Advancing Scientific Discovery in the Face of Conflicts Through Personal
Sacrifice and Compromise
Isabelle Appel
Historical Paper
Junior Division
Paper Length: 2,498 Words
1
“Over the centuries, the apparent paucity of women in science has been used to deny women equitable access to education and the professions. And although many more women are scientists today, sociologists note that as a group they are still, to a significant extent, at the margins.” - Ruth Lewin Sime1
Introduction
Lise Meitner possessed a passion for math and physics from a young age. Being both
female and Jewish meant overcoming numerous conflicts in order to gain acceptance in the
academic world. Despite these obstacles, in 1938, Meitner helped develop the theoretical
foundation for what became known as nuclear fission.2 This scientific breakthrough sparked the
beginning of the atomic age and its subsequent implications. Despite her major scientific
discovery and other advancements, the accolades were primarily given to her male colleagues. In
order to advance science and pursue the career she loved, Meitner pushed through these
conflicts, spending her life making sacrifices and compromises in the face of patriarchal and
cultural limitations.
Early Childhood and Education
In 1878, in Vienna, Austria, Lise Meitner was born to Phillip and Hedwig Meitner.3 The
exact date of her birth is unknown; however, Meitner observed November 7.4 Her father was one of the first Jewish lawyers in Austria and her mother was a talented pianist. Since childhood,
Meitner’s family had always distanced themselves from their Jewish origin; thus conflicted
1 Sime, Ruth Lewin. Lise Meitner a Life in Physics. London, England: University of California Press, 1996, viii. 2 Sime, 237. 3 Hamilton, Janet. Lise Meitner Pioneer of Nuclear Fission. Great Minds of Science. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2002, 11. 4 Sime, 1. 2
Meitner would later convert to Christianity. However, she identified as Jewish throughout most
of her career— a choice that would play a major role in her academic life.5
Unlike most girls during this time, Meitner’s family encouraged her to pursue an
advanced education.6 Years later, Meitner described her childhood as an “extraordinarily
stimulating intellectual atmosphere.”7 Excelling in both math and science, Meitner had a private
teacher until age 14 since laws in Vienna prohibited females from continuing any type of formal
schooling past this age.8 Female brains were considered too delicate for advanced schooling
because it was believed it could propagate mental illness.9
In 1899, at age 21, despite her interest in physics, Meitner received her certificate to teach
French (see Appendix A). Her father wanted her to be independent, and teaching was one of the
few careers available to women during this time.10 As Meitner later stated, “I was very unsure as
to whether I would be able to become a scientist.”11 Fortunately, other areas of study soon
became available to women at the University of Vienna.12 An excellent student, Meitner
completed eight years of admission work in two years. She was one of only four females to pass
the University’s entrance exam in 1901. Over the next five years, Meitner studied with renowned
physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, who quickly became her inspiration: “He was in a way a ‘pure
soul,’ full of goodness of heart, idealism, and reverence for the wonder of the natural order of
5 Ibid, 5-6. 6 Ibid, 6. 7 Ibid, 1. 8 Famous Scientists. "Lise Meitner." Famous Scientists. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://www.famousscientists.org/lise-meitner/. 9 Sime, 8. 10 Famous Scientists. "Lise Meitner." Famous Scientists. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://www.famousscientists.org/lise-meitner/. 11 "Lise Meitner Looking Back." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 20, no. 9 (1964): 2-7. E-book. 12 Hamilton, Janet. Lise Meitner Pioneer of Nuclear Fission. Great Minds of Science. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2002, 14. 3
things.”13 It was through his mentoring that in 1906, Meitner became only the second woman to
earn a Ph.D. in physics from the University of Vienna.14 Her excitement over this prestigious
accomplishment was tempered when Boltzmann took his life that same year. This tragedy only
further strengthened her determination to excel in physics. As her nephew, Otto Frisch,
mentioned years later, “Boltzmann gave her the vision of physics as a battle for ultimate truth, a
vision she never lost.”15
Months later, Max Planck of the University of Berlin was invited to the University of
Vienna as a possible successor to Boltzmann.16 This was Meitner’s first exposure to Planck and
his teachings, and she hoped to return with him to attend his lectures. Up until this point, Planck
did not allow women in his classes. He believed, along with most of society, females were
incapable of pursuing an advanced education.17 Meitner negotiated a compromise with Planck,
securing a postdoctoral position, but unlike her male counterparts, she would not be paid.18
Meitner arrived at the University of Berlin in 1907, excited to study the new field of
radioactivity. It was here Meitner began a life-long collaboration and friendship with a young
13 Sime, 14. "D r. Lise Meitner." Nature, no. 162 (November 6, 1948): 1. Accessed September 20, 2017. doi:10.1038/162726c0. 14 Rayner-Canham, Marelen F. Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles f rom Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century. History of Modern Chemical Sciences. Washington D.c.: American Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1998, 122. 15 Sime, 17. 16 "Lise Meitner Looking Back." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 20, no. 9 (1964): 2-7. E-book. 17 Sime, 25. 18 Rife, Patricia. "Lise Meitner." Jewish Women's Archive. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/ meitner-lise. 19 Sime, 23, 27. 4
Early Vocational Years
In 1912, Meitner secured her first paid position as Planck’s assistant.20 Another conflict
arose when Meitner and Hahn began researching radioactive processes. Women were prohibited
from working in the University’s laboratories “lest their hair catch fire.”21 Again, Meitner
reached a compromise with the University and was granted permission to work in an old
carpenter's workshop.22 To supplement her small income as an assistant, Meitner occasionally
wrote for the scientific journal Nature under the pen name L. Meitner fearing readers would not take the articles seriously if they knew they were written by a woman.23
In 1912, Hahn became a scientific associate at the new Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for
Chemistry in Berlin (see Appendix B).24 The Institute had the first radioactivity department in
Germany. Meitner was allowed to accompany Hahn, but again was regarded as an unpaid
“guest.”25 After only a year, Meitner was promoted to the same position as Hahn, yet the
promotion came with a sexist compromise as she received a considerably lower salary. The
radioactivity section was officially theirs: Laboratorium Hahn-Meitner.26
Meitner was appointed the head of her own physics section in 1917. With this new
arrangement came the responsibility of establishing an independent physics section, and more
20 Ibid, 45. 21 "Lise Meitner Looking Back." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 20, no. 9 (1964): 2-7. E-book. 22 "Scientist Who Opened Way to Atom Bomb." The Observer ((London, Greater London, England)), August 4, 1968. Accessed April 12, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/258329529/?terms=Lise+Meitner. 23 Ibid, 36. 24 Rayner-Canham, Marelene F. Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century. History of Modern Chemical Sciences. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1998, 124. 25 Sime, 45. 26 Ibid, 45, 47. 5
importantly, the freedom to direct her own work.27 Later that year, Meitner and Hahn succeeded
in discovering protactinium most stable isotope. However, it was not until 1949 that the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry credited Meitner and Hahn with this
discovery.28 On March 16, 1918, Meitner and Hahn submitted their paper: “The Mother
Substance of Actinium, A New Radioactive Element of Long Half-Life.” Hahn was named
senior author of the paper even though Meitner conducted the majority of the research.29 Meitner
compromised her personal advancement in the face of a historically misogynistic field to ensure
her research was published and taken seriously in the scientific world.
