would be expected to gain more attention than it was the case in discourses surrounding the Paris Attacks (Jamal and Yusuf, 2014). Similar to his argument, it was found that it is barely debated which role foreign occupation plays as compared to reasons that are believed to be the causes of terrorism, such as radicalization, jihadism etc. (Jamal and Yusuf, 2014). Similarly, the focus of the media on Western values, hence part of Western identities, is interesting against the background that Dr. Philippe Sands, for example, states that “terrorism does not look at a person’s ethnicity, identity or nationality” (Jamal and Yusuf, 2014). Based on those debates the author is under the impression that the definition of
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures terrorism would facilitate a potential “war on terrorism” and its causes, rather than its symptoms. Other than Cesary (2012) found after 9/11, so far mainly measures concerning surveillance and enhanced privileges of police were suggested by securitizing actors. Indeed, religious practices and infringements or deportations of certain groups were not taken up in the media discourses studied in this paper.
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7 CONCLUSION
This chapter seeks to reflect on the contributions made by this paper and to provide reflections for further research.
7.1 Contributions Made
By studying the reactions of German and French media to the Paris Attacks, another case of terrorism and reactions to it were studied. It became evident that in the targeted country securitization moves of topics such as immigration and Islam were of greater focus than in the neighboring country, Germany. Yet, in the latter, major discourses around terrorism were also led. By integrating Framing Theory into Securitization Theory, the analytical framework was further advanced and applied, indicating the strong link between the two theories and encouraging future research to combine the two theories as well. Furthermore, the combination of studying securitization with content analysis showed that valuable insights concerning trends can be gained. This encourages future researchers to follow this approach in order to make content analysis a more popular tool in this context than it has been so far (Balzacq, 2011a). Additionally, the paper has shown that the context and history of discourses is crucial for securitization moves. Indeed, both in France and Germany discussions around terrorism have taken place ever since 9/11. Also, debates around immigration and Islam have taken place for several years. Nevertheless, more debates concerning Islam were triggered in France if one considers the frequency of newspaper coverage on that topic. It was further found the trend of portraying terrorism as opposed to the West, hence implying that terrorism in general comes from non-Western states, and of the one Islam without variations, was continued after the Paris Attacks. This indicates that findings attesting the orientalization of Islam (e.g. Powell, 2011, Jamal and Yusuf, 2014) of other scholars are to some extent replicated by this paper. By opposing Islam to the West, as two closed groups, the predictions of Samuel Huntington, are more likely to come true: civilizations, or cultures, might clash, resulting in major conflicts (Powell, 2011, Gündüz, 2007). Indeed, in this sense, the findings of Said that Western media may foster negative images of Islam, can be reconfirmed with this paper (Gündüz, 2007, Jamal and Yusuf, 2014, Said, 1997).
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Last but not least, the paper highlighted the possible influence of media in shaping discourses and informing its audience. As argued in the beginning of this paper, media can play a significant role in shaping connotations and meanings. At the same time, media can reflect current trends and opinions of citizens. In that sense, it is difficult to determine whether media reacts to the public opinion or the public opinion is shaped by the media. In any case, the threat images that were conveyed raise awareness for the importance of well trained journalists and good reporting skills in order to prevent that fears are deepened and groups are simplified, building the basis for prejudices and tensions. The study further emphasizes the need to educate the public on Islam and promotes the critical reflection on which alternative measures can be implemented to counter terrorism, such as “ending foreign occupations in Muslim countries” (Dr. Robert Pape in Jamal and Yusuf, 2014).
7.3 Suggestions for Further Research
In the process of this research, the author noticed some aspects that could be considered in further studies on related topics. Firstly, the conceptualization of the terms “Muslims” is not always undertaken with care. Not every Muslim in Europe is an immigrant but often the terms “Muslims” and “Muslim immigrants” are used in such a way that there is no clear distinction. This implies also a lack of focus on those Muslims living in Europe without an immigration background that are equally affected by policies infringing the rights of the whole religious community. Secondly, the conceptualization of “terrorism” and “securitization moves” as well as “unproportional measures” should always be laid out transparently in order to come to a common understanding of the outlined phenomena and to advance security studies in this context. Thirdly, the author found the integration of Securitization Theory and Framing Theory as well as the utilization of content analysis for the study of securitization useful. Indeed, it can be recommended to combine those two frameworks and this method of enquiry more often in future research as currently, only a limited amount of studies has done so. Yet, had other theoretical frameworks and/or methods been used, other results would probably have been yielded. Indeed, the utilization of process tracing, for example, could yield a significant contribution to why securitization moves were undertaken and/or successful and if public opinion influenced media reporting or vice versa.
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Also, it would be interesting to investigate how the audience reacted to the securitization moves mentioned in this paper so that it can be assessed if securitization was successful. As mentioned before, the role of audiences still lacks attention in securitization studies. Besides, a study could investigate discourses around Islam and/or migration in general before and after the Paris Attacks, as maybe not all relevant data appeared in this research in direct connection with the keywords ‘Charlie Hebdo’. Furthermore, more variables could be examined. E.g. the link between geography and media reactions, or the political orientation of newspapers and their reporting, could be emphasized more in future research. Also, in particular German media reported on a number of measures on EU level that were suggested right after the Paris Attacks. Those measures had been partly discussed before but were blocked by the European Parliament whereas now they were adopted. This indicates the will by the EU to adopt laws that were in prior discourses seen as infringing rights of EU citizens, which shows the exceptional will that has now been developed to implement such practices anyhow. Therefore, this issue could provide an interesting topic to study in the context of securitization. Additionally, since discourse is not only linked to text but also to pictures, it would be interesting to investigate the pictures allocated to newspaper articles on terrorism in future studies. Last but not least, due to the increasing role social media plays nowadays, studies on reactions to terrorist attacks on social media could make a valuable contribution to the studies of securitization.
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ANNEX I: OVERVIEW OVER ANALYZED DATA
Code Date Newspaper Title URL #1 10.02.2015 Abendzeitung "Charlie Hebdo"-Wagen zurückgezogen: Kölner Karneval: Angst http://www.abendzeitung-muenchen.de/inhalt.charlie-hebdo-wagen- vor Extremisten! zurueckgezogen-koelner-karneval-angst-vor-extremisten.30df7202- 267b-4f05-bb73-bc56f4ee1d07.html #2 14.01.2015 Frankfurter Es wird zu viel nach den Symptomen und zu wenig nach dem Rundschau Warum gefragt #3 13.01.2015 Frankfurter "Das beste Mittel gegen den Terrorismus ist eine gerechtere Welt" Rundschau #4 13.01.2015 Kölner Stadt- "Bei Satire darf es keine Grenzen geben" Anzeiger #5 14.01.2015 Kölner Stadt- "Bei Satire darf es keine Grenzen geben" Anzeiger #6 10.01.2015 Aar-Bote "Wie im Krieg"; TERROR In Frankreich herrscht nach doppelter Geiselnahme Fassungslosigkeit #7 10.01.2015 Hamburger "Charlie Hebdo"; Angst, Wut, Hoffnung nach dem Attentat in Abendblatt Paris #8 10.01.2015 Allgemeine "Wie im Krieg"; TERROR In Frankreich herrscht nach doppelter Zeitung Geiselnahme Fassungslosigkeit #9 10.01.2015 Bürstädter "Wie im Krieg"; TERROR In Frankreich herrscht nach doppelter Zeitung Geiselnahme Fassungslosigkeit #10 10.01.2015 Berliner Zeitung Das Bild der Macht zerschlagen; Mord und Terror sind kein politisches Programm. Und auch keine religiöse Botschaft. Attentate wie das in Paris sind Ausdruck von Ohnmacht, nur getarnt als Demonstration der Macht #11 10.01.2015 Frankfurter no title Rundschau #12 10.01.2015 Idsteiner "Wie im Krieg"; TERROR In Frankreich herrscht nach doppelter Zeitung Geiselnahme Fassungslosigkeit #13 10.01.2015 Lampertheimer "Wie im Krieg"; TERROR In Frankreich herrscht nach doppelter Zeitung Geiselnahme Fassungslosigkeit vii
