EDITION 2017
INDEX
Page
CHAPTER 1. GEOGRAPHY ...... 1
1.1. - Location and territorial extension...... 1
1.2. - Municipal division and population ...... 3
1.3. - Communications ...... 8
1.3.1. - Roads ...... 8
1.3.2. - Railways ...... 10
1.3.3. - Airports ...... 10
1.3.4. - Seaports ...... 11
1.3.5. - Bridges ...... 14
1.4. - Energy ...... 16
1.5. - Climate ...... 16
1.5.1. - Warm Humid Climate with Abundant Rains in Summer (Am) ...... 18
1.5.2. - Warm Sub humid Climate with Rainfalls in Summer A (w) ...... 20
1.5.3. - Meteors ...... 22
1.5.3.1. - Tropical ciclones ...... 22
1.5.3.2. - “Norths” ...... 22
1.6. - Vegetation ...... 22
1.6.1. - Forests ...... 23
1.6.1.1. - High Evergreen Forest ...... 23
1.6.1.2. - Medium Sub evergreen Forest ...... 28
1.6.1.3. - Low Evergreen forest ...... 29
1.6.1.4. - Low sub-evergreen forest ...... 29
1.6.2. - Induced grassland ...... 30
1.6.3. - Other types of vegetation ...... 30
1.6.3.1. - Savanna ...... 30
1.6.3.2. - Mangrove ...... 31
1.6.3.3. - Poplar-tulare ...... 31
1.6.3.4. - Palms ...... 33
1.7. - Hydrology ...... 33
1.7.1. - Surface hydrology ...... 34
1.7.1.1. - Coatzacoalcos Hydrologic Region (RH-29) ...... 36
1.7.1.1.1. - Basin (A) Río Tonalá and Lagunas del Carmen and
Machona ...... 36
1.7.1.2. - Grijalva-Usumacinta Hydrological Region (RH-30) ...... 37
1.7.1.2.1 - Rio Usumacinta Basin (A) ...... 37
1.7.1.2.2 - Basin (C) Laguna de Términos ...... 38
1.7.1.2.3 - Basin (D) Río Grijalva-Villahermosa ...... 38
1.7.2. - Groundwater hydrology ...... 39
1.7.2.1 - Areas of exploitation ...... 40
1.7.2.1.1. - 27-01 La Chontalpa ...... 40
1.7.2.1.2. - 27-03 Huimanguillo...... 42
1.7.2.1.3. - 27-04 Macuspana ...... 42
1.7.2.1.4. - 27-05 Los Rios ...... 42
1.7.2.1.5. - 27-06 Sierra ...... 43
1.7.2.1.6. - 27-07 Samaria-Cunduacán ...... 43
1.7.2.1.7. - 27-08 Centla ...... 43
1.7.2.2. - Units of permeability ...... 44
1.7.2.2.1 - Unit of consolidated material with permeability medium-
high (MA) ...... 44
1.7.2.2.2. - Unit of consolidated material with medium permeability
(M) ...... 44
1.7.2.2.3. - Unit of material consolidated with low medium
permeability (BM)...... 45
1.7.2.2.4. - Unit of not consolidated material with medium high
permeability (ma) ...... 45
1.7.2.2.5. - Unit of not consolidated material with medium
permeability (m) ...... 45
1.7.2.2.6. - Unit of not consolidated material with medium low
permeability (bm) ...... 45
1.7.2.3. - Aquifer potential ...... 45
1.7.2.4. - Ban imposed áreas ...... 46
1.8. - Physiography...... 46
1.8.1. - Llanura Costera del Golfo Sur Province ...... 46
1.8.1.1. - Llanuras y Pantanos Tabasqueños Sub province ...... 48
1.8.2. - Province Sierras of Chiapas and Guatemala ...... 47
1.8.2.1. - Sub province Sierras del Norte de Chiapas ...... 49
1.8.2.2. - Sub province Low Sierras of the Petén ...... 50
1.9. - Protected Natural Areas ...... 50
1.9.1. - Pantanos de Centla ...... 53
1.9.2. - Cañón del Usumacinta ...... 57
1.9.3. - Protected Areas under State Jurisdiction ...... 59
1.9.3.1. - Vegetation, flora and fauna ...... 54
1.9.4. - Biosphere Reserve of Ría Celestún ...... 54
1.9.4.1. - Vegetation, flora and fauna ...... 56
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 58
Í N D E X O F F I G U R E S
Page
Figure 1. - Tabasco location map ...... 2
Figure 2. - Distribution of municipalities in the state of Tabasco...... 6
Figure 3. - Communications ...... 9
Figure 4. - Climate ...... 17
Figure 5. - Average temperatures of the state of Tabasco ...... 19
Figure 6. - Map of annual average precipitation of the state of Tabasco ...... 21
Figure 7. - Vegetation ...... 24
Figure 8. - Hydrology ...... 35
Figure 9. - Exploitation of underground water areas of tabasco State ...... 41
Figure 10. - Physiographic Provinces ...... 47
Figure 11. - Natural Protected Areas ...... 52
Í N D E X O F T A B L E S
Page
Table I. - Municipality total population and by sex ...... 5
Table II. - Indigenous languages spoken in the entity ...... 7
Table III. - Percentage of contribution to GDP State ...... 7
Table IV. - Characteristics of the Airfields in the State ...... 10
Table V. - General characteristics of infrastructure that has the Dos Bocas
Port ...... 11
Table VI. - Hydroelectric plants that supply electric power to the State ...... 16
Table VII. - Regions and hydrologic basins of the State ...... 34
Table VIII. - Classification by categories of the Protected Natural Areas ...... 51
Table IX. - Protected Natural Areas under Federal and State control 51
Í N D E X O F P H O T O G R A P H S
Page
Photograph.1. - Olmec Monumental Head (La Venta archaeological zone)
Middle Preclassic (1200 - 400 BC) Around 900 BC the
monumental sculpture was a tradition that had spread.
The so-called colossal heads seem to be exclusive in
the nuclear area. These large monoliths, of which 17 are
known representing rulers with enough power to legitimize
their power so dramatically and proclaim his rank ...... 4
Photograph.2. - Panoramic view of the port of Dos Bocas 1.Supply
Terminal, 2. Asphalt Terminal, 3. Fuel supply Terminal . 4.
Fiscal Area, 5. Terminal of multiple uses, 6. Commercial
and tourist Terminal, 7. Manufacturing and maintenance of
boats Terminal, 8. Manufacturing and maintenance of platforms
Terminal ...... 12
Photograph.3. - Aerial view of Villahermosa Bridge in the State Capital ...... 15
Photograph.4. - Ceiba with climbers plants in the region from Tapijulapa ...... 26
Photograph.5. - Aspect of the mangrove forest that develops in the Centla
swamps ...... 32
Photograph.6. - Centla swamps. Panoramic view from the tower's
observation of Centro de Interpretación UYOTOT - JA
(La Casa del Agua) ...... 54
Photograph.7. - Panoramic view of the Flora and Fauna Protection Area
Called Cañón de Usumacinta ...... 58
CHAPTER 1
GEOGRAPHY
1.1 Localization and territorial extension
The state of Tabasco is one of the 32 federative entities that form the Mexican Republic, it is located in the Southeast of the country (Figure 1) and it extends from the coastal plain of Gulf of Mexico until the mountains of the North of Chiapas. Its territorial extension is of 24,738 km² (INEGI 2005) representing 1.3% of the total of the country. It is located in the twenty- fourth national place as for extension.
Tabasco has 184 km of coasts, in Gulf of Mexico, that represents 1.58% of the national total.
With an irregular form, it is located among the geographical coordinates 18° 39' and 17° 15' of North latitude; 91° 00' and 94° 07' of longitude West. It is bordered to the North with Gulf of Mexico and the State of Campeche; to the East with Campeche and the Republic of Guatemala; to the South with Chiapas and to the West with Veracruz.
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1.2 Municipal division and population
In the state of Tabasco and States bordering were developed the Olmecan and Mayan cultures. The first settled in the extreme Western of the State, approximately 3,000 years ago. Its biggest manifestation is located in the archaeological area La Venta (900-400 B.C.), where were found the famous colossal Olmecan heads, carved in stone (Photograph 1). The Mayan culture (200-900 A.C.) extended in most of the State and created large cities, among them Jonuta, Pomona and Comalcalco. This last it is distinguished by the construction of its buildings from baked brick as a unique example in Mesoamerica.
At the beginning of the 16th century, the lands of Tabasco were occupied and dominated by descendants of the Mayas, who were conquered by Juan de Grijalva, Hernán Cortés and Francisco de Montejo, between 1518 and 1549. The first settlement of the conquistadores was located near the current city of Frontera and named Santa Maria de la Victoria. It was founded by Hernán Cortés in March of 1519. During this time most of the settlements developed on the shores of navigable rivers such as the Grijalva and the Usumacinta, that were the most important communication route based.
The Independence movement had no major impact, due to the distance from the center of the country. At that time Tabasco was dependent on Yucatán province and was intended to become a free and sovereign State, fact which was approved on 7 February 1824. Since then, it had a considerable growth.
The introduction of electrical lighting, installation of a telegraph line, construction of railways and the impetus to education took place during the Porfirio Díaz era. At that time Tabasco joined the world market with its agricultural and timber products. However, this development was slower during the Mexican Revolution.
During the period 1958-1964 through the construction of roads: Circuit of the Gulf, Villahermosa-Frontera and Teapa-Pichucalco, joined the State with the rest of the country; when it began the development of the capital and promoted farming. Oil exploitation had its heyday in the 1970s and 1980s. From then on this natural resource is of the utmost importance in the development of various economic sectors of the entity.
The State Capital is the city of Villahermosa that is located in the margins of the rivers Grijalva and Carrizal in the coordinates 17º 59' of North latitude and 92º 56' of longitude West with an altitude of 10 meters above the sea level.
The city was founded in June of 1596 by the king from Spain, although since 1557 already lived in the place a group of Spaniards coming from Sta. María de la Victoria, then capital of the province of Tabasco.
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Photograph 1.- Olmec Monumental Head (La Venta archaeological zone) Middle Preclassic (1200 - 400 BC)Around 900 BC the monumental sculpture was a tradition that had spread. The so-called colossal heads seem to be exclusive in the nuclear area. These large monoliths, of which 17 are known representing rulers with enough power to legitimize their power so dramatically and proclaim his rank.
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Because of the constants incursions of the English pirates, a good number of the residents moved to a ranch of fishermen called Tres Lomas, where they founded San Juan Bautista de Tabasco (today city of Villahermosa). In 1646, governmental powers located in Santa Maria de la Victoria, were transferred to San Juan Bautista and it transformed into the new capital.
Again because of the incursions of pirates to the new capital, the powers were transferred to Tacotalpa, up to 1795 when the powers were reinstalled in the city of San Juan Bautista de Tabasco. In 1916 the governor of the State Francisco J. Mújica, for ordinance of February 3 restored the name of Villahermosa.
At the present time Villahermosa is a modern city, headquarters of the government powers. It has the industrial biggest area in the region where agricultural diverse products are processed, as cocoa, coconut, rice, and citric, bovine and swinish livestock. It has an industrial, commercial intense activity and of services, for what is the pole of more important development of the State. It is also a tourist important center, for their natural and cultural interesting resources.
The most important cities in the State are Cárdenas, Huimanguillo, Comalcalco, Cunduacán, La Venta, Jalpa, Tacotalpa, Teapa, Tenosique, Emiliano Zapata, Macuspana and Frontera.
The entity has 17 municipalities (Table 1 and Figure 2) and it has not registered changes from 1940. They are integrated in two big regions, Grijalva and Usumacinta and five sub regions: Centro, Chontalpa, Sierra, Ríos and Pantanos. According to the Decree number 209, published in the Official Journal of the Federation number 4 320 dated February 4, 1984, the names of municipal capitals were changed like the Balancán de Domínguez to Balancán, Heroica Cárdenas by Cárdenas and the municipality of Jalpa by Jalpa de Méndez.
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According to the Count II of Population and Housing 2005 (INEGI), the total population in the State of Tabasco is 1'989,969 people who represent the national total of 1.9% and it ranks number 20 at the national level by the number of inhabitants. Until the year 2005, 55% of the population is urban and 45% is rural, with a level of schooling of 8.0, which is equivalent to the second year of high school, and 3 of every 100 inhabitants of 5 years and over, speaks an indigenous language. From 1960 to 2000, the population of the entity increased almost 4 times.
The average in the State of Tabasco (INEGI 2005) of population density is 80 persons per square kilometer. The Center Township has the highest State percentage with 28.1%, followed by the municipalities of Comalcalco and Cárdenas with 11.0% and 8.7% respectively.
Tabasco entity has a large indigenous tradition which is reflected in the variety of their languages (Table II). Three of every 100 people aged 5 and over speak some indigenous language.
The State contribution to the National Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is 1.3%, mainly in the community, social and personal services sector. Economic activities, according to the percentage of the contribution to the State GDP, are detailed in (Table III).
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The degree of average schooling in inhabitants of 15 years and more, is 8.0 in the entity, that means that they has completed two degrees of secondary education. The national average is 8.1%. The illiterate population in the State is 113,900 people, which is higher than the national average.
1.3 Communications
Since pre-hispanic time, the first settlers were traced roads in parallel form to the waterways. Currently, the State of Tabasco has an adequate infrastructure, allowing both internal and external communication, as well as the flow of products for its development.
1.3.1 Roads
The topographic forms almost flat in most of the State territory have allowed that projects to increase the network of communication by surface have been able to develop. Currently (Figure 3) roads have a total length of 9,091 kilometers (INEGI 2009), of which 607 are paved Trunk Federal; 2,634 km are paved main State feeders. Secondary roads are 2,142 kilometers coated.
The rural roads have a length of 1,639 kilometers paved and 2,055 kilometers coated.
Several basic routes in the communication of the entity are highlighting. The first is the Federal Highway N° 180 that enters for the West, near the town La Venta; it communicates to the region of Chontalpa, agriculturally speaking it is the more important area of the entity, with the cities of Cárdenas, Villahermosa and Frontera to the North of the State. An important branch of the previous one, the highway N° 186 comes out from Villahermosa to the Southeast and it connects with the municipality of Macuspana; it leaves the entity, to enter again by the municipality of Emiliano Zapata and hence follows towards the city of Escárcega in Campeche. The roads number 199 and 203 converge in the 186. The first in the town of Catazajá, Chiapas, facilitates communication with the archaeological zone of Palenque. The second enters the town of Emiliano Zapata and communicates with Tenosique de Pino Suárez.