From 1918 to 1922, Meitner garnered prestige and respect in the academic world for her
research and became more independent in her work. By 1920, Meitner and Hahn were pursuing
separate scientific paths. Meitner accepted numerous positions as a visiting professor and
continued her investigations in radioactivity.30 While researching and lecturing at the University
of Berlin in 1922, Meitner discovered a process in which an atom, with an electron vacancy,
adjusts to a more stable state by ejecting one or more electrons.31 Unfortunately, in 1923, a
French scientist named Pierre Auger discovered the same process, which became known as the
Auger Effect.32 In 1926, Meitner was asked to head a research program at the University of
Berlin. With this promotion, Meitner became the first female physics professor in Germany.33
27 Ibid, 63. 28 Toor, Dr. Fatima. E-mail interview by the author. May 3, 2018. 29 Sime, 70. 30 Sime, 79-83. 31 Ibid, 90-91. 32 Hanly, Beverly. "Feb, 11, 1939: Lise Meitner, ‘Our Madame Curie’." Wired, February 11, 2010. Accessed October 3, 2017. https://www.wired.com/2010/02/0211lise-meitner-publishes-nuclear-fission/. 33 Atomic Heritage Foundation. "Lise Meitner." Atomic Heritage Foundation. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. http://www.atomicheritage.org/ profile/lise-meitner. 6
The appointment led to more exposure in the physics world, such as visiting students abroad and
studying alongside doctoral candidates (see Appendix C).34
In 1932, James Chadwick, an English physicist, discovered the neutron.35 This discovery
led to speculation among scientists that heavier elements could be produced. Physicist Enrico
Fermi conducted an experiment in Rome testing this theory. His team bombarded uranium with
slow-moving neutrons. The results, however, were confusing. The bombardment did not produce
heavier elements as theorized, but rather lighter ones. Ida Noddack, a female chemist residing in
Berlin, suggested Fermi had overlooked the possibility that neutron bombardment could cause
the uranium nucleus to split apart, thus producing lighter elements.36 However, Noddack’s idea
was quickly met with skepticism. Meitner’s scientific curiosity and desire to replicate Fermi’s
experiment led her down a path towards her greatest discovery yet.37
In 1934, Meitner asked for Otto Hahn’s help investigating neutron bombardment. They,
alongside chemist Fritz Strassmann, confirmed that bombarding uranium with slow-moving
neutrons resulted in unidentified lighter elements.38 They continued experimenting and
developed numerous theories to explain the results, as other laboratories across Europe raced to
answer the same question.39 Many in the scientific community believed whoever explained how
lighter elements were produced would be a frontrunner for the Nobel Prize in physics or
chemistry.40
34 Sime, 110. 35 Ibid, 125. 36 Famous Scientists. "Lise Meitner." Famous Scientists. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://www.famousscientists.org/lise-meitner/. 37 Laurence, William L. "The Atom: How Scientists Made It Give Up." The Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), August 12, 1945. Accessed April 14, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/107138379/?terms=Lise+Meitner. 38 Famous Scientists. "Lise Meitner." Famous Scientists. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://www.famousscientists.org/lise-meitner/. 39 Sime, 165-183. 40 Atomic Heritage Foundation. "Lise Meitner." Atomic Heritage Foundation. Last 7
The Nazi Rise to Power
During this time, a dangerous political environment was developing in Germany. The
country was suffering from numerous internal conflicts, including economic depression,
unemployment, the rise of the Nazi party, and consequently, continual power struggles. All
aspects of German life were affected; as Meitner noted to Hahn, “everything and everyone is
influenced by the political upheavals.”41 This was an ominous foreshadowing of future conflicts
and personal compromises impacting Meitner’s life.
One of Hitler’s decrees in April 1933 stripped Jewish educators in Germany of their
positions.42 Despite her Jewish ancestry, Meitner received an exemption due to her Austrian
citizenship. Unfortunately, many other Jewish scientists, like her nephew Frisch, were forced to
leave Germany. Meitner later regretted her indifference by remaining in Germany as long as she
did acknowledging, “It was not only stupid but also very wrong that I did not leave at once.”43
Germany officially annexed Austria in 1938. As a result, Meitner was now considered a
German, placing her in danger due to her Jewish heritage.44 In July 1938, Meitner escaped
Germany as noted in her diary entry: “13. July. Said good-bye early to Hahn. Ring. Met Coster at
the station. In Nieuwe Schans [a village in the Netherlands] the customs officer was informed. 6
P.M. Groningen [a city in the Netherlands].”45 Meitner and close colleague, Dirk Coster, boarded
modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. http://www.atomicheritage.org/ profile/lise-meitner 41 Sime, 134, 136. 42 Albert Einstein's Big Idea Nova HD. YouTube, 2005. Accessed February 13, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4vDGTYTCLo. 43 University of Berkeley. "Lise Meitner." Berkeley Nuclear Research Center. Last modified 2013. Accessed January 20, 2018. http://bnrc.berkeley.edu/ Famous-Women-in-Physical-Sciences-and-Engineering/lise-meitner.html. 44 A Gift From Heaven. Narrated by Ruth Lewin Sime. BBC, 1992. Accessed September 13, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JDbJ7X6Z0q8. 45 Sime, 204. 8
a train headed towards Holland.46 During their escape, Coster convinced a German immigrant
official that Meitner had permission to cross the German border. Meitner was so overwhelmed
by fear, she begged Coster to return to Berlin, which he refused.47 While Meitner successfully
escaped the conflict in Nazi Germany, she had to compromise her position at the Kaiser Wilhelm
Institute and leave her life’s work behind.48
Following her escape from Germany, Meitner accepted a temporary position at the Niels
Bohr Institute in Copenhagen, Denmark.49 Later, she declined a position at Cambridge
University instead choosing to work at the Nobel Institute of Physics in Stockholm in hopes of
building a leading research group. This decision proved to be a misstep in her career as Meitner
soon found that her reputation and accomplishments meant very little. Author Geoff
Rayner-Canham of Women in Chemistry stated, “At Cambridge University, she [Meitner] would have been involved with a women-friendly group where she could have made significant
contributions and had her name recognized.”50 Despite feeling marginalized at the Nobel Institute of Physics, Meitner continued to correspond with Hahn regarding the uranium work she left
behind in Berlin.51
46 Ibid, 204. 47 University of Berkeley. "Lise Meitner." Berkeley Nuclear Research Center. Last modified 2013. Accessed January 20, 2018. http://bnrc.berkeley.edu/ Famous-Women-in-Physical-Sciences-and-Engineering/lise-meitner.html. 48 A Gift From Heaven. Narrated by Ruth Lewin Sime. BBC, 1992. Accessed September 13, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JDbJ7X6Z0q8. 49 Sime, 207. 50 Rayner-Canham, Geoff. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 28, 2018. 51 A Gift From Heaven. Narrated by Ruth Lewin Sime. BBC, 1992. Accessed September 13, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JDbJ7X6Z0q8. 9
Entering the Atomic Age: The Discovery of Nuclear Fission
On December 23, 1938, Meitner crossed Sweden to visit her nephew Otto R. Frisch.52
Two days prior to her visit, she had received a puzzling letter from Hahn regarding his and
Strassmann’s uranium experiments. It appeared the uranium had produced barium, as noted in
Hahn’s letter to Meitner: “A reaction with slow neutrons that supposedly leads to barium… one
can unconditionally say: it is impossible!”53 Later that day, Meitner and Frisch took a walk to
discuss Hahn’s curious findings. For years, there had been speculation the nucleus of an atom
was not a solid object, but rather resembled a liquid drop.54 With this thought in mind, Meitner
and Frisch suggested when the neutrons hit the uranium atom, the atom becomes unstable,
ultimately resulting in the elongating of the atom; or splitting in two.55 When the atom divided, it
released a large enough amount of energy to drive the atoms apart. Meitner then calculated it
would produce 200 million electron volts: a tremendous amount of energy.56 If her calculations
were correct, Meitner and Frisch had explained the science behind their uranium investigations
and unknowingly sparked the beginning of the atomic age.