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#14 10.01.2015 Main-Taunus- "Wie im Krieg"; TERROR In Frankreich herrscht nach doppelter Kurier Geiselnahme Fassungslosigkeit #15 10.01.2015 Main-Spitze "Wie im Krieg"; TERROR In Frankreich herrscht nach doppelter Geiselnahme Fassungslosigkeit #16 10.01.2015 Wiesbadener "Wie im Krieg"; TERROR In Frankreich herrscht nach doppelter Tagblatt Geiselnahme Fassungslosigkeit #17 10.01.2015 Wiesbadener "Wie im Krieg"; TERROR In Frankreich herrscht nach doppelter Kurier Geiselnahme Fassungslosigkeit #18 10.01.2015 Wormser "Wie im Krieg"; TERROR In Frankreich herrscht nach doppelter Zeitung Geiselnahme Fassungslosigkeit #19 08.01.2015 SPIEGEL Angst der Deutschen vor Terroranschlägen sinkt http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/charlie-hebdo-angst-vor- ONLINE anschlaegen-laut-deutschlandtrend-gesunken-a-1012025.html #20 25.03.2015 L'essentiel Der eine versprach, «die Flammen des Krieges ins Herz» http://www.lessentiel.lu/de/news/dossier/is_terror/story/18278874 online Amerikas zu bringen, wenn... #21 27.03.2015 L'essentiel Cousins planten Anschlag auf Militäranlage http://www.lessentiel.lu/de/news/story/18278874 online #22 25.03.2015 Berliner Berliner Schau zeigt Zusammenleben der Religionen in Ägypten Morgenpost #23 21.03.2015 Hamburger Hamburg; Mopo-Attentäter verteilten Koran http://www.abendblatt.de/hamburg/article205215873/Mopo- Abendblatt Attentaeter-verteilten-Koran.html #24 21.03.2015 Hamburger Hamburg; Mopo-Attentäter verteilten Koran Abendblatt #25 21.03.2015 Die Welt Verfassungsschutz kannte die "Mopo"-Attentäter; Tatverdächtige Hamburg früher an Koranverteilung beteiligt #26 20.03.2015 SPIEGEL Polizei verdächtigt Islamisten http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/justiz/hamburger-morgenpost- ONLINE waren-es-doch-islamisten-a-1024813.html #27 19.03.2015 taz, die Raum für Korrekturen; FEHLBAR Das ZDF führt auf seiner tageszeitung Webseite heute.de eine neue Rubrik für Richtigstellungen ein #28 16.03.2015 Tages-Anzeiger Bewegung im Brandherd der Republik #29 14.03.2015 Focus-Germany Alte Schätze zum Schnäppchenpreis: IS versteigert http://www.focus.de/politik/ausland/islamischer-staat/is-terror- Museumsbeute im Internet terror-union-is-nimmt-treue-eid-von-bruedern-boko-haram- an_id_4541541.html #30 14.03.2015 Der Standard Wandel in Pariser Brandherd-Banlieue #31 13.03.2015 Berliner Schutz vor Terror; SchengenAußengrenzen werden schärfer Morgenpost kontrolliert Online viii
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#32 13.03.2015 Focus-Germany Alte Schätze zum Schnäppchenpreis: IS versteigert http://www.focus.de/politik/ausland/islamischer-staat/is-terror- Museumsbeute im Internet terror-union-is-nimmt-treue-eid-von-bruedern-boko-haram- an_id_4541541.html #33 13.03.2015 Focus-Germany Alte Schätze zum Schnäppchenpreis: IS versteigert http://www.focus.de/politik/ausland/islamischer-staat/is-terror- Museumsbeute im Internet terror-union-is-nimmt-treue-eid-von-bruedern-boko-haram- an_id_4541541.html #34 13.03.2015 MDR ?? http://www.mdr.de/sachsen-anhalt/nachrichten104_zc-a2551f81_zs- ae30b3e4.html #35 13.03.2015 WELT Schutz vor Terror; Schengen-Außengrenzen werden schärfer ONLINE kontrolliert #36 09.03.2015 Stern-Germany Mord an Oppositionellen: Das sind die Verdächtigen im Fall http://www.stern.de/politik/ausland/mord-an-oppositionellen-das- Boris Nemzow sind-verdaechtigen-im-fall-boris-nemzow- 2178776.html?utm_source=standard&utm_medium=rssfeed&utm_c ampaign=politik #37 06.03.2015 dpa-AFX POLITIK: Studie untersucht Reaktionen auf 'Charlie Hebdo'- ProFeed Anschlag #38 27.02.2015 Augsburger Neu-Ulm: Hetz-Parolen an Grundschule: „Wer das Kreuz malt, http://www.augsburger-allgemeine.de/politik/Hetz-Parolen-an- Allgemeine kommt in die Hölle" Grundschule-Wer-das-Kreuz-malt-kommt-in-die-Hoelle- id33274382.html #39 26.02.2015 Kölner Stadt- Neustart für "Charlie Hebdo" Anzeiger #40 25.06.2015 Berliner "Charlie Hebdo" mit Millionen-Auflage zurück; Französisches Morgenpost Satiremagazin erscheint sieben Wochen nach dem Anschlag wieder regelmäßig #41 25.02.2015 Süddeutsche Neue Ausgabe von "Charlie Hebdo": Rückkehr der fröhlichen http://sz.de/1.2366659 Zeitung Karikatur #42 25.02.2015 SDA- Neue Ausgabe von "Charlie Hebdo" nach islamistischem Basisdienst Anschlag Deutschland #43 22.02.2015 Focus-Germany Geschmackloses Plakat - "Je suis Boyz Köln": Watzke sauer auf http://www.focus.de/sport/fussball/bundesliga1/geschmackloses- BVB-Fans plakat-je-suis-boyz-koeln-watzke-sauer-auf-bvb- fans_id_4493574.html #44 21.02.2015 Euro am RICHTIGSTELLUNG; Ägyptische Wahrheiten Sonntag #45 21.02.2015 Tages-Anzeiger Ein Paar, das sich fast blind versteht #46 18.02.2015 Heise Dschihadisten: Rückschläge in Syrien http://www.heise.de/tp/artikel/44/44170//from/atom10
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#47 17.02.2015 Hamburger Rosenmontagsumzüge bleiben von Sicherheitsdebatte Abendblatt unbeeinflusst; Narren am Rhein lassen sich nicht einschüchtern Online #48 17.02.2015 Berliner Und sie feiern trotzdem; Rosenmontagsumzüge bleiben von Morgenpost Sicherheitsdebatte unbeeinflusst #49 17.02.2015 Berliner Zeitung "Das ist, was bleibt" #50 17.02.2015 General- Närrischer Mut und ein Traum aus Federn; Vor allem in Anzeiger Düsseldorf bieten die Jecken dem Terror die Stirn. Spektakuläre (Bonn) Show im ambódromo von Rio #51 17.02.2015 Hamburger Narren am Rhein lassen sich nicht einschüchtern; Abendblatt Rosenmontagsumzüge bleiben von Sicherheitsdebatte unbeeinflusst #52 17.02.2015 Kölner Stadt- Das zarte Pflänzchen Narrenfreiheit; CHARLIE HEBDO Der Anzeiger Anschlag auf die Pariser Satirezeitschrift spielt im Zoch doch eine Rolle #53 17.02.2015 Kölner Stadt- Das zarte Pflänzchen Narrenfreiheit; CHARLIE HEBDO Der Anzeiger Anschlag auf die Pariser Satirezeitschrift spielt im Zoch doch eine Rolle #54 17.02.2015 taz, die Rosenmontag am Rhein tageszeitung #55 17.02.2015 ZEIT-Online Attentäter standen vor Anschlägen in Kontakt; In der Nacht vor ihren Anschlägen haben sich die Attentäter von Paris getroffen. Später kommunizierten sie nach Ermittlerangaben per SMS. #56 16.02.2015 Abendzeitung Rosenmontagszug im Rheinland: Terror ist Thema http://www.abendzeitung-muenchen.de/inhalt.koeln-duesseldorf- und-mainz-rosenmontagszug-im-rheinland-terror-ist- thema.2f13ee6c-c90b-41ec-873d-bec346cbc37a.html #57 16.02.2015 Agence France Hunderttausende Narren bei traditionellen Rosenmontagszügen; Presse – "Charlie Hebdo"-Wagen in Köln und Düsseldorf German #58 16.02.2015 Berliner Rosenmontag; Zwei Karnevalswagen zur Meinungsfreiheit in Morgenpost Köln Online #59 16.02.2015 dpa-AFX dpa-AFX Überblick: VERMISCHTES vom 16.02.2015 - 16.35 ProFeed Uhr #60 16.02.2015 WELT Rosenmontag; Zwei Karnevalswagen zur Meinungsfreiheit in ONLINE Köln
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#61 15.02.2015 Berliner Joaquin Phoenix; "Sie hatten Ideale, die anderen wollten Macht" Morgenpost Online #62 15.02.2015 Berliner Terror; Schüsse vor Synagoge Polizei riegelt Kopenhagen ab Morgenpost Online #63 15.02.2015 WELT Kopenhagen; Polizei bestätigt Tod des mutmaßlichen Attentäters ONLINE #64 15.02.2015 WELT Joaquin Phoenix; "Sie hatten Ideale, die anderen wollten Macht" ONLINE
#65 13.02.2015 heise Freitag der 13. und andere Nickligkeiten http://www.heise.de/tp/artikel/44/44131//from/atom10 #66 12.02.2015 Agence France Französische Sender wegen Berichterstattung über Anschläge Presse - German gerügt; Medienaufsicht kritisiert Sendungen über "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag #67 11.02.2015 SDA- EU-Parlament gibt Blockade gegen Speicherung von Basisdienst Fluggastdaten auf Deutschland #68 08.02.2015 Welt am "Was passiert, passiert"; In "Inherent Vice", der ersten Pynchon- Sonntag Verfilmung, spielt Joaquin Phoenix einen lustig verpeilten Detektiv. Hier spricht er über das Glück, Filme nicht zu kapieren, und die Tragik der Hippies #69 06.02.2015 Focus-Germany Angst nach Charlie-Hebdo-Anschlag60 Prozent befürchten http://www.focus.de/politik/deutschland/angst-nach-charlie-hebdo- Terroranschlag in Deutschland anschlag-60-prozent-befuerchten-terroranschlag-in-
deutschland_id_4456789.html #70 06.02.2015 SWR Reaktion auf Charlie Hebdo-Anschlag: Bündnis will "Gift der http://www.swr.de/landesschau-aktuell/rp/reaktion-auf-charlie- Intoleranz" bekämpfen hebdo-anschlag-buendnis-will-gift-der-intoleranz-bekaempfen/-
/id=1682/nid=1682/did=15031450/18ob367/index.html #71 05.02.2015 Berliner Pariser Islamistin; "Terrorwitwe" Boumedienne in IS Video zu Morgenpost sehen? Online #72 05.02.2015 Hamburger Drahtzieher des „Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlags - AQAP-Terrorist http://www.mopo.de/politik---wirtschaft/drahtzieher-des--charlie- Morgenpost Harith al-Nadhari von US-Drohne getötet hebdo--anschlags-aqap-terrorist-harith-al-nadhari-von-us-drohne-
getoetet,5066858,29759422.html #73 05.02.2015 Süddeutsche Diabolische Regisseure http://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/islamischer-staat-diabolische-
Zeitung regisseure-1.2335190 #74 05.02.2015 WELT Pariser Islamistin; "Terrorwitwe" Boumedienne in IS-Video zu ONLINE sehen? xi
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#75 04.02.2015 Agence France Abonnenten-Zahl von "Charlie Hebdo" von 10.000 auf 200.000 Presse - German gestiegen; Französische Satirezeitung vor vier Wochen Ziel von Anschlag #76 04.02.2015 Kölnische "Islamische Theologie fußt auf Gewalt"; Religionsforscher Ednan Rundschau Aslan fordert Muslime auf, ihre Grundlagen zu modernisieren #77 03.02.2015 Hamburger Umfrage; Jeder fünfte Türke akzeptiert Gewalt im Namen des Abendblatt Islam Online #78 03.02.2015 Focus-Germany Auch Paris-Attentat gerechtfertigt - Jeder fünfte Türke akzeptiert http://www.focus.de/politik/ausland/auch-paris-attentat- Gewalt im Namen des Islam gerechtfertigt-jeder-fuenfte-tuerke-akzeptiert-gewalt-im-namen-des-