Another important route is represented by the road no. 187 that joins the towns of Puerto Ceiba, in the northern part of the State, with the municipalities of Paraíso, Comalcalco, Cárdenas and Huimanguillo, to continue towards the State of Chiapas through Raudales of Malpaso.
The road no. 195 is the main route that communicates to the South from the capital city to Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chis. Passing by Teapa. A large number of roads paved, lined and dirt roads that connect to major routes, allow the communication and commercial and cultural exchange between the towns and villages that make up the State of Tabasco.
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1.3.2 Railways
The railroad of the Southeast, opened in 1950, established the connection between Yucatán and the center of the country, only through the southern region of the State of Tabasco. At its inception it had a marginal effect in the development of the entity since it was away from the area where there was a greater concentration of population and economic activity; but, its operation drove livestock farming activities to neighboring States since it facilitated the output of livestock products. This railway crosses the State in direction West-East and has a length of 315 km of railways in the State. Of these 266 km are trunk-branches, 30 auxiliary km and 19 km are private. It communicates the entity with 32 stations, standing out the ones of Chontalpa, Teapa, Tacotalpa, Zapata, Tenosique, El Águila and El Triunfo, among others; In addition, it links to the entity with the Federal District (Mexico City) and the States of Veracrúz-Llave, Campeche and Yucatán. Currently it is under construction a railway line that will link the port of Dos Bocas and the Chontalpa region to increase the commercialization of the products generated in that area.
1.3.3 Airports
The airport Captain Carlos Rovirosa Pérez is located in the town called Dos Montes, 12 km from the city of Villahermosa. It is an airport which has the classification of long-haul and therefore provides services to domestic and international flights. They operate other 16 aerodromes located in different towns of the municipalities of Balancán, Comalcalco, Cunduacán, Huimanguillo, Macuspana, Tacotalpa, Teapa and Emiliano Zapata, among others that complement the air communication of the entity (Table IV).
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1.3.4 Seaports
Actually the State of Tabasco has two major sea ports that drive state and national growth. The first is the Frontera port, whose construction dates from about 40 years ago, it was the first maritime via used for the movement of products of the entity; it is located in the municipality of Centla. Due to the type and capacity of their facilities, it is classified as port of height and coastal traffic. It has a maritime basin of 200 meters deep and 6 meters in diameter, its fiscal spring is 300 meters of longitude by 6 meters deep in the attack parameter. Its access channel is 5.5 meters deep of low tide level, 60 template meters and 2.3 kilometers of longitude. The navigation channel is 10 kilometers of length with a minimum depth of 10 meters and 200 meters wide. It has another type of infrastructure, among which highlights a cellar of 1,500 m2 with a capacity of 6 tons per m2, marine signalization, lighthouse, buoys and low landfall.
The boats operating at this port carry petroleum and derivatives, as well as perishable products. It provides airport services of operation, loading, unloading, weighing, equipment rental, mooring ropes, local transportation, fumigation, victualling, collection of trash, supply of fuel and water, radio, electricity, and sewage disposal.
During the 1980s, due to the high demand and needs of enterprises, the Dos Bocas port, in the Township of Paraíso, close to the bar of the same name was built. His vocation was initially supporting the oil industry in the region; however, in 1993 services were extended to all the sectors for import and export of goods and raw materials. Due to its characteristics (Table V and Photograph 2) is classified as port of high height and cabotage; it mobilizes general cargo, oil and its derivatives. Due to its privileged location, tourism is also emerging between the multiple possibilities of the port to offer one door of access to the vast wealth of the State.
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Photograph 2.- Panoramic view of the port of Dos Bocas 1.Supply Terminal, 2. Asphalt Terminal, 3. Fuel supply Terminal . 4. Fiscal Area, 5. Terminal of multiple uses, 6. Commercial and tourist Terminal, 7. Manufacturing and maintenance of boats Terminal, 8. Manufacturing and maintenance of platforms Terminal.
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It has a channel of access to the commercial area that was built in 2003-2004 and expanded in 2005 and 2008. Has two directions of entry, the first is a straight length of 180 meters, bearing S60° 12' 46"E for boats type detectors and another straight section of 450 m, located at 180 m NE of the first southbound S36° 38' 51" E for larger boats, both directions converge towards a 900 m radius curve with 950 and 550 meters long respectively, which continues with a straight section of 1,200 meters with a straight South entrance, which leads to the ciaboga dock.
The channel has a total length of 2,200 meters on average, with a depth of - 10.00 m width in the template of 325 meters at the mouth to the NBM, gradually reducing to 125 meters in the area of the curve and at 100 m on the stretch straight final.
Its channel of access to the supply terminal was built in 1985 and expanded in 2004 to a template of 70 meters wide and 8 m of the NBM depth.
It has a longitude of 2,700 meters, it starts as a derivation of the channel access to the commercial area, with a tract of 1,770 meters with entrance direction S60° 12' 46"E, indicated by a pair of navigation buoys located on the East breaking waves, later turned to the South through a 400 m radius curve, 400 meters of longitude and 110 meters wide template to finally continue with a straight length of 600 meters and South entrance direction, determined by a pair of navigation buoys located in lands of PEMEX.
The secondary channel West generates waterfronts for activities of construction and repair of ships and oil platforms. The construction of the first phase was carried out in 2003, when the first 425 meters of its total length 690 were dredged, being concluded in 2006. This channel starts in the maritime basin of Terminal of Multiple Uses (TUM-Terminal de Usos Múltiples), being developed toward the Southwest with a first entrance direction S34º 47' 42”W later to derive a second course of entrance direction S75° 59' 20" W. It currently has a width of template of 100 meters of the 240 m of the final project and a -7 m deep of low tide level.
The inner harbor is located in front of the spring of Terminal of Multiple Uses (TUM-Terminal de Usos Múltiples); it was built in 2004 with a depth of -8.50 m to the low tide level, occupying an area of the 70,686 m2 and with a dock diameter of 300 m. In 2008 their depth was enlarged to -9.50 meters and its diameter to 380 meters to allow the access of crafts until 20,000 DWT.
The dimensions of the inner harbor of the spring of Terminal of Multiple Uses (TUM-Terminal de Usos Múltiples) are 50 meters of width by a length of 300, although originally were dragged to -13 meters to the low tide level; currently, due to the dynamic coastal has been presented in this area, its depth is - 9.50 m. to the low tide level.
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Located to the East of the port, the dock of the supply terminal consists of a ciaboga dock at the end of the channel that has an area of 128,700 m2, a diameter of ciaboga of 300 meters and a minimum depth of - 9 m to the NBM; a 280,000 m2 maneuvering area, bounded by the Norte, Oriente I, Sur I docks and the ciaboga dock and a 54,000 m2 maneuvering area, bounded by the docks Oriente II, Sur II and Poniente, both areas with a depth of - 7 m to the NBM.
1.3.5 Bridges
For many years the abundant rivers that cross the State of Tabasco (Photograph 3), were navigated with boats called pangas. But the need to expedite the transportation of people and goods forced the construction of a network of bridges that join the entity. This network currently has 813 vehicular bridges distributed across the State. They are built with concrete, metal and combinations of metal and wood.
The most prominent bridges are in Centro, Cárdenas, Jalapa and Macuspana municipalities that make communication possible to access between their towns and their cities. Tenosique de Pino Suárez, Balancán and Emiliano Zapata also benefit from the bridges built on its rivers and maintain trade relations among them.
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Photograph 3.- Aerial view of Villahermosa Bridge in the State Capital.
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1.4 Energy
The State of Tabasco receives electrical power generated in the neighboring state of Chiapas, in hydroelectric plants located in the municipalities of Ostuacán, Venustiano Carranza, Solayó, Tecpatán, y Chicoasén (Table VI).
On the other hand PEMEX has the administrative headquarters of the Southern Region of Exploration and Production, in the capital of the State of Tabasco. It has a Regional Exploration Assets and the Integral Assets Bellota-Jujo, Macuspana, Cinco Presidentes, Samaria-Luna and Muspac.
It also has the following gas processing plants: La Venta, located in the municipality of the same name; Nuevo Pemex, in the municipality of Centro (Villahermosa); and the Ciudad Pemex plant in the municipality of Macuspana, which are part of the production system and gas of the country.
1.5 Climate
The State of Tabasco is characterized by warm climates with maritime influence (Figure 4), with temperature variation moderated due to its location in the tropical zone, its low elevation with respect to the sea level and its proximity to the Sea of the Antilles, which is a generating area of cyclones.
Tabasco is located, along with the States of Veracruz, Chiapas, Oaxaca and Campeche, in one of the rainiest regions of the country. The entity is located on the South margin of the Gulf of Mexico and its flat relief, in most, it allows the direct invasion of maritime air masses which causes an important annual rainfall, which is greater than 1,500 mm in the coast and it is increased gradually as it progresses Southward up to 4,000 mm in the area of Teapa, in the Madrigal and Tapijulapa sierras.
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Rainy season is from June to October; so, precipitation is seasonal, with two months of maximum rainfall; one in June with 220.5 mm on average and the other occurs in September with 348.3 mm on average; however in some regions the second maximum occurs in October with an average of 371.6 mm.
March and April is considered season dry with an average volume of precipitation of 40 mm on the coast and 100 mm on the mountain slopes. The rain of summer and fall is caused by processes of convection of warm and moist air masses developed over the State territory.
Cold fronts from October to March produce precipitation known as "Nortes," which manifests itself in the form of drizzle. These "Nortes" which cross the Gulf of Mexico and pass over the entity, are outnumbered 20 to 25 each year.
The relative humidity in the State varies between 80% and 86% and for that reason, an important cover of clouds is generated during much of the year, causing a low insolation.
The hot and humid climate of the entity is characterized by high and uniform temperatures that show variation between 24° C and 28° C. The highest temperatures occur at the coastal zone and the lowest at the foothills of the sierras. Temperatures are stable in summer; but in winter variations of 12° to 15° C are observed because of the "Nortes". The annual behavior of the temperature is of Ganges type, since maximum records occur before the rainy season and the summer solstice, with an average of 28° to 30° C. The lowest average temperature is in January when recorded temperatures are between 21° C and 25° C.
Tabasco is dominated by the influence of warm climates as general average annual temperature is above 22° C, and average temperature of the coldest month is above 18° C. In 75.5% of the State territory; comprising the Sub province of “Tabasqueños” Plains and Swamps where altitude is less than 100 meters, climate is humid climate with abundant rains in summer (Am) (Figure 4). In the South area, in the province Sierras del Norte de Chiapas that occupies 20% of the state territory; is a warm humid climate with rainfall the whole year (Af). In the Northeast portion of the state that occupies the 4.5% of the territory, the climate is warm sub humid with rains in summer A (w).
1.5.1 Warm Humid Climate with Abundant Rains in Summer (Am)
This kind of climate records from the coast to the vicinity of the mountains located in the South. Here is located the agricultural zone of the Chontalpa and populations of Villahermosa, Frontera, Cárdenas, Benito Juárez, Emiliano Zapata, Ciudad Pemex, Miguel Hidalgo, Comalcalco, Cunduacán, La Venta, Paraíso, Tenosique de Pino Suárez and Balancán, among the most important. The average annual temperature fluctuates between 24°C and 28°C (Figure 5), while the total. Annual rainfall is 1,500 to 3,000 mm.
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The percentage of winter rain is greater than 10.2. The annual average temperature registered West of Cardenas is 25.8°C; and Villahermosa reported the highest with 27.5°C. May is the warmest month with average temperature of 28.1°C near the confluence of the Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers; in Emiliano Zapata reached 29.6°C. January is the coldest month with temperature 22.0°C average and 24.4°C in Frontera. In this last area it is registered the lowest average of total annual precipitation, 1,526.4 mm and in La Venta, the highest, 2,600.9 mm; in both places the rainiest month is October, with 268.8 and 486.9 mm of precipitation monthly total average, respectively. In the Eastern half of the area, the highest incidence of monthly rainfall is reported in September. The driest month is March, with average precipitation of 33.4 mm in Frontera and 57.6 mm in Tenosique.
Warm Humid Climate with Rain all the Year Af.
This kind of climate occurs in three areas in the South of the entity (Figure 4): the first is located in the vicinity of Huimanguillo population, and includes the Chontalpa and Paso del Rosario, to the Hill La Pava. The second includes the populations of Teapa, Aquiles Serdán, Tepetitán, Macuspana, Tacotalpa, among others; the third includes the localities Gregorio Méndez Magaña, Arena de Hidalgo and Reforma, as well as the South and southwest of the town of Tenosique.
The average annual temperature in these areas varies between 22° and 28° C (Figure 5), whereas the total annual rainfall ranges between 2,000 and 4,500 mm. (Figure 6). Rainfall occurs throughout the year and is slightly reduced in the months of January, February and March.
The average annual temperature in the area of Teapa is 25.4° C. May is the hottest month with average temperature 27.8° C; January is the coldest month, with the lowest temperature in the order of 22.1° C and thermal oscillation in the year is 5.7° C. The total annual rainfall is 3,862.5 mm; the rainiest month is September with an average of 599.8 mm; and less rain, April with 143.9 mm.
The average annual temperature in the region of Huimanguillo is 26.3° C; May is also the month with higher temperature with 29.0° C. The coldest month is January with 22.6° C. The total annual rainfall average is 2,211.5 mm, September is the month with more precipitation with 349.1 mm on average and the least amount of rain is March with 63.8 mm.
1.5.2 Warm Sub humid Climate with Rainfalls in Summer A (w)
This climate is restricted to the Northeast portion of the State (Figure 4), on its boundary with Campeche, where part of the agricultural complex Tenosique- Balancán is located.
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It is the more humid climate of warm sub humid climates with rainfalls in summer, although it is the less humid climates of the State. The average annual temperature is 26° to 28° C (Figure 5) and their percentage of winter rain caused by the "Norths" is greater than 10.2 mm. The total annual average rainfall ranges from 1,500 to 2,000 mm. (Figure 6).
In the locality of San Pedro, the average annual temperature reaches 26.4° C. Also in May and January are the warmer and colder months, respectively, with an average temperature of 29.1º C and 23.1° C. The total annual rainfall reaches 1,533.2 mm on average, the highest rainfall occurs in September, averaging 250.2 mm, and the minimum in March, with an average of 33.5 mm.
1.5.3 Meteors
Weather events that most influence on the rainfall conditions of the entity are tropical cyclones in the summer and "Norths" in winter. It is very rare to observe frozen temperatures due to the small variation in temperature throughout the year and the relative humidity and high cloudiness.