Following this breakthrough, Meitner shared their findings with Hahn, who published an
article with Strassmann that “characterized the Meitner-Frisch work as a fairly meaningless
description of known results.”57 Hahn made no mention that it was Meitner who had prompted
52 Ibid 53 Sime, 235. 54 Rayner-Canham, Marelene F. Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century. History of Modern Chemical Sciences. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1998, 126. 55 Albert Einstein's Big Idea Nova HD. YouTube, 2005. Accessed February 13, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4vDGTYTCLo. Oakland Tribune (Oakland, CA). "2 Scientists Played Lead Role in A-Power Story." September 30, 1955. Accessed April 13, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/ image/296392340/?terms=Lise+Meitner. 56 Albert Einstein's Big Idea Nova HD. YouTube, 2005. Accessed February 13, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4vDGTYTCLo. 57 Sime, 240-254. 10 their search for lighter elements. Soon after this, laboratories across the world were conducting experiments and publishing works. These articles often acknowledged Hahn and Strassmann’s role, but rarely mentioned Meitner’s contributions. Not only had she not received recognition for her part in the discovery of nuclear fission, but her current position at the Nobel Institute of
Physics was extremely disheartening. Despite her years of experience, she was being treated similar to a lab technician. Meitner’s world appeared to be collapsing around her, sending her into depression:
...she was reliving the terrifying insecurity of her first months in Berlin: again she was a stranger in a foreign country, unwelcome in a male profession, living poorly on bread and black coffee in a tiny room--and devastated to find thirty years in physics had not kept it from happening again.58
She shared her frustration over these issues in a letter to her brother, Walter:
And much as these results make me happy for Hahn, both personally and scientifically, many people here must think I contributed absolutely nothing to it-and now I am so discouraged; although I believe I used to do good work, now I have lost my self-confidence.59
The discovery of nuclear fission caused alarm in the United States, because it was evident in a chain reaction, nuclear fission would release a great amount of energy, thus opening the door to building atomic weapons.60 On August 2, 1939, Albert Einstein sent a critical letter to
President Franklin D. Roosevelt, warning of potential nuclear weapon production in Nazi
Germany.61 In response, the United States developed the Manhattan Project, a top-secret
58 Ibid, 246-254. 59 Ibid, 255. 60 US Department of Energy. "Atomic Rivals and the ALSOS Mission." The Manhattan Project. Last modified 2018. Accessed January 26, 2018. https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/ rivals.htm. 61 Einstein, Albert. Letter to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, "Letter to the President of the United States on Germany's Work on Nuclear Energy," August 2, 1939. Accessed November 7, 2017. https://diaryofascientist.files.wordpress.com/ 11
organization that entered an arms race against Germany to develop the first atomic bomb.62
Meitner was asked to join the Manhattan Project, yet she declined, despite the opportunity to
gain scientific recognition. Meitner was against utilizing nuclear fission for violence stating, “I
will have nothing to do with a bomb,” and, “It was an unfortunate accident that this discovery
came about in time of war.”63 To Meitner’s disappointment, Otto Hahn continued work on the
development of the atomic bomb in Berlin for the Nazis.64 Despite differing views on this matter,
Meitner and Hahn continued a cordial relationship.65
Unrecognized Scientific Contributions
In 1944, Otto Hahn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of
nuclear fission.66 In his acceptance speech Hahn gave limited credit to Meitner.67 Author Geoff
Rayner-Canham states, “Hahn was only interested in maximizing his own fame. Any acknowledgement of Meitner’s role would have diminished his own glory.”68 There were many in the scientific community who believed Meitner should have been awarded the corresponding
2014/08/fission.png. 62 US Department of Energy. "Atomic Rivals and the ALSOS Mission." The Manhattan Project. Last modified 2018. Accessed January 26, 2018. https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/ rivals.htm. 63 Sime, 305. V are, Ethlie Ann, and Greg Ptacek. "Conceiving a Nuclear World." The Philadelphia Inquirer (Philadelphia, PA), May 30, 1988, 37. Accessed May 2, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/170030008. 64 The Guardian (London, Greater London, England). "Professor Otto Hahn Receives Faraday Medal." March 29, 1956. Accessed April 15, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/259465486/?terms=Lise+Meitner. 65 Rayner-Canham, Marelene F. Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century. History of Modern Chemical Sciences. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1998, 127. 66 “A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice." Physics Today 50, no. 9 (September 1997): 26. Accessed February 14, 2018. doi:10.1063/ 1.881933. 67 Hahn, Otto. "From the Natural Transmissions or Uranium to it's Artificial Fission." Lecture, Nobel Lecture, December 13, 1946. 68 Rayner-Canham, Geoff. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 28, 2018. 12
Nobel Prize in Physics. Swedish physicist Hans Pettersson commented on the oversight, “[We]
are indignant about the one-sidedness of the distribution of the Nobel Prize. We are certainly
glad that Hahn got the chemistry prize, but by all rights the physics prize should have gone to
you, [Meitner].”69 Even today, this is considered one of the greatest oversights by a Nobel Prize
Committee (see Appendix D).70
Meitner spent much of the 1940’s and 1950’s traveling throughout the United States
lecturing and encouraging young women to pursue a career in physics (see Appendix E).71 She
was nominated and received several awards, frequently the first woman to receive these
nominations and honors (see Appendix F). In 1946, Meitner was awarded the prestigious
“Woman of the Year” accolade by the United States’ National Press Club.72 In 1960, Meitner
retired to England and shortly thereafter, her health declined.73 Lise Meitner passed away on
October 27, 1968, at the age of 89. Otto R. Frisch chose the inscription on Meitner’s gravestone.