islam_id_4449293.html #79 02.02.2015 Hamburger Karneval; Käßmann kritisiert Rückzug des "Charlie Hebdo"- Abendblatt Wagens Online #80 02.02.2015 Berliner Zeitung Wie man Nebel wird; Beim Berliner Medienkunstfestival Transmediale wurde nach Alternativen zum Internet gesucht #81 02.02.2015 Hamburger Politik; Kraftwerksrückbau: Chefs von Endlagergremium für Abendblatt Atommüll-Fonds ++ Karneval: Käßmann kritisiert Rückzug des "Charlie Hebdo"-Wagens ++ Mazedonien: Regierung wirft Opposition Putschversuch vor ++ Ägypten: Regierung schiebt verurteilten australischen Reporter ab ++ Hongkong: Tausende bei neuer Kundgebung für freie Wahlen ++ Argentinien: Spuren weisen auf Suizid des Staatsanwalts hin #82 01.02.2015 Mitteldeutsche - Satiremagazin «Charlie Hebdo» macht Pause http://www.mz-web.de/newsticker/satiremagazin--charlie-hebdo--
Zeitung- macht-pause,20864654,29723276.html Germany #83 01.02.2015 Rhein-Zeitung Satiremagazin «Charlie Hebdo» macht Pause http://www.rhein-zeitung.de/nachrichten/deutschland-und- welt_artikel,-Satiremagazin-Charlie-Hebdo-macht-Pause-
_arid,1266596.html #84 31.01.2015 Kölner Stadt- REAKTIONEN Anzeiger #85 31.01.2015 Stuttgarter Weiter Debatte um Motivwagen Zeitung #86 31.01.2015 Stuttgarter Muslime kritisieren Rückzug von 'Charlie'-Wagen Nachrichten #87 31.01.2015 taz, die taz.de-LeserInnenkommentar der Woche tageszeitung xii
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#88 30.01.2015 Stern-Germany Karneval in Köln und Düsseldorf: Zentralrat der Muslime fordert http://www.stern.de/panorama/charlie-hebdo-zentralrat-der-
"Charlie Hebdo"-Wagen muslime-fordert-themen-wagen-2170183.html #89 29.01.2015 Agence France Achtjähriger wegen Äußerungen nach "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag Presse - German befragt; Junge wollte Schweigeminute für Opfer nicht einhalten #90 29.01.2015 dpa-AFX VERMISCHTES/Nach Absage von 'Charlie Hebdo'-Wagen: ProFeed Becker gegen Auswahlverfahren #91 29.01.2015 Focus-Germany Nach Anschlägen auf Satirezeitung - Will nicht "Charlie" sein: 8- http://www.focus.de/politik/ausland/nach-anschlaegen-auf- Jähriger von Polizei verhört satirezeitung-weil-er-nicht-charlie-sein-will-achtjaehriger-von-
polizei-verhoert_id_4439210.html #92 29.01.2015 Ostsee Zeitung- Doch kein „Charlie-Hebdo"-Wagen im Kölner Karneval - Viel http://www.ostsee-zeitung.de/Nachrichten/Kultur/Doch-kein-
Germany Kritik Charlie-Hebdo-Wagen-im-Koelner-Karneval-Viel-Kritik #93 29.01.2015 Südwest Presse Mit Daten gegen Terror; Neuer Streit um europäische Sicherheitsmaßnahmen #94 29.01.2015 Stern-Germany Nach Anschlägen in Paris: Polizei verhört Achtjährigen weil er http://www.stern.de/politik/ausland/charlie-hebdo-polizei-in- nicht "Charlie" sein will frankreich-verhoert-achtjaehrigen-weil-er-nicht-charlie-sein-will-
2169656.html #95 29.01.2015 Stern-Germany Nach Anschlägen in Paris: Polizei verhört Achtjährigen, weil er http://www.stern.de/politik/ausland/charlie-hebdo-polizei-in- nicht "Charlie" sein will frankreich-verhoert-achtjaehrigen-weil-er-nicht-charlie-sein-will-
2169656.html #96 29.01.2015 Stern-Germany Nach Anschlägen in Paris: Polizei verhört Achtjährigen, weil er http://www.stern.de/politik/ausland/charlie-hebdo-polizei-in- nicht "Charlie" sein will frankreich-verhoert-achtjaehrigen-weil-er-nicht-charlie-sein-will-
2169656.html #97 29.01.2015 Suedwest Brüssel:Mit Daten gegen Terror http://www.swp.de/ulm/nachrichten/politik/Mit-Daten-gegen-
Presse-Germany Terror;art4306,3018077 #98 29.01.2015 Suedwest Neuer Streit um europäische Sicherheitsmaßnahmen http://www.swp.de/ulm/nachrichten/politik/Neuer-Streit-um-
Presse-Germany europaeische-Sicherheitsmassnahmen;art4306,3018077 #99 29.01.2015 Südkurier Esslingen/Köln: Gall begrüßt Absage von «Charlie Hebdo»- http://www.suedkurier.de/nachrichten/baden- Wagen im Karneval wuerttemberg/news/Gall-begruesst-Absage-von-Charlie-Hebdo-
Wagen-im-Karneval;art330342,7589520 #100 29.01.2015 Südwest Presse- Esslingen/Köln Gall begrüßt Absage von "Charlie Hebdo"-Wagen http://www.swp.de/ulm/nachrichten/suedwestumschau/Gall- Germany im Karneval In der... begruesst-Absage-von-Charlie-Hebdo-Wagen-im-
Karneval;art1157835,3019345 #101 29.01.2015 Südwest Presse- Esslingen/Köln:Gall begrüßt Absage von "Charlie Hebdo"- http://www.swp.de/ulm/nachrichten/suedwestumschau/Gall- Germany Wagen im Karneval begruesst-Absage-von-Charlie-Hebdo-Wagen-im-
Karneval;art1157835,3019345 #102 29.01.2015 Tages-Anzeiger Der Staat darf nicht töten
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#103 29.01.2015 Der Achtjähriger wegen Äußerungen nach "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag http://www.tagesspiegel.de/weltspiegel/junge-wollte- Tagesspiegel befragt schweigeminute-fuer-opfer-nicht-einhalten-achtjaehriger-wegen-
aeusserungen-nach-charlie-hebdo-anschlag-befragt/11299256.html
#104 29.01.2015 Tageblatt LU "Charlie-Hebdo"-Anschlag - Bulgarien liefert Freund von http://www.tageblatt.lu/nachrichten/europa/story/28155709 Attentäter aus
#105 29.01.2015 Tageblatt LU "Charlie-Hebdo"-Anschlag - Bulgarien liefert Freund von http://www.tageblatt.lu/nachrichten/europa/story/28155709 Attentäter aus #106 27.01.2015 Der Schere im Kopf? Stecken lassen!; Wie deutsche Karikaturisten Tagesspiegel nach dem "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag ihrer Arbeit nachgehen #107 26.01.2015 taz, die LESERINNENBRIEFE tageszeitung #108 23.01.2015 Kölnische Alle gleich auf dem Schulhof; Bornheimer Gymnasium feiert Rundschau deutsch-französischen Tag #109 23.01.2015 Kölnische Alle gleich auf dem Schulhof; Bornheimer Gymnasium feiert Rundschau deutsch-französischen Tag #110 22.01.2015 Stern-Germany Liebe Leserinnen und Leser #111 21.01.2015 Tages-Anzeiger Was in Davos im Fokus steht #112 21.01.2015 ZEIT-Online Fremd in Paris, Wiesbaden, Rostock-Lichtenhagen; Wie fühlen sich Migranten in Europa? In Paris, Wiesbaden und 1992 in Rostock? Drei Filme erzählen derzeit davon: lehrbuchhaft, komisch, naiv - und brandaktuell. #113 20.01.2015 Stuttgarter 'Die Antwort auf den Terror muss aufklärerisch sein' Zeitung #114 20.01.2015 Stuttgarter Woran es dem Islam fehlt Nachrichten #115 19.01.2015 Agence France Hochkonjunktur für Verschwörungstheoretiker; Nach Anschlägen Presse - German von Paris kursieren im Internet zahllose Gerüchte #116 17.01.2015 Der Spiegel Lacht sie in Grund und Boden #117 16.01.2015 B.Z. Bushido: Meine Musik passt nicht zu meinem Glauben #118 15.01.2015 Agence France Al-Kaida fühlt sich durch "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag gestärkt; Presse - German Gruppe verlor zuletzt gegenüber Islamischem Staat an Bedeutung #119 15.01.2015 Agence France Streit um Meinungsfreiheit nach "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag Presse - German zugespitzt; Papst: Der Glauben anderer darf nicht beleidigt werden #120 15.01.2015 dpa-AFX POLITIK: Hollande nimmt Muslime in die Pflicht - Weiter Run
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ProFeed auf 'Charlie'-Heft #121 15.01.2015 EuroNews- Weitere Opfer des "Charlie-Hebdo"-Anschlags beigesetzt Deutsche Version #122 15.01.2015 SDA- sda - TAGESPROGRAMM - AUSLAND Basisdienst Deutschland #123 15.01.2015 SDA- Al-Kaida fühlt sich durch "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag gestärkt Basisdienst Deutschland #124 15.01.2015 Die ZEIT Mut ist schnell gesagt; In den Chor der Solidaritätsbekundungen (inklusive ZEIT für die Opfer von Paris mischen sich auch verdächtige Töne Magazin) #125 14.01.2015 Agence France Neue "Charlie Hebdo"-Ausgabe binnen Minuten ausverkauft; Presse - German Ansturm auf Zeitungsstände in Frankreich #126 14.01.2015 Agence France Kommentar "Süddeutsche Zeitung": Charlie Hebdo/Anschläge; Presse - German (Teil zwei) #127 14.01.2015 Agence France Kommentar "Neues Deutschland": Charlie Hebdo/Anschläge; Presse - German (Teil elf) #128 14.01.2015 EuroNews- Al-Kaida in Jemen will "Charlie-Hebdo"-Anschlag verübt haben Deutsche Version #129 14.01.2015 SPIEGEL Schüler stören Gedenkveranstaltungen http://www.spiegel.de/schulspiegel/ausland/charlie-hebdo- ONLINE anschlaege-schueler-in-frankreich-stoeren-gedenkminuten-a-
1013015.html #130 13.01.2015 Aachener Jagd auf Terror-Helfer geht weiter; Nach der Anschlagsserie gilt Nachrichten in Frankreich weiter die höchste Terrorwarnstufe. Das Militär soll zusätzlich für Sicherheit sorgen. Die Regierung plant unterdessen bereits neue Schritte im Kampf gegen Islamisten. #131 13.01.2015 Berliner Michel Houellebecq; Eine Verheißung des verlockenden Morgenpost Islamofaschismus? Online #132 13.01.2015 Berliner "Nur gemeinsam gegen den Terror"; Leser zu den Morgenpost Terroranschlägen von Paris mit mehreren Toten und dem weltweiten Gedenken für die Opfer #133 13.01.2015 Manager Nach den Terroristen kommen die Geschäftemacher http://www.manager-magazin.de/unternehmen/artikel/charlie- Magazin Online hebdo-nach-den-terroristen-kommen-die-geschaeftemacher-a- xv
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1012789.html #134 13.01.2015 Stuttgarter Französische Zeichner kritisieren Pegida; Karikaturisten fürchten Nachrichten Instrumentalisierung der Attentate #135 13.01.2015 WELT Michel Houellebecq; Eine Verheißung des verlockenden ONLINE Islamofaschismus? #136 12.01.2015 Hamburger Charlie Hebdo; Millionen Menschen gedenken der http://www.abendblatt.de/politik/article136263834/Millionen-
Abendblatt Anschlagsopfer von Paris Menschen-gedenken-der-Anschlagsopfer-von-Paris.html Online #137 12.01.2015 Kölner Stadt- Vereint gegen den Terrorismus; CHARLIE HEBDO Rund 1,5 Anzeiger Millionen Menschen nehmen in Paris an Solidaritätskundgebung teil - Brandanschlag auf "Hamburger Morgenpost" - EU- Innenminister verständigen sich auf verschärfte Kontrollen an den Grenzen #138 12.01.2015 ZEIT-Online Frankreich mobilisiert 10.000 Soldaten; Frankreich hat weitere Konsequenzen zu den islamistischen Terrorangriffen beschlossen: Alle jüdischen Schulen werden bewacht, Tausende Soldaten im Land eingesetzt. #139 11.01.2015 Agence France Innenminister beraten in Paris über Kampf gegen den Presse - German Terrorismus; Treffen als Reaktion auf "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag #140 11.01.2015 Welt am Gegen den Strich; In Michel Houellebecqs "Unterwerfung" liefert Sonntag sich Frankreich der Scharia aus. Der Roman ist trotzdem weder rassistisch noch islamophob #141 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Zeitung vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #142 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Zeitung vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #143 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Zeitung vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #144 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Zeitung vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und xvi