1.5.3.1 Tropical cyclones
In the period from June to October are formed in the Sea of Antilles, between 5 and 10 tropical cyclones affecting the territory of Tabasco in less degree. In the last 100 years or so, only 7 of these cyclones have crossed the state with sustained winds of 160 km/h. During the same period, 20 tropical storms have affected the entity. On average, only 4% of tropical cyclones that have hit the Gulf of Mexico have affected Tabasco, most of them only caused heavy rains.
1.5.3.2 “Norths”
During the winter season, precipitation is produced by the presence of large masses of cold and dry polar air moving from Canada and the United States into the Caribbean Sea, called "Norths". Between December and March occur at a frequency of 3 to 5 per month.
As they pass through the Gulf of Mexico collected moisture and abundant rains in the mountainous areas with slope to the Gulf of Mexico. The winds come to move to 40 kmh.
1.6 Vegetation
As described in the chapter on weather, rains are high and uniform in the State, with absence of frost. These conditions are very favorable for the development of the vegetation lush, floristically very rich and complex, ranging from the high evergreen forests to the subperennifolias medium.
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Aquatic vegetation with some dominance of poplar and Cattail is also developed in abundant water bodies that exist in the State. Mangroves grow parallel to the coast and bordering streams and brackish water lagoons. The lowland evergreen thrives on soils subject to permanent flooding. Savannah vegetation grows on soils that have a waterproof layer and therefore have poor drainage. Low semi-evergreen occurs in small areas.
In most parts of the territory of the coastal plain, where originally underpinned high evergreen forest and semi-evergreen, human activities have exerted a relatively negative significant impact since vegetation has been replaced by cultivated prairies and agriculture of temporary term (Figure 7).
In an attempt to incorporate land to agriculture, serious damage to natural ecosystems has also resulted in the areas of wetlands and lakes; while soil conditions are not favorable for this activity, these have been drained and dried along large surfaces with consequent damage to the aquatic vegetation that was there.
Due to the selective and irrational forestry and nomadic agriculture that develops from clearing and burning of the vegetation, many jungle extensions have been affected and survive today only as small patches of native vegetation very isolated. The high evergreen forest is limited to hills and mountains of the Southern part of the State.
The savannas and induced grasslands are used in their majority as rangeland for bovine livestock and introduced cultivated grasses known as African Star, german, pangola, jaraguá and others. In the estuaries and coastal lagoons develops the mangrove whose wood is used for construction; the substances extracted of its bark (tannins) are used in the tannery. The floors not saline easily flooded are used for the cultivation of sugar cane and rice. The low evergreen forests, sub-evergreen, and the medium sub-evergreen, as well as the palmar exist in small surfaces.
1.6.1 Forests
1.6.1.1 High Evergreen Forest
This forest has a predominance of trees of more than 40 meters high, it is very dense and complex; it is characterized by lush vegetation and varied in species on the planet. Its growth is favored in places where there are warm humid climates. It is a complex but fragile ecosystem, which has been disappearing from the national territory at an impressive speed. More than 75% of the species retain their foliage during the whole year. Areas where it develops the high evergreen forest in the State are located to the East, in the Sierras of Tenosique; in the center of the State, Southeast of Teapa; and in the Southwest of the State, Southwest of Chontalpa.
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In these places the forest presents disturbances and develops from altitudes of 100 to 600 meters above the sea level, where the climate is warm humid with rains throughout the year (2,500 to 4,500 mm) and the average annual temperatures vary from 24° C to 26° C without significant differences between the hottest and coldest months.
Due to the favorable from the climate point of view, of the areas where this ecosystem, for the practice of agricultural and livestock activities unfolds, the original distribution of the forest surface has drastically diminished insomuch that currently only covers 3.5% of the surface of the State. Of this area, more than 70% is subject to constant disturbance and is in a stage of secondary development, there are only some relicts of original vegetation retained in the most inaccessible of sierras places. The result of this farming practice is the disappearance of the original cover and as a result, the area becomes a mosaic consisting of a series of plant formations of the herbaceous, shrubby and arboreal type, commonly called "acahuales".
The rocks that lie in the areas of sierras, where jungle develops, are limestone, shale, sandstone and conglomerate that generated the development of younger shallow soil type litosol and rendzina, as well as mature types of luvisol and acrisol acidic soils. In the low portions, ecosystem unfolds in deep soils rich in clays (vertisol and gleysol) with poor drainage subject to frequent flooding.
Because of the very high density of tree items that intertwine together and climbing plants, epiphytes and lianas are abundant; the Evergreen high forest structure is complex. The floristic variation is very wide and diverse, and depending on the degree of alteration and the environmental conditions of each site, there is a predominance of certain types of vegetation.
In the few areas where there are little disturbed and elementary communities, frequently exceeding 30 meters arboreal layer items are: Terminalia amazonia (canshan), Brosimum alicastrum (ramon), Bursera simaruba (mulato) and Dialium guianense (guapaque), Swietenia macrophylla (caoba), Manilkara zapota (chicozapote), Pouteria zapota (zapote mamey), Calophyllum brasilense (Barí), Pouteria unilocularis (zapotillo), Ficus sp. (amate), Cedrela odorata (Cedro), Vatairea lundellii (tinco), Guatteria anomala (zopo), Aspidosperma megalocarpon (bayo). In the intermediate arboreal layer, consisting of elements of less than 35 meters in height, there are the following species: Brosimum alicastrum (ramón), Dialium guianense (guapaque), Terminalia amazonia (canshán), Bursera simaruba (mulato), Nectandra sp. (laurelillo), Manilkara zapota (chicozapote), Schizolobium parahybum (picho), Ceiba pentandra (ceiba) (Photograph 4), Quararibea funebris (molinillo), Swietenia macrophylla (caoba), Hymenaea courbaril (paquillo), Spondias mombin (jobo), Ormosia sp. (caracolillo), Calophyllum brasiliense (barí), Licania platypus (cabeza de mico), Brosimum aff. (terrabanum), Vatairea lundellii (amargoso), Pseudobombax ellipticum (amapola), Cedrela odorata (cedro), Guarea glabra (cedrillo), Pouteria campechiana (zapote) and Poulsenia armata.
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Photograph 4.- Ceiba with climbers plants in the region from Tapijulapa.
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At the tree layer of more than 15 m and less than 20 there are among others, the following species: Sweetia panamensis (chakté), Bucida buceras (pukté), Tabebuia rosea (maculi), Ceiba pentandra (ceiba), Brosimum alicastrum (ramón), Alseis yucatanensis (tabaquillo), Bravaisia integerrima (cintopie), Adelia barbinervis (limoncillo), Pithecellobium sp. (quiebrahacha), Schelea liebmannii (corozo), Roystonea sp. (palma real), Nectandra sp. (laurelillo), Pouteria sp. (zapote), Inga sp. (selele), Pouteria unilocularis (sakal, hash), Spondias mombin (jobo), Piscidia communis (jabin), Cecropia obtusifolia (guarumbo), Sickingia salvadorensis (chacahuante), Pimenta dioica (pimiento de la sierra), Belotia mexicana (majahua, palenkamo), Cedrela odorata (cedro rojo), Haematoxylum campechianum (palo tinto), Nectandra ambigens and Rinorea guatemalensis, (botoncillo).
The arboreal layer of 6 to 12 m is made up by: Sabal mexicana (palma, guano redondo), Haematoxylum campechianum (palo tinto), Pithecellobium lanceolatum (tucuy), Nectandra sp., Tabernaemontana litoralis (cintillo), Faramea occidentalis (huesillo), Coccoloba sp., Rollinia jimenezii (anonilla), Cecropia obtusifolia (guarumbo), Brongniartia sp., Scheelea liebmannii, Hampea sp., (majagua), Cupania dentata (chuc’cho), Inga sp. (selele), Parathesis serrulata, Anona sp., Alvaradoa amorphoides (chispilin), Trema micrantha (cuero de vieja), Belotia mexicana (majahua), Vatairea lundellii (tinco) y Erythrina glauca (mote), among others. In less than 5 m layer include: Randia standleyana, Xylosma flexuosum, Louteridium mexicanum, Piper sanctum (momo), Cupania dentata (chuc’cho), Guazuma ulmifolia (guácima), Rondeletia stachyoidea, Parathesis serrulata, Piper sp. (cordoncillo) and Geonoma mexicana.
Secondary high evergreen forest communities, are made up by the following species in the close to 30 m tall upper stratum: Terminalia amazonia (amarillo), Cordia alliodora (vara prieta), Spondias mombin (jobo), Calophyllum brasiliense (barí), Manilkara zapota (chicozapote), Cedrela odorata (cedro), Brosimum alicastrum (ramón), Bursera simaruba (chaká). Between 15 and 20 m layer is formed by: Inga sp. (selele), Gliricidia sepium (cocoite), Cupania dentata (chichón), Ficus sp. (matapalos), Guazuma ulmifolia (guácima), Pouteria sapota (zapote), Bursera simaruba (mulato), Poulsenia armata, Caesalpinia sp. (hormiguero), Pleuranthodendron mexicanum, Erythrina sp., Adelia barbinervis (cunshan), Manilkara zapota (chicozapote). Between 10 and 14 m layer is formed by: Piper tuberculatum (cordoncillo), Piper auritum (momo), Hampea sp. (majahua, chihité), Brosimum alicastrum (ramón), Dialium guianense (gusch), Schizolobium parahybum (cucte), Boehmeria sp., Dendropanax arboreus, Foramea sp., Zanthoxylum sp., Vatairea lundellii, Alchornea latifolia (sitío), Heliocarpus donnell-smithii (majahua), Coccoloba schiedeana (tocó), Eugenia axillaris, Bucida buceras (pukté), Jacquinia aurantiaca, Litsea sp. (capulincillo cimarrón), Miconia argentea, Chrysophyllum mexicanum (manzano), Schoepfia schreberi (caimito cimarrón), Rollinia jimenezii (anonilla), Poulsenia armata (quichilamba), Sideroxylon sp. (zapotillo), Cecropia obtusifolia (guarumbo), Quararibea funebris (molinillo), Luehea speciosa (achotillo), Guazuma ulmifolia (guácima) and Piscidia spp. (jabin), among others.
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The species present in the stratum between 2 and 8 metres in height are: Solanum sp., Eupatorium sp., Rinorea guatemalensis, Tabernaemontana citrifolia, Psychotria cuspidata, Guarea sp., Araisia escallonoides, Cupania dentata, Nectandra sp., Sickingia salvadorensis, Erythrina sp., Parathesis serrulata (tancacao), Cocoloba schiedeana (cho’co), Pterocarpus sp., Miconia impetiolaris, Alseis yucatanensis (cujsité), Cassia sp., Psidium guajava (guayaba silvestre), Cyperus surinamensis (chintudillo), Croton sp., Verbesina aff. liebmannii, Psidium sartorianum, Vernonia aschenborniana, Ceiba pentandra (ceiba), Cecropia obtusifolia (guarumbo), Lysiloma acapulcensis, Jacobina umbrosa (monteliso), Alchornea latifolia (almendrillo), Waltheria americana (barrenillo), Gliricidia sepium (cocoite), Inga fissicalyx, Heliocarpus appendiculatus (majahua), Trema micrantha (cuero de vieja), Piper sanctum (momo), Mantingia calabura, Cordia collococca (nopo), Salvia sp. (ceniche), Conostegia xalapensis (sabanillo), Casearia dolichophylla (laurel), Pseudolephantopus spicatus, Geonoma mexicana (shate), Chamaedorea sp. In the herbaceous layer less than one metre are the following species: Mimosa pudica (dormilona), Panicum sp., Cassia sp., Pennisetum purpureum (gigante), Panicum hirticaule, Pteridium aquilinum, Heliconia bihai (tonoy), Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, Asterohyptis stellulata and Verbesina aff. liebmanni, among many more.
The logging of this forest is low, since there are in fact few species whose wood is in demand in the market, such as cedar and mahogany. These latter species are isolated and intertwined with other, making unprofitable their economic exploitation. Properties and possible uses of the wood of other tree species that constitute the high jungle are often not well known.
1.6.1.2 Medium Sub evergreen Forest
The ecosystem intermediate between the evergreen forest (always green) and the deciduous (leafless during a time of the year), it is of the medium sub-evergreen. This type of forest occupies the 0.91 of the Tabasco surface.
It occurs in the Centre and East of the sub province Plains and Swamps Tabasqueños, which is located to the South and East of Villa el Triunfo, North of Emiliano Zapata and North of Balancán on the border with the State of Campeche. The Plains and rolling hills with elevations between 200 and 350 meters above the sea level where development of soil type gleysol subject to flooding, mature soils and acid types luvisol and acrisol, and soil type vertisol, rich in clays, are conducive to the development of this ecosystem. The climate is warm and humid with abundant rains in summer and warm and sub humid with rains in summer. In the period from March to May, 30% of the trees that do not exceed 30 meters of height, lose their leaves.
Big areas originally occupied by semi-evergreen stretches have been destroyed; most of what is left of it is currently presented as secondary arboreal vegetation (late succession stage).
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In the upper stratum, 21 to 30 meters develop the following species: Bursera simaruba (chaká), Vitex gaumeri (ya’axnik), Lonchocarpus sp. (kanatzin), Cedrela odorata (cedro) y Guettarda combsii (tasta’ab); in the middle of 11 to 20 m stratum are Luehea speciosa (guácima de montaña), Cochlospermum vitifolium (pochote), and Cecropia obtusifolia (guarumbo), among others. Between 4 and 10 m, there are Cochlospermum vitifolium (pochote), Trema micrantha (capulín) and Acacia cornigera (cornezuelo).
1.6.1.3 Low Evergreen forest
This type of forest is developed in areas with a warm humid and sub humid on permanent flood conditions. It is composed of trees of heights between 3 and 15 meters, of which the majority are Evergreen. It covers approximately 1.3% of the State territory, located in spots in the sub province of Plains and Swamps Tabasqueños. It occurs on deep soils as gleysol, clay type vertisol and fluvisol, flooded in time of rainy season and they dry out completely during the dry season, usually with inadequate drainage. They are in hollows of little extension of the coastal plain and the great alluvial plain.
The first arboreal stratum, from 3 to 15 metres, predominantly takes place the Pachira aquatica (zapote de agua); in the stratum of 2 m, Thalia geniculata (quento) and Cyperus giganteus; less than 1 m layer is dominated by Acrostichum aureum.