It reads: “Lise Meitner: A physicist who never lost her humanity.”74
69 Sime, 326. 70 The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. "Inspired Excellence: The story of Marie Sklodowska Curie and Lise Meitner." The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. Last modified 2017. Accessed October 6, 2017. https://www.nuclearmuseum.org/see/exhibits-to-rent/ inspired-excellence-the-story-of-marie-sklodowska-curie-and-lise-meitner/. 71 Sime, 330-336. A merican Catholic History Research Center and University Archives. Letter, "Invitation to Meitner Reception," February 10, 1946. Accessed November 21, 2017. http://www.lib.cua.edu/wordpress/newsevents/9452/. 72 Sime, 342, 358-366. 73 University of Berkeley. "Lise Meitner." Berkeley Nuclear Research Center. Last modified 2013. Accessed January 20, 2018. http://bnrc.berkeley.edu/ Famous-Women-in-Physical-Sciences-and-Engineering/lise-meitner.html. 74 The Central New Jersey Home News (New Brunswick, NJ). "Lise Meitner, Austrian Nuclear Physicist Dies." October 28, 1968. Accessed May 4, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/315869759/?terms=Lise+Meitner. Sime, 380. 13
Lasting Legacy on the Scientific World
Throughout her life and career, Meitner faced numerous conflicts, primarily because she
was a woman and Jewish. These obstacles surrounding her identity hindered her earning an
advanced education and maintaining a respected position in the scientific community. Meitner
compromised salary, working conditions, and recognition in order to keep scientific discovery
moving forward and pursue the career she loved.
Meitner’s theories and contributions aided in shaping and establishing the field of atomic
physics, and despite her conflicted feelings, advanced research world-wide, changing the
landscape of warfare. Nuclear fission had an immediate impact on both the scientific and
political communities during World War II. However, Meitner’s values prevented her from
compromising her beliefs and participating in the development of a weapon of mass destruction.
Thus, it is Otto Hahn’s role in the discovery of nuclear fission that is widely accepted today,
while Meitner’s impact is rarely acknowledged.
Lise Meitner’s contributions to science are deemed extensive, even today. In 1982,
element 109 was discovered and named meitnerium in her honor, only the second element to be
named after a woman.75 Peter Armbruster, leader of the team that discovered the element, noted,
“Lise Meitner should be honored for her fundamental work on the physical understanding of
fission. She should be honored as the most significant female scientist of this century” (see
Appendix G).76 Today, nuclear fission is used to produce nearly 11 percent of total electricity in
75 Rayner-Canham, Geoff. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 28, 2018. The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. "Inspired Excellence: The story of Marie Sklodowska Curie and Lise Meitner." The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. Last modified 2017. Accessed October 6, 2017. https://www.nuclearmuseum.org/see/exhibits-to-rent/ 76 Hamilton, Janet. Lise Meitner Pioneer of Nuclear Fission. Great Minds of Science. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2002, 106. 14 the world and the majority of America's clean-air energy.77 Meitner’s achievements in the scientific community have inspired other young women to pursue a career in physics. As scientific researcher and author Ruth Lewin Sime notes in Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics, “To me, she [Meitner] was a hero, like Eleanor Roosevelt.” Unfortunately, it seems Meitner’s story has been swept into oblivion, and she never received the appropriate and deserved laurels for her accomplishments. Meitner’s life’s work ushered in the atomic age, all because of her understanding of some of the smallest particles in the universe.
“Lise Meitner was a woman who, against the greatest of odds, used her intellect and her spirit in ways that helped shape our century.” - Mary Beth Danielson78
77 Nuclear Energy Institute. "Nuclear Energy's Clean-Air Benefits." Nuclear Energy Institute. Last modified 2018. Accessed February 16, 2018. https://www.nei.org/Master-Document-Folder/Backgrounders/Fact-Sheets/ Nuclear-Energy-s-Clean-Air-Benefits?feed=factsheet%20. Toor, Dr. Fatima. E-mail interview by the author. May 3, 2018. "World Electricity Production by Source 2017." Chart. World Nuclear Association. 2018. Accessed May 5, 2018. http://www.world-nuclear.org/ information-library/current-and-future-generation/ nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx. 78 Danelson, Mary Beth. "Lise Meitner Battled Obstacles." The Journal Times (Racine, WI), September 10, 1999. Accessed April 13, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/343277800/?terms=Lise+Meitner. 15
Appendix A
Lise Meitner, Woman Scientist. 1899. Photograph. Accessed May 7, 2018. https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/lise-meitner.
Image of Lise Meitner on her 21st birthday. In her early years, Meitner was encouraged by her parents to pursue an advanced education. They provided a private tutor and financial support throughout the majority of her college years.
16
Appendix B
The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry. Photograph. Accessed September 11, 2017. http://www.mpic.de/en/history.html.
Photograph of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry taken in 1930. Both Meitner and Hahn earned positions and established their own radioactivity sections; advancing research in radioactivity, protactinium, and nuclear fission.
17
Appendix C
Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin (1928). 1928. Photograph. Accessed September 7, 2017. http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_image.cfm?image_id=2112.
Lise Meitner and colleague, Otto Hahn, taken at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute in 1928. Meitner and Hahn collaborated for over thirty years. Along with chemist Fritz Strassmann, they made numerous breakthroughs involving nuclear fission.
18
Appendix D
A mushroom cloud billows over Nagasaki after the atomic bomb was dropped on the city on 9 August 1945. August 9, 1945. Photograph. Accessed May 8, 2018. https://www.ibtimes.co.uk
Image taken over Nagasaki, Japan on August 9, 1945 after the United States dropped the second atomic bomb. To Meitner’s disappointment, her discovery of nuclear fission was used to create this nuclear weapon.
19
Appendix E
The Catholic University of America. "National Catholic News Service Press Release, Meitner Reference File." News release. February 12, 1946. Accessed May 8, 2018. https://www.lib.cua.edu/wordpress/newsevents/tag/otto-hahn/.
