THE PRIMARY FORESTS OF

VINTON AND JACKSON COUNTIES, OHIO

Dissertation

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Janice Carson Beatley, B. A*, M. Sc*

The Ohio State University

1953

... • • • • ■ • * • • • •» _

• •; * 'Approved by: CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER I. LOCATION OF THE AREA U

CHAPTER II. CULTURAL HISTORX 8

CHAPTER III. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 19

Physiographic History 19 Bedrock Geology and Physiography 27 Soils 50 Climate 65

CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OB1 THE VEGETATI.'N 89

CHAPTER V. SOURCES OP DATA AND MANNER OF UTILIZATION 109

CHAPTER VI. THE PRIMARY FORESTS 122

Area I* Marietta River Area 129

Qak-Hickory association 132 Gak-Sugar Maple and Qak-Sugar Maple-Tuliptree associations 139 Oak—Hiekory-Tuliptree and Oak-Chestnut- Tuliptree associations lUli Beech comnunities 156 Pine-Oak comnunities 160 White Oak communities of the lacustrine terraces 163 Swamp Forests 170

Area Hi Raccoon Creek Area 180

Oak communities 183 Oak-Chestnut association 186 Oak-Hickory and Mixed Oak associations 188 Oak—Pine communities I9I4. Mesic communities of residual soils 195 Oak-Tuliptree communities 202 White Oak-Beech-Sugar Maple association 20U White Oak-Beech association 205 Beech-Sugar Maple-Tuliptree association 21U Mixed Mesophytic comnunities 215 Comnunities of the Swamp Forest succession 219 Beech-Sugar Maple association 22h

1

K 1 6 8 9 1 Area III* Salt Croak Area 235

Oak comnunities 238 Oak-Chestnut association 21*0 Oak-Pina association 21*1* Oak-Hickory association 252 Mesic comnunities of residual soils 253 Mixed Mesophytic association 251* Qak-Chestnut-Tuliptree association 263 Communities of the Swamp Forest succession 265

SUMMARY 271*

SCIENTIFIC Na m e s o f tree and s h r u b SPECIES 286

LITERATURE CITED 288 P U T iiS

I. Valleys of the major preglacial streams and their watersheds, and the Illinoian and Wisconsin glacial boundaries.

II. Bedrock map of Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio.

III. Present-day stream system and drainage divides lying within Vinton and Jackson Counties and adjacent areas.

IV. Generalized soils map of Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio.

V. Location of vegetation areas in Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio.

VI. Location of citations of Beech and Sugar Maple in Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, by all surveyors, 1798-1805.

VII. Location of citations of Pine in Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, by all surveyors, 1798-1805.

VIII. Distribution of Hemlock in Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio. INTRODUCTION

The area within the boundaries of Jackson and Vinton Counties con­

stitutes a major segment of southern Ohio in which the original vegeta­

tion has not previously been described» All other central southern Ohio

counties, except Pike, Gallia, and Lawrence, have been studied in whole

or in part as contributions to the program of describing and mapping the

original vegetation of Ohio, inaugurated over thirty-five years ago in

the Department of Botany, Ohio State University*

The undertaking of a similar study in Jackson and Vinton Counties

was in part prompted by a need for filling in this major gap in our

knowledge of the vegetation of this part of the State* It was also

actuated by the recognition of this area as one of unusual botanical

interest, largely the result of intensive floristic studies conducted

by Floyd Bartley and the late Leslie Pontius over a period of twenty

years or so in Liberty Township, Jackson County* This township is known

to Ohio botanists as one of the richest, if not the very richest, flor­

istic areas in the State, for within its 1*2 square miles, over 1,100

species of plants have been collected, a number of itoich are unrecorded

elsewhere in Ohio* Outside of this small area, however, the flora of

these two counties is probably not of any more special interest than is

that of other Plateau counties in southeastern Ohio*

The objectives of this study have been: (1) To describe the major

primary forest types, i*e*, the forest types which occurred in the area

1 Mediately prior to luropean settlement, and (2) to account for the pattern of these comuni tie a so far as possible* In pursuance of the

first objective, about ll»0 days^ during the past three years have been spent in the field, during which nearly 20,000 milas have baen driven to, from, and within the area, and all passable roads in each county traversed one or more times. Field studies have been primarily con­ cerned with the deduction of the original associations, in the abstract, from the concrete communities of the secondary forests. This has neces­ sarily involved an attempt to evaluate the degree to which the environ­ mental factors of the sites of each of these communities are ’unchanged from those of the original forests, or have been modified through the activities of man. Field studies have not been directed toward a flor- istic survey. Whatever there is to be known of the geographic elements in the flora of this area is probably already available in the extensive

Bartley and Pontius collections. In addition to field studies, the diaries of the surveyors of the original land survey in this area, which were copied in their entirety and analyzed during the course of this study, have been an invaluable aid in recognition and description of the primary forest types.

For the second objective, it has been necessary to delve more or less deeply into the fields of geology, physiography, pedology, and climatology, with the opportunity at the same time to make a few con­ tributions concerning this area to the present body of knowledge in some of these fields. Each of these disciplines has been consulted and employed in this study only to the extent to w hich it bears relation­ ship to one or more of the facts or inferences upon which the primary vegetation is here described or explained. This has usually necessi­ tated a sifting out of the pertinent information from a mass of data recorded from a wholly different point of view, or its procurement from sources other than the literature dealing with this area. The author is deeply indebted to many persons who have made con­ tributions of one kind or another to this study, but especially to the following: Dr. John N. Wolfe, Department of Botany, Ohio State Univer- sith, under whom the work was conducted, and without whose encouragement and help in many ways, this study would not have been brought to comple­ tion; to Dr. H. C. Sampson, Botany Department, Chio State University, who read the manuscript and whose interest and suggestions have never failed to be of both material and inspirational value; to Dr. Nicholas

Holowaychuk, Department of Agronomy, Ohio State University, who has given freely of his time to problems related to the soils of the area; and to personnel of the Ohio Geological Survey, Columbus Weather Bureau, and the office of the Auditor of State, all of whom have graciously supplied access to certain data and facilities for its recording. To

Dr. E. N. Transeau, Department of Botany, Ohio State University, whose criticisms of the manuscript were helpful, and all others whose contri­ butions appear somewhere in these pages, the author expresses sincere appreciation. Also, the Grant-in-Aid from the Research Fund Committee of the Ohio Academy of Science toward ths very great cost of the field work, is here gratefully acknowledged. k

CHAPTER I. LOCATION OP THE AREA

Vinton and Jackson Counties lie in the central southern portion of

Ohio (Fig* 1) in the Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau of Fenneman (13), and within the Low Hills Belt and Cliff Section of Braun (5)• The area is bounded by parallels 3 8*5 1 ' and 39*23' north, and meridians 82*15 • and

83•1*9* west* The counties are included within all or parts of nine

U. S. Q. S. topographic quadrangles: Chillicothe, Waverly, Sciotoville,

Laurelrille, Jackson, Oak Hill, Zaleski, Wilkesville, and Bidwell. It is bounded on the north by Hocking County, on the east by Athens, Meigs, and Qallia Counties, on the south by Gallia, Lawrence and Scioto Coun­ ties, and on the west by Scioto, Pike, and Ross Counties.

According to the Ohio Cooperative Topographic Survey (1*7), the official area of Jackson County is 1:21*99 square miles, giving it a rank of fifty-fourth in size among Ohio's 88 counties* Vinton County has an area of Ul5*0U square miles, and a rank of sixtieth in the State.

According to these figures, there should be 270,073*6 acres in Jackson

County, and 265,625*6 acres in Vinton County*^

The counties are composed of twelve townships each (Fig* 2), vary­ ing in &ise from approximately 21* to i*2 square idles* They include all or part of the following townships laid out as a part of the Ohio Com­ pany's Second Purchase and the Congress Lands East of the Scioto River

(Chp. V)t 12 Sections of Township 10, Range IV; Townships 8-11 of Range

XVI; 6 Sections in Township 6, and Townships 7-12, Range XVII; Townships

5-10, Range IVIII; 21* Sections of Township 5, Townships 6-9,

^ The 1950 U. S. Census (62) gives 268,800 acres far Jackson County, and 263,0li0 acres for Vinton County, or 3,859 acres less for the two-county area* These figures are apparently based upon 1*20 and Ull square miles, respectively* 6 Section** of Township 10, llange XIX; and 6 Sections each of Townships

5-7, Range XX.

Cities of the area are Jackson, the county seat of Jackson County, with a population of 6,50U> and Veilston, also in Jackson County, with a population of 5#6?1 (61)* County seat of Vinton County is McArthur, the population of which is 1,U66 (6l). Smaller Tillages include Oak

Hill in Jackson County, and Wilkesville, Hamden, and Zaleski in Vinton

County, and a number of hamlets are scattered throughout*

Jackson is about 80 miles from the city of Columbus, and McArthur

75 miles. By the shortest routes from Columbus, the closest points of ths county lines are approximately 65 miles distant, and the farthest about a hundred miles. The area is crossed from east to west by U. S.

Routes 50 and 35* The southwestern part of the area is a littln over lli miles north of the Ohio River, and the entire area lies in the Ohio

River watershed. Fig. 1. Map of Ohio to show location of Vinton and Jackson Counties in relation to the Allegheny Plateau escarpment and Illinoian and Wisconsin glacial boundaries.

FULT -\_yLUCA- ^

M 5S| i"kl

PALI ^

r,' 1<

i At i E

SHEJ

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l— r -

JUIh'

^ii i

PAM s a o

l a ’

20 •O 40 C H

Escarpaent of the Allegheny Plateau -•••- Illinoian glaciation boundary • •••• Wisoonsin glaciation boundary 7

r J .iA N hii- '.VN EAGLE J hCKSJN

1 H

ELK ! Ml 01SON KNO a

I'c^r ti W HALL ISOi: Pci. i n l a n d i l I I ------r r- i

i I V : 'jfJ ■ intjIII Mri i )N JACKSON

lA'ellaton I r T 1n I _ I M IL? ON

LIBERTY ;,ICK ! i I I Tack son I— h i i I I BLOOMFIELD l I S C I )TO FRANKLIN

MALISON

HAMILTON JEFi' CR. >DN -jbak H il I I T Fig. 2• Location of townships and principal towns of Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio. 8 CHAPTER II. CULTURAL HI STCRT

Whan the first white wen penetrated the primeval forests of Vinton and Jackson Counties, the area was under control of the Shawnee Indians, who likewise controlled most of the Scioto Valley (1*8) • Previously it had been occupied by at least three prehistoric Indian groups, the Adena,

Hopewell, and Fort Ancient cultures, the oldest (Adena) dating tack to around UOO A* D . 2 Many mounds, enclosures, villages, and burial sites occur within the area, especially in Jackson County (30)• To the histor ­ ic Ohio Indians, and their predecessors, the region of Jackson County war renowned, for near the headwaters of Little Salt Creek were the famous salt springs, later known as the Scioto Salt Licks.3 Indians, apparently from all over Ohio by agreement with the Shawnees, visited the Licks by the thousands during the summer and autusn months* The women collected and boiled the brine, originating from marine-laid sediments well below the surface and issuing from near the base of the

Share' conglomerate (1*9), and the men hunted and fished in the nearby hills* From the numerous mammalian fossils of the area, it is apparent that the salt-laden waters had been visited by other animals of the forest for countless millsniums, and hence, in addition to being the principal source of salt for the aborigines of Ohio, it was one of the finest hunting grounds available in this part of the country* Wild game, mostly extirpated by white man in this region in less then fifty years of occupancy, included the buffalo, elk, deer, wolf, bear, panther, wild turkey, and others, all of which were abundant in the Ohio country

2 From films of the Deportment of Archaeology, Ohio State Archeological and Historical Museum, courtesy of Or. Raymond S* Baby* 3 Except as otherwise noted, the history of Jackson County through 1916 is based upon Williams (65, 61*) • 9 and frequented the Licks. In earlier tines the swampy Licks had been visited by the mastodon, nairaoth, and elephant*

Written history of the area begins with a map drain by a Welsh geographer, Lewis Evans, under date of 1755* on v M c h was shown the probable location of the Scioto Salt Licks* Location of the Licks

likely was based upon information obtained from escaped prisoners of

the Indians. During the sixty years war between the Indians and en­

croaching whites (1735-1795), area of the Licks was often the base of operations for the Indians in their forays against tne Kentuckians and

Virginians, and many whites were burned at the stake near the present- day city of Jackson* Notwithstanding the certain dangers, white hunters and trappers continued to infiltrate the area, but it was not until 1795, with the signing of the Treaty of Greenville, that permanent settlements were established* At that time the Indians renounced whatever claims they had to territories in Ohio, and the land became a part of the public domain in the Northwest Territory, organized in 1787 from lands ceded to the United States by England in 1782*

Since the area was now open to homesteading without fear of Indian massacres, the task of surveying the wilderness was begun* The town­ ships now lying within Vinton and Jackson Counties, however, were not laid out until the years 1798, 1799, and l801j these were a part of the

"Congress Lands East of the Scioto River" and the "Ohio Company's Second

Purchase" (Chp* V). Subdivision of nine of the townships into sections was not executed until 1805 • During the decade after the signing of the

Treaty of Greenville, settlers were moving into the area, but the popula­ tion consisted principally of more or less transient "salt boilers", who 10 boiled the brines at the now Government-owned Salt Licks for their own

use and for sale in accordance with Government regulations.

The first white settler in Jackson County, however, was not a salt boiler, but a hunter and trapper named William Hewitt (referred to as

"The Hermit1*), who took up residence in a rock shelter along upper Little

Salt Creek around 1787* Hewitt was friendly with the Indians, but with

the coming of the salt boilers in 1795, found it to his pleasure to live elsewhere, and moved to the headwaters of what is now known as Hewitt's

Run in Jefferson Township. A number of the salt boilers remained as permanent residents and became the founders of the first conmunity, known as Poplar Row, from which the town of Jackson later developed.

First white settler in Vinton County was Levi Kelsey, who settled in Elk

Township) in 1801 (19)*

Between 1803, when the State of Ohio was admitted to the Union, and

1650 , homesteaders came into the area by the hundreds, rapidly cleared

the valley bottoms and later the tillable uplands, and took cognizance of the rich deposits of iron ores, coals, and clays of the central and eastern parts. Especially notable were the six Walsh families which set­ tled in southeastern Jackson County in 16 16. These, together with later

Welsh i f 1 grants and the Ir many descendants, have been largely responsible for the industrial and cultural advancement of this county, which from this early date to the present have always distinguiahed it from neigh­ boring Vinton County.

Jackson County was erected in 1816 from parts of Scioto, Gallia,

Athens, and Ross Counties, and the county seat of Jackson established at the site of the Scioto Salt Works the following year. Vinton County was organised many years later (1850) from parts of Athens, Hocking, Ross, Jackson, and Qallia Counties, although McArthurstown (now McArthur) had been laid out in 1815. By 1850 the population of Vinton County was a little more than 9,000 and Jackson County nearly 13,000. Most of the inhabitants lived In or near small villages scattered throughout, but especially along watercourses or at crossroads. With an estimated popu­ lation of 500 in 1810, the town of Jackson had declined to only 136 by

1830, as the salt boilers left the county or became engaged in agri­ cultural pur/suits with the waning of the salt industry. Disappearance of the salt industry followed the discovery of equally good or better brines elsewhere in Ohio and adjacent areas, and the Salt Lick Reserva­ tion, an area the size of a township which had been established by

Congress in 1796, became a part of the public domain of Ohio after 1802.

It was gradually subdivided into lots and put up for sale in its entirety by 1827.

First important industry of Vinton County followed the discovery of buhrstone by its second settler in l805« Such stone is plentiful in the hllla along Raccoon Creek and its tributaries, where for over thirty years it was quarried. But in this county, as in Jackson County, most of the population gained its livlihood from the tilling of the soil.

The groundwork, however, was being laid during this period prior to 1850 for the great industrial boom of the next forty years, which was to bring such prosperity as never had been known before and has been known since only in the post-World War II period, half a century later. Both periods have been based upon rigorous exploitation of the natural resources.

Around 1850 attention became sharply focused upon the rich iron ore deposits in several strata near the base of the Coal Measures and out­ cropping In a KNX-SSW belt 10 to 15 miles wide through the center of 12 both counties* This area lies at the northern end of the celebrated

Hanging Rock iron region, which extends about 1D0 miles south in a narrow belt through Scioto, Lawrence, and Gallia Counties and in to

Kentucky for 25 to 30 miles* Although one smelter had been built near the southwestern corner of Jackson County in I836, and a few others had been in operation in Scioto, Adams, and Lawrence Counties before mid-

century, it was not until the early 1850 's that the iron industry of this area went into large-scale production* In Jackson and Vinton

Counties 15 additional blast furnaces, using charcoal as fuel, were built between 18U9 and 1856 (Chp. IV). Extensive timber holdings were necessary to supply the quantities of charcoal necessary for the opera­ tion of the 16 charcoal-burning furnaces. The virgin forests of the area were the source of this fuel, and the manner and extent of their decimation during this period are considered in Chapter IV*

B7 the i860*s, it was discovered that native bituminous coals could be esployed as fuel in the smelters, and during this and the following decade a dosen coal-burning furnaces were erected in Jackson County, all near the cities of Jackson and Wells ton. The kinds of ores used, their quantity and quality, and the character of both the charcoal and coal furnaces and the smelting operations, ware comprehensively reviewed by

Orton (3 6) and Lord (26) in 188U at about the time of the peak of the iron industry in the Hanging Rock region* At this time Lord predicted the fate of the charcoal furnaces:

"The disappearance of the forests under the demands of the furnaces, which is now so apparent throughout the region, increases every year the difficulty of obtaining the necessary fuel, and marks very plainly the fate of the charcoal iron industry*... Already a number of furnaces have been abandoned because of the scarcity of accessible timber, though the supply of ore has hardly been such diminished* The use of charcoal must yield, as it has 13

done in all other parte of the State, and is now doing in other States, to the more extended employment uf mineral fuel. The manufacture of charcoal iron, nevertheless, will be a matter of considerable importance for some time to come, and the fine qual­ ity and high value of the iron will do much to foster its pro­ duction."