1.6.1.4 Low sub-evergreen forest
The low evergreen forest covers approximately 77% of the surface of the State. It occurs in warm humid and sub humid climates where grow species of less than 12 meters heights, of which between 25% and 50% lose their leaves in the dry season, generally are almost pure associations. Soils that underlie this ecosystem are deep with poor drainage, flooded in rainy season and dry during the dry season. It is located in depressions of poor extension in the Southeast of the State, in the ravines that border the lakes or on the banks of the river San Pedro.
It is rich in epiphytes and lianas, whose main components are; in the upper stratum of up to 9 meters, the associations known as "tintales" because they were used for the obtaining tinting of dyeing of wood, Haematoxylum campechianum (tinto colorado), Lonchocarpus hondurensis (gusano) and Bucida buceras (pukté); in the stratum of 3 m Hampea macrocarpa (majahua), Jacquinia sp., and the stratum below 1 m Serjania sp.
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1.6.2 Induced grassland
When the original vegetation was eliminated by fire or disassemble, developed communities of grasses occur under highly variable climatic conditions. In Tabasco, these communities are growing under conditions of warm humid weather with abundant rains in summer (from 2,000 to 2,500 mm annually), on deep soils of fine texture type gleysol and vertisol.
Also on that remain flooded soils in rainy seasons and soils containing high concentration of salts as the Solonchak type. Grasslands are generally associated with temporal agriculture, cultivated grasslands, tular-poplar, mangrove and semi- evergreen forest.
They cover approximately 1.3% of the territory of the Tabasco State, on the banks of the Usumacinta River, on the outskirts of Villahermosa and Emiliano Zapata, in the towns of Chicozapote, El Porvenir, Benito Juárez, and Nicolás Bravo, among others.
It consists of herbaceous species that grow to up to two meters of height, outstanding: Pennisetum nervosum (camalote), Hyparrhenia rufa (jaragua), Paspalum notatum (grass bay or remolino), Panicum maximum (guinea grass) and Axonopus compressus (bitter grass); distributed in a dispersed manner between the grassland evidence shrubby Acacia cornigera (cornezuelo).
1.6.3. Other types of vegetation
1.6.3.1 Savanna
The vegetation that develops in the savanna consists of grasses and sedges accompanied by scattered trees, on flat land with soils that have poor drainage and superficial phreatic level; they flooded in rainy season and harden and crack during drying. These soils are deep and rich in clay such as vertisol and gleysol. The Savanna grows at altitudes below 100 m under the influence of warm humid climates, with rainfall of 2,000 to 2,500 mm annually, with one period of less than four dry months per year; the average annual temperature is 26° C.
This type of vegetation occupies near 4.40% surface in the State, in the areas East and West of the Plains and Swamps sub province and Tabasco swamps, mainly in the vicinity of Balancán, Estación Chontalpa, Limones, Mosquitero and Francisco Martínez Gaytán and in a small strip towards the mountains of the North of Chiapas. It is dominated by grasses, although there is a stratum of low trees of 3 to 8 m tall, grouped by a way of islets, tolerant to the presence of periodic fires. The most frequent tree species are: Byrsonima crassifolia (nanche), Curatella americana (tachicón), Crescentia cujete (güiro), Crescentia alata, Coccoloba barbadensis, Paurotis wrightii (tasiste), Conostegia xalapensis, Quercus spp., Haematoxylum brasiletto (palo brasil) and thickets of Acacia cornigera (cornezuelo).
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The grasses are 80-100 cm high, and rough, often grow in dense tillers whose lower parts are protected from fire, including: Paspalum notatum (grama amarga), Paspalum pectinatum (grama), Andropogon virginicus, Aristida sp. (lanza), Eragrostis cilianensis (zacate borreguero) and setaria geniculata (zacate amargo). Other common herbs are: Typha latifolia, Digitaria sp., D. sanguinalis, Sporobolus indicus (pajón de sabana), Cyperus spp., and Rhynchospora rugosa, R. hirsuta, and R. schiedeana, as well as numerous species of legumes and compound that unlike the first, they do not play an important role in the biomass of such vegetation.
Currently, livestock based on native and introduced grasses has reduced the savannah areas, besides many areas have been cleared for the establishment of crops such as rice, pineapple, mango and citrus.
1.6.3.2 Mangrove
The mangrove forest is composed of arboreal vegetation very close with elements of up to 25 meters high growing shrubs with dense partially aerial roots, which are available in root systems and pneumatophores whose main function is fixing to the muddy ground and the uptake of oxygen directly from the air, their tissues have high osmotic pressure and presented vivipary since embryos are develop in the fruit that adheres to the tree, so that germination is carried out outside the saline environment. Favorable for their growth zones are low and muddy areas of coastlines, estuaries and coastal lagoons. All these areas are always with influence of brackish water, devoid of rocks and sand substrates and with very light waves.
This ecosystem is distributed in 2.3% of the surface of the State, particularly on the back of spit, bordering the lagoons El Carmen, Machona, Mecoacán, Redonda, Santa Anita and others more than they extend parallel to the coast and they have connection with the sea.
Almost the only component of this ecosystem (Photograph 5) is the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), eventually found interspersed with Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove) and Avicennia germinans (black mangrove) and Conocarpus erecta (brown mangrove), depending on the degree of salinity.
The mangrove roots serve as substrate to oysters and many aquatic organisms. The red mangrove wood is used for the construction and obtaining coal. Brown and white mangrove barks are rich in tannins, which are used in the tannery.
1.6.3.3 Poplar-tulare
This type of vegetation is presented in almost 20% of the Tabasco surface on extensions of the flooded coastal plain which is located to the northeast of Villahermosa, in the vicinity of Frontera, La Venta, and Paraíso.
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Photograph 5.- Aspect of the mangrove forest that develops in the Centla swamps.
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It extends almost parallel to the spit and in some areas isolated between the rivers Puxcatán and Tacotalpa Pichucalco. It is a community aquatic that unfolds in marshes and shallow flooding by abundant rainfall (2,000 to 3,000 mm per year), features of humid climates with clay soils and slow drain (gleysol, solonchak gleyico and pelic vertisol).
The poplar is comprised of 1 to 3 meters tall herbaceous plants with large, wide leaves of light green color that protrude from the water and form a compact mass formed by Thalia geniculata (popote u hojilla), some species Galathea and Heliconia are forming pools; pure and mixed; in addition to Eichhornia crassipes (jacinto), Pistia stratiotes (lechuga acuática) and others.
Tular vegetation consists of monocotyledons of 1 to 3 meters high rooted in shallow funds. The most frequent associations are Typha latifolia (tule o espadaña) and Cyperus giganteus (molinillo). At the tulare cattle raising takes place on Paspalum vaginatum (grama de agua), Paspalum fasciculatum (camalote) and Eragrostis reptans (pan caliente), among other grasses, also on sedge as Cyperus articulatus (chintul) and grasses induced as Echinochloa polystachya (alemán) and Cynodon plectostachyum (estrella africana).
1.6.3.4 Palms
Palm tress is presented in different types of vegetation forming islets in small surfaces. They are composed of Paurotis wrightii (tasiste) and dominated by the spaces are known as tasistales. The only important locality of palms in the State is located to the West of El Carmen lagoon. Species occurring on flat, low and flooded lands are primarily Conocarpus erecta (botoncillo) and in the herbaceous stratum of species less than 1 m tall is dominated among several species by Cyperus sp. These are observed in isolation on the banks of the swampy lagoons and slow-flowing streams, often in places permanent or periodically flooded and resistant to conditions of high salinity. Sometimes p. wrightii is part of the savannas and in middle of these can form islets of palmar. Its most common height is 2 to 5 m, the community is rather open, occurs at altitudes between 0 and 200 m and the corresponding climate is hot and humid to semi-humid.
1.7 Hydrology
The most complex hydrological network that exists in the country is located in the Tabasco State and this region also has the largest number of annual rainfall. The surplus of water caused by the rains has become a problem due to the lack of infrastructure to drain. The topographic relief, generally low in the State, the large number of rivers and streams, the type of rock and the geological structures, particularly in the South of the entity, produce anastomosed, dendritic drainage and lagoon that develops a large number of bodies of water of different dimensions, as well as swamps and flood plains.
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1.7.1. Surface hydrology
The complex system of runoff that occurs in vast deltaic plains, lagoon systems, estuaries, swamps and marshes, extends a distance exceeding 160 km between Tonalá, San Pedro and San Pablo rivers. In this region there are two very important rivers nationwide, the Mezcalapa-Grijalva and the Usumacinta River that are part of the hydrological regions (Table VII and Figure 8) Coatzacoalcos (RH-29) and Grijalva-Usumacinta (RH-30).
Approximately 30% of the waters that drain in the country do so in Tabasco territory (CNA, 1992). The natural flow of the Grijalva River has been interrupted and modified by various civil works that include road works and built artificial drainage in the La Chontalpa agricultural complex. These works have influenced in an important manner the natural dynamics of surface water.
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1.7.1.1 Coatzacoalcos Hydrologic Region (RH-29)
The 29 Hydrological Region is one of the most important in the country in terms of volume of drainage water handled. It borders to the East with the 30 Hydrological Region (Grijalva-Usumacinta), to the South with the continental watershed of Isthmus of Tehuantepec and to the West with the hydrological Region 28 (Papaloapan). The Coatzacoalcos River is the primary runoff in this Region which occupies approximately 24.78% of the area of the State and consists of two hydrological basins, one of them within the entity, the basin Río Tonalá and Lagunas del Carmen and Machona (A).
1.7.1.1.1 Basin (A) Río Tonalá and Lagunas del Carmen and Machona
It is located in the Western part of the State territory. It is bordered to the North by the Gulf of Mexico, to the East by the basin (D) of the Hydrological Region 30, to the South with the basin (E) of the same Region and to the West with the basin (B) of the RH-29. It consists in Tabasco, by the sub-basin A, Lagunas del Carmen and Machona, and rivers B, Santa Ana, C, Coacajapa, D, Tonalá, E, Tancochapa Bajo, G, Tancochapa Alto and H, Zanapa.
The main current of this basin is the Tonalá River which rises in the mountains of Chiapas, being the boundary between the States of Veracruz and Tabasco. The general direction of this trend is northwest; its length is approximately 150 kilometers, from which 120 km pass on elevations below 200 meters, resulting in a meandering channel with flood areas and particularly peripheral lagoons in the vicinity of its mouth. This River is navigable in the greater part of its length.
The main tributaries in Tabasco of the Tonalá River, known as Tancochapa in its upper course, are the rivers Zanapa, Blasillo and Chicozapote. The most important lakes are El Carmen and Machona, in addition to the lagoons of El Rosario, El Potrero and Pantanosa.
On the basis that the rocks are homogeneous, the drainage of this basin is dendrite uniform. At the northern portion, there are numerous bodies of water that make up a network of radial centripetal drainage. The presence of dunes, bars and estuaries on the shores of the entity is favored in large part by the type of mouths of rivers; the lagoons that integrate these lagoon systems owe their origin to phenomena of marine regression and dynamic processes of sedimentation fluvial- land, due to tides, currents and waves, which are acting jointly on sediments from rivers, accumulating and distributing the material parallel to the coastal profile.
The general coefficient of runoff in the basin is from 20% to 30%. In particular, in the lagoons of Machona, El Carmen and in the vicinity of the Tonalá River, the runoff coefficient is greater than 30% due to the presence of clays. This coefficient decreases from 5% to 10% in bars that separate sea lagoons, due to the high permeability in sands that cover these areas.
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The volume of runoff of the watershed in the State of Tabasco is approximately 5,915.15 million cubic meters (Mm3), which are used for irrigation in the District of Low Irrigation of the Grijalva River (DR 91).
In addition to the use for navigation, the superficial water in this basin is used for the supply of the main centers of population and industry. It is a hydrological system susceptible to the ecological impact; the rivers flowing into coastal lagoons carry discharges of urban waste and the sugar mills producing an overload of pollutants exceeding the capacity of the system self cleaning. This problem is most significant in the Laguna Carmen-Pajonal - Machona, since in addition to download urban and industrial, oil spills are recorded and the confluence of other rivers and streams with high organic load, are causing marine pollution by salinity.
The Tonalá River Sub-basin has contamination of second order, where the population is the generator of the increased pollution.
1.7.1.2 Grijalva-Usumacinta Hydrological Region (RH-30)
Mexico and Guatemala share the Grijalva-Usumacinta Hydrological Region. In the territory bordered to the North by the Gulf of Mexico; to the Northeast by the RH-31 (Yucatan West); to the East by the international boundary with Guatemala; to the South with the continental watershed of the Sierra of Soconusco; and to the West with the RH-22 (Tehuantepec) and RH-29 (Coatzacoalcos) hydrological regions.
The RH-30 occupies 75.22% of the state of Tabasco, located in the center and east of the entity (Figure 8) consists of the basins (A) Rio Usumacinta, (C) Laguna de Términos and (D) Rio Grijalva-Villahermosa. The most important rivers that make up this system are Santa Ana, Palizada, San Pedro, Lagartero, Pimiental, Tepetitlán and Tacotalpa.
1.7.1.2.1 Rio Usumacinta Basin (A)
It covers an area approximately 29.5% of the North-Central territory of the State. It is bordered on the North by the Gulf of Mexico and the basin (C) of the RH-30 which also borders it to the East. To the South it limits with the Republic of Guatemala and basins (G) and (D) of the RH-30. To the West it limits with the same basins. The sub- basins of the basin (A) in the State of Tabasco are: A, Río Usumacinta, B, Río San Pedro; C, Río Palizada; D, Rio San Pedro and San Pablo and E, Rio Chacamax. The Usumacinta River is the main stream that receives the contribution of a large number of tributaries throughout its route; it comprises the municipalities of Tenosique, Emiliano Zapata, Centla, Jonuta and Balancán.
Since the territory that contains is little high and kerbs, its drain is anastomosed irregular with meanders, lakes and channels that settle by filling in their own channels and causing runoff to invade land adjacent to its original course.
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These features indicate a balance between the slope and the deposit rate, implying a degree of maturity of the Usumacinta River, which generates meanders, abandoned channels and flood plains. Marginal lagoons, product of the above factors are: Grande, Canitzán, San José del Río, Chashchoc, Agostadero, Chanero, Los Mesías and San Pedrito.
The average annual temperature is 24° to 28° C, total annual precipitation varies from 1,500 mm to 2,500 mm, the flow of major rivers as the San Pedro in San Pedro Tabasco hydrometric station, reports a volume of 2,304.45 Mm3 drained a year; the Usumacinta River in the hydrometric station Boca del Cerro, reports an average annual volume of 56,113.74 Mm3. It is the best preserved hydrological system of the State due to the lower population density of the area of influence, the least amount of industrial facilities, great download speed and greater self cleaning system.