Press release of an interview with Lise Meitner at The Catholic University of America in 1946. Meitner spent one year here, giving lectures to graduate students on elementary nuclear physics.
20
Appendix F
Lise Meitner in 1946. 1946. Photograph. Accessed May 8, 2018. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/xie2/.
Image of Lise Meitner in 1946. During Meitner’s later years, she traveled throughout the United States giving lectures and continuing her research at Sweden’s Nobel Institute for Physics.
21
Appendix G
German Post Office Lise Meitner. 2017. Photograph. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201502/physicshistory.cfm.
German post office stamp depicting Lise Meitner. This stamp was issued in 1986, eighteen years after her death, demonstrating Meitner’s long-term impact on the scientific world.
22
Annotated Bibliography
Primary Sources
American Catholic History Research Center and University Archives. Letter, “Invitation to
Meitner Reception,” February 10, 1946. Accessed November 21, 2017.
http://www.lib.cua.edu/wordpress/newsevents/9452/.
In 1946, Meitner spent several months as a visiting lecturing professor at the Catholic
University of America. This is an invitation to a reception honoring Lise Meitner for her
time at the University. I came across this invitation in the Catholic University of
America’s digital archives. The letter discusses how Meitner gave lectures throughout her
time in the United States, which I use in a paragraph describing Meitner’s time in
America.
Bohr, Niels. “The Structure of the Atom.” Lecture, December 11, 1922.
In my historical paper, I mention Niels Bohr, a colleague and friend of Meitner. This is
his Nobel Prize lecture. Reading his acceptance lecture deepened my understanding of his
significance to the physics society. I found this document within the “Nobel Prize and
Lectures” section of the Nobel Prize website.
23
The Catholic University of America. “National Catholic News Service Press Release, Meitner
Reference File.” News release. February 12, 1946. Accessed May 8, 2018.
https://www.lib.cua.edu/wordpress/newsevents/tag/otto-hahn/.
Meitner was a visiting professor in 1946 at The Catholic University of America, giving
lectures to graduate students on elementary nuclear physics. In this press release, Meitner
describes her escape from Nazi Germany and her reaction to the news of the dropping of
the first atomic bomb. I found this press release in The Catholic University of America’s
online archives. I include this image in my appendix.
The Central New Jersey Home News (New Brunswick, NJ). “Lise Meitner, Austrian Nuclear Physicist Dies.” October 28, 1968. Accessed May 4, 2018.
https://www.newspapers.com/image/315869759/?terms=Lise+Meitner.
The author of this obituary gives a short summary of Lise Meitner’s life and the details
surrounding her death. I use this information when discussing Lise Meitner’s final years.
Published one day after her death, this is a reliable primary resource.
“Dr. Lise Meitner.” Nature, no. 162 (November 6, 1948): 1. Accessed September 20, 2017. doi:10.1038/162726c0.
Nature is an international science journal in which both Meitner and Hahn published their scientific papers. The journal article was originally written during Meitner’s life and was
a great primary source. “Dr. Lise Meitner” was written the day before her 70th birthday
24
and discusses Meitner’s accomplishments over the past couple decades. I recommend
looking in Nature for resources to researchers and historians.
Einstein, Albert. Letter to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, “Letter to the President of the United
States on Germany’s Work on Nuclear Energy,” August 2, 1939. Accessed November 7,
2017. https://diaryofascientist.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/fission.png.
Dated August 2, 1939, Albert Einstein sent this letter to President Franklin Roosevelt.
After learning Nazi Germany was advancing work on the atomic bomb, Einstein wanted
to warn President Roosevelt. I use this letter in the section discussing the Manhattan
Project and Meitner’s decision not to participate in it.
Frisch, Otto R. “Otto Frisch.” Interview by Charles Weiner. American Institute for Physics. Last
modified May 3, 1967. Accessed January 25, 2018.
https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4616.
By reading the transcript of this interview with Otto R. Frisch (Meitner’s nephew), I
gathered multiple pieces of information. Most importantly, Frisch discusses the discovery
of nuclear fission. Additionally, Frisch mentions what it was like being Jewish in Nazi
Germany. I use this interview to quote Frisch in my paper. This interview is housed in the
American Institute of Physics Oral History Collection.
25
“Otto Frisch on Hitler and being Jewish in an institute when racial laws were published.” Audio
file, 2:10. American Institute of Physics. May 3, 1967. Accessed January 28, 2018.
https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4616.
One of my most significant sources, this is an audio clip of Otto R. Frisch (Meitner’s
physicist nephew). In this clip, Frisch elaborates on being Jewish when Hitler’s racial
laws were enacted. Additionally, Frisch mentions Meitner’s opinion on the situation,
which I quote in my paper. This audio clip is found in the American Institute of Physics
Oral History Archives. I have used the American Institute of Physics for a few of my
other sources, as it is a reliable federation dedicated to preserving the past of physical
sciences through artifacts and transcripts.
“Scientist Who Opened Way to Atom Bomb.” The Observer ((London, Greater London, England)), August 4, 1968. Accessed April 12, 2018.
https://www.newspapers.com/image/258329529/?terms=Lise+Meitner.
In this article, from The Observer Otto R. Frisch summarizes Otto Hahn’s life, as he had just passed a week before. Throughout the article, Lise Meitner is mentioned several
times, however Hahn is credited with the discovery of nuclear fission. I use this to
elaborate on how Meitner was not given the credit she deserved. Newspapers.com is a
large archive newspaper clippings, several of which I have used in my paper.
26
German Post Office Lise Meitner. 2017. Photograph. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201502/physicshistory.cfm.
Meitner’s image is depicted on a German post office stamp. This image is used in my
paper’s appendix to display Meitner’s long term-impact. I found this image from APS
Physics, a source I have used previously in my research.
The Guardian (London, Greater London, England). “Professor Otto Hahn Receives Faraday Medal.” March 29, 1956. Accessed April 15, 2018.
https://www.newspapers.com/image/259465486/?terms=Lise+Meitner.
Published in The Guardian newspaper, this article provide additional information regarding Otto Hahn, including a short overview of his life and a small section about
Hahn’s work with the atomic bomb development in Germany. I found this article in the
Newspapers.com archives, a source I have used for research multiple times.
Hahn, Otto. “From the Natural Transmissions or Uranium to it’s Artificial Fission.” Lecture,
Nobel Lecture, December 13, 1946.
In my historical paper, I mention Otto Hahn’s Nobel Prize in Chemistry acceptance
speech. Hahn was a lifelong colleague and friend of Meitner’s, however it was he who
ultimately received credit for the discovery of nuclear fission. By reading his acceptance
speech, I noted how often he mentioned Meitner’s role. I use this source to elaborate how
Hahn was given credit for something Meitner accomplished.