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der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #145 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Zeitung vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #146 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Zeitung vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #147 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Zeitung vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #148 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Zeitung vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #149 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Zeitung vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #150 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Nachrichten vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #151 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Nachrichten vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #152 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Nachrichten vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #153 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Nachrichten vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. xvii
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#154 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Nachrichten vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #155 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Nachrichten vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #156 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Nachrichten vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #157 10.01.2015 Aachener Blutiges Ende eines Alptraums; Nach 55 Stunden ist der Terror Nachrichten vorerst vorbei: Die islamistischen Angreifer sterben bei Zugriffen der Polizei. Aber auch mehrere Geiseln kommen ums Leben. Und der IS warnt vor weiteren Anschlägen. #158 10.01.2015 Berliner Terror in Frankreich; Jemens Terrorscheich nennt Franzosen Morgenpost "dreckig" Online #159 10.01.2015 Kölnische DOPPELSCHLAG GEGEN TERROR IN PARIS Rundschau #160 10.01.2015 Manager Westen fürchtet weitere Anschläge http://www.manager-magazin.de/politik/artikel/nach-terror- Magazin Online attacken-in-paris-westen-fuerchtet-weitere-anschlaege-a-
1012310.html #161 10.01.2015 SPIEGEL Westen fürchtet weitere Anschläge http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/charlie-hebdo-frankreich-und-
ONLINE usa-fuerchten-weitere-anschlaege-a-1012303.html #162 10.01.2015 Der Entschlossen Solidarität mit den Opfern von "Charlie Hebdo" Tagesspiegel #163 09.01.2015 Agence France Verdächtiger nach Tötung von Polizistin bei Paris identifiziert; Presse - German Bluttat in Frankreich einen Tag nach "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag #164 09.01.2015 Agence France Imame in Frankreich: Attentäter können sich nicht auf Islam Presse - German berufen; Aufrufe zu Gewaltlosigkeit bei Freitagsgebeten #165 09.01.2015 Agence France Achtung Redaktionen Presse - German #166 09.01.2015 Agence France Alptraum mit schrecklichem Ausgang; 20 Menschen in Presse - German Frankreich seit "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag getötet #167 09.01.2015 Agence France Imame in Frankreich: Attentäter können sich nicht auf Islam xviii
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Presse - German berufen; Auch bei Zusammenkunft in Bangladesch verurteilen Muslime Anschlag #168 09.01.2015 Agence France "Charlie Hebdo"-Attentäter bei Polizeieinsatz nahe Paris getötet; Presse - German Fünf Tote bei Geiselnahme in Supermarkt - Täter sprachen sich ab #169 09.01.2015 Agence France "Charlie Hebdo"-Attentäter bei Polizeieinsatz nahe Paris getötet; Presse - German Fünf Tote bei Geiselnahme in Supermarkt - Täter sprachen sich ab #170 09.01.2015 Berliner Paris; Mindestens zwei Tote bei Geiselnahme in koscherem Morgenpost Supermarkt Online #171 09.01.2015 Berliner Terror in Frankreich; Attentäter "wollen als Märtyrer sterben" Morgenpost Online #172 09.01.2015 Berliner Zeitung "Diese Killer haben keine Angst zu sterben"; Die Terroristen stammen offenbar aus der Pariser Banlieue. Was denkt die schweigende Mehrheit der Muslime über sie? Begegnungen in der Pariser Vorstadt Gennevilliers #173 09.01.2015 dpa-AFX POLITIK: Verdächtige des 'Charlie Hebdo'-Anschlags tot - Geisel ProFeed befreit #174 09.01.2015 Frankfurter Tristesse mit Sprengkraft Rundschau #175 09.01.2015 Horizont.net Terror in Paris: Bild.de im journalistischen Kriegszustand #176 09.01.2015 Kölnische "Die Angst wird mich nicht fressen"; 100 Menschen zünden am Rundschau Dom Kerzen für die Opfer des "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlags an #177 09.01.2015 SDA- Imame in Frankreich: Attentäter können sich nicht auf Islam Basisdienst berufen Deutschland #178 09.01.2015 SDA- sda - WOCHENENDPROGRAMM – INLAND Basisdienst Deutschland #179 09.01.2015 SDA- KEYSTONE 2. Tagesprogramm für 09.01.2015 Basisdienst Deutschland #180 09.01.2015 SDA- sda - WOCHENENDPROGRAMM – INLAND Basisdienst Deutschland xix
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#181 09.01.2015 SDA- Verdächtiger nach Tötung von Polizistin bei Paris identifiziert Basisdienst Deutschland #182 09.01.2015 SDA- KEYSTONE Tagesprogramm für 09.01.2015 Basisdienst Deutschland #183 09.01.2015 SDA- KEYSTONE Tagesprogramm für 09.01.2015 Basisdienst Deutschland #184 09.01.2015 SPIEGEL Houellebecq bricht Werbetour für "Unterwerfung" ab; http://www.spiegel.de/kultur/literatur/charlie-hebdo-anschlag-
ONLINE houellebecq-bricht-werbetour-fuer-buch-ab-a-1012125.html #185 09.01.2015 WELT Terror in Frankreich; Attentäter "wollen als Märtyrer sterben" ONLINE #186 08.01.2015 Hamburger Islamisten; Salman Rushdie verteidigt Satire gegen religiöse Abendblatt Tyrannei #187 08.01.2015 Agence France Valls: Mehrere Festnahmen nach tödlichem "Charlie Hebdo"- Presse - German Anschlag #188 08.01.2015 Agence France Valls: Mehrere Festnahmen nach tödlichem "Charlie Hebdo"- Presse - German Anschlag; Laut Justizkreisen sieben Menschen in Polizeigewahrsam #189 08.01.2015 Agence France Nach "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag Fahndung auf Hochtouren; Presse - German Schwer bewaffneter tötet Polizistin in Pariser Vorort #190 08.01.2015 Agence France Nach "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag Fahndung auf Hochtouren; Presse - German Schwer Bewaffneter tötet Polizistin in Pariser Vorort #191 08.01.2015 Agence France Nach "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag Fahndung auf Hochtouren; Presse - German Großes Aufgebot von Spezialkräften in Nordfrankreich #192 08.01.2015 Agence France Für Dschihadisten ist "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag ein Presse - German Propagandaerfolg; Experten befürchten nach Attentat stärkeren Zulauf für Islamisten #193 08.01.2015 Agence France Für Dschihadisten ist "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag ein Presse - German Propagandaerfolg; Experten befürchten nach Attentat stärkeren Zulauf für Islamisten #194 08.01.2015 SPIEGEL Polizei überwachte mutmaßliche Attentäter; http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/charlie-hebdo- ONLINE tatverdaechtige-wurden-laut-innenminister-ueberwacht-a-
1011868.html #195 07.01.2015 Agence France "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag blutigster in Frankreich seit Presse - German Jahrzehnten; Eine Übersicht über Attentate der Vergangenheit xx
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
#196 07.01.2015 Agence France UN-Sicherheitsrat verurteilt Anschlag auf Satire-Zeitung in Paris; Presse - German Empörung über "barbarische und feige Terrorattacke" #197 17.01.2015 Focus Magazin Gesamttitel: Unsere Freiheit, unsere Feigheit | "Schlachtet sie mit einem Messer" #198 14.01.2015 Stuttgarter Wohngemeinschaft für muslimische Frauen Zeitung #199 10.01.2015 taz, die Jesus Charlie - wer immer das ist; DER ROTE FADEN tageszeitung #200 22.01.2015 Aachener Mit spitzer Feder und scharfer Zunge gegen Unrecht Zeitung #201 22.01.2015 Aachener Mit spitzer Feder und scharfer Zunge gegen Unrecht Nachrichten #202 16.01.2015 Frankfurter Religionen fallen nicht vom Himmel, sondern sind von Menschen Rundschau gemacht #203 15.01.2015 Agence France Merkel: Islam muss sein Verhältnis zu Extremisten klären; Papst Presse – gegen Beleidigung des Glaubens im Namen der Pressefreiheit German #204 14.01.2015 Agence France Muslime weltweit verurteilen neue Mohammed-Karikaturen; Presse - German Reaktionen auf erste "Charlie Hebdo"-Ausgabe seit Anschlag #205 10.01.2015 Aachener Muslime halten Mahnwachen ab; Attentat auf »Charlie Hebdo« Zeitung scharf verurteilt. Ditib-Generalsekretär Alboga: Terror kann nicht mit dem Islam begründet werden. SPD-Chef Gabriel ruft zum »Aufstand der Anständigen« auf. #206 10.01.2015 taz, die " 'Charlie Hebdo' darf nicht sterben"; FREIHEIT Daniel Cohn- tageszeitung Bendit, Weggefährte der ermordeten französischen Cartoonisten Wolinski und Cabu, über die Bedeutung von "Charlie Hebdo" und die Konsequenzen aus dem Massaker von Paris #207 09.01.2015 Sächsische Satire ist ein Moment der Aufklärung Zeitung Regionalausgab en #208 26.02.2015 taz, die Neue Ausgabe; "CHARLIE HEBDO" MEDIENTICKER tageszeitung #209 25.02.2015 Morgenweb Millionenauflage von neuem «Charlie-Hebdo»-Heft am Kiosk http://www.morgenweb.de/nachrichten/politik/millionenauflage-