The uses of groundwater in this basin are channels of communication, supply to population centers and on a smaller scale for the industry.
1.7.1.2.2 Basin (C) Laguna de Términos
It occupies the 4.53% of the residential area; bordered to the North with the Gulf of Mexico, East basins (A) and (B) of the RH-31, South with the Republic of Guatemala and the RH-30 (A) basin, and to the West with this same basin. It is divided into sub- basins Lagunas de Pom B, Atasta D, Río Chumpan F and in the adjacent smaller ones with the State of Campeche. Flood areas predominate in these sub-basins and the meager draining correspond to the beginning of San Joaquin and El Pimiental streams which join to form the Río Chumpan, which discharges to the Laguna de Términos in the State of Campeche.
The average annual temperature is 26° to 28°C and the total annual precipitation is 1,500 to 2,000 mm; the runoff coefficient dominant in the basin is 20% to 30%, this is due to factors of low permeability in the lithology, associated with uniform vegetation of medium density; to a lesser extent, it presents the runoff coefficient of 10 to 20%, where lithological material shows medium permeability with dense cover, in a terrain with gentle slopes; the runoff volume of the basin in the state is 190.23 Mm3 annually.
1.7.1.2.3 Basin (D) Río Grijalva-Villahermosa
This basin is the largest of the State, it covers a large area in the center of the entity and covers approximately 41.45% of the total State; its limits are: to the North with the Gulf of Mexico, on the East by the (A) basin of the RH-30, on the South by Río Grijalva-Tuxtla Gutiérrez basins (E) and (G) Río Lacantún of the RH-30, and to the West with the basin (A) of the RH-29. The sub-basins that comprise the territory of Tabasco are:
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A, Río Grijalva; (B), Río Viejo Mezcalapa; C, Río Mezcalapa; G, Río Paredón; H, Río Pichucalco; I, Río de la Sierra; J, Río Tacotalpa; K, Río Almendro; N, Río Puxcatan; O, Río Macuspana; R, Río Tulijá; T, Río Chilapa; U, Río Chilapilla; V, Río Tabasquillo; W, Río Carrizal; X, Río Samaria; Y, Río Cunduacán and Z, Río Caxcuchapa. They drain into the Gulf of Mexico with significant runoff, among which outstands the Río Grijalva, whose origin is in the State of Chiapas until it reaches the Nezahualcoyotl dam, in the North of Chiapas; from this site it serves as a boundary between Chiapas and Tabasco, place in which it changes its name to Mezcalapa until the city of Villahermosa to subsequently resume again of Grijalva River. In its first kilometers by Tabasco territory, receives small contributions from several rivers such as the Comoapa and Nuevo Mundo; before its confluence with the Usumacinta River on the right bank, it receives important tributaries like the rivers Pichucalco, the Sierra and Chilapa. The lagoons Mecoacán, Santa Anita, El Viento, Ismate, Cantemual, Maluco, and Julivá are the main bodies of water belonging to the basin.
The Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers form mouths with branches in channels before reaching the sea, meaning that these have deltaic mouths. This causes marshes and marsh areas.
The total annual rainfall is 1,500 to 4,000 mm, while the average annual temperature varies from 24° to 28° C. The volume of runoff of the watershed in the State is 10,586.60 annual Mm3.
The municipalities of Huimanguillo, Cárdenas and Villahermosa are susceptible to frequent floods; however, this phenomenon has been able to control and decrease partially with the construction of major civil works such as Netzahualcoyotl dam located in the Chiapas territory. This basin is more industrial and has the highest population density of the State, which means an increase in the levels of biological and chemical contamination of the system. The most affected rivers are Carrizal and González which show considerable amounts of fats and oils. Oil and port activities are altering intensely the environment of the coastal lagoon complex Mecoacan-Julivá-Santa Anita. The uses of the water from this basin are, in order of importance: industrial, supply to urban centers and navigation.
1.7.2 Groundwater Hydrology
Due to its climatic, morphological and geological conditions, the State of Tabasco has very favorable geohydrological conditions; the hydrologic cycle, throughout the State is very dynamic. Throughout the South of the entity are the major topographic elevations, it is also the area of highest rainfall and present conditions of high infiltration capacity; so, it becomes an important recharge zone, causing movement of water in the underground and superficially in the direction of the sea. The coastal plain consists of transported material of sandy-clay particle size that generally has good permeability values.
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Due to its abundance and quality, availability of surface water, avoided the need for exploitation of this resource in the underground for a long time. However, the economic and industrial boom during the 1970s and 1980s caused a population increase with the consequent need to provide services to new urban centers. This boom also caused serious problems of contamination of surface waters and the increase in number and volume of groundwater extraction wells. Populations most impacted by the conditions described were Villahermosa, Huimanguillo, Tenosique, Emiliano Zapata, and La Chontalpa.
Because of its uniform geohydrological conditions, the State of Tabasco can be considered as a single aquifer. Highlands as Huimanguillo, Teapa and Tenosique regions are the areas of recharge and the rest of the State behaves like a free aquifer with shallow saturation levels. Only in some areas, due to the presence of clay layers, it is considered as semi confined aquifer.
1.7.2.1 Areas of exploitation
For the purposes of management of the resource, the State is divided into seven zones (Figure 9). With the exception of the area Chontalpa (27-01) where there is fresh to salt water, in most areas the quality of the water is sweet to tolerable. The use is mainly industrial and public. In areas Chontalpa (27-01) and Los Ríos (27-05) agricultural use is lasso included. All areas are in sub exploitation condition since the hydrologic balance reports 4,038 Mm³ annual recharge, while the exploitation is quantified in 244 Mm³ per year; resulting on availability of 3,794 Mm³.
1.7.2.1.1 (27-01) La Chontalpa
This area is located in the North-Western portion of the State and is bounded on the North by the Gulf of Mexico and to the West by the State of Veracruz.In this area, there are two main aquifers; one free, located in the first 20 meters, while the second corresponds to a semi confined aquifer or confined located between 50 and 400 m deep. The recharge of the aquifer is in the southern portion of the same, on the mountain side. General groundwater flow direction is from South to North, reaching the Gulf of Mexico. Permeability is medium.
There are 160 water exploitations reported: 5 chain pump wells and 155 wells that extract 106 annual Mm³ altogether. PEMEX uses 31 Mm³, the use of drinking water is estimated at 71 Mm³ and 4 Mm³ are destined for agriculture. It is estimated that the recharge of the aquifer is about 807 Mm³ per year, of which 106 Mm³ are extracted. The available volume is 701 Mm³ per year.
In the area of Agua Dulce-La Venta, the aquifer is contained in alluvial material of small thickness and Cenozoic sandstones, which together reported thickness of up to 1,500 m; the first 500 m reported as freshwater, while at higher depth, the quantity of dissolved solids increases as well as salinity, until fully salted water occasionally.
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1.7.2.1.2 (27-03) Huimanguillo
It is located in the Southwest corner of the State, in the border area between the physiographic provinces of the Llanura Costera del Golfo Sur and Sierras de Chiapas and Guatemala, in the first the topography is soft only interrupted by some low hills; the second, is dominated by the presence of steep hills formed by conglomerates and shale-sandstone sequences.
The aquifer is located on flat and low areas where intercalated sandy clay horizons are overlaying Cenozoic sand deposits of hydrologically great potential. The aquifer is considered of free type, confined in some areas by clay lenses, which are very abundant in the plain; the regional direction of hydraulic flow in the subsoil is from South to North. The area recorded 102 extraction wells that discharge from the aquifer 9 Mm³ per year, of which 8 Mm³ are for public use and only 1 Mm³ to industry. Annual recharge is estimated at 368 Mm³, so there is a surplus of 359 Mm³ per year. Permeability, in most of the area of operation is medium in non- consolidated material, while to the South, in the mountainous region; it shows low- medium permeability in not consolidated material, as well as low permeability in consolidated material.
1.7.2.1.3 (27-04) Macuspana
It comprises the central portion of the State in an area with little topographic relief and where deposits of sandstone and conglomerate outstanding hills are; although, carbonate rocks outcrop to the South. The non-consolidated material permeability is medium and low, while a small portion presents low permeability in consolidated material. The aquifer that currently is being exploited is contained in alluvial fills consisting of interdigitated horizons of sand and clay that overlie sandstone deposits of Cenozoic age with great hydrological potential. The aquifer is free with some areas semi confined by horizons or clay lenses. The quality of the water is sweet to tolerable; the flow direction is from South to North.
The registered number of water exploitations is 71 wells that total extract 21 Mm³ per year; annual recharge is estimated at 664 Mm³ per year; so, the hydrologic balance establishes that there are approximately 643 available Mm³ per year. The industry uses 1 Mm³, while public use is 20 Mm³.
1.7.2.1.4 (27-05) Los Ríos
It is located in the eastern portion of the State. The region presents low-relief, with less than 80 m altitude, where there are clastic and carbonate sedimentary rocks of Cenozoic age, and conglomerate, Marsh, Lake, alluvial and coastal Quaternary deposits outcropping. The permeability presented in the consolidated material is medium high, while in the non-consolidated material, permeabilities are: medium, medium low, and low. The aquifer is free. It has two areas of recharge, one to the East, with direction of flow to the West and another area to the South, with flow direction to the North.
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2 Annual Mm3 for agriculture, 16 Mm3 for public use and 3 Mm3 for the industry are extracted. It is estimated that the annual recharge is at 1,203 Mm3; therefore, 1,182 Mm3 per year are available. Official census registered 134 water exploitations, 123 correspond to wells and 11 chain pump wells.
The quality of water is sweet to tolerable in four chemical classes: sodium- sulphated, sodium bicarbonate, sodium-chlorinated and mixed (calcium, magnesium, sulfated and bicarbonated).
1.7.2.1.5 (27-06) Sierra
This area is located in the South-Central region of the entity. Like its predecessors, it also has gentle topography in general, with steep mountains on its Southern portion. The aquifer is composed of clastic sediments of the size of sands of Quaternary age. This area of exploitation presents medium permeabilities (mainly) and low to medium in unconsolidated materials; while, consolidated materials display permeabilities medium-high, medium, and low. In the vicinity of the mountains there are deposits of piedmont with good porosity and permeability. The flow is from South to North of the groundwater that has good chemical quality classified as freshwater of the family of the sodium bicarbonated.
The use of water extracted from 66 wells is 16 Mm3, intended for public use (14 Mm3) and industrial use (2 Mm3). Annual recharge is estimated at 219 annual Mm3, so availability is 203 Mm3 in the same period.
1.7.2.1.6 (27-07) Samaria-Cunduacán
Most of the area is located in the municipality of Cunduacán, on the coastal plain. It borders to the South with the mountain ranges that are the main areas of recharge. According to the heterogeneity of non-consolidated material of medium permeability that makes it up, the aquifer behaves as confined or semi confined. The quality of the water is sweet, sometimes tolerable of chemical class of mixed bicarbonated.
There is a record of 94 exploitation wells of the aquifer that extract 34 Mm3 for public use and 8 Mm3 for industrial use, mainly in the oil industry. Recharging is approximately 270 Mm3; therefore, annual availability is of 228 Mm3.
1.7.2.1.7 (27-08) Centla
It is located in a predominantly flat area, subject to flooding in the northern portion of the State. Share areas of exploitation with the States of Chiapas and Veracruz. The aquifer consists of sandy and clayey sediments of Quaternary age. Permeability of the entire area is medium in non-consolidated material. The quality of the water is sweet to tolerable. It is a free aquifer with zones where is semi-confined by lenses or layers of clay.
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The extraction works are 99 wells and 9 chain pump wells that extract 29 Mm3 per year, of which 28 Mm3 are intended for public use and 1 Mm3 to industry. It is estimated that the annual recharge is of 507 Mm3; so, the amount of water available is 478 Mm3. The groundwater flow direction is from South to North towards the Gulf of Mexico.
1.7.2.2 Units of permeability
It is the classification that is done to the rock types based on the capacity to accept entrance of rain water and flow through it. There are two groups: the group of consolidated material forming solid rocks, and the group of non consolidated detrital filling material. This last group is dominant in the State of Tabasco since it is deposited in depressions of the sierras and river plains. The range of permeability is also designated according to the physical characteristics of the rock or soil. In consolidated rocks effective porosity is considered as well as: the fracturing, the karsticity and the physical or chemical alteration suffered by the rocks due to the effects of weathering, among other factors. For unconsolidated materials, factors that influence are: the fineness, the porosity, the degree of consolidation, cementing and the place they occupy in the topographic relief.
The permeability units in the Tabasco entity (Figure 9) are as follows:
1.7.2.2.1 Unit of consolidated material with permeability medium-high (MA)
Rocks which belong to this unit are lower Cretaceous limestones located in the core of folded structures. They were placed in medium-sized and thick layers of fine- grained and medium to intense fracturing. These are located South of Teapa, West of Tenosique and on the border with Campeche and the Republic of Guatemala.
1.7.2.2.2 Unit of consolidated material with medium permeability (M)
This unit is made up of Cenozoic carbonated rocks that are arranged in thick layers, with medium grained texture and moderate fracturing, there are also thin to massive layers of limestone, fine to medium grained, moderate fracturing and partially recrystallized, located in the flanks of folded structures; and polymictic conglomerates containing limestone and sandstone clasts contained in a sandy matrix partially cemented by calcium carbonate and silica.
1.7.2.2.3 Unit of material consolidated with low medium permeability (BM)
Belonging to this unit, there are igneous rocks of andesitic composition of Neogene age which outcrop to the Southeast and West of Teapa; these are epiclastics deposits in an ash matrix. Forming also part of the unit, there are alternating limestones and shale rocks of the same age located on the flanks of folded structures with medium to low fracturing.
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1.7.2.2.4 Unit of not consolidated material with medium high permeability (ma)
This unit is represented in small portions of the State by Quaternary alluvial deposits.
1.7.2.2.5 Unit of not consolidated material with medium permeability (m)
This permeability unit covers most of the Tabasco territory. It includes virtually all types of soil present: alluvial, lacustrine, marshy and littoral. It is composed of gravels, silts and clays.
1.7.2.2.6 Unit of not consolidated material with medium low permeability (bm)
The Marsh and alluvial soils formed of clays, silts, and sands belong to this unit. For its high content of clay they are waterproof.