27
The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry. Photograph. Accessed September 11, 2017. http://www.mpic.de/en/history.html.
This is a photo of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute where Meitner spent over twenty years
researching, experimenting, and instructing. I felt it necessary to include a visual display
of the Institute. I found this image at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry’s digital
archives.
Laurence, William L. “The Atom: How Scientists Made It Give Up.” The Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), August 12, 1945. Accessed April 14, 2018.
https://www.newspapers.com/image/107138379/?terms=Lise+Meitner.
The article from The Courier-Journal, explains the work behind Meitner, Hahn, and Frisch’s uranium investigations. The author, William Laurence, explains Hahn and
Meitner’s work in Berlin up to the development of the atomic bomb. Newspapers.com is
a credible resource, which I have used for numerous other of my primary resources. I
would recommend this source to students and researchers.
Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin (1928). 1928. Photograph. Accessed September 7, 2017.
http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_image.cfm?image_id=2112.
Featured in my appendix, this is an image of Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn. The two
scientists were partners in nuclear physics for radioactivity for decades and maintained a
cordial relationship after their collaboration. I felt it necessary to display an image of the
28
two in their workplace. I found this image at the German History in Documents and
Images, providing me with a great primary source.
Lise Meitner in 1946. 1946. Photograph. Accessed May 8, 2018. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/xie2/.
Published by the University of Stanford, this is an image of Lise Meitner taken in 1946,
mostly likely during her time in the United States working as a visiting professor.
Although I use an image of a young Lise Meitner in my appendix, I thought it necessary
to include one in Meitner’s later years.
Lise Meitner, Woman Scientist. 1899. Photograph. Accessed May 7, 2018.
https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/lise-meitner.
Since my paper is structured in chronological order, I thought it necessary to provide an
image of a young Lise Meitner. This is Lise Meitner on her 21st birthday in 1899. The
photograph was published by the Atomic Heritage Foundation.
“Lise Meitner Looking Back.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 20, no. 9 (1964): 2-7. E-book. In 1964, Lise Meitner wrote this article, “Looking Back,” in the science journal, Bulletin
of the Atomic Scientists. Throughout this article, Meitner discusses her childhood,
education, collaboration with Otto Hahn, and briefly the discovery of nuclear fission. I
use this information to quote Meitner and talk about her time at the Universities of
Vienna and Berlin. This was one of my most beneficial primary sources.
29
Meitner, Lise, and Otto R. Frisch. Letter to the editor of Nature from Lise Meitner and Otto R. Frisch discussing the “disintegration of uranium by neutrons: a new type of nuclear
reaction.” February 11, 1939. Photograph. Accessed October 25, 2017. https://www.loc.gov/item/2006691798/.
After discovering nuclear fission, Meitner and Frisch published their work in this
scientific journal. This image depicts the letter Lise Meitner and Otto R. Frisch wrote to
the editors of Nature. I found this image at the Library of Congress; a government library specifically for the United States Congress. I recommend this source to historians and
researchers.
A mushroom cloud billows over Nagasaki after the atomic bomb was dropped on the city on 9
August 1945. August 9, 1945. Photograph. Accessed May 8, 2018.
https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/nagasaki-hiroshima-mark-anniversary-wwii-atomic-bomb-atta
cks-1575111.
Image of the atomic bomb being dropped over Nagasaki, Japan, on August 9, 1945. I
include this photo in my appendix, because I believe it is important to show the physical
consequences of Meitner’s discovery. This image is found on the International Business
Times digital website.
30
“News and Views.” Nature, February 11, 1939, 1. Accessed April 6, 2018. https://www.nature.com/articles/143233a0.pdf.
In this article from Nature News and Views, Meitner and Frisch are quoted regarding
their experiments with the bombardment of uranium by slow-moving neutrons. The two
discuss the results from their various investigations and the different elements they
bombarded. This article helped me understand the science behind neutron bombardment.
This source is found in Nature’s historical archives, a scientific journal in which Meitner
herself published work.
Oakland Tribune (Oakland, CA). “2 Scientists Played Lead Role in A-Power Story.” September 30, 1955. Accessed April 13, 2018.
https://www.newspapers.com/image/296392340/?terms=Lise+Meitner.
In this article, the author gives a brief description of both Albert Einstein and Lise
Meitner. They are described as German Jewish scientists who were forced to flee from
Nazi Germany. The article mentions Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann and talks about the
discovery of nuclear fission. I use this information in my historical paper when describing
Meitner’s escape to the Netherlands. I recommend this source to all other student
historians.
31
The Path to Nuclear Fission: The Story Of Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn. The National Science Foundation, 2017. DVD. Accessed September 11, 2017.
https://filmsforthought.com/completed-films/the-path-to-nuclear-fission-the-story-of-lise-
meitner-and-otto-hahn/.
The Path to Nuclear Fission: The Story of Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn is a short film
consisting recordings and photographs from the time period in which Lise Meitner lived.
The narrator discusses the conflicts Meitner faced throughout her life, such as
discrimination, because of her gender and religion. This film also mentions the aftermath
of WWII and obstacles Meitner faced. Films for Thought is a website funded by the
National Science Foundation. This film is a significant addition to my research, and I
recommend Films for Thought to other student historians.
32
Secondary Sources
Abram, Prof. Ulrich. “’Lise Meitner had a big share in the discovery.’” Interview by Jan
Hambura. The University of Berlin. Last modified December 17, 2013. Accessed
October 25, 2017.
http://www.fu-berlin.de/campusleben/forschen/2013/131217_gedenkveranstaltung_75_ja
hre_kernspaltung/index.html.
In this interview, Ulrich Abram, a Professor of Chemistry at the University of Berlin,
discusses the role Meitner played in the discovery of nuclear fission. Prof. Abram states,
“Lise Meitner had a big share in the discovery.” He then elaborates on the history of nuclear fission and the experiments that led to it. It is an extremely valuable source, as it
provides evidence that Meitner and her work have left a legacy.
Albert Einstein’s Big Idea Nova HD. YouTube, 2005. Accessed February 13, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4vDGTYTCLo.
2 In this film on Albert Einstein’s E=mc discovery, the narrator talks briefly of Lise Meitner. The section about Meitner begins when she enters the University of Berlin and
then concludes after the discovery of nuclear fission. I use this information in my
2 historical paper to explain how Meitner used the E=mc formula to calculate the amount of energy released during nuclear fission. The narrator on Meitner’s section of this film is
Ruth Lewin Sime, the author of Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics.
33
American Institute of Physics. “Lesson Plan Lise Meitner, Austrian Nuclear Physicist.”
American Institute of Physics. Last modified August 4, 2016. Accessed February 13,
2018.
https://www.aip.org/sites/default/files/history/teaching-guides/case-studies-women-physi
cists-meitner/Lise%20Meitner_Lesson%20Plan.pdf.