von-neuem-charlie-hebdo-heft-am-kiosk-1.2125926 #210 25.02.2015 Die Rheinpfalz Millionenauflage von neuem «Charlie-Hebdo»-Heft am Kiosk http://www.rheinpfalz.de/nachrichten/politik/artikel/neues-charlie- hebdo-heft-in-millionenauflage-am-kiosk/ xxi
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
#211 15.02.2015 Kölner Express Galten die Schüsse Mohammed-Karikaturisten? #212 15.02.2015 SPIEGEL "Wir erlebten dasselbe wie bei 'Charlie Hebdo'"; http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/frankreichs-botschafter-als-
ONLINE augenzeuge-ueber-den-kopenhagener-anschlag-a-1018583.html #213 15.02.2015 Stern-Germany +++ Ticker zum Terroranschlag in Kopenhagen +++: Botschafter: http://www.stern.de/politik/ausland/newsticker-zum-terroranschlag- Attentäter kopierte Anschlag auf "Charlie Hebdo" in-kopenhagen-daenische-polizei-erschiesst-mutmasslichen-
attentaeter-2173607.html #214 15.02.2015 Der Kopenhagen: Attentäter war 22 Jahre jung http://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/terror-in-daenemark-
Tagesspiegel kopenhagen-attentaeter-war-22-jahre-jung/11375276.html #215 14.02.2015 Badische Terror-Alarm in Kopenhagen - 1 Toter http://www.badische-zeitung.de/nachrichten/ausland/terror-alarm-
Zeitung in-kopenhagen-1-toter
#216 12.02.2015 Tageblatt LU Charlie Hebdo - Französische Sender werden gerügt http://www.tageblatt.lu/nachrichten/europa/story/18185005 #217 04.02.2015 Abendzeitung Nach Charlie-Hebdo-Trauer: Blender! Abbas will Mohammed- http://www.abendzeitung-muenchen.de/inhalt.nach-charlie-hebdo- Zeichner bestrafen trauer-blender-abbas-will-mohammed-zeichner-bestrafen.2c371b3d-
9592-4748-800b-dbbf71a69ad2.html #218 04.02.2015 Deutsche Welle- Pakistan's Charlie Hebdo reward: No room for secular politics http://www.dw.de/pakistan-s-charlie-hebdo-reward-no-room-for-
Germany secular-politics/a-18233731 #219 04.02.2015 Deutsche Welle- Pakistan's Charlie Hebdo reward: No room for secular politics A http://www.dw.de/pakistan-s-charlie-hebdo-reward-no-room-for-
Germany former Pakistani... secular-politics/a-18233731 #220 03.02.2015 Kölnische IN KÜRZE Rundschau #221 04.02.2015 taz, die Pausiert; "CHARLIE HEBDO" MEDIENTICKER tageszeitung #222 02.02.2015 dpa-AFX VERMISCHTES/ROUNDUP: Satiremagazin 'Charlie Hebdo' ProFeed erscheint vorerst nicht #223 01.02.2015 Ostsee Zeitung- Satiremagazin „Charlie Hebdo" macht Pause http://www.ostsee- Germany zeitung.de/Nachrichten/Wirtschaft/Satiremagazin-Charlie-Hebdo-
macht-Pause #224 29.01.2015 SPIEGEL Bulgarien liefert Freund von "Charlie Hebdo"-Attentäter aus; http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/bulgarien-liefert-freund-von-
ONLINE charlie-hebdo-attentaeter-aus-a-1015749.html #225 21.01.2015 Agence France Ermittlungsverfahren gegen mutmaßliche Coulibaly-Unterstützer; Presse - German Männer sollen für Islamisten in Waffengeschäften eingekauft haben #226 21.01.2015 Welt kompakt Die Problemsiedlung des SupermarktKillers; Diskriminierung aufgrund der Hautfarbe, Arbeitslosigkeit, kaum Perspektiven: Hier begann Amédy Coulibalys kriminelle Karriere #227 20.01.2015 Aachener Betroffenheit: »Paris ist eigentlich überall«; Beim xxii
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Zeitung Neujahrsempfang der Frauen-Union wird der Wunsch nach Frieden - verbunden mit Meinungs- und Pressefreiheit – betont #228 20.01.2015 Aachener Betroffenheit: »Paris ist eigentlich überall«; Beim Nachrichten Neujahrsempfang der Frauen-Union wird der Wunsch nach Frieden - verbunden mit Meinungs- und Pressefreiheit – betont #229 18.01.2015 Welt am Von Pegida eingeholt; Christian Stückl und das Münchner Sonntag Volkstheater bemühen Lessings "Nathan" und die Aufklärung für die Vision einer friedlichen Koexistenz der Religionen #230 17.01.2015 SDA- Run auf "Charlie Hebdo"-Ausgabe in Frankreich geht weiter Basisdienst Deutschland #231 17.01.2015 SPIEGEL Warten auf "Hebdo" http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/charlie-hebdo-ansturm-
ONLINE in-deutschland-demos-in-muslimischen-laendern-a-1013519.html #232 17.01.2015 Der Spiegel Ein Land der Bürgerkriege #233 16.01.2015 dpa-AFX dpa-AFX Überblick: POLITIK vom 16.1.2015 - 18.20 Uhr ProFeed #234 16.01.2015 WELT Mohammed-Karikaturen; Davutoglu will die Ehre des Propheten ONLINE verteidigen #235 15.01.2015 Agence France Al-Kaida fühlt sich durch "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag gestärkt; Presse - German Gruppe verlor zuletzt gegenüber Islamischem Staat an Bedeutung #236 15.01.2015 Agence France Streit um Meinungsfreiheit nach "Charlie Hebdo"-Anschlag Presse - German zugespitzt; Papst: Der Glauben anderer darf nicht beleidigt werden #237 15.01.2015 Berliner "Charlie Hebdo"; "Chefredakteur hat Redaktion in den Tod Morgenpost getrieben" Online #238 15.01.2015 Berliner Mohammed Karikaturen; Davutoglu will die Ehre des Propheten Morgenpost verteidigen Online #239 15.01.2015 SDA- sda - TAGESPROGRAMM - AUSLAND Basisdienst Deutschland #240 15.01.2015 WELT Mohammed-Karikaturen; Davutoglu will die Ehre des Propheten ONLINE verteidigen #241 15.01.2015 ZEIT-Online Drei Tage Terror in Paris; Was geschah genau zwischen dem 7. und 9. Januar 2015? Der Versuch einer ersten Rekonstruktion
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#242 14.01.2015 Berliner "Charlie Hebdo"; AlQaida im Jemen bekennt sich zu Paris Morgenpost Angriff Online #243 14.01.2015 dpa-AFX POLITIK/GESAMT-ROUNDUP: Reißender Absatz - Al-Kaida- ProFeed Bekenntnis zu Terror #244 14.01.2015 EuroNews- Moslems reagieren meist kritisch auf neues "Charlie-Hebdo"- Deutsche Titelbild Version #245 14.01.2015 Die Presse Und der Prophet weint: Islamgelehrte verurteilen "Charlie Hebdo"-Karikatur #246 14.01.2015 Die Presse Und der Prophet weint: Islamgelehrte verurteilen "Charlie Hebdo"-Karikatur #247 14.01.2015 SDA- Tagesüberblick - Mittwoch, 14. Januar 2015 Basisdienst Deutschland #248 14.01.2015 taz, die Das Extrablatt; FRANKREICH Die erste Ausgabe von "Charlie tageszeitung Hebdo" nach dem Anschlag erscheint heute in Millionenauflage. Die vorab veröffentlichte Titelseite sorgt bereits für erste Diskussionen. In Deutschland soll es die Spezialausgabe erst ab Samstag im Handel geben #249 13.01.2015 dpa-AFX POLITIK/'Alles ist vergeben': 'Charlie-Hebdo' mit Mohammed- ProFeed Zeichnung #250 13.01.2015 SDA- Trauer um Polizisten in Paris - Hollande gedenkt der Terror- Basisdienst Opfer Deutschland #251 12.01.2015 dpa-AFX POLITIK: Nächstes 'Charlie-Hebdo'-Heft mit drei Millionen ProFeed Auflage geplant #252 12.01.2015 dpa-AFX POLITIK: Französische Karikaturisten gegen Pegida - Facebook- ProFeed Seite online #253 12.01.2015 Horizont.net Charlie Hebdo: "Zärtlichkeit zwischen Völkern" - Das sagen die Medien über den historischen Trauerzug #254 11.01.2015 Agence France Frankreichs Präsident umarmt und tröstet "Charlie Hebdo"- Presse - German Kolumnisten; Notarzt Pelloux nach Anschlag als einer der ersten am Tatort #255 11.01.2015 SPIEGEL "Pegida, verschwinde" http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/anti-pegida-karikatur-
ONLINE karikaturisten-stellen-sich-gegen-pegida-a-1012445.html #256 10.01.2015 Berliner TerrorAttacken; "Charlie Hebdo"Attentäter bei Polizeizugriff xxiv
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Morgenpost getötet Online #257 10.01.2015 Berliner TerrorAttacken; Drei Tage, an denen Frankreich zur Kriegszone Morgenpost wurde Online #258 10.01.2015 General- Houellebecq verlässt Paris; Reaktionen aus der Kulturszene Anzeiger (Bonn) #259 10.01.2015 Nürnberger Auch deutsche Medien als Terror-Ziel?; Bundeskriminalamt Nachrichten warnt vor möglichen Anschlägen - Polizeibesuch in Redaktionen #260 10.01.2015 Stuttgarter Medien spenden für 'Charlie Hebdo'; Paris Zeitung #261 10.01.2015 Stuttgarter Medien spenden für 'Charlie Hebdo'; Paris Zeitung #262 10.01.2015 Stuttgarter Pariser Polizei erschießt Attentäter - auch Geiseln tot; 90 000 Nachrichten Sicherheitskräfte jagen die Terroristen durch Frankreich - Überfall auf jüdischen Laden #263 10.01.2015 taz, die Das Ende einer Jagd; FRANKREICH Die Terrorjagd ist beendet, tageszeitung die Attentäter sind tot. "Charlie Hebdo" plant die nächste Ausgabe #264 10.01.2015 WELT Terror-Attacken; "Charlie Hebdo"-Attentäter bei Polizeizugriff ONLINE getötet #265 10.01.2015 WELT Terror-Attacken; Drei Tage, an denen Frankreich zur Kriegszone ONLINE wurde #266 09.01.2015 Hamburger "Charlie Hebdo"; Mutmaßliche Attentäter verschanzen sich mit Abendblatt Geiseln #267 09.01.2015 Agence France Zusammenhang zwischen Anschlag in Paris und Mord an Presse - German Polizistin; Laut Polizei gibt es "Verbindung" zwischen mutmaßlichen Tätern #268 09.01.2015 Agence France Iranischer Präsident verurteilt Terrorismus an allen Orten; Ruhani Presse - German wirft Tätern Förderung der Islamfeindlichkeit vor #269 09.01.2015 Agence France Die Verbindung zwischen drei Bluttaten in Paris; Mutmaßliche Presse - German Täter kannten sich offenbar #270 09.01.2015 Agence France Die Verbindung zwischen drei Bluttaten in Paris; Mutmaßliche Presse - German Täter kannten sich offenbar #271 09.01.2015 Berliner Großfahndung; Zugriff auf TerrorVerdächtige von Paris läuft Morgenpost xxv
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
Online #272 09.01.2015 Berliner Anschlag in Paris; Attentäter ließ sich von al Qaida im Jemen Morgenpost ausbilden Online #273 09.01.2015 dpa-AFX POLITIK/ROUNDUP: Schießerei und Verfolgungsjagd - Bericht ProFeed über Geiselnahme #274 09.01.2015 Mitteldeutsche Frankreich jagt die Täter; FAHNDUNG Die Terroristen sind Zeitung- bekannt. Ihre Flucht lässt die Menschen zittern. Germany #275 09.01.2015 SDA- Stadt Paris macht "Charlie Hebdo" zum Ehrenbürger Basisdienst Deutschland #276 09.01.2015 SDA- Iranischer Präsident verurteilt Terrorismus an allen Orten Basisdienst Deutschland #277 09.01.2015 SDA- Zusammenhang zwischen Anschlag in Paris und Mord an Basisdienst Polizistin Deutschland #278 09.01.2015 SPIEGEL Polizei beendet zwei Geiselnahmen http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/terror-in-paris-polizei-toetet-