1.7.2.3 Aquifer potential
Currently, only some small portions of the municipalities of Cárdenas, Comalcalco, Jalpa de Méndez, Cunduacán, Centro, Jalapa and Macuspana have been identified as overexploited. The conditions of exploitation of the rest of the aquifers in the State give them a sub exploitation hydrologic status. Drilling without technical restrictions by PEMEX and CNA among other institutions has led to saline intrusion in some areas. Fortunately the problems generated by this intrusion in the subsoil, still not represent a risk; however, there is one big problem in areas such as Villahermosa, Macultepec, Nacajuca and Jalpa, where saline water is at depths that vary between 200 and 250 meters due to the presence of salt domes in ancient basins Currently, only some small portions of the municipalities of Cárdenas, Comalcalco, Jalpa de Méndez, Cunduacán, Centro, Jalapa and Macuspana have been identified as overexploited. The conditions of exploitation of the rest of the aquifers in the State give them a sub exploitation hydrologic status. Drilling without technical restrictions by PEMEX and CNA among other institutions has led to saline intrusion in some areas. Fortunately the problems generated by this intrusion in the subsoil, still not represent a risk; however, there is one big problem in areas such as Villahermosa, Macultepec, Nacajuca and Jalpa, where saline water is at depths that vary between 200 and 250 meters due to the presence of salt domes in ancient evaporitic basins that occur near the surface by geological processes.
Statewide groundwater annual recharge is estimated at 4,038 Mm3 and the exploitation of underground water reaches 244 Mm3; so the hydrologic balance is positive with 3,794 Mm3 of water available. In total there are 710 wells officially registered and 25 pump chains that supply fresh water to the population (191 Mm3), industry (47 Mm3) and agriculture (6 Mm3).
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1.7.2.4. Ban imposed areas
Ban imposed by the CNA areas are:
1. Río Grijalva area, which partially includes the States of Tabasco, Oaxaca and Chiapas (Decree of October 19, 1957)
2. The Veda of Coatzacoalcos which occupies a very small portion of the West of the State of Tabasco (Decree of 30 November 1976).
1.8 Physiography
The greater part of the State territory is comprised in the physiographic Province called Llanura Costera del Golfo Sur and only a small portion South of the entity, belongs to the Province of Sierra de Chiapas y Guatemala (INEGI, 2009), (Figure 10).
1.8.1 Llanura Costera del Golfo Sur Province
This Province covers parts of the States of Campeche, Veracruz, Chiapas and Tabasco, it borders the Southern portion of the Gulf of Mexico and extends from the parallel 19° 33' in the State of Veracruz to the limit with the Yucatan Peninsula approximately in the Meridian 90 ° 46', to the South it is bordered by the provinces of Sierra Madre del Sur, Central American Cordillera and Sierra de Chiapas and Guatemala; It extends to the Northwest with the Neovolcanic axis, to the Northeast by the Yucatán Peninsula province, to the North by the Gulf of Mexico, and to the Southeast towards the Republic of Guatemala.
In general it is a flat territory formed by rocks of sedimentary origin whose genesis is related to the regressive evolution of the Atlantic Ocean and in particular of the Gulf of Mexico from the Paleogene. It currently continues the accumulation of large volumes of detrital material into the ocean basin, from the continent. The flat or little wavy landscape of the region is interrupted primarily by a physiographic discontinuity called Sierra de los Tuxtlas in the State of Veracruz, where the maximum elevations of the province are found.
The province was developed by large amounts of water over an area of continental rising platform which gave rise to an important concentration and saturation of alluvial material. The sedimentary load has been transported and deposited by currents streams that have left abandoned old beds forming new avenues towards the Gulf of Mexico. The most abundant rivers in the country: Papaloapan, Coatzacoalcos, Grijalva and Usumacinta, ply this physiographic province.
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The Plains and Swamps Tabasqueños sub province is part of the South Gulf Coastal Plain Province and occupies 94.16% of the territory of the State of Tabasco. It presents a nearly flat relief with average height of 60 meters, which favors large fluvial deposits in diverse sedimentary media such as lacustrian, marshes and coastal as well as the generation of vast plains of flooding, abandoned channels and coastal lagoons, being the most important: El Carmen, Machona and Rosario lagoons.
1.8.1.1 Llanuras y Pantanos Tabasqueños Sub province
This Sub province covers in the State, part of the municipalities of Huimanguillo, Macuspana, Tacotalpa, Teapa and Tenosique, all of the municipalities of Balancán, Cárdenas, Centla, Centro, Comalcalco, Cunduacán, Emiliano Zapata, Jalapa, Jalpa, Jonuta, Nacajuca and Paraíso. It borders the Gulf of Mexico to the North, on the South it is limited by the Province Sierras de Chiapas y Guatemala, to the East it goes into the State of Campeche and the Republic of Guatemala, and to the West it extends to Veracruz entity. The Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers have their origin in Guatemalan territory and low basins of these currents come to join in the central portion of the Sub province of Llanuras y Pantanos Tabasqueños. Both rivers join South of the city of Frontera, at a place called Tres Brazos and from there have common output towards the Gulf of Mexico.
The extensive permanent flooded areas in the form of lakes and swamps are located in the eastern part of the sub province, where it is also drained by the rivers San Pedro and San Pablo, other small lakes and marshes are located in the coastal region of Paraíso and in the West of the State. To the West lies the basin of the Tonalá River which is the political boundary between the States of Veracruz and Tabasco.
Geomorphically, landscape is dominated by plains and low hills, with maximum altitude of 240 meters, as the El Tortuguero hill located in the municipality of Macuspana. Systems of topography that constitute this region are: bars, separating the waters of the sea waters from lagoons El Carmen and Machona; dunes, located between the mouth of the Tonalá River and lagoon El Carmen, and between the lagoons Cocal and Mecoacán; barrier plains (beaches), situated between the last mentioned lagoon and the boundary with the State of Campeche; hilly landscape South of the State, in the outlying Chontalpa, Estación San Miguel, Benito Juárez and to the North and West of Tenosique de Pino Suárez, these systems form a transition zone between the provinces South Gulf Coastal Plain and Sierras of Chiapas and Guatemala; hills with plains in the East and Southeast, where are located the populations of El Triunfo and Tenosique de Pino Suárez; plain with flooding along the South side of the San Pedro and Usumacinta rivers; large alluvial plain, in Balancán and in Comalcalco, Cárdenas and Huimanguillo environments; flooded coastal plain that stretches in the vicinity of Mecoacán lagoon and West of Villahermosa to the limit with Campeche, and the West of Paraíso to the environment of La Venta and El Rosario lagoon.
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The majority of the surface runoff of the State converge in the territory of the first plain where much of the surface water containers are, such as the lagoons of Mecoacán, Santa Anita, San Pedrito, El Viento, and Juliva, among other smaller; to the South there are topomorphic systems of valley type, valley laid slopes, valley slopes set with flood and low sierra.
1.8.2 Province Sierras of Chiapas and Guatemala
This geomorphic province extends from Mexico to the Guatemala Republic. In Mexico it comprises part of the State of Chiapas and a small part of southern Tabasco. It is bordered to the North with the South Gulf Coastal Plain Province; to the South with the Central American Cordillera; to the East with the Republic of Guatemala and to the West with both the South Gulf Coastal Plain Province and the Central American Cordillera.
Its landscape is dominated by valleys, canyons and hills consisting of folded sedimentary rocks of Mesozoic age. These are relatively low mountains with peaks of 1,000 to 2,000 meters above the sea level.
This province is divided into several sub provinces, among which, are the Sierra del Norte de Chiapas and the Sierras Bajas del Petén, which are located in a portion of barely 5.84% of the territory of the State of Tabasco.
1.8.2.1 Sub province Sierras del Norte de Chiapas
This sub province occupies three areas of the State of Tabasco, located in the extreme South, in the municipalities of Macuspana, Tacotalpa, Teapa and Huimanguillo. It is bordered to the North by Sub province of Llanuras y Pantanos Tabasqueños and interned to the South, East and West in Veracruz and Chiapas territory. The higher elevations within these areas are La Pava and La Ventana hills that have an altitude of 860 and 560 m respectively; and the sierras of Madrigal, Tapijulapa and Puana, with 540, 500 and 340 m. Lithological diversity, as well as rugged of terrain gives these mountains a complex character.
Meteoric water circulation produces an effect of dissolution of limestone in this area; this feature develops mainly a karstic landscape in the municipalities of Tacotalpa and Teapa where there are large areas with sinkholes, knolls, poljes and low hills of tropical karst. An example of this effect of dissolution is the grotto of Coconá in Teapa, which is an important element of the system of Caverns, grottos and underground hydrological network, as well as a tourist attraction, as it is considered one of the most beautiful in the country.
In general, the surface hydrological network is of dendritic type, torrential with short drains that disappear into sinkholes, grottos, or fractures of the calcareous rock; typical characteristic of karstic areas. Mainstream located in this Sub province is the Tacotalpa River, followed in order of importance by Teapa River; both are born in the South-central portion of the State.
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The system of dominant topography in this sub province is of complex mountains, whose foothills are located in Tabasco; among these foothills are systems of topoforms of valley laid slopes, intermountanous valley and open valley topography; as well as hills, karstic sierra, small plain and doline.
1.8.2.2 Sub province Low Sierras of the Petén
This sub province consists for the most part, by mountains composed of carbonate rocks folded and faulted. It crosses almost the entire Guatemalan territory and delves into the North-East of Chiapas and the South-East of the State of Tabasco, where it occupies only 2% of the surface of the entity in the municipality of Tenosique. It borders to the North with the Sub province Plains and Swamps Tabasqueños, to the West with the State of Chiapas and the South with the Republic of Guatemala.
The characteristic topography in this area is of Northwest-Southeast oriented folds that make up the system of topoforms of folded sierra type, which are associated with sinkholes as a result of the conditions of tropical Karst that predominate in this region. These conditions have also led to the formation of hillocks. Other topography within the area is laid slopes and canyon valleys.
1.9 Protected natural areas
The first protected area in Mexico, the Desierto de los Leones was created in 1876 for the purpose of protecting the springs that supplied water to the city of Mexico. But only until 1930, this process had a significant momentum and created different protected areas and reserves. In 1988, the National System of Protected Areas was created to operate and management of these areas, which are administered by States and municipalities, the rest, is administered by the National System of Protected Areas (SINAP), dependent of the National Institute of Ecology. SINAP enters into force in 1988 and manages the set of protected natural areas that are of interest to the Federation. There are 89 areas within the SINAP protected, divided into nine categories, which together encompass nearly 11 million of has.
The Natural Protected Areas (ANP) are geographical spaces determined by the State within its territory to protect its natural resources. These are classified (2010, SINAP) according to their characteristics and purposes in several categories (Table VIII).
The Natural Protected Areas of the federal State of Tabasco are only two; Los Pantanos de Centla classified as biosphere reserve and the Cañón del Usumacinta, considered as Protection Area for Flora and Fauna. (Table IX and (Figure 11).
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Yumká
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1.9.1 Pantanos de Centla
Pantanos de Centla (Photograph 6) are considered the largest wetland region of Mexico, covering 302,706.63 has, where the Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers converges and 39 species of fish, 50 amphibians and reptiles, 60 mammals and 125 of birds, as well as 434 species of plants inhabit so it constitutes an exceptional site for the contemplation of nature.
It was declared Reserve of the Biosphere by Decree of 6 August 1992. It is located between the coordinates 17° 57’ 53” and 18° 03’ 39” North latitude and 92° 06’ 39” and 92° 47’ 58” West longitude, and these are distributed in the municipalities of Centla (74%), Jonuta (21%) and Macuspana (5%). Limited to the North by the Gulf of Mexico at the mouth of the San Pedro and San Pablo rivers and the city of Frontera; to the East the boundary is the State border with the State of Campeche; to the South is bordered by the Bitzales River until its union with the Grijalva and to the West with the Porfias creek and part of the Villahermosa-Ciudad del Carmen highway.
These form flood plains with impressive landscape: the coastal plain, which strengthens coastline controlling erosion; the plain fluviomarine where the coastal lagoons are located and output supply of nutrients to the Gulf of Mexico, the fluviopalustrine plain, ecologically the most productive as there becomes the alluvium deposited by the rivers and the river plain, socially the most important because in its margins has developed people with knowledge in the management of water. The Centla swamps passes approximately 30% of the Mexican freshwater and for this reason it is ranked 7th worldwide for download.
The 72 communities settled in the reserve have been developed throughout its history a culture of the water or the swamp, proving the sustainability of the same by the use of about 200 plant species that meet their vital needs or removal of animal protein off the environment. In the vicinity there is the presence of 19 archaeological remains.
Wetlands provide the community features and services that are very important as the recharge and discharge of aquifers, flood control, erosion control, and export of biomass and sediment retention. They function as Windbreak barriers against storms, allowing stabilization of the coastline; these also allow water transport and recreation, as well as being a refuge for wildlife. They provide forest resources, wildlife, fisheries, agricultural and livestock resources, water supply, among others.
These are ecosystems of marshes developed in estuarine lands that stand out for their high productivity and biological diversity. During the flood season, organic matter (alluvium) washed by the rivers, is dispersed and deposited in the Tabasco plain where it turns and gives rise to the swamps; sites suitable for the reproduction and development of a complex food chain.
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Photograph 6.- Centla swamps. Panoramic view from the tower's observation of Centro de Interpretación UYOTOT - JA (La Casa del Agua).
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Ichthyological and Herpetological richness of this area is very important and has been one of the main products of consumption and trade for these zone inhabitants. In this area there are more than 19,000 inhabitants, who mostly have fishing activities as the main economic activity. From this reserve 19% of fish production of the entity is extracted, it has an important agricultural and backyard livestock production and produces 21% of sweet gas at this region of the country.
The climate in the area of the Pantanos de Centla is warm-humid and sub humid with abundant rainfall throughout the year, with an annual average temperature of 25.0°C and annual average rainfall of 1,400 to 1,800 mm.
Currently in the Reserve are safeguard of 569 species of identified flora, divided into 118 families grouped in 8 major associations of aquatic and terrestrial systems. More than a third of the Reserve is occupied by hydrophilic communities developed and extended, basically divided into three types:
-Vegetation emergent hydrophytes represented by espadañal (Thypa latifolia), chintul (Cyperus articulata), siba (Cladium jamaicense) and hojillal or poplar (Thalia geniculata).
Floating hydrophyte vegetation denominated jacinto (Eichornia crassipes), oreja de ratón (Lemma minor), hoja de sol (Nymphaea ampla) and lechuga de pantano (Pistia stratiotes), among others.
-Vegetation submerged hydrophytes associated with floating hydrophytes represented by the kelp (Cerathophyllum demersus, C. echinatum), cintilla (Vallisineria americana).