The American Institute provides an excellent lesson plan on Lise Meitner. This plan
provides discussion questions and talks about the conflicts and sacrifices Meitner was
forced to make in order to pursue a career in physics. Additionally, this source provides
further resources, such as the article written by Lise Meitner, Looking Back, which I quote in my paper. The American Institute of Physics is a reliable organization dedicated
to preserving and advancing physics.
American Physical Society. “Discovery of Nuclear Fission.” APS Physics. Last modified 2017.
Accessed September 7, 2017.
https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200712/physicshistory.cfm.
From this APS article, I found new information. I learned in-depth details about
Meitner’s discovery of nuclear fission and her position at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute.
The article discusses Meitner’s short-term impact throughout the world. This article was
a beneficial addition to my research, and I recommend this source to teachers, students,
and scientists.
34
Atomic Heritage Foundation. “Lise Meitner.” Atomic Heritage Foundation. Last modified 2017.
Accessed September 7, 2017. http://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/lise-meitner.
The Atomic Heritage Foundation was a valuable addition to my research. AHF is a
reliable foundation focused on preserving atomic history by using it to educate. This
article on Lise Meitner is a brief summary of her extensive life. Additionally, this website
includes a timeline of Meitner’s life. This source analyzes and interprets Meitner's life,
which is a crucial part of my research. I recommend this to students and researchers.
Chemical Heritage Foundation. “Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann.” Chemical
Heritage Foundation. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 20, 2017.
https://www.chemheritage.org/historical-profile/otto-hahn-lise-meitner-and-fritz-strassma
nn.
From this article, I gathered more information regarding Meitner’s collaboration with
Fritz Strassmann and Otto Hahn. This page provides background descriptions of each of
the scientists as well as their contributions to the discovery of nuclear fission. I use the
information gained from this source to provide an analysis in my paper of each associate.
35
Danelson, Mary Beth. “Lise Meitner Battled Obstacles.” The Journal Times (Racine, WI), September 10, 1999. Accessed April 13, 2018.
https://www.newspapers.com/image/343277800/?terms=Lise+Meitner.
In this newspaper article, Mary Beth Danielson notes that one of her daughter’s friends is
a relative of Lise Meitner. The article provides a very powerful quote, which I use near
the end of my historical paper.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Lise Meitner.” Britannica School. Last modified August 13, 2017.
Accessed September 7, 2017.
http://school.eb.com/levels/high/article/Lise-Meitner/275773.
When beginning my research, Iowa AEA Online’s Encyclopedia Britannica was an
excellent source with which to begin. Britannica School is an educational database that
provides students with credible information. The article about Lise Meitner explains
where she was born, her college years, and her groundbreaking discovery of nuclear
fission. Additionally, the article discusses one of the biggest conflicts in her life, which
was fleeing Nazi Germany. This was an excellent source, and I recommend Britannica
School to all students.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. “Auger Effect.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified 2018.
Accessed February 4, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/science/Auger-effect.
From reading this article on the Auger Effect, I was able to provide a brief description in
my historical paper regarding the process. I mention how Meitner discovered this effect,
36
yet I thought it necessary to explain what this process was. Encyclopedia Britannica is a
credible database, providing resources for students and teachers. I recommend this source
to educators and researchers.
Famous Scientists. “Lise Meitner.” Famous Scientists. Last modified 2017. Accessed September
7, 2017. https://www.famousscientists.org/lise-meitner/.
Famous Scientists provided one of my most beneficial articles on Lise Meitner. The
article gives an in-depth description of Meitner’s life. It discusses the time period and
political conflicts Meitner endured and the compromises she reached to overcome these.
Famous Scientists is an online education research tool dedicated to preserving the lives
and achievements of some of the world’s greatest scientists.
A Gift From Heaven. Narrated by Ruth Lewin Sime. BBC, 1992. Accessed September 13, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JDbJ7X6Z0q8.
Ruth Lewin Sime, the author of Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics, narrated this brief film. Sime has studied Meitner and Hahn for years and now teaches at the University of
Sacramento. Sime’s work has been one of my most valuable sources. This video helped
me understand the science behind Meitner and Hahn’s work and also the importance of
their discovery. I recommend this video to historians and students.
37
Hamilton, Janet. Lise Meitner Pioneer of Nuclear Fission. Great Minds of Science. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2002.
From this biography I learned a great deal about Meitner. The book talks about the
influence Meitner’s family had on her decision to study science, her college years, her
time at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, and the greatest conflict of her life, escaping Nazi
Germany. Hamilton does a wonderful job outlining the political climate through which
Meitner lived. Great Minds of Science is a collection of scientific books that I
recommend to teachers and students.
Hanly, Beverly. “Feb, 11, 1939: Lise Meitner, ‘Our Madame Curie’.” Wired, February 11, 2010. Accessed October 3, 2017.
https://www.wired.com/2010/02/0211lise-meitner-publishes-nuclear-fission/.
From this newspaper article, my understanding of the conflicts and compromises in
Meitner’s life grew tremendously. For example, the article mentions the political climate
of Nazi Germany and the compromises Meitner had to make to escape safely. Wired, an online newspaper, was a great resource which I recommend to scholars and teachers.
IUPAC. “Nomenclature.” International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Last modified
2018. Accessed May 5, 2018. https://iupac.org/what-we-do/nomenclature/.
When discussing Meitner and Hahn’s discovery of protactinium, I mention the IUPAC,
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). During an interview with Dr.
Fatima Toor, she mentioned that it was not until 1949 that the IUPAC confirmed that
38
Meitner and Hahn discovered protactinium. This website provides background
information on IUPAC.
Lengel, Audrey. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 25, 2018.
After responding to Ms. Allison Rein’s email from the Niels Bohr Library and Archives,
Ms. Audrey Lengel replied. From Ms. Lengel, I learned the name of the American
Institute of Physics Director, Mr. Gregory Good, with whom I later attempted to conduct
an interview.
The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. “Inspired Excellence: The story of Marie
Sklodowska Curie and Lise Meitner.” The National Museum of Nuclear Science &
History. Last modified 2017. Accessed October 6, 2017.
https://www.nuclearmuseum.org/see/exhibits-to-rent/inspired-excellence-the-story-of-ma
rie-sklodowska-curie-and-lise-meitner/.
The National Museum of Nuclear Science and History provides a short article
highlighting their current exhibit of Lise Meitner. The author mentions how Meitner’s
partner, Otto Hahn, was given credit for her work on nuclear fission. This miscredit led to
one of the greatest oversights made by the Nobel Prize Committee in history. The
National Museum of Science and History is a credible source as it is a
congressionally-chartered museum, serving as America’s resource for nuclear history.