ONLINE attentaeter-und-befreit-geiseln-a-1012282.html #279 09.01.2015 Der Standard Wir lassen uns nicht einschüchtern; Die Antwort auf die Pariser Attentate formulierte Stoltenberg: Mehr Demokratie #280 09.01.2015 ZEIT-Online "Wir trauern mit euch, aber ..."; "Wir sind Charlie", lautet die Botschaft erstaunlich vieler arabischer Medien nach dem Pariser Massaker. Doch es gibt auch Kritik an der Heroisierung von "Charlie Hebdo". #281 08.01.2015 Hamburger Anschlag auf "Charlie Hebdo"; Helfer der Attentäter stellt sich Abendblatt der Polizei #282 08.01.2015 Agence France Mann eröffnet Feuer auf Polizisten im Süden von Paris; Zwei Presse - German lebensgefährlich Verletzte - Verdächtiger festgenommen #283 08.01.2015 Agence France Umfrage: Mehrheit der Deutschen empfindet Islam als Presse - German Bedrohung; Die meisten Muslime fühlen sich aber als Teil des Landes #284 08.01.2015 Agence France Nach Anschlag in Paris Trauerbeflaggung in Deutschland; Presse - German Bundesbehörden und Städte setzen Fahnen auf Halbmast #285 08.01.2015 dpa-AFX POLITIK: Houellebecq will islamkritischen Roman nicht mehr ProFeed bewerben xxvi
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#286 08.01.2015 dpa-AFX POLITIK/ROUNDUP: Terroristen von Paris auf der Flucht - ProFeed Polizei bittet um Hilfe #287 08.01.2015 SPIEGEL Zwei Brüder unter Verdacht http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/charlie-hebdo-paris-die-
ONLINE polizei-hat-die-verdaechtigen-identifiziert-a-1011818.html #288 08.01.2015 Tages-Anzeiger Märtyrer für die freie Meinung #289 08.01.2015 taz, die Ihr wolltet töten? Ihr habt "Charlie Hebdo" unsterblich gemacht; tageszeitung REAKTIONEN Muslimische Verbände verurteilen den Anschlag, nicht nur in Frankreich #290 08.01.2015 Wirtschaftsblatt Massaker in Redaktion, Täter auf der Flucht; Terror in Frankreich #291 08.01.2015 ZEIT-Online "Wir sind doch klüger als die Terroristen"; Seit dem Anschlag auf "Charlie Hebdo" ist Paris im Ausnahmezustand - mit einem großen Gefühl der Solidarität. Ganz besonders in der Nähe des Tatorts #292 07.01.2015 Hamburger "Charlie Hebdo"; Zehntausende gedenken der Anschlagsopfer Abendblatt von Paris #293 07.01.2015 Agence France Achtung Redaktionen Presse - German #294 07.01.2015 Agence France Schärfere Sicherheitsmaßnahmen bei dänischem Blatt "Jyllands- Presse - German Posten"; Reaktion auf Anschlag bei "Charlie Hebdo" #295 07.01.2015 Agence France Ban verurteilt "entsetzlichen" Anschlag in Paris; UN- Presse - German Menschenrechtskommissar warnt vor fremdenfeindlicher Reaktion #296 07.01.2015 Agence France Achtung Redaktionen Presse - German #297 07.01.2015 Agence France Acht Journalisten und zwei Polizisten unter Toten von Paris; Presse - German Staatsanwaltschaft spricht von elf Verletzten - Fahndung läuft #298 07.01.2015 dpa-AFX POLITIK/STICHWORT: 'Charlie Hebdo' - Satireblatt mit ProFeed Skandal-Tradition #299 07.01.2015 Horizont.net Satiremagazin Charlie Hebdo: Mindestens zehn Tote bei Anschlag in Paris #300 07.01.2015 wuv.de Werben Viele Tote bei Anschlag auf Pariser Satireblatt "Charlie Hebdo" und Verkaufen Online #301 28.01.2015 Sächsische Die Partei hat immer recht; Beim Stammtisch der Satirepartei Zeitung "Die Partei" ist es laut, lustig und liederlich. Hunde müssen nicht Stammausgabe draußen bleiben. xxvii
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Dresden #302 13.01.2015 taz, die Bloß weg hier; DIE WERBEPAUSE tageszeitung #303 12.01.2015 Agence France Kommentar "Nürnberger Nachrichten": "Charlie Hebdo"/Pegida; Presse - German (Teil zehn) #304 11.01.2015 Agence France Kommentar "Rhein-Zeitung": "Charlie Hebdo"/Pegida; (Teil Presse - German sieben) #305 09.01.2015 Frankfurter "Unser tiefes Mitgefühl gilt den Angehörigen der Ermordeten" Rundschau #306 09.01.2015 Sächsische Satire ist ein Moment der Aufklärung Zeitung Regionalausgab en #307 09.01.2015 Sächsische Satire ist ein Moment der Aufklärung Zeitung Stammausgabe Dresden #308 15.02.2015 Neue Züricher Gut einen Monat nach den Anschlägen von Paris üben die http://www.nzz.ch/aktuell/startseite/eu-einig-ueber-neues-anti-
Zeitung Teilnehmer des EU-Gipfels den Schulterschluss im Kampf gegen terror-paket-1.18482291 Terrorismus und Extremismus. Sie schnüren ein Paket, das ihre Länder besser schützen soll. #309 13.02.2015 Neue Züricher Nach Anschlägen von Paris: EU einig über neues Anti-Terror- http://www.nzz.ch/international/europa/eu-einig-ueber-neues-anti-
Zeitung Paket terror-paket-1.18482291 #310 13.02.2015 Neue Züricher Nach Anschlägen von Paris: EU einig über neues Anti-Terror- http://www.nzz.ch/international/europa/eu-einig-ueber-neues-anti-
Zeitung Paket terror-paket-1.18482291 #311 13.02.2015 Neue Züricher Intensivere Terrorbekämpfung: EU http://www.nzz.ch/international/europa/eu-einig-ueber-neues-anti-
Zeitung terror-paket-1.18482291 #312 13.02.2015 Neue Züricher Intensivere Terrorbekämpfung: EU-Gipfel beschließt neue http://www.nzz.ch/international/europa/eu-einig-ueber-neues-anti-
Zeitung Maßnahmen terror-paket-1.18482291 #313 26.01.2015 Die Presse "Gabalier ist eine heilige Kuh" #314 26.01.2015 Die Presse "Gabalier ist eine heilige Kuh" #315 11.01.2015 Agence France Kommentar "Neue Osnabrücker Zeitung": "Charlie Presse - German Hebdo"/Sicherheit; (Teil drei) #316 21.03.2015 Bild http://www.bild.de/bild-plus/politik/ausland/charlie-hebdo/nach-
den-terroranschlaegen-von-paris-40250432.bild.html
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#317 20.02.2015 Süddeutsche Deutsch-französische Freundschaft: Merkels "lieber Freund" in http://sz.de/1.2358454 Zeitung Paris #318 20.02.2015 Süddeutsche Merkels "lieber Freund" in Paris http://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/deutsch-franzoesische-
Zeitung freundschaft-merkels-lieber-freund-in-paris-1.2358454
#319 20.02.2015 Süddeutsche Deutsch-französische Freundschaft: Merkels "lieber Freund" in http://sz.de/1.2358454 Zeitung Paris #320 27.01.2015 Berliner Nach "Charlie Hebdo"; Der Terror kann uns nichts anhaben? Von Morgenpost wegen! Online #321 27.01.2015 WELT Nach "Charlie Hebdo"; Der Terror kann uns nichts anhaben? Von ONLINE wegen! #322 11.01.2015 Agence France Kommentar "Rhein-Zeitung": "Charlie Hebdo"/Pegida; (Teil Presse - German sieben) #323 10.01.2015 Berliner Kurier Explosionen, Schüsse und 4 tote Geiseln; "Charlie Hebdo"- Attentäter im Nordosten von Paris getötet. Geiselnahme in jüdischem Supermarkt endet blutig. Präsident Hollande hatte den Doppelzugriff angeordnet #324 10.01.2015 Kölnische Polizei tötet die Attentäter; Terroristenjagd in Frankreich nimmt Rundschau blutiges Ende - Vier Geiseln kommen ums Leben #325 12.01.2015 WELT "Charlie Hebdo"; Terrorismus gegen Europa hat sich lange ONLINE ausgezahlt #326 10.01.2015 Berliner "Charlie Hebdo"; Terrorismus gegen Europa hat sich lange Morgenpost ausgezahlt Online #327 10.01.2015 WELT "Charlie Hebdo"; Terrorismus gegen Europa hat sich lange ONLINE ausgezahlt #328 09.01.2015 Computerwoche SPD und Opposition dagegen; Neue Debatte über Vorratsdatenspeicherung #329 19.02.2015 La Voix du L'islam «pris en otage» Nord #330 07.01.2015 Agence France Attentat contre Charlie Hebdo: l'imam de Bordeaux appelle les Presse musulmans à manifester leur colère #331 13.01.2015 Le Figaro De «Je suis Charlie» à «Nous sommes français»: pour le retour du Online service national #332 18.02.2015 Midi Libre HEXAGONE #333 06.02.2015 France2 AU MODÉRATEUR ARABEDE TON MAGHREB TU http://forums.france2.fr/france2/cap/moderateur-arriveras-museler-
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N'ARRIVERAS PAS À NOUS MUSELER COMME T'ES sujet_12134_1.htm#97822601_1 FRERES ONT ASSASSINÉ CHARLIE HEBDOISLAM = ASSASSINS DE CHARLIE HEBDO #334 03.02.2015 Jeune Afrique Mauritanie : Aziz n'est pas Charlie http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/JA2820p044.xml0/mohamed- ould-abdelaziz-islam-apostasie-charlie-hebdo-islam-mauritanie-
aziz-n-est-pas-charlie.html #335 05.02.2015 Le Figaro Belgique : un étudiant dit avoir été agressé pour avoir défendu letudiant.fr Charlie Hebdo #336 03.02.2015 Le Figaro Joshua Mitchell: «L'islam radical veut exercer un droit absolu sur Online le monde» #337 22.01.2015 L'Opinion.fr Islam : faut-il adapter la loi de 1905 ?; Depuis les attentats des 7 et 9 janvier, on ne parle plus que de laïcité. Sans vouloir poser la question qui fâche, celle de la place de l'islam en France. Un tabou qu'il faut briser #338 22.01.2015 L'Opinion.fr Islam : faut-il adapter la loi de 1905 ?; Depuis les attentats des 7 et 9 janvier, on ne parle plus que de laïcité. Sans vouloir poser la question qui fâche, celle de la place de l'islam en France. Un tabou qu'il faut briser #339 19.01.2015 Le Figaro Dominique de Villepin: «"Je suis Charlie", ça ne peut pas être le Online seul message de la France» #340 19.01.2015 Le Figaro Tuerie de Vincennes: le sort de la France est lié à celui de ses Online Juifs #341 16.01.2015 Le Figaro Rémi Brague: «En France, on a le droit de tout dire, sauf ce qui Online fâche» #342 15.01.2015 CENTRE Al-Qaïda revendique l'attaque, la Turquie dénonce une PRESSE provocation #343 15.01.2015 Le Figaro François Hollande veut rassurer les musulmans Online #344 14.01.2015 Le Figaro Caricaturer ou pas, l'impossible choix Online #345 12.01.2015 Le Figaro Chantal Delsol: va-t-on continuer à nier le «Totalitarisme vert»? Online #346 12.01.2015 Le Figaro Va-t-on continuer à nier le «Totalitarisme vert»? Online #347 09.01.2015 Le Figaro Terrorisme islamiste: cette guerre qui commence était hélas Online prévisible!