The low and medium sub-evergreen forest of puckté (Bucida buceras) and tintal (Haematoxylon campechianum) respectively are distributed in stripes, patches and small islets between the aquatic vegetation that defines naturally; the species that most stand out due to their economic importance in these two associations are: jobo (Spondias mombin), macuilís (Tabebuia rosea), gusano (Lonchocarpus hondurensis), amargoso (Vatairea lundelii), palo mulato (Bursera simaruba), Barí (Callophyllum brasiliensis), caoba (Swietenia macrophylla), cedro (Cedrella odorata), among others.
A plant community present on sites influenced by salt water is the mangrove forest that develops in soils that have high concentrations of organic matter and nutrients that give life and food to marine species that dwells among its roots. The most important species are: the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), white mangrove (Avicenia germinans), black mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa) and botoncillo mangrove (Conocarpus erecta).
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Other plant communities present in the swamps are: mucal scrub (Dalbergia brownii) which is located mainly on the shores of rivers and lakes or inland formed by species of riparian character; the tasistal palmar (Acoelorraphe wrightii); the guanal palms (Sabal mexicana) that thrives on the better drained land throughout the area, where are established thanks to the constant burning made for sowing and induction of carried out grasses in the area of distribution, which coincides with the areas mostly impacted anthropogenically speaking and the farming of the region; the association of riparian vegetation is located on the banks of the rivers, streams and channels, represented by willow (Salix chilensis), tucuy (Phithecellobium lanceolatum), gusano (Lonchocarpus hondurensis), chelele (Inga fissicalyx), palomillo (Cytharexylum hexangulare), tinto (Haematoxylon campechianum) and muco (Dalbergia brownii).
This floristic diversity represents approximately 12% of aquatic and underwater vegetation of the country and represents one of the most important samples of aquatic vascular flora of Mesoamerica.
Fauna in the swamps records amount to 52 species of fish, 68 of reptiles, amphibians 27, 104 of mammals and 255 of birds which includes migratory and resident species of aquatic and land habitats. The most representative are: (Cochlearius cochlearius), chocolatera (Ajaia ajaia), pato real (Cairina moschata), pijije (Dendrocygna autumnalis), patillo (Anas discors), halcón peregrino (Falco peregrinus), ibis o cocopato (Eudecimus albus), cigüeña jabirú (Jabiru mycteria), cigüeña americana (Mycteria americana), páspaque, among others.
Mammals are represented by 36 families, 77 genera and 104 species, of which include armadillo (Dasypus novemcintus), Manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus), tepezcuintle (Agouti paca) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus).
26 families of fish represented by 52 species inhabit the Reserve. Stand out for its commercialization, the Snook (Centropomus undecimalis), mojarra (Chiclasoma fenestratum, C. urophtalmus, Petenia splendida, Tilapia SP.) and the pejelagarto (Atractosteus tropicus).
Reptiles, represented by 26 families and 68 species include white turtle (Dermatemys mawii), the pochitoque (Kinosternun leucostomum), the hicotea (Trachemys scripta), the guao (Staurotypus tripocartus), iguana (Iguana iguana), the aspoque (Ctenosaura similis) and marsh crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii). The amphibians are represented by 8 families and 27 species among which predominate Rhynophrynus dorsalis, Buffo horribilis, B. valliceps, Rana pipiens, and r. palmipes.
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1.9.2 Cañón del Usumacinta
It is located within the biogeography province of the Petén, next to the limits with Guatemala and Chiapas. Through the sierra and high evergreen forest vegetation, it forms a biological corridor by which species diversity has been integrated to the faunal richness and floristic area (Photograph 7). Its strategic location with Central America allows being a part of important regional development projects such as the Proyecto Mundo Maya (Mayan World Project), the Plan Puebla-Panama and recently with the construction of a road between Mexico and Guatemala.
Inside the polygon that contains this NPA, there is a variety of archaeological sites; among the most important are: San Claudio and Pomona, in addition to other sites not recovered yet (INAH, 2001). In the Santo Tomás ejido are the cenotes Aktun Ha ("Cenote de la Cueva") and Ya Ax Ha ("Agua azulverde"). In addition, in the area are the caves of el Tigre and la Ventana, where you can practice speleology and observe lots of stalactites and stalagmites, as well as vestiges of the Mayan culture.
It was declared a State Park on June 15, 2005. However, by Decree of September 22, 2008, it was declared as a wildlife protection area and its care and management was assigned to the federal Government.
It covers an area of 46,128 hectares, located in the southeast of the State of Tabasco, in the municipality of Tenosique. It is located between the geographical coordinates 17° 27’ 00’’ and 17° 14’ 00’’ North latitude and between 91° 31’ 00’’ and 91° 00’ 00’’ West longitude. It is bordered to the North by ejidos, particular properties and ranches of the town of Tenosique, to the South and to the East with the Republic of Guatemala and to the West it is divided by the Usumacinta River, with the State of Chiapas.
It has a warm humid climate with rainfall throughout the year. The annual mean temperature is 26.8° C and average annual precipitation of 2,614 mm.
Vegetation occurring is high evergreen forest, with a predominance of chicozapote (Manilkara zapota), zapote (Pouteria zapota), ramón (Brosimun alicastrum), guapaque (Dialium guianense) and canshán (Terminalia amazonia). Some trees up to 45 m tall, straight trunk and wide cup can be appreciated in the upper canopy. In the Middle canopy, there is the presence of species such as bojón (Cordia alliodora), chacahuante (Simira saalvadorensis), jobo (Spondias mombin) and molinillo (Quararribea funebris). In the low stratum or undergrowth, it is common to find large number of individuals of the same species, this is justified by the fact that there were present conditions that allowed the emersion of seedlings as guapaque (Dialium guianense), masamorro (Poulsenia armata), barí (Calophyllum brasiliense) and shate (Chamaedorea elegans), among others.
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Photograph 7.- Panoramic view of the Flora and Fauna Protection Area Called Cañón de Usumacinta.
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For its geographical location, extension and structure, the ANP is considered very important as habitat for shelter and breeding lozal fauna and migratory. Its biological diversity is of 417 species of fauna, including the tepezcuintle (Agouti paca), mono aullador (Alouatta palliata), tapir (Tapirus bairdii), jaguar (Panthera onca), iguana rayada (Ctenosaura similis), cascabel (Crotalus durissus), chiquiguao (Chelydra serpentina), loro coroniazul (Amazona farinosa), loro coroniblanco (Pionus senilis) and pavo ocelado (Agriocharis ocellata), among others (ABCD- UJAT) (2005).
1.9.3 Protected Areas under State Jurisdiction
The ANP Government Responsibilities of the State of Tabasco are: 1. Agua Blanca State Park. 2. Centro de Interpretación y Convivencia con la Naturaleza “Yumka”. 3. La Sierra State Park 4. Natural Monument, Cerro del Coconá. 5.-Laguna Del Camarón, Ecological Park. 6. La Chontalpa, Ecological Reserve. 7. Laguna La Lima, Ecological Reserve. 8. Yu-Balcah, Ecological Reserve. 9. Cascadas de Reforma, Ecological Reserve. 10. Río Playa, Ecological Reserve.
1. State Park Agua Blanca
The main attraction of this park is the waterfalls that sprout from a cave, sliding through the rocks and forming natural pools with great force. Way above comes to Las Grutas Izta-Ha (Agua Blanca) with Caverns of impressive dimensions, inside of these; there are footpaths with light and sound, ideal for speleological practices, as well as guided tours of the jungle.
It was declared a State Park in the decree issued on 19 December 1987, which protects 2,025 hectares located between geographical coordinates 17° 35’ and 17° 38’ North latitude and between 92° 25’ and 92° 29’ West longitude. It is located in the West and Northwest portion of the region of the Sierra de Tabasco in the municipality of Macuspana, (Figure 11).
It has a tropical climate with rainfalls in summer, an average annual temperature of 26 ° C and an average annual rainfall 1, 500-3, 500 mm.
The vegetation present in the park consists of 161 species belonging to 58 families, among these the most important by its predominance are: the Leguminosae with 52 species, the Euphorbiaceae with 23 species, the Rubiaceae with 21 species and the Piperaceae with 14 species (Ortiz, 2005). Here, there are several species of endemic trees such as tomatillo (Recchia simplicifolia) and guirón (Decazix esparzae), which are considered relict of areas of refuge in the geological past.
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The area constitutes a shelter site for plant species in danger of extinction such as the zopo tropical trees (Guatteria anomala), tinco (Vatairea lundelii), tree palms camedor (Chamaedorea tepejilote), orchids, shrubs (Louteridium mexicanum) and cycads (Zamia furfuracea), among others.
The original vegetation belongs to the high evergreen forests of Ramón (Brosimum alicastrum), which reaches the upper stratum in more than 30 meters in height; maca blanca (Vochysia hondurensis), caoba (Swietenia macrophylla), palo mulato (Burserasimaruba), ceiba (Ceiba pentandra), huapaque (Dialum guianense), chicozapote (Manilkara zapota) and a large number of vines, lianas, epiphytes, and fungi.
The natural area also develops medium evergreen forest and secondary vegetation (acahuales). The vertical structure of this forest of the Park has 3 layers: the first includes trees less than 10 m. of height, the dominant species is the cafetillo (Rinorea guatemalensis); the second includes trees of between 15 and 30 m. of height as the chichón (Astrocarium mexicanum) and el huesillo (Psycrotia chiapensis); and the third layer is of trees between 20 and 40 m. of height, where important species are molinillo or majaz (Quararibea funebris), jolotzin (Helicocarpus pendiculatus) and huapaque (Dialium guianense).
Among the fauna are the nauyaca (Bothrops asper), iguana (Iguana iguana); cotorra cucha (Amazona albifrons), the tucán (Rhamphastos keel), the cenzontle (Mimus polyglottis); tepezcuintle (Agouti paca), mapache (Procyon lotor), tigrillo (Leopardus wiedii), coyote (Canis latrans), conejo (Sciurus SP.), the venado temazate (Mazama americana), puerco de monte (Tayassu tayassu), zorro (Metachripos opossun padillus), and the murciélago (Choeronyctens mexicana, Lepthoncycteris niualis and L. sanborni).
The lepidopters-buterflies group, stands out by being represented by 88 genera and 158 species; the Nymphalidae family is the most abundant as are 61 species and thirteen new records for the State of Tabasco.
2.- Centro de Interpretación y Convivencia con la Naturaleza "YUMKA".
Of chontal origin, the word YUMKÁ means goblin that takes care of the jungle. It is an ecological reserve under State jurisdiction where it is possible to see more than 200 species of animals in the region and 32 species of exotic fauna integrates a captive population of about 300 individuals. Its area is 1,713 hectares, protected by Decree of December 19, 1987, with an extension on June 5, 1993.
It is located 17 kilometers away from the city of Villahermosa, very close to the airport, between the geographical coordinates and 17° 59’ 15’’ and 18° 02’ 08’’ North latitude and 92° 45’ 50’’ and 92° 48’ 00’’ West longitude.
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This area was selected because it conserves a relic of the semi-evergreen of ramón (Brosimum alicastrum), in an area of 33 hectares, where trees 15 to 30 meters in height bare found; and because on its lagoon there is aquatic vegetation and extension of smaller proportion of grasses or pasture, all them representative of the State and the Mexico Southeast region ecosystems.
It has a warm humid climate with summer rains; mean annual temperature is 26.8° C and annual rainfall average of 2,168 mm.
There are more than 250 floristic species, among which are the huapaque (Dialium guianense), jobo (Spondias mombin), ceiba (Ceiba pentandra), chackté (Sweetia panamensis), palo mulato (Bursera simaruba), guano redondo (Sabal mexicana) and corozo (Scheelea liebmanii), candelero (Cordia stellifera), rabo de lagarto (Zanthoxylum kellermanii), guanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum), almendrillo (Zuelania guidonia), amate (Ficus glaucescens), zapotillo (Pouteria unilocularis) y frutilla negra (Conostegia xalapensis, among others.
The native fauna of the Centro consists of sapo (Buffo marinus), rana leopardo (Rana vaillanti), jaguar (Panthera onca), toloque (Bassiliscus vittatus), iguana (Iguana iguana), aspoque (Ctenosaura pectinata), trogón (Trogon melanocephalus), periquito azteca (Aratinga nana aztec), pecarí de collar (Dicotyles tajacu), tuza (Orthogeomys sp.), ardilla (Sciurus aerogaster), manatí (Trichechus manatus manatus), mono araña (Ateles geoffroyi), tigrillo (Leopardus wiedii), jaguarundi (Herpailurus yaguarundi), martucha (Potos flavus), mapache (Procyon lotor), tucán (Ramphastus sulfuratus) y tutuspana (Aramides cajanea), among others.
3.- Sierra de Tabasco State park
This Park is located in the Madrigal, Poana and Tapijulapa hills that offer magnificent scenery because of its altitude, climate, vegetation and hydrology. Tourist attractions such as natural spa, unexplored caves, archaeological sites of the zoque culture, as well as the cave of the blind sardines, where takes place in Holly week, a dance of pre-Hispanic origin dedicated to the divinity of the rain, Chaac.
It is located in the South-central region of the State between the towns of Teapa and Tacotalpa, geographically it is defined by geographical coordinates 92° 38' and 92° 58' West longitude and 17° 25' and 17° 35' North latitude. It covers an area of 15,113.21 hectares, protected by state decree issued on February 24, 1988.
It is characterized by the presence of carbonated rocks of marine origin affected by karsticity, which leads to formation of caves or grottos, such as those located in the hills of La Aurora, La Campana and El Madrigal.
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Its climate is warming humid with rainfall throughout the year and an average annual temperature of 22°C. The average annual rainfall ranges between 3,000 and 4,000 mm.
The Park contains 905 plant species belonging to four botanical groups: 9 species and 6 families of Bryophyta, 23 species and 8 families of Pteridophyta, one specie of Cycadophyta and 886 Magnoliopida species; in the latter group, 75 families are dicotyledonous and 18 monocotyledonous families. Of these, 112 species are new reports for the Flora of Tabasco (UJAT, 2004). It is possible to observe three types of vegetation: high or medium semi-evergreen forest; secondary vegetation or acahual old (older than 10 years); and secondary vegetation or acahual young (less than 10 years).
The variety of natural environments favor the reproduction of representative species of the fauna that inhabits the area, as the tree frog (Hyla arborícola), stone hand (Demophis mexicanus), nauyaca (Bothrops asper), flying Snake (Spilotes pullatus), chachalaca (Ortalis vetula), hawk (Buteo mangirostris), cojolita (Penelope purpuracens), howler monkey (Alouatta paliata), the jaguar (Panther onca).