One by one the charcoal furnaces closed down, but Jefferson Furnace

in Jackson County continued operations well into the twentieth century.

The last blast was begun in the autumn of 1916, and it was officially

closed down in January, 1917 (3), thus ending the area's most colorful

and one of its most prosperous eras. Operation of the coal-burning

smelters, which were from the beginning confined to Jackson County, was

mostly short-lived due to the increasing inability of the companies to

compete profitably with the Lake Superior ores after the Civil War.

Five were still operating in 1916, but since 1923 only two of these

have been in operation, and these today use imported ores exclusively

in the production of "silvery" pig iron. The history of the iron in­

dustry in Jackson County, covering a period of over 100 years, has been

recorded by Keeler (23).

Opening of coal mines in the 1860's, originally for use in the iron

smelters, gained sudden impetus in the 1870's whan railroad facilities

far the first time became adequate for mass exportation of the product.

By 1888 over a million tons of coal were being mined annually in Jackson

County, and a decade later this county was the largest coal producer in

the State, with a total of 89 mines employing nearly 5*000 men, and with

an output of nearly 2 million tons per annum. After the turn of the

century, production fell off sharply, as some of the best and most easily worked seams were exhausted, but coal mining has continued to the present time to be one of the principal industries of the area. 1h

Ths population of both counties more than doubled during this

era, and a nuaber of towns Mushroomed into existence and declined as

the industry waned* Notable exception was the city of Wellston, which

was founded around 187U in connection with the Milton and Wellston Fur­

naces, and although experiencing a decline in population since 1900, is

today the second-largest town of the two counties* A nunber of once-

thriving conn uni tie s have dwindled to one or a few houses and are but

points on a today, as the population after 1900 adjusted itself to

a largely agricultural econosy, especially in Vinton County, and the

younger generations migrated to the urban centers of Ohio and else­

where* The population peak was recorded in Vinton County in 1880

(17,223) at the height of the charcoal furnace period, but in Jackson

County the maximum population (3li,2l;8) occurred in 1900, largely be­

cause of the replacement of the charcoal furnaces by coal-burning smelt­

ers and the continuation of the iron industry for nearly two decades

longer in this county* The 1950 census credits Vinton County with

10,759 residents, which is only about 1,500 more people than a century

earlier; Jackson County, however, because of its sustained industrial

activities even during depression periods, has a population of 27,767

people, or more than twice as many as in 1850* It is estimated, on the

basis of observations made in the course of the field work conducted in

this study, that about half of the inhabitants today of both counties

are immigrants of ths past two decades from eastern Kentucky and West

Virginia*

For the agriculturally-minded pioneers and their successors, there has been little but marginal or submarginal land to cultivate in this area* Sxtensive clear-cutting of the forests during time of the charcoal furnaces invited attempts to utilize the hillsides for crops, where slope gradients nay be up to 80 percent or more} as a result, a large part of both counties (perhaps the greater part) has been under the plow at one tine or another during the last century. Most of such land, however, not owned by the furnace companies, was rapidly converted to pasture. The percentage of both counties in pasture and cropland in

1883, sod also in 19U9, is indicated in Table 1.

Table 1* Percentage of total area of 7inton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, in pasture and cropland, 1883 and 19li9 (35 , 62).

1 8 8 2 ______Vinton Co. Jackson Co. Vinton Co. Jackson Co.

Pasture (jC) 37.9 U8.0 Ui.8 21.6

Cropland (i) m * 8 21.2 11.0 18.8

Total (%) 52.7 69.2 25.8 Uo.l*

During the past 60-70 years the area in pasture was reduced more than one-half, and there has also been a decrease in area utilized for crops.

The major part of this abandoned land has been allowed to reforest itself.

Desirable cropland is mostly confined to the valley plains and terraces, and gradual abandonment of cropping on ridge farms during this period probably resulted in most of the 25 percent reduction in cropped acreage in Vinton County and 11 percent reduction in Jackson County* U. S.

Census data of 1950 relating to the principal crops raised in this area, and their acreage, are sumnarized in Table 2.

The numerous apple orchards of Jackson County distinguish it agri­ culturally from Vinton County. Most of these or char dj are located in the southern part of the county between Jackson and Oak Hill, particularly 16

Table 2. Principal crops and acreage of cropland in Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, 191*9 • Based upon (62).

Vinton Co. Jackson Co.

Total cropland (acres 28,899 50,1*81* Cropland not harvested (acres) 8,136 11*, 837 Cropland harvested (acres) 20,763 35,61*7

Corn (acres) 6,99k 10,739 Wheat (acres) 2,1*81* 5,122 Oats (acres) 1,208 Total (acres) 16,163 1?,069 % of harvested cropland 1*8.6 1*7.9

Hay crops (acres) 9,336 15,103 % of harvested cropland 1*5.0 1*2.1*

Orchards of over £ acre (acres) 511 2,10** % of harvested cropland 2.5 6.0

Total acres 19,950 31*, 276 % of harvested cropland 9 6 .1 96.3

on the slopes of the low hills in Franklin Township. Jackson County, with a total of 285,063 bushels in 191*9 (62), ranked third in the State with respect to its apple harvest. The orchard area is coincident with one of the natural vegetation areas, as pointed out in Chapter VI in connection with the Oak-Hickory-Tuliptree association.

The eost important industry in Jackson County today is probably the elning and utilisation of native clays, mostly in the Baking of fire brick. L score or so of companies are engaged in one phase or the other of this industry, or both. The center of operations is Oak Hill in the southern part of the county, where the Industry began a century or mare ago. Mining of clays and manufacture of fire brick are also carried on

In Vinton County, but to a much lesser extent. 17

The thick deposits of the Sharon conglomerate and sandstone in

Liberty and Jackson Townships, Jackson County, are the basis of another

industry which in recent years has assumed some prominence, via*, the

quarrying or mining of the Sharon for the nearly pure silica sand and gravel which it contains. According to Fuller (15), "the Sharon conglom­ erate, because of its high purity (95-99 percent silica) and ready worka­ bility is a premium material for industrial uses"*

The two counties today share about equally in the tonnage of coal mined* Coal mining probably ranks second in importance to the timber

industry in Vinton County, and second only to the clay industry in Jack­ son County* Jackson County, until the post-World War II years, usually

far exceeded Vinton County in tonnage of coal mined annually. This was due largely to the Influence of the early immigrant coal miners from

Wales, and their descendants, who have engaged in underground mining

in tills county for over a century. Contribution of the underground miners of Jackson County is apparent in the coal production data of the decade 1933-19U2, when over two million tons were mined, with only

3U.3 percent obtained by strip-mining (33); in Vinton County, Issb than a million tons were mined in the same period, 5 6 .6 percent of which was removed by stripping. During the post-World War 11 years, 19U6-1952, the picture has changed, however, for in these seven years, the nearly two million tons mined in Jackson County (1,902,301)^ were exceeded by several hundred thousand in Vinton County (with a total of 2,277,51*9 tons), and the average percentage by stripping was 7U.6 and 80.3, respectively*

Ths only year in the past two decades in which the percentage of coal

U Data from (3li), except for 1952, which are preliminary data as of March 21, 1953, for the as yet unpublished 1952 "Annual Coal and Non- Metallic Mineral Report", Department of Industrial Relations, State of Chin. 18 stripped has been greater in Jackson County than in Vinton was 1952, when over a half a million tons (527,U38) were removed in Jackson

County by this method (compared with 172,335 tons in Vinton County); and 83 percent of this was done by the Broken Aro Coal Company of Kansas

City, Missouri, whose center of operations is in Milton Township, on or near the old Latrobe Furnace lands* In 1951 there were 29 operators in

Vinton and 32 in Jackson County, most of whom were local miners in bus­ iness for themselves, or companies owned by native Vinton and Jackson

Counttans. Seam Nos* 1, 2, U, U-A, 5, 6, and 7 are those being removed both by stripping and underground methods*

The timber industry, based upon extensive forest reserves of the

Federal and State Governments, the Baker Wood Preserving Company hold­ ings, and the farm woodlots and other privately-owned forested tracts throughout the area, is probably the number one industry in Vinton

County today* It is of somewhat lesser importance to Jackson County*

In 19U2 (9), Vinton County ranked second only to Scioto County in the

State of Ohio in acreage in forest cover (155>U2I4. acres) and first in percentage of area so covered (59*1 percent)* Jackson County ranked eighth in acreage with 106,257 acres of forest, and sixth in percentage, with 39*5 percent of its total area in forest of one kind or another*

These figures would scarcely be accurate for the acreage aid percentage of forest cover today (1953), since extensive cutting has accompanied the great demand and high prices paid for timber, regardless of age or quality, during and following World War II* The extent of the timber industry today, and the manner in which if affects the present-day for­ ests, are discussed in Chapter V* 19 CHAPTER III. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

PHYSIOGRAPHIC HISTORY

The occurrence and sequence of major events in the physiographic history of southeastern Ohio, and adjacent Kentucky and West Virginia, are probably nowhere more easily Inferred than in Jackson and Vinton

Counties, where the chapters of this fascinating story have been clearly and extensively preserved on the landscape. Many details await descrip­ tion, and there is not complete agreement on interpretation of others, but the major events since emergence of the land mass at the close of the Permian, and their order of occurrence, have been agreed upon by a number of workers. The story, as it is understood to date for south­ eastern Ohio, has been put together by Stout, who has drawn upon his own long and extensive field studies in the area as well as the writings of others, notably Tight (58)• Except as otherwise noted, the following resume of the physiographic history of this area is based upon the writ­ ings of Stout (52, 56), whose work is especially valuable to this ,tudy because of the major contribution which the surface features of Vinton and Jackson Counties have made to his understanding of the physiographic history of southeastern Ohio. The many details upon which his work is based are recorded in the above publications. A comprehensive bibliog­ raphy of the pertinent literature through 19U1 appears in (53)*

The horizontal and consolidated strata, laid down in Mississippian and Pennsylvanian seas, ware uplifted at the close of the Permian during the Appalachian Revolution, at which time they became tilted toward the trough of a regional syncline centering along the present-day upper Ohio

River. Forces of weathering, erosion, and solution reduced the rocks to I

20

a plain In Mesozoic time, and the land mass was again uplifted at its

close (Late Cretaceous).

During the Tertiary at least three other cycles of uplift and erosion ended in peneplains or straths, remnants r£ which are wide­

spread in this area. The oldest, the Harrisburg erosion surface (pene­ plain), is represented today by remnants which occur on many ridges

six'":? eld drainage divides and stand at elevations of 1,020 to 1,100

, The3e accordant summits of the highest hills, averaging 1 , 0 6 0 feet above sea level, are distinctive features of northeastern and western Vinton County; elsewhere in Vinton and throughout Jackson County, this erosion surface has been entirely, or almost entirely, removed dur- ing succeeding cycles* Ridges in westernmost Eagle Township, Vinton

County, which rise to over 1,200 feet, are believed to be remnants of an earlier erosion surface, perhaps the original Permian.

In late Tertiary the Harrisburg peneplain was slowly uplifted about 100 feet, and during the subsequent erosion cycle streams removed much of the Harrisburg surface, carved broad valleys, and the uplands were reduced to ouch lower elevations. Peneplanation was not as thor­ oughly accomplished as during Harrisburg time, but sufficiently so that the resultant surface is referred to as the Lexington peneplain.5 Many remants occur along all of the principal preglacial drainage divides in both counties, especially Vinton County, at elevations of 900 to 990 feet. Average elevation is around 960 feet, or 100 feet below the Harris­ burg remnants. In general, this surface, like the Harrisburg, is soms-

5 By some authors the Lexington is treated as a subcycle of the Harris­ burg (13), and by others (7) the two surfaces are considered correla­ tive in age, with differences In rock resistance being the cause of differences in elevation. 21 what higher than the average near the principal drainage divides and lower, or no longer present, toward the center of the larger drainage basin*. Lexington and Harrisburg surfaces, capping two hilltop levels, today occupy about a third of the total area of Vinton County and a much smaller part of Jackson County.

Slow uplift occurred again in late Tertiary, and a new erosion cycle, the Parker, was inaugurated. During Parker time, southeastern

Ohio lay within the watershed of a ncrtbwestward-flowing river, the

Teays, whose history probably dates back to the original drainage system established in the Mesozoic. This, the master stream of West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, and southern Ohio, had its headwaters in the Piedmont of North Carolina and Virginia. Its principal tributary in southeastern

Chio was the Marietta River, the headwaters of which were near Marietta,

Ohio. The Marietta flowed for many millions of years through what is now the city of Jackson and emptied into the Teays in Scioto Township to the west. Its two principal tributaries in this area were Hamden

Creek, which drained northeastern and central Vinton County and much of eastern Jackson County, and the Albany River, draining most of eastern

Vi' curty. Northwestern Jackson and western Vinton County were drained by three smaller streams, and southwestern Jackson County by

South Webster Creek£, all of which flowed directly into the Teays River.

Valleys of these streams and their watersheds are indicated in Plate I.

During Parker time, streams of the Teays system maturely dissected the Lexington surface, further reduced the Harrisburg, and cut broad valleys whose rock floors were 200-300 feet below the average level of

6 Name suggested by Dr. Wilber Stout, January, 1953* 22

Plate I. Valleys of the major preglacial streams and their watersheds^, and the Illinoian and Wisconsin glacial boundaries8.

7 Streams of the upper three-fifths of this figure are based upon a map by Stout (52)j those of the lower two-fifths and the drainage divides throughout, are based upon the writer's interpretation of the topo­ graphic maps, and are subject to the errors inherent in the use of this method alone. This is the only known map of its kind for this area since Tight*s in 1903 (58), with which there is some variance. 8 Boundaries in Ross County after Petro (38), and in Hocking County, after White (65). 23

Plata I the Lexington. Surface of this incomplete erosion cycle, which ended with maturely dissected uplands, is known as the Parker strath.

The Parker cycle was brought to a close apparently by the advance of an early Pleistocene ice sheet into Ohio (Kansan or Nebraskan)• The northwesterly course of the Teays was presumably blocked by the ice, and the impounded waters formed a vast lake (Lake Tight (60)) over south­ eastern Ohio and adjacent West Virginia and Kentucky. Evidences of the presence of Lake Tight are the more or less thick deposits (10-60 feet) of highly laminated clays of foreign origin, known as the Minford clays

(or silts), which are of widespread occurrence throughout the area today and doubtless were deposited under lake conditions (55). These lacus­ trine deposits occur at elevations up to well over 800 feet (maximum

860 feet) and are best preserved today in the major preglacial valleys where, together with fine sands of Parker age?, they may overlie the

Parker strath to depths of more than a hundred feet. They also occur as terrace remnants throughout the area, and along the divides of the present drainage. From the thickness and elevation of these deposits, it is inferred that Lake Tight existed for thousands of years in this area, and its level, though fluctuating widely, averaged around 900 feet.

Eventually the lower part of the present-day Ohio River became es­ tablished (Pomeroy and Cincinnati Rivers), and the ponded waters spilled over and cut across low places in the old divides, fro® drainage basin to drainage basir. and were slowly discharged through this new outlet to the Mississippi River and the Qulf of Mexico. At this time all of the present-day major streams of Jackson and Vinton Counties, except

Salt Creek, became established, following former drainage lines in parts

? Fro® conversation with Dr. Wilber Stout, January, 1953* 25 of their course and cutting across old divides and former drainage channels in others* Many former stream beds, choked with deep lacustrine deposits, were abandoned, including the Teays, the Marietta, and most of

Hamden Creek* Newly-formed Raccoon and Symnes Creeks emptied into the

Pomeroy River which joined the Cincinnati River at Point Pleasant, and waters from the three forks of salt Creek flowed into the Newark River, the forerunner of the Scioto which flowed south and emptied into the

Cincinnati at Portsmouth* Thus major drainage lines were now in a southwesterly direction replacing the former northwesterly Teays system*

Base level of this new system was at a much lower elevation than that of the old Teays, which must have emptied far to the north of the outlet of the Cincinnati River. This was the equivalent of uplift, and the newly established streams cut down through the deep valley fill and on down through the Parker strath at a greatly accelerated rate. Deep, narrow, steep-walled valleys (especially evident along Raccoon Creek and its tributaries) were among the chief consequences of this period of stream rejuvenation, known as Deep Stage* Where Deep Stage and suc­ ceeding streams have followed closely the courses of the preglacial ones, most of the lake deposits and the old rock floor (Parker strath) have been removed; what remains occurs as terrace remnants, as along parts of Salt Creek and Middle Fork In western Vinton County. In the abandoned preglacial valleys, of which there are many miles in these two counties, the lacustrine and other deposits (alluvial) overlying the

Parker strath, have been little modified by the small streams ihich have crossed them since Deep Stage time. All of the larger towns of both counties are 1m these valleys, and have been built either on the Parker 26 strath where only a thin layer of fill remains (e.g., McArthur), or on deep fill which overlies the strath (e.g., parts of the city of

Jackson)•

Illinoian and Wisconsin ice sheets brought further changes to the area. The Illinoian, which advanced to within less than two miles of the Vinton County boundary (Plate I), resulted in obliteration of the

Newark River (forerunner of the Scioto) and the Cincinnati River (fore­ runner of the lower Ohio) from Ripley to Cincinnati. All drainage to the west and southwest was thus obstructed, and meltwaters, with their normal path cut off, poured over a low place in the divide a mile north of the Vinton-Hocking County line. The present-day Salt Creek was thereby formed from the union of a stream in Hocking County, now re­ versed, and Salt Creek of Vinton County, whose direction of flow had remained unchanged since Parker time. A second widespread ponding of water has been postulated while the drainage of southeastern Ohio was obstructed to the west, with the lake persisting until a major channel was opened up to the northeast and the waters drained off to the Atlantic

Ocean.10 Following retreat of the ice and draining of the lake waters, the new Salt Creek emptied into the post-Illinoian Scioto River, and elsewhere in the two counties the major streams continued to follow their Deep Stage channels.