39
Nuclear Energy Institute. “Nuclear Energy’s Clean-Air Benefits.” Nuclear Energy Institute
2018. Accessed February 16, 2018.
https://www.nei.org/Master-Document-Folder/Backgrounders/Fact-Sheets/Nuclear-Energ
y-s-Clean-Air-Benefits?feed=factsheet%20.
From this article on Nuclear Energy in America, I learned how Meitner's discovery of
nuclear fission is used to produce nuclear energy in nuclear power plants. I use this
information when discussing Meitner's long-term impact in my historical paper. I found
this article at the Nuclear Energy Institute, which is a reliable database that provides
information on nuclear energy while promoting its environmental benefits.
Rayner-Canham, Geoff. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 28, 2018.
I thought it vital to include insight from someone who had studied Lise Meitner. Geoff
Rayner-Canham wrote a short excerpt about Meitner in one of his biographies, Women in Chemistry. After locating his contact information, I conducted an email interview asking Rayner-Canham multiple questions. I learned more about Meitner’s long-term impact, the
naming of element 109 (meitnerium), and how the Nobel Prize Committee overlooked
her role in the discovery of nuclear fission. This interview was very beneficial to my
research, and I recommend conducting an interview to all student historians.
40
Rayner-Canham, Marelene F. Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century. History of Modern Chemical Sciences. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1998.
Women in Chemistry is a collection of small biographies, one of which on Lise Meitner. Her section discusses the work Meitner needed to accomplish to enter college as a
woman. Additionally, it details Meitner’s time at the Universities of Vienna and Berlin. I
discovered more about Meitner and Hahn’s teamwork during their time working with
radioactivity and nuclear fission. This was one of my most significant secondary sources.
Rein, Allison. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 23, 2018.
In order to gather more information on Lise Meitner, I emailed the Niels Bohr Library
and Archives. Bohr was a close colleague and friend of Meitner’s. I was seeking answers
to several questions and direction to additional primary sources. After questioning, Ms.
Rein suggested several other primary sources found at the American Institute for Physics.
These sources have been a significant addition to my research.
Reno, Dr. Mary Hall. E-mail interview by the author. May 6, 2018.
Dr. Reno is a particle physics professor from the University of Iowa. I reached out to Dr.
Mary Hall Reno to ask questions regarding Lise Meitner and nuclear fission, her
long-term impact, where nuclear fission is used today, and if Meitner’s name is
mentioned in her curriculum. Reno shared her views regarding Meitner’s contributions
and the lack of recognition given to Meitner even today.
41
Rife, Patricia. “Lise Meitner.” Jewish Women’s Archive. Last modified 2017. Accessed
September 7, 2017. https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/meitner-lise.
Information from the Jewish Women’s Archive was an extremely significant addition to
my research. The source summarizes Meitner’s life and describes the discrimination she
faced when Otto Hahn was given credit for her work. The Jewish Women’s Archive is
dedicated to the lives of hundreds of Jewish females who have empowered others.
Royal Society of Chemistry. Meitnerium. Royal Society of Chemistry. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/109/meitnerium.
In 1982, the element meitnerium (then the heaviest man-made element) was discovered
and named after Lise Meitner. I found this information extremely important to include in
my historical paper, as it is an example of Meitner’s long-term impact. This was a great
source and one I believe would benefit students studying physics.
Sime, Ruth Lewin. Lise Meitner a Life in Physics. London, England: University of California Press, 1996.
Ruth Lewin Sime’s Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics was one of my most valuable sources. This biography is an in-depth and structured analysis of Meitner’s life. Sime
wrote in chronological order, beginning with the time period Meitner was born, to her
lasting legacy in the physics field. Sime not only wrote about Meitner, but also included
many of the other European physicists at the time. This biography included many quotes,
42
which are used in my paper. Sime, a faculty member of chemistry at the Sacramento City
College, is a scientific researcher and author to numerous other scientific biographies.
“A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice.” Physics Today 50, no. 9 (September 1997): 26. Accessed February 14, 2018. doi:10.1063/1.881933.
Written by Ruth Lewin Sime, this is a brief article on Hahn’s Nobel Prize win over
Meitner. Sime discusses how it happened and the reaction of the people during the time. I
use this information when talking about Hahn’s Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1944. Ruth
Lewin Sime is the author of one of my other sources, Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics.
Toor, Dr. Fatima. E-mail interview by the author. May 3, 2018.
Dr. Fatima Toor is an Assistant Physics and Astronomy Professor at the University of
Iowa. By interviewing Dr. Toor, I gained multiple pieces of valuable information. I
reached out to Dr. Toor and asked a few questions regarding Lise Meitner’s long-term
impact and her role in nuclear fission. In return, Dr. Toor directed me towards numerous
sources providing statistics on nuclear energy and helping me understand the discovery of
protactinium.
43
University of Berkeley. “Lise Meitner.” Berkeley Nuclear Research Center. Last modified 2013.
Accessed January 20, 2018.
http://bnrc.berkeley.edu/Famous-Women-in-Physical-Sciences-and-Engineering/lise-meit
ner.html.
Published by the Berkeley Nuclear Research Center, this is an in-depth description of
Meitner’s life. While I only used the information on Meitner’s final years, it was
extremely important in finizaling my paper. The Berkeley Nuclear Research Center is a
site published by the University of Berkeley.
US Department of Energy. “Atomic Rivals and the ALSOS Mission.” The Manhattan Project.
Last modified 2018. Accessed January 26, 2018.
https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/rivals.htm.
The U.S. Department of Energy’s article regarding the United State’s Manhattan Project
was a key addition to my research. Not only did I gather information regarding how the
atomic bomb began, but also on the impact it had on World War II. This source assisted
me in writing a paragraph concerning the political situation between the United States
and Germany during WWII. This site is published by a division of the United States
government, the U.S. Department of Energy.
44
Vare, Ethlie Ann, and Greg Ptacek. "Conceiving a Nuclear World." The Philadelphia Inquirer (Philadelphia, PA), May 30, 1988, 37. Accessed May 2, 2018.
https://www.newspapers.com/image/170030008.
"Conceiving a Nuclear War" was published by the Philadelphia Inquirer on May 30,
1988. The author quotes Meitner twice on her discovery of nuclear fission and its uses
during WWII. I use one of these quotes in my historical paper, as it explains why Meitner
chose not to participate in the American Manhattan Project.
“World Electricity Production by Source 2017.” Chart. World Nuclear Association. 2018.
Accessed May 5, 2018.
http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-
power-in-the-world-today.aspx.
During an interview with Dr. Fatima Toor, I questioned what nuclear fission is used for
today. She mentioned that nuclear fission is used to produce nearly eleven percent of the
world’s energy today and provided me with this chart. I use this information when
discussing the long-term impact of the discovery of nuclear fission.
45