Other species are subject to strong pressure from hunting for food and fur, emphasizing in this line the armadillo (Dasyproctus novemcinctus), the white-tailed deer (Odocoiles virginianus), the temazate, the mountain porcupine, the pheasant, the iguana (Iguana iguana) and tepezcuintle, among others.
4.- Natural monument, Coconá Caves.
It was protected by Decree of 24 February 1988 and covers an area of 442 hectares located in the municipality of Teapa between Parallels 17° 33’ 30’’ and 17° 35’ 13’’ North latitude and 92° 54’ 35’’ and 92° 56’ 13’’ of West longitude.
It is located in the southern portion of the Serranía de Teapa. The cave has a 30 meters long, artificially illuminated corridor. It is a depression of 492 meters long divided into 8 rooms. Inside, there is a cenote of 25 meters in diameter and 35 meters deep where blind fish are found.
The Hill of Cocona plant Association is called "high mountain" and is characterized because the trees are taller than 35 meters and remain green most of the year. They belong to the high evergreen forest. The fauna that inhabits the area is poor due to the high degree of human intervention. There are small mammals such as tlacuache (Didelphys marsupialis), ardillas (Sciaurus aureogaster), murciélago (Desmodus rounded), mapache (Procyon lotor) and tejón (Nasua narica). A good number of birds take refuge in parts high and inaccessible of the Hill, as the aguililla (Buteo nitidus), chachalaca (Ortalis vetula) and tecolote (Ciccaba virgata); as well as reptiles and amphibians like the camaleón o sapo minador (Rhinophrynus dorsalis), sapo (Bufo marinus) and reptiles such as the nauyaca (Botrhops asper).
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5. - Laguna del Camarón, Ecological Park
This continental aquatic ecosystem owes its origin to migration processes of a meander of the Grijalva River, which in its early days its waters drained through this gap, but as the meander evolved by the sedimentation process was undermining the banks and shortening the distance between the same. It is relevant to the city of Villahermosa ecological importance since it operates as regulator for precipitation control, contributing to the hydrological cycle and regulates the microclimate of the city. It is also a temporary shelter for the reproduction and nesting of native and migratory species.
It covers an area of 70 hectares protected by State Decree on June 5, 1993, located between the geographical coordinates 17° 59’ 20” and 18° 07’ 00” North latitude and 92° 53’ 55” and 92° 54’ 18” West longitude. It is located 2 km northwest of the center of the city of Villahermosa.
It has a warm humid climate with abundant rains in summer. Its annual average temperature is 27.5°C and average annual precipitation is 2,177 mm.
Although this area is a transformed environment, the flora of it is rich in species; there are 52 families with 99 species of vascular plants. The best represented families are the Fabaceae (7 genera), the Euphorbiaceae (5 genera), the Araceae (with 3 genera), the Poaceae (4 genera), the verbenáceas (3 genera) and the Meliáceas, Moráceas and Arecáceas with 2 genera each.
The fauna is typical of an agro ecosystem, in which the natural environment has been totally altered, so wildlife is restricted to a small number of species. The most common mammals such as tlacuache (Didelphys marsupialis), raccoon (Procyon lotor), badgers (Nasua narica), Mustela sp, Lutra longicauidis, Sylvilalgus floridanus, represent a pest to crops. There also inhabit some reptiles, amphibians and local aquatic birds that live in the vicinity of the lagoon. The aquatic fauna is representative of the lenses water bodies in the region with a predominance of fish like the Cichlids and fewer the Characins, Gobies, and the significant presence of crustaceans and mollusks.
6.- Ecological reserve of the Chontalpa.
This ecological park is legally protected and accredited by State Decree of February 5, 1995, in an area of 277 hectares of the school of Postgraduados-Campus Tabasco (UJAT-SEDESPA 1999). Since it is within the grounds of an academic institution, there is the opportunity to generate important information about its biotic resources and flora and the structure of the plant community that justifies their preservation are currently inventoried in detail.
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The importance of the protection of this reserve lies in that this area represents one of the last relicts of evergreen forest of "canacoite" of the State of Tabasco, and one of the few green areas in the region, which was greatly deforested in the 1960s during the establishment of the Chontalpa Plan. The uses to which the population of the Chontalpa makes from different plant species stand out: ornamental (15%), edible (37%), medicinal (17%), timber - construction and fuel (20%), among others. The uses of the usable fauna of the region include the skin (7.7%), the ornamental (33.3%) and edible (59.0%).
It is located at kilometer 21 of the Cardenas-Coatzacoalcos Federal Highway between the coordinates 17° 59’ 05” and 17° 59’ 51” North latitude and 93° 34’ 13” and 93° 35’ 33" West longitude. Located in the South-central part of the Chontalpa Plan (project of agricultural drainage) and to the southwest of the municipality of Cárdenas, it currently belongs to the Tabasco Campus of the Colegio de Postgraduados. The area is characterized by a relief composed of flat terrain with areas of depression at an altitude varying from 2 to 17 m.a.s.l. and some elevations greater than 25 m.
It has a warm humid climate with abundant rains in summer. Its annual average temperature is 26°C and the average annual rainfall is 2,256.3 mm.
There is a record of 247 species of plants, divided into 65 families and 176 genera. The vegetation is medium evergreen forest with predominance of "canacoite" (Bravaisia integerrima), with elements of native flora, some of them in danger of extinction. It also has areas that present acahual, induced grassland and ruderal vegetation.
The main animal species recorded within the Park include mammals (20.2%), birds (61.3%), reptiles (10.9%), and amphibians (7.6%). There is not an exact register as to fish in the area since the fishing activity is carried out in areas far to the area.
7.- Ecological reserve, La Lima Lagoon
It is one of the smaller lagoons in the State, with an area of 36.28 hectares, which has been destined, by Decree of 8 February 1995, to the protection, conservation and restoration of the ecosystem of poplar-tular, with the aim of providing spaces for recreation, education and research; for nesting, shelter and alimentation site of species of mainly birds, and reptiles (UJAT, 2002).
It is located in the municipality of Nacajuca, Tabasco, between the parallel 18° 00' 37’’ and 18° 00’ 59" latitude North and 92° 57' 45’’ and 92° 59’ 01" West longitude. It has a warm humid climate with abundant rainfall all year. The average temperature is 26° C. The warmest month is May, and the coolest months are December and January. The average annual precipitation is 2,008 mm.
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The vegetation characteristic of the lagoon is the one associated to aquatic areas as the espadaño (Typha latifolia) and species of heliconia (Heliconia sp). The thorny riparian shrub vegetation grows on the margins of a very narrow stream that connects the lagoon with the Mezcalapa River.
Among the animal species that inhabit the lagoon are, the iguana (Iguana iguana), the hicotea (Trachemys scripta), and the pochitoque (Kinosternon leucostomun). The nauyaca (Bothrops asper) is also found among the inhabitants of the lagoon. Among the species of fish that exist is the pejelagarto (Atractosteus tropicus), various mojarras as the tenhuayaca (Petenia splendida), castarrica (Cichlasoma urophtalmus) among others. Aquatic birds which feed on some small fish such as the martin pescador (Ceryle torquata), white heron (Casmerodius albus) and snail hawk (Rosthramus sociabilis). As part of the mammals, there are species such as the tlacuache (Didelphys marsupialis) which feeds on small toads.
8.- Yu-Balcah Ecological Reserve
This reserve is the only one in the State of a private nature. It is also one of the few natural areas in Tabasco featuring medium evergreen forest of Canacoite (Bravaisia integerrima) and high evergreen forest of Pío (Licania platypus).
Yu - Balcah allows an ecotourism development aimed to the conservation of biodiversity, cultural diffusion, environmental education, recreation and research; as well as the protection of unique plant associations in danger of extinction. It has eight kilometers of trails, informative booths, a typical restaurant and recreational activities such as: camping, hiking in the jungle, observation of the nature, cycling, canopy tours, kayaking and rappel, in 572 hectares, enacted on June 10, 2000.
It is located in an area called La Asunción, at La Ceibita township 1st. section, in the municipality of Tacotalpa, Tabasco; between the extreme coordinates 17° 35’ 56” and 92° 50' 54” length West. It has a warm humid climate with rainfall throughout the year, with an annual average temperature of 25.7°C and annual average rainfall of 3,045.1 mm. The area develops a Canacoite medium evergreen forest and Pío high evergreen forest. The first is known regionally as "Canacoital", dominant association in reserve (DACB-UJAT-SEDESPA, 1999).
The canacoite is reported only in the municipalities of Cardenas and Tacotalpa in the State of Tabasco and is categorized as threatened. The forest presents three arboreal strata defined: arboreal superior with heights up to 30 m, composed by: pío, huapaque (Dialium guianense), ceiba (Ceiba pentandra), mahogany (Swietenia macrophilla), palo mulato (Bursera simaruba), barí (Calophyllus brasiliense), among others; arboreal medium with heights up to 18 m, dominated by canacoite, zapote de agua (Pachira aquatica), corozo (Scheelea liebmannii), jobo (Spondias mombin), among others and the low arboreal layer consisting of: molinillo (Quararibea funebris), jaboncillo (Sapindus saponaria) and candelero (Cordia sp).
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In understory, palms are the dominant: jahuacte (Bactris baculifera), escoba (Crysophila argentea), chichón (Astrocaryum mexicanum), various vines, and herbaceous plants as the araceae, heliconia, ferns and orchids.
The characteristic fauna of the place consists of mono saraguato (Alouatta palliata), spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi), colmenero bear (Cyclopes didactylus), tigrillo (Leopardus wiedii), grey hawk (Buteo nitidus), cojolita (Penelope purpurascens), milano snail (snail sociabilis), boa (Boa constrictor), crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii), green iguana (Iguana iguana), pochitoque (Kinosternon leucostomum), hicotea (Trachemys scripta), among other vertebrates.
9.- Ecological reserve, Waterfalls of Reforma.
This reserve has a feature of great importance, which consists of the contents of some degree of salinity of its waters, because there is communication between the sea water through geological faults from the Gulf of Mexico to the San Pedro River. By this connection, seeds of mangrove have been interned inland (Rhizophora mangle), species that is only found in the coastal areas of the sea and land on the banks of the river that were previously occupied by freshwater species that has invaded.
The San Pedro River, a tributary of the Usumacinta, form beautiful waterfalls transformed into large natural spa conjugated with one of the most striking landscapes of the area: the lush jungle of puckte. In the river you can enjoy incredible landscapes and important archaeological sites of the Mayan culture. The steles engraved and fragmented discovered by the INAH in 1992 (INAH, 2001) have made it possible to draw a partial genealogy of the kings of Moral for a period ranging from when least 622 until 756 a.c.
It has 5,748.35 hectares protected by a Decree on November 23, 2002, located in the municipality of Balancán, 7 km from the mouth of the Usumacinta River and coordinates 91° 25’ and 91° 16’ West longitude and 17° 47’ and 17° 43’ North latitude. It has a climate warm-humid with intense rains in summer.
The average annual temperature prevailing in the area reaches 28.6° C. Rains are intense almost throughout the year with a marked dry season in the months of January, February, March and April, which represent together only 5% of the annual rainfall.
The vegetation is mainly represented by medium forest of puckte (Bucida buceras) and chicozapote (Manilkara zapota).
In the area there are 325 species of animals, of which 122 are birds, 120 mammals, fish 34, 29 reptiles and amphibians 20.
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10.- Río Playa Ecological Reserve
This is the first State reserve promoted to its Decree by a group of ejidatarios common to the Rio Playa ejido, Comalcalco, Tabasco; who make up the Society of Social Solidarity, called the "Pochitoques" and currently manages and administers this area. For the sustainable management of the reserve a Management Unit for the Conservation of Wildlife was created to protect: white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and turtles as the white (Dermatemys mawii), guao or tres lomos (Staurotypus triporcatus), hicotea (Trachemys scripta), pochitoque (kinosternon leucostomum), mojina (Rhinoclemmys areolata), chiquiguao (Chelydra rossignoni), taiman or joloca (Claudius angustatus), as well as a reproductive Center of pejelagarto (Atractosteus tropicus), thus preserving native species in the area.
Account with a surface area of 711 hectares protected by decree issued on 29 September 2004, it is located between the coordinates 18° 19' 10’’ and 18° 22’ 00" latitude North and between 93° 16’ 00" and 93° 18’ 00 "of West longitude. It lies within the coastal plain of the southern Gulf and is characterized by having one slope less than 2°, which is conducive to the accumulation of surface water. The northern part of the area is occupied by a marshland covered with an association of poplar- tulare. This surface always keeps a sheet of water; however, there are portions that by being slightly elevated dries, but not lose its vegetation. It has a warm humid climate with annual average temperature of 27° C, with summer rainfall and 2,100 mm of annual average rainfall.
Its vegetation is characteristic of wetlands, where the dominant community is the poplar (Thalia geniculata), associated with other species such as el molinillo (Cyperus giganteus) and the chintul (Cyperus articulatus), as well as the manatinero pastures (Hymenamchne amplexicaulex) and lamedor (Leersia hexand). There are three patches of forest where there are trees as palo fierro (Ocotea cemua), ceiba (Ceiba pentandra), macuilí (Tabebuia rosea), water zapote (Pachira acuatica), jahuacte (Bactris balanoidea), among others. Technical studies carried out by the Academic Division of Biological Sciences of UJAT (2000), has estimated that there is a total of 166 species of plant: herbaceous 89, tree 29, 17 vines, 12 shrubs, epiphytes 10, palms 4, 4 genera of bejuco and a parasitic one.
Faunal inventory built by UJAT establishes the presence of 80 species consisting of a variety of 3 amphibians, 8 reptiles, 52 birds and 17 mammals as regards terrestrial species. The aquatic fauna has 10 families, 13 genera and 19 species. However, due to the hydrological dynamics of this system, it is likely that the inventory of biodiversity can increase given the changing conditions of the same. The species of the reserve that require special protection are: caracolero (Rostrhamus sociabilis), perico (Aratinga nana astec), chiquiguao (Chelydra serpentina), pochitoque (Kinosternon leucostomum), guao (Staurotypos triporcatus) and pez fil (Rhamdia guatemalensis). Endangered species include perro de agua or nutria (Lontra longicaudis), halcón fajado (Falco femoralis) and the reptile sauyan or mazacua (Boa constrictor). The only species in danger of extinction is the saraguato (Alouatta palliata).
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