Wisconsin ice, which came within four miles of northwestern Vinton

County, resulted in no further drainage modifications in this immediate area, for the already well-established drainage system was in no way ob-

10 Another interpretation, and probably more plausible, is that blocking of the Cincinnati River by advance of the Illinoian ice into Kentucky was short-lived, according to which it would be unnecessary to postu­ late ponding of long duration and establishment of a drainage outlet to the northeast. 27

structed. But according to Stout, the Deep Stage Cincinnati River was

reopened (see footnote 10), and all of eastern Ohio was drained to the

southwest again by the newly born Ohio River, the various segments of

which were brought together in their present form at this time.

Outwash from both the Illinoian and Wisconsin ice sheets choked

the Scioto River valley to the west, but did not enter the abandoned

portion of the Teays or other river valleys of Vinton and Jackson Coun­

ties, except the valley of Salt Creek, as previously noted. Hence mater­

ials above bedrock in the valleys of this area are essentially all lacus­

trine or alluvial in origin. This is in contrast with the glacial border

counties to the iasjiediate north and west, where streams in the preglacial

drainage lines are cutting, or have cut down in part through valley

train gravels and other outwash materials* Outwash silts, 3ands, and

gravels In the Salt Creek Valley, which are probably both Illinoian and

Wisconsin in agell, occur as terrace remnants. The influence of these

parent materials upon the soils and vegetation of this valley is dis­

cussed in Chapter VI.

BEDROCK QBOLOOI AND PHI5I0GRAFHI12

All consolidated surface rocks of this area are of sedimentary origin, made up of materials laid down in the shallow seas (or marshes) of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian time. The horixontal beds remained under water until close of the Permian, at which time they ware uplifted and tilted during building of the Appalachian Mountain system. Strata

From conversation with Dr. Wilber Stout, January, 1953. 12 Based upon Stout (51* 52), except as otherwise noted, and in part upon original field work and map interpretation. 28

are inclined an average 28 feet per mile to the east and 12 feet per

mi to the south in Vinton County, and 3 0 and 10 feet per mile to the

*ast and south, respectively, in Jackson County. The dip in both direc­

tions is rather uniform and is a part of a regional inclination of the

rocks of southeastern Ohio toward the axis of the Pittsburg-Huntington

sync line, which lies in the vicinity of the Ohio River to the ea3t . ^

Because of this regional dip, successively younger rocks outcrop from

west to east across the area in NNE—SSW bands, as indicated on Plate II.

Combined thickness of the Mississippian and fennsylvanian strata

outcropping somewhere above stream level is approximately 1 ,3 60 feet in

Vinton County and 900 feet in Jackson County. Represented are the upper

Cuyahoga, the Logan, and the Maxville formations of the upper Mlssissip-

pian, and the complete Pottsville and Allegheny formations and lower

Conemaugh of the Pennsylvanian system. A summary of the generalised

sections appears in Table 3. The great majority of the Pennsylvanian

members which have been named In the literature dealing with these coun­

ties are thin beds of greater or lesser economic value (coals, ores,

clays, and limestones), and are not those which have had any very pro­ nounced effects upon the physiographic and vegetational features of the

area. Hence only those members to which names have been given, which are

of areal importance above stream level, and which have made major con­

tributions to the landscape are mentioned in Table 3 and in the discus­

sion below* No geological map of the area per se is available.

In the northwestern part of +he area, Uississippian rocks are those which have given character to the topography. These are maturely dis­

sected sandstones and siliceous shales more resistant to weathering than

13 Western flank of this sync line is also a part of the eastern flank of the Cincinnati anticline. 29

Plate II# Bedrock map of Vinton and Jackson Counties, Qhio.lk

Cuyahoga, Logan, and Maxville Formations of the Mississip­ ■ pian System

Pottsville and Allegheny Formations of the Pennsylvanian □ System

m Coneaaugh Formation of the Pennsylvanian System

Missiesipplan-Pennsylvanian contact after maps by C. R. Shroyer; Allegheny-Conemaugh contact after maps by Wilber Stout of the Upper Freeport (Ho# 7) Coal# Copies of these maps are in the files of the Geological Surrey of Ohio, Orton Hall, The Ohio State University#

Table 3. Suanarised sectIona of Paleozoic rocks above drainage in Vinton and Jackson Counties, t o .

System Formation Vinton County* Ft. Jackson County^ Ft.

Buffalo sandstone (local) 15 Brush Creek shales 27 Coneaaugh "Shales, clay shales and sandstones" 23 "Sandstones and shales" 80 Mahoning sandstone 35 ♦ Mason and Mahoning coals, and clays and limestones0 Total thickness 132 Total thickness 8 0+ Upper Freeport sandstone 18 "Clays and shales" 18 "Shales and sandstones" 106 Lover Freeport sandstone 30 "Clay, shale, and sandstones" 12 "Shale and sandstone" Pennsylvanian Allegheny 1*1* Clarion sandstone (local) 10 Clarion sandstone (local) 16 "Shale and sandstone" 16 ♦ Nos* 1*, 5» 6 , and 7 coals, and limestone, shales, clays and ores0 Total thickness 235 Total thickness 183 "Shales and sandstones" 61* "Shales and sandstones" (in part; Massillon sandstone 53 Massillon sandstoned) *250 "Shales and sandstones" 1*7 Pottsville Sharon conglomerate (very local) 5 Sharon conglomerate 60 ♦ Nos* 1, 2, and 3 coals, and limestone, shales, clays and ores0 Total thickness 221* Total thickness

Maxville Absent Maxville limestone (local) 8? Vinton sandstone Bo? Vinton sandstone 6 0? Logan Allensville conglomerate 1 6? Allensville conglomerate 1 2 ? Byer sandstone 70® Byer sandstone ? Berne conglomerate 2 Cuyahoga Blackhand sandstone and Portsmouth Sandstone and shale ? shales 3 0 0 Total thickness 1*70 ? Total thickness 1 3 6 0 900 a Compiled from Stout ($2) ° Mostly less than 1* ft. thick ® Stout (51*) b Compiled from Stout (51) d Stout (53, Sh), Weiss (61*), and Fuller (lit.) 32 the average of the area. Where not capped by younger rocks, as in most of Eagle and Harrison Townships, Vinton County, streams since

Teays time have carved long, narrow valleys, leaving "knife" ridges and steep valley walla. In this, the ruggedest terrain of the whole area, local relief ia U00 to 500 feet, or more in the westernmost tier of sections, becoming somewhat less (mostly around 300 feet) in the border­ ing areas to the east and south where Miesissippian rocks are being re­ placed above drainage by the younger, overlying Pottsville. In these fringing areas, under control of Mississippian and lower Pottsville rocks, slopes are still steep, median and lateral ridges remain long and narrow (with certain exceptions to be noted later), and the topography ia still "A-V".

Since streams of this area, i.e., western Vinton and northwestern

Jackson County, were little deflected but much rejuvenated during the

Pleistocene, the Parker strath and its overlying lacustrine and alluvial deposits (and glacial outwash in the Salt Creek valley) either have been entirely removed or occur as fingering terraces or isolated hills. Cer­ tain drainage changes did occur (especially the deflection of Middle Fork of Salt Greek to the south), but abandoned valleys or valley segments, prominent elsewhere in the two counties, are here scarcely represented.

The Mississippian member of special lithologic interest and signifi­ cance in the formation of the present-day landscape of this area is the

Black Hand sandatone, which, according to Hyde (16) whose interpretation is followed here, is here transitional between the Black Hand conglom­ erate, massively developed in Hocking County to the north, and the Ports­ mouth (Cuyahoga) shales of Pike County to the west; all are conteaporar- 33

ies in time of deposition."^ Thin outcrops of the conglomerate occur

in eastern Jackson Township, Vinton County, but except for the major

▼alleys in Sections 2 and 3 of this township, its occurrence as a prom­ inent surface rock terminates rather abruptly near the Vinton-Hoeking

County line* It is replaced to the south and west by the sandstone phase, which at first contains some quarts pebbles and is coarse-grained, and finally, in eastern Eagle and western Richland Townships, Vinton

County, and northeastern Jackson Township, Jackson County, becomes a rather fine-grained sandstone entirely wanting in pebbles and contain­ ing some shale interbedding. Westward and southwestward to the county lines, it intertongues with and is finally replaced by the Cuyahoga shales in which there are still numerous sandstone layers a foot or less in thickness (Fig* 3)*

The steep, moist slopes of the upper Salt Creek drainage are large­ ly the result of special resistance and porosity of the massive Black

Hand sandstone (120 feet or more thick) and probably to a lesser extent, the overlying Logan sandstones. But essentially absent in this area

(eastern Eagle and Harrison, and western Jackson and Richland Townships,

Vinton County) are the vertical cliffs, ledges, steep-walled gorges, waterfalls, and rock-shelter caves, which characterize the Black Hand conglomerate area to the north* If this is, in fact, the Black Hand in

Vinton County, its resistance is here not as great, for in Vinton County the passage of the Cuyahoga to the Logan is unmarked by these features

35 Stout, in conversation, January, 1953, stated that he believes the so-called Black Hand in Vinton County to be the upper part of the Buena Vista freestones, and hence not at all contemporaneous with or related to the Black Hand conglomerate and sandstone of Hocking County. Literature other than (16) dealing with the Black Hand of this and other areas includes (11, 12, 17, 18, and 6 3). Fig* 3* Cuyahoga shales, showing characteristic sandstone and shale interbedding. East- facing slope along upper Salt Creek, Eagle Township, Vinton County, Ohio. May, 1953• 35

which have resulted in Hocking County from differential resistance of

the rocks of these formations, and in particular from the special re­

sistance of the Black Hand conglomerate!.

The Xogan rocks consist of fine-grained sandstones, shaly sand­

stones, and sandy shales. The fine-grained Byer sandstone is very re­

sistant to weathering^ and increases in thickness from 50 feet in the

east to 100 feet In the west as the Cuyahoga formation decreases in

thickness. It passes very gradually into the Allensville member, a

coarse-grained sandstone 12-16 feet thick and interbedded with fine­

grained sandstones indistinguishable from the underlying Byer. The

Vinton member consists of fine-grained sandstone and sandy shales; it

is of variable thickness (none to 90 feet) due to erosion of this, the

next to the top Mississippian member, prior to laying down of the Penn­

sylvanian sediments. The top Mississippian formation, represented by a

single member, the Maxville limestone, is absent throughout the entire

area except in Section 21*, Hamilton Township, Jackson County, apparently having been removed during the same erosion cycle or cycles.

In western Jackson County, Mississippian rocks h?ve been much less

important in the development of the topography and plant coma uni ties than the Pottsville of the Pennsylvanian, and particularly the Sharon conglomerate and sandstone of the basal Pottsville. The Sharon is a highly cross-bedded, loosely cemented deposit in which the proportion of sand to pebbles varies greatly. Crystalline quartz sand grains and pebbles constitute 95-99 percent of the deposit (15 ). The pebbles are of variable size, well-rounded, milky, and highly polished, and small

^ In Jackson Township, Jackson County, it is said to be "not particular­ ly resistant, forming gentle slopes on the i n t e r f l u v e s . (61*) 36

amounts of iron compounds are the principal bonding materials. Accord­

ing to Stout (51):

"The Sharon conglomerate normally is a massive conglomerate with coarse quarts pebbles, but in some localities these are wanting and there the member is a coarse-grained sandstone. In fact, the composition of the stratum grades from a sandstone to a loose conglomerate with but little fine material. These changes in the stratum may occur either in a short distance horizontally, or in a few feet vertically... In disappearing, it is character­ istic for the stratum to end rather abruptly; it seldom thins out gradually as do the members above or below. Deposits 50 or more feet thick in one hill may not be represented in the next. Both the upper and lower surfaces of the conglomerate are also vary irregular, the resultant of which gives great variation in the thickness from place to place•*

The conglomerate apparently occupies deep channels in the old Logan erosion surface which were traversed by swift-moving waters from which sands and gravels were deposited tc depths of more than 200 feet in some places. For example, the conglomerate was laid down in Jackson Township in one such channel following the general course of Little Salt Creek

(6U); thick deposits occur here from one to one and one-half miles on either side of this stream. In less active waters, between the main channels or toward the edges of the basin of deposition, deposits were principally sand.

Direction of the main axis of the Sharon in this area is nearly north and south.^7 In Jackson County, according to Stout (5l), the conglomerate occurs in western Hamilton Township where he has found it to be wanting in the eastern part of the Dever Valley. It is generally thin in western Scioto Township and goes under the surface along the headwaters of Jacko Run, near Petersburg, and near Cove School on Buckeye t r This is not in full agreement with more recent work currently being done in this area, but as yet unpublished, by Dr. J. 0. Fuller, Department of Geology, The Ohio State University. 37

Creek* But In Liberty Township it reaches its greatest areal develop­ ment; here it is a very pebbly, massive conglomerate which occurs in every section* The main axis of the deposit apparently swings to the northwest in Jackson Township, for it is either wanting or thin in the northeastern sections and only weakly represented by the sandstone phase in southern Harrison and Richland Townships, Vinton County* In western Lick Township, the sandstone phase is massively developed, and the conglomerate is sporadic in western Coal and Washington Townships, indicating that in the western part of this tier of townships, the de­ posit is near its eastern limits*

Although the Sharon conglomerate and sandstone are loosely cemented and the rock is extremely friable, it is nevertheless quite resistant to weathering* Concerning this apparent anomaly, Jessup (21) states:

"Where the iron content is particularly high it forms a cement that binds the individual grains of the sandstone into a tough, resistant mass*** The Sharon commonly weathers with a pitted surface due to differential resistance to weathering be­ cause of thin iron cemented zones* These cemented zones are thought to be a surface feature by J. 0. Fuller... (who) believes they are formed by the seeping of iron-charged waters along porous zones and precipitation of the iron as cement at the surface or along the joint Dianes. On a large scale, many ridges and other resistant knobs^*.** are left as resistant features because of this limonitic cement... The Sharon is very friable and therefore*•• should not be resistant to weathering.•• (but) because of the deposition of iron cement, which case-hardens the exterior, (it) is very resistant.*."

Where massively developed, the Sharon forms vertical cliffs, steep- walled gorges, and shelter caves; perhaps the best development of the latter occurs in the little-known valley in the northern part of Section

1, Liberty Township, where the rock-ehelter is scarcely surpassed by any

^ Such as Big Rock in Section 12 (west), Liberty Township (Fig* L). 38

Fig* U. "Big Rock", showing char­ Fig* 5* Sharon sandstone* Section acteristic weathering features of 26, Jackson Township, Jackson the Sharon conglomerate* Seotlon Count/, Ohio* April, 19$1. 12 (west), Liberty Township, Jackson Count/, Ohio* Circa 1900. 39 in the Blackhand conglomerate area of Hocking County. Where the Sharon

is thin, it merely forms ledges*

"There is a notable difference in the manner of weathering between the Sharon that has a high concentration of pebbles and that which is predominantly sandstone* When the concentration of pebbles is high the rock lacks primary structures such as bedding planes and cross bedding and tends to weather in rounded curved outline* The sandstone, on the other hand, forms more vertical, straighter cliffs, and when bedding planes and cross bedding are present they make Incipient planes of weaknesses, causing the weathering to be more cuneiform in shape. Honeycomb weathering is another feature that occurs in the sandstone phase and not in the pebble phase." (61*)

Both phases are very porous, and the abundant seepage waters often form

springs near the base of the Sharon where it overlies the relatively

impervious Mississippian shales or fine-grained sandstones*

Local relief in this area is around 300 feet on an average, slopes

are steep, and dissection is mature, but "knife" ridges, which char­

acterize the Mississippian area in western Vinton County, are here com­

paratively rare* Where the Sharon is capped by younger, less resistant

Pennsylvanian rocks, ridges are typically broad and rounded. Where the

Sharon itself is the caprock, or nearly so, as in western Liberty and

Jackson Townships, ridges are one-quarter mile or more wide and are con­

spicuously level or only moderately rolling) the latter ridge type is

clearly indicated on the topographic sheets*

The remaining Pottsville, Allegheny, and Conemaugh strata which

outcrop in this area, and which have been Influential in the formation of the topography and vegetation pattern, are for the most part sand­ stones and shales, unmapped and unnamed, or usually only of local occur­ rence if named* The members are sometimes massively developed, but since even these have not resulted in surface features of special interest to Uo geologists, their occurrence and lithology have not been described in sufficient detail to be used in possible correlations with plant com-

■unities. These are treated in a general way in connection with the vegetation areas in itiich they occur.

In central Vinton County (Swan, Elk, and Clinton Townships) and most of Jackson County south and east of the Sharon area, the topog­ raphy is rolling, to moderately steep near the preglacial divides*

Local relief is from 150 to 300 feet, and the moderate, relatively long slopes have broad and well-rounded summits. Hilltop level along the preglacial divides in Jackson County and on many medial and lateral ridges of this area in Vinton County, is mostly that of the Harrisburg surface. Elsewhere in the area, this surface has been entirely removed.