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Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
#348 09.01.2015 Le Figaro «Nous sommes tous Charlie», vraiment? Online #349 08.01.2015 Le Figaro Boualem Sansal: l'islam de la discorde Online #350 07.01.2015 Le Figaro Charlie Hebdo: l'islam de France redoute les amalgames Online #351 07.01.2015 Le Figaro Charlie Hebdo : l'islam "trahi" (président Ali Bongo) Newsflash- News #352 18.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 09H00 Presse #353 17.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 21H00 Presse #354 16.01.2015 Le Figaro Le bâtonnier de Paris : « Rien ne me choque dans les mesures Online prises ces derniers jours » #355 28.01.2015 Métro Menacé, Facebook censure des pages sur Mahomet en Turquie http://www.metronews.fr/info/charlie-hebdo-menace-facebook- censure-des-pages-sur-mahomet-en- turquie/moaB!0DkWdR0YNVrg/ #356 15.01.2015 Agence France Pour le pape François, la liberté d'expression ne donne pas le droit Presse de moquer la religion d'autrui #357 15.01.2015 LePoint.fr "Charlie Hebdo" - Pape François : "On ne peut insulter la foi des autres" #358 10.01.2015 CourierInternati CHARLIE HEBDO; Menaces sur les cartoonistes turcs onal.com #359 08.01.2015 Les Echos 45 ans d'insolence foudroyés #360 07.01.2015 Le Figaro Charlie Hebdo pris pour cible depuis plusieurs années Online #361 07.01.2015 Les Echos.fr Charlie Hebdo : 45 ans d'insolence foudroyés #362 25.02.2015 Agence France A NOTER POUR AUJOURD'HUI... MERCREDI 25 FEVRIER Presse 2015 #363 20.02.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 19H00 Presse #364 17.02.2015 RTL-Belgium Cet élu pakistanais offre 200.000$ à qui tuera le propriétaire de http://rtl.feedsportal.com/c/32887/f/655650/s/4377a9c4/sc/3/l/0L0Sr Charlie Hebdo: Paris ouvre une enquête tl0Bbe0Cinfo0Cmonde0Cinternational0Ccet0Eelu0Epakistanais0Eo ffre0E20A0A0E0A0A0Adollars0Ea0Equi0Etuera0Ele0Eproprietair e0Ede0Echarlie0Ehebdo0Eparis0Eouvre0Eune0Eenquete0E70A111 xxxi
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
50Baspx/story01.htm #365 17.02.2015 RTL-Belgium Cet élu pakistanais offre 200.000$ à qui tuera le propriétaire de http://rtl.feedsportal.com/c/32887/f/584161/s/4377ba11/sc/3/l/0L0Sr Charlie Hebdo: Paris ouvre une enquête tl0Bbe0Cinfo0Cmonde0Cinternational0Ccet0Eelu0Epakistanais0Eo ffre0E20A0A0E0A0A0Adollars0Ea0Equi0Etuera0Ele0Eproprietair e0Ede0Echarlie0Ehebdo0Eparis0Eouvre0Eune0Eenquete0E70A111
50Baspx/story01.htm #366 17.02.2015 RTL-Belgium Cet élu pakistanais offre 200.000$ à qui tuera le propriétaire de http://rtl.feedsportal.com/c/32887/f/655650/s/4377a9c4/sc/3/l/0L0Sr Charlie Hebdo: Paris ouvre une enquête tl0Bbe0Cinfo0Cmonde0Cinternational0Ccet0Eelu0Epakistanais0Eo ffre0E20A0A0E0A0A0Adollars0Ea0Equi0Etuera0Ele0Eproprietair e0Ede0Echarlie0Ehebdo0Eparis0Eouvre0Eune0Eenquete0E70A111
50Baspx/story01.htm #367 17.02.2015 RTL-Belgium Cet élu pakistanais offre 200.000$ à qui tuera le propriétaire de http://rtl.feedsportal.com/c/32887/f/584161/s/4377ba11/sc/3/l/0L0Sr Charlie Hebdo: Paris ouvre une enquête tl0Bbe0Cinfo0Cmonde0Cinternational0Ccet0Eelu0Epakistanais0Eo ffre0E20A0A0E0A0A0Adollars0Ea0Equi0Etuera0Ele0Eproprietair e0Ede0Echarlie0Ehebdo0Eparis0Eouvre0Eune0Eenquete0E70A111
50Baspx/story01.htm #368 15.02.2015 La Libre Attentat à Copenhague: "L'Europe ne se laissera pas intimider" http://www.lalibre.be/actu/international/attentat-a-copenhague-l-
Belgique europe-ne-se-laissera-pas-intimider-54df876e35700d7522943e63 #369 14.02.2015 La Libre Attentat à Copenhague: "L'Europe ne se laissera pas intimider" http://www.lalibre.be/actu/international/attentat-a-copenhague-l-
Belgique europe-ne-se-laissera-pas-intimider-54df876e35700d7522943e63 #370 13.02.2015 Agence France La semaine judiciaire Presse #371 27.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 23H00 Presse #372 27.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 21H00 Presse #373 22.01.2015 Le Figaro Les dix-sept victimes des attentats de Charlie Hebdo Online #374 18.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 19H00 Presse #375 15.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 11H00 Presse #376 15.01.2015 LePoint.fr Attentats : YouTube a mis 6 jours à bloquer la vidéo intégrale de l'exécution d'Ahmed #377 14.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 13H00 Presse
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#378 14.01.2015 Agence France A NOTER POUR AUJOURD'HUI... MERCREDI 14 JANVIER Presse 2015 #379 13.01.2015 Le Figaro Voltaire, je crie ton nom Économique #380 13.01.2015 Le Figaro Voltaire, je crie ton nom; ÉDITION Son « Traité sur la tolérance » est entré dans les meilleures ventes après les attaques terroristes et la marche républicaine. #381 12.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 19H00 Presse #382 12.01.2015 Bulletin Charlie Hebdo / Paris : Le Conseil de Paris, réuni vendredi en Qutidien séance extraordinaire, a observé une minute de silence en hommage aux victimes de l'attentat, avant de faire de "Charlie Hebdo" un citoyen #383 12.01.2015 LePoint.fr Terrorisme : l'Élysée consacre sa matinée à la sécurité intérieure #384 11.01.2015 Agence France Prévisions internationales du dimanche 11 janvier Presse (ACTUALISEES A 03H00 GMT) #385 10.01.2015 Agence France Prévisions internationales du samedi 10 janvier (actualisées à Presse 21H00 GMT) #386 10.01.2015 Agence France Prévisions internationales du samedi 10 janvier (actualisées à Presse 16H30 GMT) #387 10.01.2015 Le Parisien « Paris accorde à un journal le respect dû aux héros » #388 09.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 15H00 Presse #389 09.01.2015 Agence France Charlie Hebdo fait citoyen d'honneur de la Ville de Paris Presse #390 09.01.2015 Agence France Minute de silence au Conseil de Paris pour Charlie Hebdo Presse #391 09.01.2015 La Gazette des Charlie Hebdo fait citoyen d'honneur de la Ville de Paris communes.fr #392 09.01.2015 Le Figaro À Paris ce week-end : Charlie, galettes, Rocky et voitures Online anciennes #393 09.01.2015 Le Figaro Charlie Hebdo: fait citoyen d'honneur de la Ville de Paris Newsflash- News #394 09.01.2015 News Press Charlie Hebdo fait citoyen d'honneur de la ville de Paris à l'unanimité au Conseil de Paris xxxiii
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
#395 09.01.2015 Paris- Des renforts et un patron ; Sécurité. La police municipale est Normandie renforcée avec l'arrivée de quatre agents supplémentaires sous la houlette d'un nouveau chef. #396 09.01.2015 Paris- Des renforts et un patron ; Sécurité. La police municipale est Normandie renforcée avec l'arrivée de quatre agents supplémentaires sous la houlette d'un nouveau chef. #397 08.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 09H00 Presse #398 08.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 07H00 Presse #399 08.01.2015 Agence France A NOTER POUR AUJOURD'HUI... JEUDI 8 JANVIER 2015 Presse #400 07.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 23H00 Presse #401 07.01.2015 Agence France La journée en un clin d'oeil: le tour de l'actualité du mercredi 7 Presse janvier #402 07.01.2015 Agence France Charlie Hebdo: Paris se barricade Presse #403 07.01.2015 Le Figaro Paris : plusieurs victimes dans une fusillade au siège de Charlie Online Hebdo #404 07.01.2015 LePoint.fr "Charlie Hebdo" : Paris sous "protection renforcée" #405 13.01.2015 Midi Libre Pegida étend son « refus de l'islamisation » #406 12.01.2015 Agence France Merkel en première ligne contre le mouvement anti-islam qui Presse mobilise à Dresde #407 12.01.2015 Agence France Allemagne: le mouvement anti-islam veut profiter des attentats Presse pour gonfler ses troupes #408 12.01.2015 LePoint.fr Allemagne : le mouvement anti-islam veut profiter des attentats pour gonfler ses troupes #409 12.01.2015 SDA-Service de Merkel monte au front contre le mouvement anti-islam Pegida base français #410 10.01.2015 Agence France Allemagne: 35.000 personnes contre le mouvement anti-islam Presse Pegida à Dresde #411 10.01.2015 Le Figaro Allemagne: manif de rejet des anti-islam Pegida Newsflash- News #412 10.01.2015 SDA-Service de Grande manifestation contre le mouvement anti-islam Pegida à xxxiv
Moving Towards Securitization – How the Paris Atacks were Used to Justify Extraordinary Measures