Factors moot effective in development of this topography have been

(1 ) the presence of friable sandstones, shales, and clays of mostly upper Pottsville and Allegheny age, which are not especially resistant to weathering; and (2 ) passage through the region of the major pre­ glacial rivers which cut wide valleys and effectively reduced the nearby uplands. These broad valleys (from a half a mile to a mile or more wide) and their abandoned tributaries are largely filled with thick deposits of lacustrine and alluvial materials but little dissected by the small streams crossing them since time of deposition. Such deposits, often over 100 feet thick, have also contributed to the present low relief of the region; and the valley plains which they constitute are in early youth in contrast with the uplands which have been maturely dissected*

In the eastern tier of townships of Vinton County and easternmost

Bloomfield and Milton Townships, Jackson County, slopes become steeper la

again, local relief on the average is greater, and in certain areas

apparently under control of massive and rather resistant sandstones, as

in Broun and northern Madison and Knox Townships, the topography re­

sembles that of western Vinton County. But usually the ridges are much

broader and more rounded than in the Black Hand area because of the

prominence of shales and friable sandstones not as resistant as those

of the Mississippian system. In western Wilkesville and Vinton Town­

ships, the more rugged topography is in large part due to the presence

of the old Hamden Creek-Albany River divide which runs north and south

through this area. Where the major streams, especially Raccoon Creek,

have cut from one preglacial valley to another, or have been deflected

along minor tributaries, bordering slopes are usually steep and often

precipitous. Much of the downcutting was accomplished in Deep Stage

time, and the bordering walls of these narrow, constricted valleys have

remained steep where the streams have been dissecting resistant massive

sandstones and shales chiefly of upper Allegheny age. A condition ap­

proaching broad, rolling uplands, which are prominent in other parts of

the Plateau region of Ohio, occurs in certain rather local areas where

rocks are friable sandstones and soft shales of lower Conemaugh age.

The Parker strath with its overlying lacustrine and alluvial de­

posits is abundantly represented in this region by terraces and flats,

especially in the vicinity of Wilkesville and Zaleski. Abandoned val­

leys and valley segments are conspicuous physiographic features of this

area.

Although Stout (52) states that in Vinton County "no pronounced difference (in equalities of land surface) between one area and another h2

is evident, not enough at least to warrant dividing the county into

subdivisions, (for) the variations are minor and local", the two-county

area is divisible into three physiographic regions, as suggested in the

foregoing discussion. In summary, these are: (1) The rugged western

area, controlled by resistant kississippian and lower Pottsville rocks,

and long dissected by streams vhich have been little deflected since

Teays time (Cliff Section of Braun (5)){ (2) the much more subdued

central and southern part in the vicinity of the major preglacial rivers,

where rock resistance is notably less and Pleistocene drainage phenomena

are abundantly recorded; and (3 ) the complex eastern area in which the

major physiographic features of the other areas are variously repre­

sented, since the controlling factors have been variously combined here,

ftrecise delimitation of these areas is not possible since some of the

various factors which have been operative in shaping the land surface

of these two counties are very complex and not subject to geographic

definition. Although the rocks can be mapped, the influence of histor­

ical factors cannot be so recorded. And probably no place in Ohio has

the physiographic history been more complex and borne both a more direct

and pronounced relationship to present-day surface features than in

these taro counties*

Principal streams, and their major tributaries and watersheds, are

indicated on Plate III* The largest watershed is that of Raccoon Creek,

which drains 378 square miles and empties into the Ohio River in nearby

Qallia County* Its course in Vinton County is 59 miles long, and its

average gradient is only 2*5 feat per mils* Because of this, throughout most of its long and often tortuous course, the stream is very sluggish, U3 its bottoms are swampy, and the valley is much filled with sands and silts deposited by its more active tributaries. In parts of its course

Raccoon follows major preglacial drainage lines, where it sometimes flows in the ooposite direction from the original stream, and in others, it follows tne channels of minor tributaries of Hamden Creek or the

Albany River. In still other parts, it follows new channels, initiated during Pleistocene, where it has cut across old divides and left narrow and constricted vellay segments. Throughout its course it exhibits all the peculiarities that might be anticipated in a stream flowing on a land surface with the long, complex history of this one, and it shares these same peculiarities with its tributaries, among which the principal ones are Elk Fork and Little Raccoon Creek.

Second largest watershed is that of Salt Creek, which includes

Little Salt Creek, Middle Fork of Salt Creek and its tributary, Pigeon

Creek, and Pike and Pretty Runs, tributaries of Salt Creek proper.

Immediately west of the Vinton County line, the others Join Salt Creek, which In turn empties into the Scioto River, a tributary of the Ohio.

The watershed covers 297 square miles. Except for the upper Little

Salt Creek basin, the streams are deeply entrenched, are flowing on or not far above bedrock, and are actively degrading their valleys. In that portion of the Little Salt watershed shich lay in the Marietta

River watershed during Tertiary, streams are of very low gradient, are cutting down but slowly through bedrock on the uplands and lacustrine and alluvial deposits in the lowlands, and exhibit many peculiarities

In stream pattern associated with establishment of the new stream system during Pleistocene. Plate III. Present-day stream system and drainage divides lying within Vinton and Jackson Counties and adjacent areas. 1*5

Plate III U6

In southern Jackson County, 87 square miles lie in the upper basin of Symmes Creek, a tributary of the Ohio River. Conversion of drainage in this area from the north- and west-flowing system of Teays time to a south-flowing system is evident from the highly contorted stream pattern, unusual angle of entrance of many of the laterals, abandonment of old channels, and the rearrangements of local divides. Old channels are much choked with lacustrine and alluvial materials, and where the stream gradient is exceedingly low, as along many parts of the principal trib­ utary, Black Fork, extensive swamps occur. In this watershed, especi­ ally along Black Fork, the channels were choked with beaver dams at the time of settlement, and "the Indians and earliest trappers in this country regarded the several branches of Symmes and Salt Creeks as the richest beaver resorts of the western country" (66).

Eastern tributaries of the Little Scioto River drain a 69 square mile area in southwestern Jackson County. These streams were either tributaries of the old north-flowing South Webster Creek, whose valley is preserved to the west, or tributaries of a major tributary of the

South Webster which flowed northwest across Hamilton Township. Although drainage changes took place as the system changed from a northwesterly to a southwesterly direction and the attendant features are conspicuous, within the valleys of at least the upper basins of the principal streams in Jackson County, very little, if any, stream deflection occurred.

This is related to the fact that, except where certain stream piracies have taken place, the major divide has remained the same, and the orig­ inal dendritic pattern is mostly unaltered. The Little Scioto empties directly into the Ohio, and is only the largest of several small stress hi slowly cutting down through tha fill of the Teays Valley. It crosses this valley twice and follows it closely throughout Its course In western Scioto Township.

A six square nils area of southern Jackson County is drained by

Hales Creek, a tributary of Pine Creek, which in turn is a tributary of the Ohio. Valleys of this small area exhibit little of special inter est.

The four lakes in the area are all artificial, and were established for recreational purposes. Lake Jackson, in Jefferson Township, Jackson

County, is fed by the waters of Black Fork; Lake Alma, in Clinton Town­ ship, Vinton County, receives its water from a small tributary of Little

Raccoon Creek; Big Sancfy Run, a tributary of Raccoon Creek, has been dammed to form Lake Hope in Zaleski State Forest, Brown Township, Vinton

County; and Lake Margaret is fed by the waters of Rock Run in Liberty

Township, Jackson County. Fig. 6. ftrofiles taken along lines A, B, and C of Plate

LEGEND

C - Conemaugh bedrock (Pennsylvanian) Ha - Marietta River valley (preglacial)

Co - Coalton village V Sa - Middle Fork of Salt Creek

E - Elk Fork P & A - Pottsville and Allegheny bedrock (Pennsylvanian) H - Hamden Creek valley (preglacial) P - Pike Run H-A - Hamden Creek-Albany River divide (preglacial) Ra - Raccoon Creek

Hbg - Harrisburg peneplain level Sa - Salt Creek

L Ra - Little Raccoon Creek Sa-Ra - Salt Creek-Raccoon Creek divide

L Sa - Little Salt Creek Sa-Sy - Salt Creek-Symnes Creek divide

L Sc - Little Scioto River Sh - Sharon conglomerate caprock

L Sc-6a - Little Scioto River-Salt Creek divide Sy-Ra - Symmes Creek-Raccoon Creek divide

Lex - Lexington peneplain level Z - Zale3ki Creek (preglacial)

V - Mississippian bedrock Profit* A

•Jockson ^wp

P ro fit* B

Pf €l«. 'tOC^ I tooo-i

►— J0C**00 Twp - Cool T w o +- Milton ""wp — WtfcesvtJle Twp *—mth E o s — *

P ro fit* C Pk;«0| r « p M i r u 3 Em I BOO. L SC T L S c-S o 5r-^c

p a a '

S c io to T«p FVonkhn Twp Bloomtieid f*p

Fig. 6

{=- NO 50

SOILS

Southeastern Ohio lies in the region of the Gray-Brown Podzolic

Soils of M&rbut (29) which have developed in a humid temperate climate

under deciduous forest vegetation* All zonal soils of Vinton and Jackson

Counties belong to this great soil group, and they occur over a very

high percentage of the area* Such soils are characterized by a thin

mull humus layer, a moderately shallow, dark Ai horizon, a fairly thick,

grayish A 2 horizon with rather indistinct boundaries, and a well-devel­

oped brownish B horizon in which there has been accumulation of inorganic

clays; the horizons are generally of medium acidity. Variations from this generalized profile, which are the bases for the classification units mapped in this area (37, 32), are primarily those resulting from differences in relief and from certain physical properties related to the parent materials. The remaining soils (intrazonal and azonal) are distinguished through topographic position and the dominant influence of parent materials or age over those of the regional climate and raacro- vegetation. No attempt is made to record in this system of classifica­ tion variations which may be due to differences in climate (microclimate) and vegetation (plant communities)*

Soils of this area have been grouped and described on the following physiographic basis

Soils have been mapped in detail in Vinton County (37), but only by reconnaissance survey in Jackson County (32), and descriptions of all soil types (including terminology) are here based upon (37). It is probable that no new classification units would be necessary in a detailed survey of Jackson County, and probably most units employed in Vinton County would also occur in Jackson County* Notable excep­ tions are certain soils derived from glacial outwash which are re­ stricted to the Salt Creek Valley in Vinton County, and hence would not occur in Jackson County. Names of the soil series restricted to the Salt Creek valley appear to be subject to revision since none is being mapped in the Ross County part of this valley at the present time (38). 51

1* Rolling and steep lands* Muskingum silt loam and loam (in­

cluding the steep phase of both), which are the principal zonal soils;

Harden silt loam; Meigs silty clay loam; and Westmoreland silty clay

loam*

2* Gently rolling lands* We 11ston silt loam and Tilsit silt loam.

3* Terraces* Zaleski silt loam and loam; HoIston loam (including

a high-terrace phase); Monongahela silt loam (including a high-terrace

phase); Tyler silt loam (including a high-terrace phase); Hocking silt

loam; Chenango silt loam and loam; and Bracevilla silt loam.

U* Floodplains. Pope gravelly loam (including an alluvial-fan

phase), loam, and silt loam; Philo loam and silt loam; Atkins silt loam;

Huntington loam; and Lindside silt loam.

Such a grouping shows no correlation with the broad pattern of the

original vegetation* A more realistic and less artificial approach

toward correlation would be a grouping based upon drainage character­

istics, for it is the moisture-aeration factor which in general appears

to be the most effective variable in the distribution of plant comnuni-

ties in this area* While relief is one of the primary controls of drain­

age, it is but one of the major factors related to it, and in many cases

it is only of secondary importance, or of very little, if any, importance at all* This is necessarily true in t his region where there is a con­ siderable variety of parent materials, both residual and transported, with an apparent wide array of physical properties relating to water movement* Residual soils are here derived from conglomerates, coarse-, medium-, and fine-grained sandstones, shales, clays, and limestones of widely differing chemical and physical makeup; and soils derived from transported parent materials, consisting of silts, clays, sands, and 52

gravels from the nearby uplands or of foreign origin, are no less

heterogeneous with respect to their drainage and other characteristics.

"Well^lrained" soils may occur on ridges, slopes, level terraces,

or floodplains; "imperfectly-drained" soils occur on the * and

in the lowlands; and "poorly-drained" soils arj not conl'x^d tx bottom­

lands* Whether parent materials are of residual, alluvial, lacustrine,

or glacial origin is of no special significance in evaluating the mois­

ture-e.eration factor, for it is the composition of the materials and

their physical properties, and not their origin, which influence water

movement through the soil profile. Hence the following discussion em­

ploys a grouping of soils based upon internal drainage conditions as

recognisable from the soil profile, regardless of topographic position

or origin of parent materials.

WELL-DRAINED SOILS. About 50 percent of the land surface of the

counties has been mapped as Muskingum silt loam and loam, including

their steep phases. These are the principal soils of the "rolling and steep lands", where surface soil is continually being removed by erosion.

Soil profiles are therefore immaturely developed and shallow, and con­

tain numerous rock fragments.

The Muskingum silt loam is the typical soil on slopes of 10 to 2$ percent, is derived from sandstones and shales, and is the dominant type in central Vinton County and most of Jackson County. A typical profile is the following, described from the SW J of Section 6, Swan

Township, Vinton County:^

0 - 5 1a . Somewhat gray yellowish-brown silt loam. Surface with a very thin gray layer containing a few sandstone fragments. pH U.5.

3) All profile descriptions from (37) • 53

5-10 in. Grayish-yellow silt loam. Powdered material grayish- yellow. Structure platelike. A few sandstone fragments present. pH U*5* 1 0 -1 8 in. Xellowiah-brown silt loam, slightly heavier than above. Powdered material bright yellowish brown. Breakage into irregular fragments 1/8 to 1/2 inch in diameter. Some particle faces with gray coatings, others bright yellow­ ish-brown. Old root channels filled with gray material from above. Some small rock fragments present. pH 'i*7- 18 - 2k in. Bright yellowish-brown silt loam about the same texture as above. Breaks into irregular particles from £ to 1 inch in diameter. Numerous rock fragments present. pH U.5. 2U — 3U in. Mixture of soil and rock fragments. Soil yellowish- brown, in some places grayish-yellow. pH I4.I4 . 3U in. ♦ Interbedded sandstone and shale.

The steep phase, which occurs on slopes greater than 25 percent, has much the same color and texture, but is less deep (15 to 18 inches or less to parent material) and frequently is characterized by excess­ ive internal drainage and surface runoff. This phase occurs in all parts of Vinton County, where it covers about half the area; in Jackson

County it is mapped as the dominant type in the northwestern part of the county and in other smaller areas as indicated on Plate IV.

The Muskingum loam is derived from coarse massive sandstones which outcrop on slopes of less than 25 percent in the eastern tier of town­ ships and in scattered areas elsewhere in Vinton County. It differs from the silt loam principally in texture, i.e., there is a higher pro­ portion of sand to silt. Although it has not been mapped in Jackson

County, it does occur at least in some areas where soils are derived from the very coarse Sharon conglomerate and sandstone. The steep phase in Vinton County reaches its greatest areal development in the eastern tier of townships. 5k

Plata TV. Generalized soil* map of Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, based upon detailed soil survey of Vinton County (37) and reconnaissance soil survey J r County (32).

UPLAND SOIIS

Muskingum silt loam

lfuskingum silt loam steep phase. Included are many small areas of Wellston silt loam, Rarden silt loam, and some Tilsit silt loam.

Muskingum loam and loam steep phase. Included are small areas of Muskingum silt loam and Wellston silt loam.

TERRACE S01I5

Monongahela silt loam and Tyler silt loam, and their high- terrace phases. Associated soils are those of the first bottoms, and other terrace soils* especial1/ the Zaleski silt loam and loam.

FLOODPLAIN SOILS

Philo silt loam and loam. Included are many small areas of □ the Pope series, Atkins silt loam, and various terrace soils.

Pope silt loam, loam, and gravelly loam. Included are many local areas of the Philo series and other first bottom soils and terrace soils.

Huntington loam and smaller areas of Chenango loam and silt loam, Hocking silt loam, and Braceville silt loam, all confined to the Salt Creek valley; also some local areas of the Philo and Pope series. 55

i<2

Plate IV. Other immature, well-drained soils mapped in this area are the

following:

1, The Rarden silt loam, derived from parent rock made up largely

of clay shales, occupies the upper sioocs and ridges of about two percent

of the area, although its occurrence ia local* It resembles the Mus­

kingum silt loam in the upper layers, but differs from it in the lower

horizons by pronounced red, yellow, and gray mottling and a silty clay

loam texture*

2* The Meigs silty clay loam, occurring in small scattered areas

on ridge tops in eastern Vinton County, has a red or dark reddish-brown

plastic clay surface soil overlying a red plastic clay subsoil. It is

a complex composed of the Muskingum silt loam and Up3hur clay, the

latter developing at points of outcrop of red clay shales.

3* Westmoreland silty clay loam is a part of another soil mosaic occupying small scattered areas on ridgetops where limestone occurs in

sufficient quantity to affect the pH and composition of the soil. In such areas the surface soil is a dark grayish-brown clay, with an olive- drab clay loam subsoil.

Of the well-drained soils with mature profiles, the Wellston silt loam occupies the largest total area* It is scattered throughout on the gentle slopes (5 to 10 percent) of the broader, rounded ridges, is moderately thick (3 to 1| feet), maturely developed since it occurs on sites where erosion is not great, and has excellent but not excessive drainage because of the low degree of slope* Parent materials are de­ rived from a variety of sandstones and shales. The following profile was taken in the of Section 5, Swan Township, Vinton County: 0 - 3 in. Dark grayish-brown silt loam with considerable organic matter and no rock fragments. pH 6.9 3 - 8 in. Gray or grayish-brown silt loam, appearing gray or yellowish-gray on a cut surface. No rock fragments. pH 5.7. 8 - 12 in. Grayish-yellow silt loam with a fine-granular structure. A few soft brown concretions, but no rock fragments. pH 5.7. 12-19 in. Yellowish-brown silt loam with a slight gray case. Color yellow when powdered. Breaks into granules slight­ ly larger than in layer above. Granule size increases with depth. No rock fragments. pH 5.1* 19 - 28 in. Bright yellowish-brown heavy silt loam breaking into granules J to J inch in diameter. Some granules with a reddish-brown surface, others with gray coatings. Powdered material buffish. A few black stains along the cracks. No rock fragments. pH U*9* 28 - 38 in. Bright yellowish-brown or buff silty loam. Powdered material more yellow than in layer above. Breaks into fragments \ inch or more in diameter. Rock fragments not uncomnon. pH U.7. 38 - 60 in. Mixture of rock fragments and yellowish-brown sandy loam, with some black stains along the breakage faces. pH 1*.6.

All other mature, well-drained soils are terrace soils of small

local areas, differing somewhat in parent materials, but having in com­

mon good internal and underdrainage and a three to four foot profile.

The Hocking silt loam, restricted to Salt Creek valley, is underlain by

glacial gravels. The Chenango silt loam and loam are underlain by

stratified sands and gravels, and also occur in the Salt Creek valley.

The HoIston loam occupies level benches slightly elevated above flood- plains, and its high-terrace phase occurs in abandoned preglacial valleys or on terraces 50 to 100 feet above floodp lain level.

Of the youthful soils with good drainage, those of the Pope series are west widespread. The area they cover is about three percent of the region. The gravelly loam occurs near the headwaters of small streams, especially in western Vinton County, where the soil is a brown gravelly loam throughout, and the gravel is sandstone fragments• The alluvial 58 fan phasa occurs where a stream with a steep gradient empties into one

of low gradient, and the soil consists of a mixture of rock fragments,

sand, silt, and clay. The brown color and gravelly texture change

little, if at all, with depth. The loam occurs in scattered areas,

reaching its best development, as mapped, along Pretty Hun in Eagle

Township* Its surface soil is brown or yellowish-brown loam or sandy

loam, and the subsoil, of the same color, is more uniformly a loam in

texture. The silt loam has a brown or yellowish-brown silt loam surface

soil, and becomes lighter in color and a little more compact at 10 to 1$

inches.

The Huntington loam is the principal soil (90 percent) of the upper

Salt Creek floodplain. It differs from most other floodplain soils in

the two counties in that it is neutral in reaction. It is a brown or

sandy loam throughout, and the subsoil exhibits some compaction.

S O U S WITH INTERMEDIATE DRAINAGE. These are soils possessing

certain characteristics, especially color, which are caused by inperfect

drainage. They are soils of uplands where there is but little relief,

terraces, or floodplain*. All are mature except the Philo soils of the

floodplaine•

Most extensive of these is the Monongahela silt loam occupying

level terraces throughout the area, and the high-terrace phase which is the dominant soil of the abandoned preglacial valleys or high ($0 to 100 feet) terraces elsewhere. Parent materials are silts and clays, many of which in this area are the finely laminated Minford clays (silts) which constitute a heavy clay pan beginning three to four feet below the sur­ face. Everywhere at least in the lower horizons, the texture is heavy and internal drainage is slow, as evidenced by pronounced mottling. The

profile of the high-terrace phase, as shown in the NE-^ of Section 20,

Harrison Township, Vinton County, exhibits the following characteristics

0 - 2 in. Grayish-brown or dark grayish-brown friable silt loam. pH 5.9. 2 - 6 in. Somewhat gray yellowish-brown silt loam with a platelike structure. pH 5.0. 6-12 in. Yellowlah-brown silt loam with a slight gray case. Breaks into fragments 1/6 to 1 / 6 inch in diameter. pH 1*.8. 12 - 18 in. Yellowish-brown heavy silt loam. Breaks into fragments ^ to \ inch in diameter; some gray color along breakage faces. pH U.6. 18-26 in. Mottled gray, dull-gray, and yellowish-brown silt loam with irregular breakage into fragments ^ to 1 inch in diameter. Clay coating on the breakage faces. pH U.8. 26 - 36 in. Mottled gray, dull-gray, and yellowish-brown silty clay loam. Breaks into irregular lumps 1 to 3 inches in diameter. Cracks lined with light-gray clay. pH 5*1 36 in. + Slightly laminated silts and clays.

The high-terrace phase of the Monongahela silt loam is the predominant

soil type of the terraces and abandoned portions of the Hamden Creek

valley, and its tributaries, in central Vinton and Jackson Counties,

the Albany River valley in Wilkesville Township and Middle Fork of Salt

Creek in Vinton County, and the Teays and Marietta valleys of Jackson

County.

Other imperfectly drained soils of this area are the following:

1. The Zaleaki silt loam and loam, occupying about two percent of the area, are soils of the gentle slopes and level areas along abandoned valleys in which parent materials are in part residual and slopes are between 10 and 20 percent. To a depth of six inches, the soil is gray­ ish-brown silt loam, grading into a gray yellowish-brown silt loam; from 12 to 26 Inches, it is ye 11 cwish-brown, becoming heavier textured with depth. Below this it is a mottled gray, rust-brown, and yellowish- 60 brown tight silt loam, and beyond this becomes more sandy, until at a

depth of about inches, it is a slightly cemented sandy loam of var­

iable thickness* Sandstones or shales are reached at about six feet,

and rock fragments occur throughout. The loam type differs principally

in a more sandy texture, and overlies sandstone bedrock*

2* The Braceville silt loam, which is a local and are ally unim­

portant terrace soil underlain by gravel and sand at a depth of 1*0

inches, has a grayish-brown silt loam surface soil and a mottled gray yellowish-brown lower subsoil* At 36 inches it is a gray, mottled with yellowish-brown, silty clay loam*

3* The Tilsit silt loam is an upland soil of moderate depth (1*0

to 1*8 inches) occurring on local level or nearly level areas where underdrainage is slow* Rock fragments are mostly absent above 20 inches.

From the surface it grades from a grayish-brown silt loam to a yellcwish- brown, slightly heavier textured silt loam, and at about 20 inches be­ comes a gray and yellowish-brown mottled silt loam which is tight and compact*

U* The Philo silt loam is are ally the most important soil on the floodplains of Vinton County, especially along Raccoon Greek* It is mapped with the Pope silt loam, a better-drained soil, in Jackson County.

The following profile characteristics were recorded in the NW^ of Sec­ tion 7, Clinton Township, Vinton County*

0 - 12 in* Dark brown or dark grayish-brown silt loam* pH 6.6. 12-20 in* Mottled dark-brown and dull-gray silt loam containing a few rust-brown spots* Soil more compact than in the surface layer* pH 6*8.

The Philo loam differs only in texture* 61

SOILS KflTH POOR DRAINAGE. These are soils of broad flat terraces

or floodplains, and are underlain by impervious materials which greatly

impede internal drainage. The first bottom soils are subject to spring

flooding.

The Tyler silt loam and its high-terrace phase are the third most prominent terrace soils in the area, being exceeded in area only by the

Monong&hela and Zaleski soils. The silt loam occupies low, flat ter­ races, has a light gray or grayish-yellow silt loam surface layer con­ taining many rusty-brown spots. Below 20 inches, the subsoil is a mot­ tled, plastic and sticky, silty clay loam, and at 30 inches is heavy gray silty clay. Parent materials are laninated clays and silts. Fol­ lowing is a description of a profile of the high-terrace phase in the

NE^ of Section 9, Elk Township, Vinton County:

0 - 9 in. Dark grayish-brown silt loam, with many small iron con­ cretions . 9 - 18 in. Gray silty clay loam with rust-brown spots and many small iron concretions. Plastic when wet and hard when dry. 18 - 26 in. Mottled gray and yellowish-brown silty clay loam with dark-brown iron concretions. 26 - 30 in. Gray, mottled with yellowish brown, silty clay loam. Sticky and plastic when wet. 30 in. ♦ Laminated silts and clays.

Largest areas of the high-terrace phase as mapped are near Dundas, Ham­ den, and Elk Fork, all in the Hamden Creek valley. The silt loam is prominent along Middle Fork of Salt Creek.

The Lindaide silt loam, with fair to poor internal and underdrainage and neutral reaction, and the Atkins silt loam, which is very poorly drained, are both youthful soils of the floodplains. The Lindside oc­ curs in small local areas in the Salt Creek valley, and the Atkins in scattered areas along all of the major streams. 62

Even with a classification system based upon the general character

of the drainage, there still is very little relationship between soils,

as mapped, and the pattern of the original vegetation* Only in a very

general way is there correlation. For example, the Oak connonities in

general occur on the Muskingum and other well-drained soils of the up­

lands, but the Oak-Hickory, Oak-Chestnut, Oak-Pine, Mixed Oak, and

others are in no way distinguished on this basis. Nor are they con­

fined to particular textures or slope phases.

Although they undoubtedly represent the best grouping that can be

made on the basis of information available for the soil units, the

drainage categories are far too broad to be of much value in vegetation

mapping in this area. The moisture-aeration gradients which operate in

the distribution of plant communities necessitate a scale in much smaller

units than those employed above. In "well-drained" soils aeration is

presumably uniformly excellent, but the actual quantity of water avail­

able, which is likely to be the factor critical for many species, is in

no way suggested. For "imperfectly-drained" soils there is an especi­

ally great possibility of variations in both moisture availability and

aeration, as a consequence of which it would be surprising, indeed, if

more than a very general sort of correlation with vegetation could be

established for these soils. In both imperfectly- and "poorly-drained"

soils, nothing whatever is known of the time interval during ifrich water

accumulates, i.e., how long at a time the roots of plants must live under

flooded conditions, or in an environment with at least reduced partial pressure of oxygen. 63

Within the same soil type, and even the same phase o f that type,

quite different plant communities are represented; and the same com­

munity may occur on a number of soil types. Mixed Mesophytic as well

as Oak communities occur on the Muskingum soils, including the steep

phases* White Oak conmunities originally grew on the Monongahela silt

loam wherever it occurs in most of Jackson County, but in Vinton County,

Beech-Sugar Maple communities, wholly different floristically, struc­

turally, and in aspect, occur where this soil type is predominant.

Where Beech-Sugar Maple occurs, there is usually inpeded internal

drainage, and yet by no means do all imperfectly-drained soils have a

history associated with this forest type. It may also occur on what

have been described as soils with good drainage. Other examples of

failure of correlation between soils and vegetation are cited in con­

nection with the vegetation areas in which they occur.

This same failure of specific relationship between soil type and

vegetation type in Ohio has been previously noted, especially by Sampson

(39t U3) and Dobbins (10). That this is not a situation peculiar to

areas of predominantly residual soils or uo strongly three-dimensional

topography is evident from the fact that the examples of these authors, which are of the same kind as those cited above, are drawn from compari­ sons of the soil and original vegetation types of glaciated central Ohio*

The unglaciated Plateau and the glaciated Great Central Lowlands offer as great a contrast in parent materials, topography, soil types and vegetation as can be found within the limits of Ohio. Since a given soil type and its vegetation cover mutually reflect the whole complex of factors operative in the existence of both, it can be concluded that 6U

the edaphic variable, or variables, most effective in the differentia­

tion of the plant coamunity often either is not recognized, at least to

the degree essential to demonstrate cause and effect relationship, or

is not employed as one of the bases for distinguishing the soil type.

As stated by Sampson (U2), "the soil type as it is mapped, represents

a complex of factors and therefore may not be relied upon to delimit

the particular factor or factors of most importance biologically".

One such variable, which is considered to be a primary control in

Plateau topography, may not even be evident in the soil profile, and

hence may be impossible of inclusion among the characteristics of a

soil type. This is the water of percolation through bedrock, which sup­

plies much of the available moisture to residual soils on slopes but is

not reflected quantitatively in the soil profile. A single soil type

may be derived from a great variety of bedrock, e.g., the Muskingum

silt loam from many different kinds of sandstones and shales, and while

the horizons may be similar enough to justify their being grouped to­

gether as a unit, the profiles are no index to the variable porosity of

the underlying rock, and hence to how much water moves through them and with how much seasonal uniformity or variation. And differences in moisture, too subtle to be recognized in the soil profile, may result in marked differences in the vegetation. Often these subtle differences are due to the multiplicity of effects of slope exposure, which are wholly ignored in soil classification.

Lacking quantitative measurements, the most reliable index to soil moisture conditions in residual soils of the Plateau appears to be the vegetation itself. In this respect, the vegetation, original or not, 65

Is considered to be a far better indicator of the artificial plant

communities which will grow on these soils than are the soils them­

selves on the basis of the soil moisture characteristics assigned to

them in the present system of classification*

CLIMATE

Although climate is the ultimate control of the original vegetation

of this area; as elsewhere, the effectiveness of its component elements

is here greatly modified by certain edaphic factors, topography, and

physical properties of the bedrock* Before the role any climatic factor

plays In the distribution of either plant communities or plant species

can be evaluated, there must be a knowledge of the degree of expression

of that factor in the particular local area in which these plants live*

That this cannot be inferred in southern Ohio from climatic data re­

corded at a nearby Weather Bureau station, has been shown by Wolfe et

al. (70) through field measurements made in a small valley approximately

15 miles north of Vinton County* Many additional variations in local

climatic regimes would be anticipated in the multitude of microhabitats

in an area the sise of two counties where variable topography, soils

and vegetation all have modifying influences upon the degree of expres­

sion of large-*cale meteorologic phenomena*

Any characterisation of the macroclimate, therefore, while of utility in understanding the causes of broad patterns of vegetation over areas of the magnitude of continents, can be of little help, when used alone, in explaining the mosaic of the original forest types, or 66

the persistence of species at the margins of their ranges. When used

in conjunction with other factors of the environment, however, in this

area especially those which influence conservation of moisture and its

seasonal and areal distribution, certain macroclimatic data can be em­

ployed in a limited way toward these goals. These data are of two kinds

Those which suggest (but do not delimit) the extreme conditions to which

plants of this region have been exposed, and those from which may be ob­

tained a generalized picture of the pattern which the microclimatic

regimes also follow to a greater or lesser extent. Neither the avail­

able macroclimatic data nor microclimatic data, if it were availade,

has any bearing upon the arrival of relict species or communities, and

can be used only in an effort to explain their survival.

Weather Bureau stations have been maintained in this area since

188U« With the exception of the years 1900-191U, second-order stations

have been maintained at Jackson and/or McArthur. Hence the 59-year

record of this area is a composite of a little more than 32 years of

the record at McArthur, ll years at Jackson, and 15 years at Waverly

(Pike County) located 10 miles west of the Jackson County line. All

stations have been located in or near the major preglacial river val­

leys (McArthur In the valley of Hamden Creek, Jackson in the Marietta

River valley or the low hills adjacent to it, and Waver ly in the Teays

valley where the present-day Scioto River flows nearby). Records of nine

observers have been used, the composite of which is in reality that of

eight or nine local climates in all of which temperatures have been

modified by Weather Bureau shelters and precipitation has been sampled.

But as a consequence, extremes which might not otherwise have occurred

in the 59-year record may be evident in these data, and in this respect 67 a composite record may be more useful than a continuous 59-year record of a single local climate* The observers, their locations, and period of contribution to the record as used in tfiis compilation, are*21

Milton B. Cooley McArthur Jan., 189U - Dec., 1899 David Lohrbach Waverly Jan., 1900 - Feb., 1910 Hermann Lohrbach Waverly Mar., 1910 - July, 1911 Peru Hutt Waverly Aug., 1911 - Mar., 191i* D. F. Jones Jackson Apr., 191ii - Dec., 1916 E. H. Perkins McArthur Jan., 1917 - Oct., 1919 D. F. Jones Jackson Nov., 1919 - June, 1920 James Darby McArthur July, 1920 - Dec., 19U3 Charles H. Kraatz Jackson Jan., 19UU - Nov., 19LL Chester B. Rice Jackson Dec., 1 9 W - Dec., 1952 Longest continuous record used was that of Darby, covering a period of over 23 years. His shelter, located near the northern limits of the town of McArthur at an elevation of 7U0 feet, rather consistently exhibited daily marl mm— 1 degree higher and minimuma 1-2 degrees lower than those recorded on the same days at Jackson. Many interesting dif­ ferences can be noted between the climates measured by Darby at Mc­

Arthur and by Kraatz two miles SSW of Jackson (elevation 820 feet), whose records run concurrently for about the same length of time.

These differences only emphasize the localness of the weather being measured by such observers. The Darby record was used almost in its entirety because the temperature extremes may possibly approach more closely those of many of the microclimates of the greater part of the two counties. Also, the never-failing faithfulness and thoroughness with which he performed his duties, e.g., recording of snow depth, dur­ ation of individual rainfalls, and location and intensity of frost, in addition to the almost perfect continuity of his record, make his data the most useful of any available for this area.

These records were copied from the originals of the observers' monthly reports, on file at the Weather Bureau, Post Office Building, Colum­ bus, Ohio, and all analyses here presented are based upon these raw data. 68

The annual march of temperature is indicated in Fig. 7> based

upon part of the data in Table lj. Temperatures begin to rise in Feb­

ruary and continue to do so through July, and exhibit a steady decline

from August through January. This pattern, and the astronomical and

phonological seasons associated with it, are dependent upon the amount

of solar radiation reaching the land surface, and are as predictable as

the earth's movement about the sun. Superimposed upon this pattern,

however, and not predictable as to magnitude, are the many variations

in meteorological phenomena which accompany the variable air masses

passing through this area. Since it is these variations - and in par­

ticular the extreme variations - which may determine whether or not a

given species may survive in this region, the following discussion of

temperature is limited primarily to the extremes as they have been re­

corded during almost 60 years. That these are not an indication of what the extreme variations have been in the past century, to say

nothing of the thousands of years during which the native species of

today have grown or survived in the area, is clearly indicated by the

fact that in at least one month of most of these 59 years, some sort of record has been set relating to duration or degree of temperature• Un­

known and unknowable are the absolute extremes which have characterized the macroclimate or any of the microclimates of the area, be they those of a deep gorge, a swamp, a cliff face, or a Weather Bureau shelter.