base français Dresde #413 16.01.2015 Le Figaro Pour lutter contre la radicalisation en prison: les mesures qui Online s'imposent vraiment #414 16.01.2015 Le Figaro Charlie Hebdo: prison pour un manifestant russe solidaire Newsflash- News #415 13.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 17H00 Presse #416 13.01.2015 Agence France La Une en France à 15H00 Presse #417 13.01.2015 Agence France Charlie Hebdo, radicalisation marginale ou raté de l'intégration? Presse #418 15.01.2015 L'Est 1.154 hommes en renfort; Sécurité Le plan Vigipirate « vigilance Républicain renforcée » est maintenu dans les cinq régions du quart Nord-Est avec le déploiement de plus de 400 policiers et gendarmes ainsi que 700 militaires sur 65 sites sensibles #419 15.01.2045 L'Est Vigilance Républicain #420 15.01.2015 L'Est Les CRS présents devant la synagogue de Nancy. Photo Républicain Alexandre MARCHI #421 15.01.2015 L'Est 1.154 hommes en renfort; Sécurité Le plan Vigipirate « vigilance Républicain renforcée » est maintenu dans les cinq régions du quart Nord-Est #422 15.01.2015 L'Est Des militaires du 3e régiment de hussards de Metz avec leurs Républicain fusils d'assaut FAMAS en faction devant la synagogue de Nancy, une semaine après la série d'attentats à Paris, notamment au journal hebdomadaire satirique Charlie Hebdo ayant fait douze morts. Photo Alexandre MARCHI #423 15.01.2015 Le Figaro L'UMP précise ses propositions sur la déchéance de nationalité Online des terroristes #424 12.01.2015 Le Figaro Bernard Squarcini : «Il faut légaliser les opérations spéciales» Online #425 11.01.2015 Agence France Prévisions internationales du dimanche 11 janvier Presse (ACTUALISEES A 03H00 GMT) #426 10.01.2015 Agence France Prévisions internationales du samedi 10 janvier (actualisées à Presse 21H00 GMT) #427 08.01.2015 Agence France Charlie Hebdo : sécurité renforcée dans les ports britanniques,
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Presse drapeau en berne #428 07.01.2015 Le Figaro Charlie Hebdo : sécurité renforcée au journal danois Newsflash- News #429 18.01.2015 Le Figaro Depuis les attentats, la justice a prononcé 132 condamnations Online pour apologie du terrorisme #430 05.03.2015 TF1 L'Hyper Cacher de Vincennes est sur le point de rouvrir http://lci.tf1.fr/france/faits-divers/l-hyper-cacher-de-vincennes-est-
sur-le-point-de-rouvrir-8574766.html #431 08.02.2015 Métro Le sénateur UDI Pozzo di Borgo s'inquiète de la diffusion http://www.metronews.fr/info/charlie-hebdo-terrorisme-american- d'"American Sniper" en France sniper-le-senateur-udi-yves-pozzo-di-borgo-s-inquiete-de-la- diffusion-du-dernier-film-de-clint-eastwood-en- france/mobh!wiBkggqQ0laM/ #432 04.02.2015 Le Figaro Pourquoi pointer les chrétiens du doigt pour les exactions des Online terroristes islamistes? #433 04.02.2015 TF1 Dieudonné condamne les attentats et dit "s'être senti exclu" de la http://lci.tf1.fr/france/justice/dieudonne-condamne-les-attentats-et-
marche dit-s-etre-senti-exclu-de-8559246.html #434 02.02.2015 Métro Ces juifs azuréens qui quittent la France http://www.metronews.fr/nice-cannes/charlie-hebdo-terrorisme-ces- juifs-azureens-qui-quittent-la-france/moba!gxqjkBNYqIUdo/ #435 02.02.2015 Métro Le Clézio prône l'ouverture des frontières http://www.metronews.fr/culture/charlie-hebdo-terrorisme-michel- houellebecq-jean-marie-gustave-le-clezio-soumission-n-est-pas-une- bonne-idee/mobb!7YEqUXkHFvAFo/ #436 31.01.2015 TF1 Coulibaly a sans doute envoyé les images de la tuerie de l'Hyper http://lci.tf1.fr/france/faits-divers/coulibaly-a-sans-doute-envoye-
Cacher les-images-de-la-tuerie-de-l-hyper-8556663.html #437 28.01.2015 TF1 Patrice, directeur de l'Hyper Casher : "Tout à coup, j'ai entendu http://lci.tf1.fr/france/faits-divers/patrice-directeur-de-l-hyper-
une détonation très forte" casher-tout-a-coup-j-ai-entendu-une-8555134.html #438 28.01.2015 TF1 A 8 ans, il est convoqué au commissariat pour apologie d'acte de http://lci.tf1.fr/france/faits-divers/a-8-ans-il-est-convoque-au-
terrorisme commissariat-pour-apologie-d-acte-de-8555378.html #439 28.01.2015 TF1 A 8 ans, un élève de CE2 convoqué au commissariat pour http://lci.tf1.fr/france/faits-divers/a-8-ans-il-est-convoque-au-
apologie d'acte de terrorisme commissariat-pour-apologie-d-acte-de-8555378.html #440 21.01.2015 Le Figaro Charlie Hebdo : l'itinéraire des frères Kouachi Online #441 20.01.2015 Le Figaro La grande traque des tueurs de Charlie Hebdo Online #442 20.01.2015 Le Figaro Manuel Valls, le pari du «temps long» Online #443 20.01.2015 Le Figaro Terrorisme : Valls dénonce « l'apartheid » dans les quartiers
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Online #444 16.01.2015 Le Figaro L'imam et la République Online #445 15.01.2015 Le Figaro «Même pas peur» : le message des journalistes pour la liberté de Online la presse #446 15.01.2015 Le Figaro Le Pape : «En matière de liberté d'expression, il y a des limites» Online #447 14.01.2015 Le Figaro Manuel Valls redevient Manuel Valls Online #448 13.01.2015 Le Figaro Gueniffey : ce qu'est le terrorisme Online #449 13.01.2015 Le Figaro Gueniffey : « Le terroriste se vit comme l'instrument du destin » Online #450 13.01.2015 Le Figaro Condamnations en série pour apologie du terrorisme Online #451 13.01.2015 Le Figaro Goldnadel: «Je le confesse, je ne suis pas allé marcher» Online #452 13.01.2015 Le Figaro Barack Obama empêtré dans son faux pas médiatique Online #453 13.01.2015 Le Figaro Marine Le Pen veut «désarmer» les banlieues françaises Online #454 11.01.2015 Agence France Agenda Europe du dimanche 11 janvier Presse #455 11.01.2015 Le Figaro L'impressionnante liste des politiques présents à la marche à Paris Online #456 11.01.2015 Le Figaro Nétanyahou et Abbas participeront à la marche républicaine Online #457 11.01.2015 L'Opinion.fr Attentats : après l'émotion, une foule de questions; Après avoir offert dimanche une spectaculaire image d'unité et de solidarité face au terrorisme, le pays se trouve confronté à des défis multiformes #458 11.01.2015 L'Opinion.fr Attentats : après l'émotion, une foule de questions; Après avoir offert dimanche une spectaculaire image d'unité et de solidarité face au terrorisme, le pays se trouve confronté à des défis multiformes #459 10.01.2015 Agence France Agenda Europe du dimanche 11 janvier
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Presse #460 09.01.2015 Le Figaro «La communauté musulmane vit son pire cauchemar» Online #461 09.01.2015 Le Figaro Je suis Charlie, un héros si discret Online #462 09.01.2015 Le Figaro Prise d'otages : comment procèdent les négociateurs Online #463 09.01.2015 Le Figaro Hugues Moutouh: sommes-nous condamnés à être faibles parce Online que nous sommes civilisés? #464 09.01.2015 sante.lefigaro.fr Otages : «L'enjeu est d'éviter les séquelles traumatiques à long terme» #465 08.01.2015 Le Figaro Au nom de notre liberté Online #466 08.01.2015 Le Figaro Des Buttes-Chaumont à Daech, dix ans de filières djihadistes vers Online l'Irak et la Syrie #467 08.01.2015 Le Figaro Projet de loi antiterroriste et sécurité renforcée à Londres Online #468 08.01.2015 Le Figaro En Allemagne, les anti-islam de Pegida veulent profiter de Online l'émotion #469 08.01.2015 Le Figaro Charlie Hebdo: séquence émotion dans les entreprises Online #470 08.01.2015 L'Opinion.fr Le profil toujours plus inquiétant des nouveaux djihadistes; Le djihad 2.0 qui séduit des centaines de jeunes Occidentaux est en plein essor, à la faveur de l'interminable guerre civile en Syrie #471 08.01.2015 L'Opinion.fr Le profil toujours plus inquiétant des nouveaux djihadistes; Le djihad 2.0 qui séduit des centaines de jeunes Occidentaux est en plein essor, à la faveur de l'interminable guerre civile en Syrie #472 07.01.2015 Le Figaro Charlie Hebdo : après les alertes de décembre, le pire des Online scénarios pour l'antiterrorisme #473 07.01.2015 Le Figaro Charlie Hebdo: «Les terroristes jouent avec la violence des Online images pour semer la terreur» #474 07.01.2015 L'Opinion.fr Les démocraties doivent se préparer à gérer les conséquences du terrorisme; François Heisbourg : « Les salopards qui ont tué des gens chez Charlie Hebdo doivent être traqués comme les criminels qu'ils sont, pas comme des représentants de qui ou de quoi que ce soit »
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#475 07.01.2015 L'Opinion.fr Les démocraties doivent se préparer à gérer les conséquences du terrorisme; François Heisbourg : « Les salopards qui ont tué des gens chez Charlie Hebdo doivent être traqués comme les criminels qu'ils sont, pas comme des représentants de qui ou de quoi que ce soit » #476 11.02.2015 L'Echo Il appelait à détruire l'imprimerie de Charlie Hebdo Républicain #477 10.02.2015 Agence France Il appelait à détruire l'imprimerie de Charlie Hebdo: 3 mois de Presse prison ferme #478 10.02.2015 Le Figaro SMS anti-Charlie Hebdo: un homme condamné Newsflash- News
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