During March, April, May, and June, the active growing season for

■ost forest species of the region, temperatures are steadily rising, although cold periods typical of the winter season may occur throughout 69

IIO-i

100

90

80

70

eo

90

40

50 L o w * * ! Min

eo

-eo

40

Fig* 7. Annpal u r c h of and lrinisum temperature*, Vinton and Jackaon Counties, Ohio. Based on data, 189U-19S2. 70 March and into April, and the maximums in June are often only slightly lower than in the summer months. Frost may occur until late May in the valleys (several times its absence on the hilltops overlooking McArthur was noted by Darby), and except for an occasional day in March (as many as six), maximum temperatures are always above freezing during this season. The average minimums for March, however, are usually below freezing (30*6*, with the lowest 21.1* in 19l*l), and sub-zero m-iniura have been recorded on four occasions during this month. In April, from four to 17 days have had minimums below freezing (low of 7*)» and as many as seven such days have occurred in May. Only once has there been a 32* temperature in June (June 15, 1932). Maximom temperatures are mostly in the 1*0's, 50's, and low 60’s during the early part of the season, progressing to the high 60Ts, 70's, and low 80's toward the latter part. Temperatures in the high 80's may occur, however, during any of these months, or in the 90's not infrequently in May and partic­ ularly in June. Tears in which there was extreme departure from the average maximums and minimums during these months are indicated in

Table 1*. Those years in which periods of unusually low temperatures occurred (especially freezing temperatures at this season) may possibly have been of significance to certain of the southern species which are disjunctive or at or near the northern limits of their range in this area. And for certain among the northern element of the flora, also disjunct* or at or near the southern limits of their distribution, per­ iods of high maximum and/or minimums may possibly have been critical.

But the extent to which these extreme conditions penetrate, or perhaps are accentuated in, the microhabitats of these species, and the limit of tolerance of even one of these species to extreme temperatures at this Table U. and ninianan temperature data. Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio. 189U-1952

J F MA MJ JA s 0 N D W a x i i — Highest (*F) 78 78 89 93 98 101 109 108 101 93 83 76 (yr.) 1906 191*5 1910 1925 1911 1911* 1931* 1930 1932 1922* 1950* 1951

Lowest (*F) 5 -5 20 31* 1*0 58 68 66 50 1*1 13 3 (jr.) 3897 18 99 1932 191*1* 1897 1891* 1896 1895 1921* 1916* 1950 1917

Average (*F) 1*2*8 1*3.9 55.1* 66.1 76.6 81**0 87.9 86.6 83.2 70.9 55.5 1*3.9 Highest average (*F) 53.7 53.9 68.7 73.1 85.0 90.0 96.6 93.1 88.1* 75.8 66.7 51* .3 (yr.) 1932 191*9 1910 191*8 1911 1931* 1930 1900 1908 191*6 1909 1923 Lowest average (*F) 27.6 31.2 1*1*.8 56.7 67.8 77.3 83.3 79.3 7U.1 58.5 1*8.9 33.6 (yr.) 1918 1895 1915 1907 1917 1928* 1920 1927 1918 1925 1951 1917

Avg. no. days 32* or less 6*0 1*.5 1.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .5 i*.5 Highest no. 23 15 6 3 13

Minimums Lowest (*F) -30 -38 -12 7 26 32 1*0 39 25 13 -3 -27 (yr.) 1936 1899 191*3 1923 1910 1933 1898 1935 1928 1952 1938 1917

Highest (*F) 59 63 65 68 83 83 80 83 71 70 63 56 (yr.) 1906 1930 1907 1929 1930 1930 1901 1897 1931* 191*1* 1929 19291

Average (*F) 22*2 22.0 30.6 38.3 1*8.5 57.5 61.1* 59.5 53.3 1*0.5 31.0 23.9 Lowest average (*F) 6.2 10.1* 21.1 32.6 1*0.7 50.9 55.8 50.9 1*1*.9 30.1 23.0 9.2 (yr.) 1918 1895 191*1 1926 1925 1927 191*7 1929 1918 1895 1097 1917 Highest average (*F) 32.1* 31.2 1*0.3 1*1*.9 53.7 62.6 68.3 66.6 59.9 51.5 39.3 32.1* (yr.) 1932 1932 1907 1896 191*1* 1900 1901 1900 1906 1919 1902 1923

Avg. no* days 32* or les3 21**7 23*2 19.1 8.8 1.5 — 0 0 .8 7.6 17.6 21*. 2 Highest no* 31 28 28 17 7 1 0 0 1* 18 25 30 Lowest no. 11* 17 9 1* 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 15 72

or other seasons, is as yet unknown.

During July and August, daily maximums are mostly in the 80's and

9 0 with temperatures of 100* or over being recorded in about one

year out of four* Such high temperature extremes are nearly confined

to these months, only rarely occurring in late June and early September*

Minimums are mostly in the SO1a and 60's, and only occasionally are as

high as the low 80*s* Temperatures below 39* have not occurred during

these months*

By most standards the severest hot (and dry) period of the record

was that from July 17 through August S, 1930. During these 20 days (the

greatest number of consecutive days with temperatures above 90*), the

average maximum was 99*, varying from 92* to 106*, making the July aver­

age maximum the highest for any month of the record (9U.0*). On nine

days temperatures reached 100* or higher, and during this time only

0*28 inches of rain fell with out 1.10 inches during the 30 days ending

August 5. With regard to water loss and water absorption, this was al­

most certainly the most critical period to which plants of this region

have been subjected in over half a century, for after April 1 there had

been scarcely more than five inches of rainfall (April - July), and this

prolonged precipitation deficiency was climaxed in July by the longest

period of sustained high maximum temperatures on record* Just how crit­

ical this spring and sumer period was for native forest species is un­

known, but in certain habitats of the more deeply dissected areas, it

could be expected that soils were never below field capacity because of

seepage waters from the underlying rock, and daytime temperatures were many degrees below those registered at the Weather Bureau stations (70)* In certain other habitats, however, the extremes were probably greater than these data in themselves indicate.

Other periods of unusually high temperatures have been of much shorter duration. Maximums of 100* or over were recorded for seven con­ secutive days in 193U (July 20-26), during which period the all-time high of 109* was set and the average maximum was 103*• Five consecutive days with 1D0-101 * temperatures occurred in August, 1900, and the high­ est average maximum and mini mum for August were both recorded at this time; rainfall for this month, however, was 5.22 inches (principally in two heavy showers). From August 2—UU, 1918 (13 days), the average max­ imum was 98*, varying from 91* to 108*, and the only other period with as many as 13 consecutive days above 90* occurred from July 19-31* 19U0, when the maximums averaged 96*.

Temperature patterns of September, October, and November, are transitional between those of summer and winter months as the angle of incidence of the sun's rays becomes less and the number of hours of day­ light is steadily decreasing. Often the maximums during much of Sep­ tember are no less high than those of July or August, but only once

(1908) have thay been above the average for eitherof these months.

Daily minimums are declining more rapidly, and both maximums and min­ i m u s decline sharply during October. The average daily range during these months is the greatest of the year (around 30*, as compared with the lowest of around 20* during Decenber - February). During late Sep­ tember and October i m v I u m are mostly in the 60's and 70's and minimums in the 30's and UO's; in Noverf>er maximums in the UO's and 50's and mini­ mums in the 20's and 30's are the most usual. 7U The first 32* temperature of the autumn season has occurred as

early as September 6 and as late as November 2, but in four out of

five years it falls between September 21 and October 20, This termin­

ates the frost-free season, which may begin as early as April 6 or as

late as June 15* but in three out of four years commences between April

17 and May 15• Length of the frost-free period has varied from 102 days

(McArthur, 192J*) to 195 days (Jackson, 191ii)t but these doubtless do not represent the extreme lengths of this period to which plants of

this area are exposed* In some habitats it is almost certainly longer,

and in others, shorter (70)* Average length of this period for the whole record is 153 days, but during the period of the Darby record at

McArthur (23 years) the average length was Ui3 days, and for all other years, 159 days. Without a doubt this difference of over two weeks is due, not to a succession of years in which frosts occurred on the aver­ age later in the spring and earlier in the autumn, but to the particular weather at McArthur being measured in thin Weather Bureau shelter*

December, January, and February constitute the cold season of the year in this region, although maximum temperatures occasionally reach the high 7 0 ' Average ma-rimm* are usually above freezing (in the low

UO's), and only rarely (during January and February) have they fallen below 32*« Equally rare is an average minimum in any of these months which is not at least several degrees below freezing, the lowest having beer^ 9*2* in December, 6*2* in January, and 10.U* in February*

Unlike the other months, whose extremes all place them in an un­ questionable position in the annual march of temperature, teliteratures during these months, analyzed on a monthly basis, closely approximate 75 each other* In most re ape eta, January is the coldest by a narrow margin, and December is only slightly warmer than the others. The aver­ age minimum for February, however, is the lowest, and temperatures in the 70's are least likely to occur in December (once in seven years, as compared with one year out of five in January and one out of three in

February) •

Ua-r-iimim temperatures of 32* or lower occur on an average of about

15 days during the period December - February. During these months such temperatures are of but one day's duration nearly half the time they occur (US percent), of two days duration 2U percent of the time, 3 days

12 percent, U to 6 days, 11 percent, and 7 to 12 days the remaining 5 percent of the time. Hence in this area prolonged sub-freezing tempera­ tures are rare, the maximum duration having occurred in January, 19U0

(McArthur), when air temperatures were not above freezing for 12 consecu­ tive days and nights. Coincidentally this occurred during one of the two coldest Januaries on record. At this time one of the four 11-day periods with no above-freezing temperatures also occurred (including the last three days in December), on 21 days temperatures did not rise above 32* (which, except for January, 1916, is the record number of such days in one month), and on 11 days minimums only once were above 32* and

11 times ware from -2 to -13* (which again, except for January, 1918, 1s the record nusber of sub-zero temperatures for one month). However,

13.5 inches of snow fell during this January, the special significance of which from the standpoint of b elow-ground parts of plants is dis­ cussed later.

The winter of 1917-16 is probably the coldest on record on the basis of most criteria that might be used. From December 9 through Feb­ 76

ruary 5 (59 days), on 23 days minimum* were from -1 to -27*, and on

only 21 days did the temperatures rise above freezing. The lowest aver­

age m i n i m u m for December and January were set at this time (see above

and Table U), as well as the lowest average maximum for January (27.6*).

During this period 33 inches of snow fell.

The first 15 days of February, 1899, were the most intensely cold

period of the record, for during this time the only sub-zero maximum of

the record occurred (-5* on February 9), subzero minimum temperatures

were recorded on 9 days, and the all-time minimum of -38* was set (lack­

ing but 1 degree of being the minimum for the state of Ohio). This ex­

treme low reading occurred on February 10, the first day of a three-day

period in which the all-time minimums were set in nine states from the

Canadian border to the Gulf of Mexico (2). During this period the ob­

server reported from two to seven inches of snow cover.

While extreme low temperatures may be limiting factors in the dis­

tribution of certain species which might otherwise be able to survive

in this area, distribution of certain other species may be influenced by periods of unusually high temperatures or entire winters in which the

temperatures are consistently above average. During nine years of the

record, the maximums and mini mums for December, January, and February

have been above the average for each of these months. These would all

have constituted warm winters for this region, but none was as con­

sistently and exceptionally above average as that of 1931-32, when aver­ age and minimums were consistently 10 to 12 degrees above the

59-yaar average for these months. A maximum of 32* or less occurred but once (31* on January 31), which means that the longest continuous 77 period of freezing temperatures during this period was of something

less than 1*8 hours duration* Lowest minimum was 1 6 % and there was no

measurable snow* Maximums of 70-79* occurred during two 2-day periods

(once each in January and February). The only truly winter weather of

this season came between March 7 and li*, when maximums on six days were

below freezing (as low as 21*), the minimum reached 6*, and two inches

of snow fell* Whether possible cold period requirements of certain

species, especially northern relicts of Pleistocene time w m c h have

persisted in the microclimates of the region, were met both as to in­

tensity and duration during this winter, is not known. But whether or

not certain of these species continue to persist in this region may

ultimately be determined by winters such as this*

Precipitation

Precipitation occurs during every month of the year, although

there is seasonal variation in amount, intensity, and kind* Annual

precipitation averages 1*0.93 inches, varying from 21**79 inches in 1930

to 57*19 inches in 191*8. Measurable precipitation as rain or snov^

falls on about one out of every three days, and most of this totals

less than one-half inch in 2l* hours* Such low-intensity precipitation

is associated with the cyclonic storms which occur year-around in this region* Heavier precipitation types are uncommon and occur with great­

est frequency during the summer months as a result of local convection

storms which accompany high temperatures and humidity of this season.

Such precipitation is sporadic and highly variable as to intensity and area covered* 22 No data on precipitation in the form of dew, frost, hail, or sleet are available. 78

Monthly and annual precipitation data are recorded in Table 5*

Although distributed throughout the year, certain months are usually

above the average and others sure usually below, resulting in a loosely

definable "moist season" and a "dry season". Nearly UO percent of all

precipitation falls during the period March through June, and about half

this much from Septenber through November. In the driest month, October,

there is about 55 percent of the precipitation of the wettest month,

June. However, in the driest year on record (1930), June had less pre­

cipitation than any other month (0.97 inches), and in March, second wettest month, the all-time minimum monthly precipitation occurred

(0.03 inches in 1910). Greatest monthly precipitation (on a calendar basis) occurred in January, 1937, when 11.88 inches fell, all but 0.65

inches of which was rain; on a 30-day basis, however, the maximum is

12.62 inches (December 28 - January 26, 1937)* Greatest number of days in any one month on which at least a trace oi' precipitation was recorded occurred in January, 1950, when rain fell on 25 of the 31 days (includ­ ing a "trace" on three days). In February of the same year, there was precipitation on XU consecutive days (including a "trace" on four days), which is the longest such period on record. Other excessive precipita­ tion records are cited in Table 6; most occurred during the summer season as a result of torrential rains and heavy showers. Precipitation de­ ficiencies may occur in any month, but as indicated in Fig. 8, the most intense and prolonged clearly occur most frequently in autumn. Fig. 8 is based upon periods of 21 days or longer during which no 2li-hour pre­ cipitation fell, there was less than half an inch total precipitation, and precipitation in the preceding five days was less than an inch if Tab la 5. Monthly and annual precipitation data (measurable rain and snow), Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio. 189U-1952 (59 years).

Month Year J F M A M J J A s 0 N D

Avg. ppt. (in.) 3.79 2.95 i*.06 3.35 it.oo i*.19 3.81* 3.61* 2.78 2.29 2.79 3.25 1*0.93

Max. ppt. (in.) 11.86 7.75 7.06 8.17 10.51 11.06 9.23 8.70 6.86 5.87 6.1*2 8.1*3 57.19 (yr») 1937 1903 19U5 191*8 191*3 191*1 1912 1933 1911 1919 1900 1923 191*8 Min. ppt. (in.) .87 .50 .03 1.27 .98 .97 1.13 .89 .32 •11* .21 .99 21*.79 (yr.) 1931 1895 1910 191*1 193 9* 1930 191*0 1899 191*3 1931* 1901* 1896 1930

No. yrs. with less than 1 in. 1 3 1 0 2 1 0 1 6 11 1* 1 No. yrs. with over 7 in. 5 2 1 1 5 6 3 3 0 0 0 1

Avg. no. days with measurable ppt. 11.9 10.It 1 2 .1* 11.6 11.6 10.6 9.9 9.3 7.9 7.7 9.3 11.3 123.9 No. days with ntsas-

59 yrs. 701 615 733 687 686 623 583 51*6 1*68 1*55 51*6 665 7308 Amt. ppt./day {%) .01 - .29 in. 61.2 66.9 61.9 68.1* 59.1* 57.1 56.5 57.5 60.0 65.5 63.9 66.3 62.1

.30 - .1*9 16.7 11*.9 16.6 15.3 16.2 15.0 16.5 15.0 17.3 13.8 15.6 11*.8 15.6

.50 - .99 17.0 lii.2 11*. 7 11.3 17.5 18.9 18.2 18.0 16.0 16.3 15.7 11*.7 16.1 1.00 - 1.99 5.1 3.5 6.2 U.6 6.1 8.0 7.1 7.1 5.1* lt.1 1**8 3.7 5.5 2.00 and over 0.0 .5 .6 .1* .8 1.0 1.7 2.1* 1.3 .2 .0 .5 .7 w Also in 1936 80

Tabla 6. Periods of greatest excessive precipitation. Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio. 189U-1952.

Date Inches Unit time

September 6, 191*7 U.oo 2 hrs. July U*, 1896 3.32 1 "

June 1, 19l*l U.03 1 day June 2U, 1909 3.55 1 " June 29, 1952 3.1*0 1 " February 23, 1909 3.35 1 « December 15, 191*8 3.33 1 " August 2, 1933 3.21 1 " April 20, 1920 3 .11* 1 "

July 31 - August 1, 193U u .69 2 days June 1 - i*, 19l*l 7.80 1* " August 15 - 19, 1926 5.1*5 5 " March 10 - ll*, 1907 5.27 5 " June 25 - 30, 1902 5.93 6 " Novenfeer 20 - 26, 1900 5.95 7 " September 9-15, 1911 5.86 8 " July 18 - 25, 1912 5.69 8 « May 22 - 30, 1903 6.16 9 « June 20 - 29, 1928 6.90 9 " December 28 - January 26, 1937 12.62 30 " January 2 - February 1, 1950 12.03 30 » May 1 - 31, 19U3 10.51 30 " March 16 - April ll*, 191*8 LO.Iili 30 "

the period was of less than five weeks duration. Oi the basis of total precipitation, driest years were, in addition to 1930, 1900 (31.3U inches) and 191U (32.2]* inches).

Nearly 78 percent of all precipitation occurs as drizzles (0.01 -

0*29 inches) or light showers (0*30 to 0.1*9 inches) (Table $)• lluch of this water moves through the soil profile and into porous bedrock, and is available to plants in place or to those farther down slope as seep­ age water. Moderately heavy showers (0.$0 to 1.0 inches), heavy show­ ers (1.0 to 2.0 inches) and torrential rains (2.0 inches or over) con- ^197^565 9468924475

Fig* 8* Frequency of periods of greatest precipitation deficiency last­ ing 21-U8 days (i|6 periods). Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, 18 9b-1952.

stitute less than a fourth of all precipitation and are least effective, in the reverse of the order named, in increasing soil moisture because of the higher run-off which accompanies higher rainfall intensities*

The season March through June is usually that of greatest total precipitation (Table 5)* All shower types are well represented and tor­ rential rains are rare. Measurable rain is recorded on an average of onoe every 2*6 days during these months* That this is the period of greatest growth of most forest plants in this area, is in part correla­ tive with the usually abundant moisture characterizing the spring season.

Periods of marked precipitation deficiency sometimes occur during these months; seven such periods are included in Fig. S. During the 30 days preceding four of these, however, there had been average to excessive precipitation and, except for the extreme drought year of 1?30* when precipitation was below average'during the preceding 30 days the period was the minimum length (21 days); in 1930 it lasted 28 days. The long­ est dry period occurred from March 1 through April 16, 1910, when but

0.3k inches fell in U7 days. However, during February over 17 inches of snow fell (principally during two heavy snowfalls) which must have per­ sisted in part on certain slope exposures and in coves of areas of greater relief, and served as a source of water for several weeks while rainfall was deficient. Degree of snow persistence during springs with low precipitation is one of the variables which make apparent a corre­ lation between physiographic and v^getational areas of the region.

July and August are characterized by heavy showers and torrential rains (Table £); light showers and drizzles, while still the greatly preponderant type, are least well represented during these months. Al­ though total precipitation is above the average for all months, much less of it is effective from the standpoint of plants than at other seasons because of more rapid run-off accompanying greater intensity, interception by the fully-developed canopy, and a high evaporation rate associated with high temperatures* Many summer- and fall-blooming species are still growing vegetatively during these months, and for their survival (and most other species as well) available moisture at this season is doubtless often much more critical thanwculd be in­ ferred from Fig. 8. Drought periods, i.e., when water absorption by plants may be exceeded by water loss, occur with much greater frequency during July and August than in the spring months, a fact which is not 83

evident when precipitation data alone are used as a basis of comparison

of the seasons*

September, October and November constitute the driest season in

this area. At no time in the record have seven inches or more precipi­

tation been recorded during any of these months (as it has been for all

other months), and in one out of three years total precipitation is less

than one inch in at least one of these autumn months. Rains come least

frequently (on an average of once every 3*7 days), except for an occasion­

al wet autumn precipitation is less than at other times of the year

(often considerably so), and one or more periods of three weeks or

longer with less than one-half inch of rain occur in two out of every

three years. The most severe such periods, which are included in Fig. 8, occur in about one out of every two years, with the highest frequency in late September and early October. Such periods come after the grow­ ing season is over for most species of the area and hence are of little apparent consequence for their survival.

Frequent deficiency of soil moisture accompanying the autumn season is usually well compensated for by winter rains and snows. Pre­ cipitation during December, January, and February is probably the most effective of the year, for the canopy is open, heavy showers ar» at a minimum and torrential rains are exceedingly rare, temperatures are at their lowest although soils are mostly above freezing (70), and about

17 percent of precipitation occurs as snow (Table 7), all of which con­ ditions ensure maximum percolation of water into the soil and bedrock and minimum loss through interception, run-off, and evaporation. Be­ cause of the relatively high precipitation effectiveness at this season, 8ii

and the mostly dormant condition of plants, occasional periods of loir

precipitation (especially in February, as shown in Fig. 6) are of little

importance unless precipitation continues to be deficient during the

spring. Of the 11 winter periods included in Fig. 8, only once (1895)

was there a similar period in the following spring, and between the two

periods (February 8 - March 1 and April 9 - May 9) there were over four

inches of rainfall. Accumulation of water in soil and bedrock during

the winter season is apparently & phenomenon occurring without exception

each year, although variable amounts of water may so accumulate depend­

ing upon the amount and intensity of precipitation, persistence of snow,

porosity of the bedrock and its volume above drainage, leaf litter ac­

cumulation, and other physical properties of the soils and underlying

rocks. Of these, most important appear to be those relating to topog­

raphy and lithology. Accumulation of water in soil and bedrock during

winter 1s greatest in the western part of the area where there are mas­

sive porous sandstones, and where deeper dissection permits prolonged

snow persistence on north- and east-facing exposures and in coves.

Snow may occur during any month from mid-October through May,

although it is most frequent during December, January, and February

(Table 7); or all precipitation during any of these months may be rain.

Earliest and latest recorded snowfalls are October 11, 1906, and May 9,

1907. Longest snowfall season recorded is 18? days during 1906-07.

The shortest was but li days, beginning on March 6 (1932), at which time

the all-time seasonal miniMinn (2.0 inches) was established. Second lowest was the season 1918-19 when but 2.5 inches fell between January

3 and February 11. The exceptional nature of the maximum seasonal snow- Table 7. Monthly and seaaonal snowfall data. Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio. Autumn, 189U - spring, 1952 (58 seasons).

Month Season 0 ND J F M A M (0-M) _b Avg* snowfall (in.) . l a 1.5 U.7 6.7 5.9 3.7 .7 23.3

Avg* % of ppt. in snow - 5.U m .3 17.7 19.9 9.1 2.1 - 11.8

Maximum snowfall: in. 3.5 2U.2 23.2 2U.3 23.5 1 5 .0 9.7 .2 60 .a jr. 1917 1950 1935 19U8 19ia 1902 1901 1906 1935-36

No. yrs. with no measurable (Min.) snowfall 55 28 10 5 3 19 39 57 2.C 1931-32 Avg. no. days with measurable snowfall — 1.0 2.9 3.6 3.6 2.2 .6 - i a . i

No. days with snow in 58 yrs. h 57 169 218 211 128 32 1 820 Amt. of snow/day {%) 0.1 - 0.9 in. 50 U6 38 37 ao 35 63 100 ao 1.0 - 1.9 25 26 28 25 26 30 16 26 2.0 - 2.9 12 16 16 lU 12 9 ia 3.0 - 3.9 25 7 9 8 9 9 8 U.O - li.9 3 3 8 5 9 3 6 5.0 - 5.9 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 6.0 - 6.9 2 a 1 2 1 3 2 7.0 - 7.9 ,) 1 1 2 1 8.0 and over 2 !) 2 1 1 3 1

No. seasons with First snow 3 28 20 6 1 Last snow 1 15 22 19 1 * Avg. this high because of the' 1917 snowfall. ^ - represents less than t^ "_v:of unit indicated. 8 6

fall on record (60,ii inches in 1935-36) is emphasized by the fact t.iat

only during one other season, 1950-51, was over 50 inches recorded

(50.5)t anc* In only two others was it as much as hS inches (U8.8 in

1909-10, and U5.7 in 1918-19).

Usually the greatest amount of snow falls in January, but in no

year has it constituted the entire precipitation during this or any

other month. Ordinarily the great bulk of January precipitation is

rain (82.3 percent on an average), and about 80 percent of February

precipitation is also rain, although usually less snow falls during

this month. Fifteen inches or more snow during any one month has oc­

curred but 12 times in 58 years, nearly half of which have been recorded

in January.

The relative frequency of snow with respect to inches per day is

indicated in Table 7. On the basis of these data, snowfalls of less

than two inches may be considered light in this regionj this is the

most common type (66 percent of the total). Those from two to five

inches are moderately heavy for this area, and occur but 28 percent of

the time. Heavy snowfalls are those from five to eight inches, which

occur but five percent of the time, and very heavy snowfalls are those of eight inches or more which occur on an average of but once every six to seven years (one percent of the total). Except for the early and late months of the season, where snow is more or less sporadic and in­ frequent, the proportion of these snowfall types does not appreciably change with increase in frequency of snowfall (cf. December, January, and February), The very heavy snowfalls are cited in Table 8. 87

Table 8. Snowfalls of eight inches or more, Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, autumn, 189U - spring, 1952.

Inches Date Inches Date

m . o January 6, 1910 8.7 December 6, 1910 12.5 March 5, 1902 8.5 February 28, 1917 12.5 November 26, 1950 8.1* January 15, 1918 10.0 January 19, 1936 8.2 April 10, 1918 9.5 January 2ii, 19U8

Since two-thirds of the snowfalls are less than two inches, m ajor

part of the snow in this area is merely frozen drizzling rain of less

than 0.2 inches. Ifost of this water is immediately available to plants

when air temperatures rise above freezing. But heavier snows or accumu­

lated snow often serve as reservoirs of water for many weeks on certain

topographic sites.

Persistence of snow, and depth of accumulation during periods of

sub-freezing temperatures, are factors of ecological significance for

which data are often lacking or inconstant in the record. Certain per­

tinent data, however, are available. Aside from the addition of water

to the soil, snow (especially dry snow) is an effective inhibitor of

radiation and conduction of heat energy from the upper layers of the

soil. It thus has a moderating influence upon soil temperatures during

sub-freezing periods by reducing loss of heat to the atmosphere. This

in turn results in lowering of air temperatures above the substrate on

cloudless nights. The latter effect is clearly indicated in Fig. 9, where the general relationship between snow cover and sub-zero tempera­

tures (all of which are daily minimums) exhibits a definite pattern:

The lower the minimums beyond -8 to 9 #, the deeper the snow on the 88

ground up to six inches, at which depth the all-time low temperature of

-38* was set. At no time in the 59 years of this record has the air

temperature fallen below -9* when t was not an inch or more of snow

on the ground. Significance of this fact to an understanding of the

winter environments of parts of plants below or at the soil surface

is apparent.

6-16 20 22

i / t 27

-15 -20 25 30 35 *38 •F

Fig. 9. Depth of snow on the ground at time of sub-zero temperatures (189U-1952) in Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio. Numbers above snow depth lines refer to the nunber of times sub-zero temperatures occurred within the temperature intervals indi­ cated. Snow depth is approximate. 89

CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF T H E VEGETATION

The history of the vegetation of Vinton and Jackson Counties be­

gins with the history of the Deciduous Forest of which it is a part*

During the rise of the angiosperm forests in the Mesozoic, and contin­

uing through the Tertiary, migration of species from the southern

Appalachians to southern Ohio was in all liklihood facilitated by the

northwestward-flowing Teays River system (Chp. III). As pointed out

by Transeau (60)t

"This great river system, together with other smaller rivers north and west, must be regarded not only as carriers of seeds and other propagules to Ohio, but as agencies of erosion which carved a vast network of valleys and canyons across the mountains and plateaus. These valleys afforded not only a series of bottom land habitats, but also parallel lines of steep slopes, cliffs, and ridge tops where the migration of upland species might readily proceed."

Wolfe (69) further comnents:

"If a southeastern flora had not arrived in the area (south­ eastern Ohio) during the 60,000,000 years of the Tertiary when these streams were potent propagule-carrying agencies, then it is not likely that these plants would have arrived in post­ glacial time after the elimination of these agencies. Thus it may be assumed that the southern and southeastern flora was well established in the region at the close of the Pliocene..."

That there has been abundant exchange of species in the past among

the various parts of the central and southern Appalachians, including

their western flank in southeastern (Mo, is clearly evident from the

close relationship of the floras today. The flora of Vinton and Jackson

Counties today is basically that of the southern Appalachians to which have been added a number of species from other geographical areas and

Aron which a number have been lost or have never migrated into the region. Many of the Appalachian species today occur as disjuncta or 90

at the nargin of their range in this area. Liberty Township, Jackson

County, probably harbors more of these species than any other area of

its si*e in southeastern Ohio. The break in continuity of range of

certain Appalachian species, the absence of others, and the infiltra­

tion into the Appalachian flora of a number of species of other geo­

graphical affinities, can be accounted for only on the basis of events

of Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene time.

With the advance of a pre-Illinoian ice sheet, resulting in dam­

ming of the master stream, the Teays River, somewhere northwest of

Vinton County, and the formation of Lake Tight (Chp. Ill), survival of

the land flora established prior to this time was limited to those

species for which there were suitable habitats among the low hills

overlooking this vast lake in southeastern Ohio. If the 900-foot

level be considered the mean level at which the waters stood, as sug­

gested by Wolfe (69), only the ridges and upper slopes of today's

higher hills were continuously above water during many thousands of years. Under these conditions, nearly all of Jackson County was in­ undated, except the ridges along the principal preglacial divides, but

considerably less of Vinton County, where elevations in general are higher and many more ridges rise well above 900 feet. Total area of the refugium available to land plants in these counties, however, was something less than ten percent of the total land surface present today.

Many species, particularly those of the lowlands, were in all probabil­ ity eliminated from these counties, as well as from southeastern Ohio, during this period. Following the drainage of Lake Tight and subsequent deep downcutting of the newly established drainage systems, an even 91 wider variety of habitats than had previously existed became available

for occupancy. Presumably, whether migrating down from the higher elevations of the immediate vicinity or coming in from adjacent areas not covered by lake waters, the species that repopulated this area were those which had lived here previously, with certain losses but also perhaps with certain additions with time, since Deep Stage dis­ section ultimately afforded ecological niches not present heretofore.

During Illlnoian and Wisconsin glaciations, when ice was less than two miles from the margin of northwestern Vinton County (Plate I), low­ ered temperatures and other climatic changes must have prevailed in these counties to the same extent as they are believed to have pre­ vailed in other periglacial areas lying 75 to 100 miles in front of the ice. Northern species, migrating ahead of the ice fronts, became established probably on a variety of sites within this narrow band, and following withdrawal of the ice, persisted in certain local habitats, some of whose climatic extremes have not yet brought about their elim­ ination. Some of the Boreal and Hemlock-Hardwood Forest species which are disjunctive today or at the southern limits of their range in Jack­ son County are cited in Chapter VI.

There is no evidence that a northern flora entirely replaced the

Appalachian flora when the ice was nearby. On the contrary, from available distributional data it appears that many southeastern species, a number of which live today in the same microclimatic regimes as the relict northern species, must have survived the Pleistocene cold periods in situ or nearby their present locations. As pointed out by Wolfe (68), the occurrence of certain of the southern species today cannot plausibly 92

be accounted for on the basis of a southward retreat during Pleistocene

and a migration back into the area in post-Pleistocene time* Most ex­

amples of disjunctive species cited by this author as evidence that

southeastern plants must have survived the glacial periods in southern

Ohio within the mosaic of microclimatic regimes of the region, occur

in Liberty Township, Jackson County* The extremely local occurrence of

these, and others, in parts of southeastern Ohio, e.g., Khododendron

maximum L. which is known from but one site in Jackson County, not at

all from Vinton County, but from many places in Hocking County directly

north, is not due to any known present-day factor or factors. It is,

therefore, inferred that this species and many others of similar spor­ adic distribution in southern Ohio, whose habitats appear to be not

infrequently present and which must have had a more or less continuous distribution at some time in the past, were eliminated during Pleisto­ cene on all but a few local sites, either by submergence or climatic change.

The post-Pleistocene Xerothermic period which resulted in a penin- sula-like extension of the prairies into Ohio (59), may have brought about the ellmination of certain species in the Plateau, particularly those with northern affinities, but as far as is known it left no relict prairies in Vinton or Jackson Counties. Assemblages of plants, con­ sisting in part of prairie species, occur on certain sites, but there is no evidence that they represent remnants of true prairies. Some of the prairie species, however, may have come into the area during this long hot, dry period when there were continuous migration routes from the west, and the assemblages of which they are a part likely increased in areal distribution during this time. Their presence is apparently due, not to climatic fluctuations of the past, but to edaphic factors which

have been in operation on these sites since Pleistocene time. These

factors were doubtless accentuated during the Xerothermic period.

Thus at the time recorded history of this area begins, the complex mosaic of plant communities were forests, the iloristic composition and

distribution of which were related not only to the physical factors of

the environment of a century and a half ago, but also to the major events in the long and complex physiographic history of this region since the development of the temperate Deciduous Forest.

The primeval forest was for the most part apparently little dis­ turbed by either the historic or prehistoric Indians beyond the local clearings made for villages and cultivated plots. One prehistoric village is known to have been located in Brown Township, Vinton County, and evidences of 22 have been found in Jackson County, nine of which were in Lick Township, six in Franklin, two each in Coal and Madison, and one each in Liberty, Washington, and Scioto Townships (30). How many of these were more or less permanent villages, if any, and the size of the areas cleared including those used for hunting and agri­ cultural purposes, is unknown, but the concentration of villages in

Lick and northern Franklin Townships bears witness to the long-standing frequenting of the Salt Licks by these people, a practice which had been going on probably for thousands of years* The extent to which the nearby forests had been destroyed under Indian occupancy, for fuel used in boiling of the brines, can only be guessed, but apparently did not even approach that of the white "salt boilers” who took over the ?h

Licks in 1795• Of the activities of these men, the first large-scale

exploiters of the area’3 natural resources, '.Villiams (67) comnents as

folio it s :

"The delay in subdividing the townships prevented the enter­ ing of homesteads during the period from 1795 to 1B03> and this left the squatting salt boilers in complete possession of the rich resources of the county, the game, timber and the grass, as well as the salt brine. Might made right and the destructive tenden­ cies of many salt boilers caused great waste of natural resources* They cut beaver dams, destroying a great fur industry, they slaughtered the game indiscriminately, and they were guilty of wanton waste of nut trees, for they chopped them down to secure one year's crop. They started many fires to burn out small clearings for their corn fields, that much of the finest timber in the county was destroyed. This wanton waste was finally brought to the attention of Congress by William H. Harrison, then the delegate from Ohio, but later President of the United States ... (who) secured the following recommendation from the Congres­ sional Connnittee February 19, 1800: 'That upon inquiring into the situation of the Salt Springs and Licks, the property of the United States, they have been informed from respectable authorities that those on the east side of the Scioto are in the occupancy of a number of persons who are engaged in the making of salt to a very considerable extent, and that these persons by a destructive waste of the timber in the neighborhood of the springs are daily dimin­ ishing their value•' "

Thus was wrought the first major modification of the virgin forests of this area in historical times.

With the coming of permanent settlers, clearing of the better- drained bottomlands began at once and probably was completed within two or three decades. The largest areas available were the valley plains along Salt Creek and Middle Fork, and the terraces and flats in the filled valleys of the major preglacial rivers. In the areas of lesser relief, as obtain in most of central and southern Jackson County, clear­ ing of slopes, for the varied types of agriculture necessary to sur­ vival in the wilderness, accompanied clearing of the bottoms, and "the corn sprouted quickly in the rich soil of the northeast hillsides which were usually cleared first" (67). By the 1830’s and UO’s, as testified 95 to by grave markers still standing in some of the upland cemstaries,

immigrants had settled on many of the broader and flatter ridges of

the more deeply dissected areas, either through choice or more likely

because little else in the nay of desirable agricultural land remained

unclaimed* The actual clearing operations Williams (67) describes as

follows *

"The first settlers chose the lands where the timber was the heaviest, the farms of big oaks, ash, hickories, chestnut, and walnuts* But only a few trees were chopped down, those needed for the cabins, stables and fences* The clearing was begun by cutting out the undergrowth of pawpaws, plums, dogwood, crabapples, hawthorns and then the larger trees were deadened and in one or two years they could be burned down* Vast fortunes thus disappeared in smoke but the land was needed for corn to feed the family* The ash and poplar were usually selected for lumber for the buildings•••• The burning of the standing wood which occupied so much of the time of the settlers in clearing the land, was at first a glorious side of pioneer life, but the beauty of the wood fires at night was soon forgotten, when the serious side appeared, the danger to improvements already made, the burning of cabins and stables and fence, by wild fires which became uncontrollable, and not least, the driving of all game from the forest, thus robbing the pioneers of their meat supply which at one time was so bounti­ ful* • « . The clearing was far from ready for the sowing after the trees were burned, because of the stumps and the roots, and the following season, a forest of sprouts sprang up."

Percentage of land which had been cleared by the pioneers prior to 1850,

for their corn, tobacco, flax, and other crops, and for grazing pur­ poses^, is unknown, but in 1853 about 75 percent of the area of both

counties is reported to have been forest-covered (35)* How much of this was original forest, and how much may already have been second-growth following abandonment, can only be surmised, but a conservative esti­ mate would seem to be that in at least half the total area, represent­ ing 300,000 acres or so, the virgin forests had not been significantly altered at mid-century*

*3 "Little hay was grown, the cattle as well as the horses being fed on corn fodder, or grased on the sparse wild pea vines in the woods." (67) 96

Within the following 30 or UO years, however, came the almost complete removal of the original forests, as the timber was clear-cut for the making of charcoal, which in turn was used in the smelting of native iron ores at the 16 furnaces of the area* Names of the furnaces^, township in which each was located, date of erection and abandonment, and approximate acreage of company-owned lands around the year 1875^, both by furnace company and by township, are included in Table 9*

From these large tracts of land owned by the furnace companies, occupy­ ing approximately UO percent of the total areas of Brown, Madison

(Vinton County), Clinton, and Milton Townships, and lesser areas of eight other townships, "the whole furnace stock, ore, flux, and fuel

(were) derived" (27)* Largest land holder was Col. Douglas Putnam, owner of Hope Furnace, who held title to nearly 13,000 acres.

According to Lord (27), 13,000 cords of wood, or the yield of

325-350 acres of forest, were necessary to sustain a single blast furnace each year* In Vinton and Jackson Counties, therefore, the timber from at least 5,000 acres was required annually for this purpose, and during the history of the operation of the various charcoal fur­ naces, no less than 150,000 acres of timber must have been converted to charcoal* Since in 1875» when all but one or two of the furnaces

4 ZalesfcL Furnace is included among the charcoal furnaces of the Hang­ ing Hock district by Lord (27), with the notation that its owner, the Zaleskl Iron (knqoany, "has used coal". It is also classified as a charcoal furnace by Stout (50), but Taylor (57) states that "the Z ale ski Furnace was the only iron manufactory in Vinton County which used stone coal, and this dated from its founding in 1858"* 25 How accurate these acreages may be is not certain because, in some cases, titles were not recorded in the company's name but in the name of the principal stockholder or s tockholders. Acreage included for Latrobe Furnace is that in the name of "Bundy and Cobb"; for Madison Furnace, "F. £• Duduit, Trustee"; for Jackson Furnace, "L. P. N* Smith Set*", and for Hope Furnace, "Douglas Putnam". Over U,000 acres belonging to William B* Duncan in Vinton Township may also have been in some way connected with the charcoal industry* 97 Table 9. Charcoal furnaces in Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, and acreages owned by the furnace companies around 1875»a

Date Date Total Furnace erected abandoned County Township acres

Jackson 1836 1871* Jackson Hamilton 2,837 Monroe 1351* 1882 Jackson Jefferson 6,795 Cambria 1851* 1878 Jackson Jefferson 336^ Jefferson 1851* 1917 Jackson Jefferson 2,795 Madison 1851* 1902 Jackson Madison 1,697 Limestone 1855 i860 Jackson Bloomfield -- Keystone 181*8 1885 Jackson Bloomfield U,U85 Buckeye 1851 1885 Jackson Milton l*,i*80 Latrobe 1851* 1885 Jackson Milton 3,639 Lincoln (Cornelia) 1853 1885 Jackson Milton i*,735 Richland (Cincinnati) 1853 Vinton Richland 3,998 Hamden 1851* Vinton Clinton 9,625 Eagle 1852 Vinton Vinton U,266 Vinton 1853 Vinton Madison 1*,960 Zaleski 1858 1872 Vinton Madison 3,730 Hope 1851* Vinton Brown 12,703

Total acres 71,081

Total Total Township Furnace Acres acres Township Furnace Acres acres

Hamilton Jackson 2,837 Vinton Eagle 3,186 Monroe 972 Hamden 2,590 Jefferson 308 1*,117 Lincoln 91*7 6,723 Jefferson Monroe 5,739 Clinton Hamden !*,B86 Jefferson 2,1*87 Eagle 1,080 Cambria 280 8,506 Vinton 882 Madison Madison 1,697 Hope 680 (J. Co.) Monroe 81* Lincoln 117 7,639 Cambria 56 1,237 Washington Richland 17725* Bloomfield Keystone 3,276 Hamden 1,235 2,960 Madison 600 Richland Richland 2,273 Buckeye 527 Elk Vinton 751* Latrobe 70 1*,1*73 Zaleski 320 Milton latrobe 3,569 Hope 1*0 1,111* Lincoln 2,690 Madison Vinton 3,52IT Buckeye 2,622 (V. Co.) Zaleski 1,867 Hamden 920 Hope 1,017 6,208 Keystone 651* 10,1*55 Knox Hope 3,266 Wilkesvills Buckeye 1,331 Brown Hope 7,700 Lincoln 981 Zaleski 1,51*3 9,2i±3 Keystone 5?? 2,867 Total acresI e e • e 717651 ^ Acreages based upon owndership as shown in (25, 26). Other data from . (23, 27, 50 , 57, 67). b Most of the Cambria Furnace Compa y holdings were south of the Jackson County line. H -'-r

i -L i I la j. j a k li I i i l I I i •V in to n

I i # E a tfie Hander:*

L in c o ln

I I •La tro be I •Buckeye

Keystone*

pLimestone

• Hadison

• J e ffe rs o n

Conroe • [ I Jactoaon • I ^ Cambr ia * | — — — — J

I I

•’i c , 10* Location of charcoal furnaces in Vinton and Jackson Count O hio. (2U, 25) 99 were still active, only 71,000 acres were owned by the furnace com­ panies (Table 9), it is apparent that forests other than the company- owned tracts of virgin forest were cut to maintain the supply many years before most of the furnaces were shut down. Oho obvious source was the virgin tinher growing outside the furnace tracts, the cutting of which during this period essentially completed the removal of the original forest, except in scattered small areas. The last manager of

Jefferson Furnace is credited with stating that "the charcoal was se­ cured in different adjoining tracts of land, perhaps two-thirds being on other people's land, especially following 1900, as timber became more scarce" ( 2 3 ) . Second-growth forests on the com pany lands (and other lands as well, probably) w ere also being utilized b y the 1880's, concerning which Lord (2 7 ) wrote in 1883:

"The growing scarcity of wood has led to the recutting of considerable of the land on which second and third growth timber is found... The timber land, as originally found, yielded about hO cords to the acre... On recutting this same land, after an interval of 2$ years, the yield was in the neighborhood of 20 cords to the acre, and according to the estimates given by the furnaces recutting timber, the annual increase over this figure for the next 20 years was about at the rate of a cord an acre, so that at h$ years the original UO cords to the acre would be reached.•• The third crop is more rapid than the second, owing probably to the fact that the second crop comes largely from the seed, while the third comes from,the stump... As to quality of charcoal, the smelters of the Hanging Rock region claim that the second growth 'sapling' charcoal is the best, carrying more ore to the bushel in the furnace. Whether this is, as is very prob­ able, due to the increased weight of the bushel, in this smaller and more compact product, the figures are wanting to decide•"

Lord further stated in 1883 that "eight-ninths of the available timber land of the Southern Ohio iron manufacturing districts has been cleared" • The rapidity with which the forests in Vinton and Jackson

Counties disappeared during this period is indicated in Table 10. 100

Table 10* Percentage of total area of Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, in forests, 1853-1883* (35)

Vinton Co. Jackson Co.

% of total area in forests, 1853 75.33 75.00 1870 59.25 Ul.86 1880 22.9h 1883 18.06 15 .U7

About 67 percent of the forests of Vinton County and 60 percent of

Jackson County were cleared during this thirty-year period*

The actual logging practices involved clear-cutting of the forests

(Fig. 11). Nearly everything down to three or four inches was used,

resulting in very little slash being left on the forest floor. Accord­

ing to Day (8):

"Hardwood forests, principally the oak-hickory and the beech- maple type, were favored for making high grade charcoal. Usually all species in the stand were taken, but occasionally soft woods were left standing because they produced less charcoal and an inferior grade.'1

The trees were usually felled in the winter, the actual clearing, cut­

ting and stacking of the logs, hauling to the nearby hearths, and

"coaling" of the wood all being done in the sunmer and autumn. The

charcoal burners cut the timber on their own or the company's land and

conducted the whole operation without any connection with the company,

except as they delivered the charcoal to the furnace*

Some of the land thus cleared was converted to agricultural uses, a notable example being that on latrobe Furnace lands where "the lands belonging to the furnace have been mostly cleared off, and this present season (1883) 1,000 acres have been planted to corn for an experiment"

(20). In another version, Keeler (23) states that "heretofore all the Fig* 11* Charcoal furnace land following clearing, Jackson County. Circa 1900*

Fig* 12* Buckeye Furnace, Milton Township, Jackson County. May, 1953* 102 furnaces followed somewhat of a reforestation plan, but H. S. Bundy

converted the land to farming tracts, and rented it out to various

people".

As a usual thing, however, natural regeneration of the forests

on company-owned lands followed cutting of the original timber* Day

(8) describes these second-growth forests as follows:

"On 'coaled1 lands the site was left in as good a condition for regeneration as a forester could wish* The close utilization of material left little slash and a good portion of the limbs and brush were dragged to the hearths for covering the 'charges'. Fire was carefully kept out, at least until the completion of the coaling. As a result the new growth on these lands was vigorous, and even today the resulting stands can usually be recognized from a considerable distance by their uniform appear­ ance, particularly the smooth even horizon of their tops* On closer examination many identifying characteristics are to be found, the most important of which are the even-aged condition and the occurrence of the old hearths. The forests are remark­ ably uniform in age, stands covering several hundred acr -s can be found with a variation of not more than four or five years, and frequently areas of one-quarter to one-half acres are found on which the age does not vary over two years.... The forest cover was quickly established on these stands, and where the original forest had been removed the second growth was derived from small advance growth not utilized, some sprouts from the younger stumps, and some seedlings from seed already in the soil. If the area had been coaled previously and the second crop of charcoal wood was being cut, the new stand was almost entirely of sprout origin.... Particularly in the hilly country of south­ eastern Ohio, where fire has not taken its toll, extensive areas of these well-stocked, even-aged forests, ranging from 10 to 1$0 years stand as living testimonials of the possibilities of our hardwood forests under proper management."

The above was written in 1929, with the further conment that "with

the exception of very remote districts (in the Appalachian iron region),

these second-growth stands are being rapidly cut over".

Large tracts of these "even-aged, well-stocked" furnace lands in

Vinton County, in variable condition, were acquired by the Federal and

State Governments in the 1930's, and have since been under the manage- 1C 3

ment of the Division of Forestry of the Department of Natural Resources,

State of Ohio. As of June, 1 952, these, and other la n d s owned a n d /o r

administered by the State, include the following:

(1) Zaleski Forest, consisting of 17,459 acres, 13,304 of which

belong to the U. S. Government, is located principally in Brown, Mad­

ison and Knox Townships, Vinton County. The bulk of this acreage con­

sists of former Hope Furnace and Zaleski Furnace properties.

(2) Raccoon Creek Forest, consisting of 5,400 acres in Vinton and

eastern Clinton Townships, Vinton County, is made up almost entirely of

Hamden and Vinton Furnace tracts. All but 147 acres of this Forest are

leased by the State from the Federal Government.

(3) The Vinton County part of Tar Hollow Forest consists of 2,117

acres in Eagle Township, all but 154 of which are owned by the Federal

Government. No furnace lands are included in this Forest since it lies well out of the area of the iron ore deposits and hence of the charcoal

furnace lands.

(4) Richland Furnace State Forest, consisting of 1,906 acres in

Washington Township, Jackson County, is a part of the old Richland

Furnace lands. Most of this tract had been severely burned prior to its purchase by the State of Ohio in 1948•

Within these Forest areas, i*iich total nearly 25,000 acres in

Vinton County, are on the whole the best preserved forest stands of today. All are second or third growth stands in which the selective cutting practices of forestry management are evident to some degree.

The forestry program of the Division of Forestry calls for the removal

*0 Records of the Division of Forestry, Department of Natural Resources, Columbus, Ohio. 10U

’’of 'poor growing stock', consisting of tress which by reason of their age or form or defect, are no longer c a p a b le of increasing their volume or value".^ fVom July 1 , 1 9 5 0 , to June 30, 195*1, this cutting in c lu d e d

5 57,883 board feet (International scale) of a number of tree s p e c ie s , but mostly Oaks, removed from Zaleski Forest, nearly U00,000 of w h ic h was sold as lumber and the remainder as uncut logs (1). In addition to the naturally reforested areas, the Forests also include large a re a s o f

Pine plantings of various ages, especially in Madison Township in

Zaleski Forest, which also contribute to th e annual forest p ro d u c ts income of the State.

Despite the degree of continuity of the forest cover, w n ic h is unmatched elsewhere in the two counties, in some respects the areas in which these forests are located have become, under forestry practices, among the most difficult of interpretation with respect to the composi­ tion of the original forests, particularly the association dominants.

Old t r e e s , which were a part of the original forest and escaped the axe in the past because of defects of one kind or another, are now non-existent on these lands. Following and during the period of r a p id death of Chestnut (1928-1936), nearly all of the dead trees were re­ moved for fire control, and the dead s p r o u ts of any size have continued to be removed* Somewhat heavier removal of certain species (e.g.,

Beech, Hickories, Gum, and Scarlet Oak) to make way for others for which there is higher market value or greater demand, has been a general policy. And the composition of the forests has been locally influenced through the sparing of certain trees for their ability to naturally re­ seed adjacent areas* 21 From conversation with Mr. 0. A. Alderman, Chief, Division of Forestry, Department of Natural Resources. 105

Second largest land holder in the area, and by far the largest timber cutter, is the Baker Wood Preserving Company, whose wood u tili­

zation plant was established at McArthur in 19U5 following acquisition of large acreages in Vinton, Jackson, and adjacent Counties. The com­ pany now owns^ or manages 20,0hh acres of timber in these two coun­ ties, consisting of U,880 acres owned and h,h70 acres managed in Vinton

County, and 9,851 acres owned and 8U3 acres managed in Jackson County, large blocks of these holdings are also former charcoal furnace lands.

The nearly 3>500-acre tra ct of the Eagle furnace Company in Vinton and eastern Clinton Townships, Vinton County, is managed by th is company for its owner, the New York Coal Company. A large part of at least the

Vinton Furnace tra ct in Madison Township, Vinton County, and the Key­ stone Furnace Company's holdings in Bloom field Township, Jackson County, are owned outright by the Baker Wood Company.

The Baker Wood Preserving Company also employs selective cutting practices, but th e voluira of wood cut annually in relation to acreage a f f e c t e d is much greater than on State-managed lands. From the approxi­ m a te ly 20,000 acres owned or managed in these two counties, an e s ti­ m ated 2,500,000 board f e e t (Doyle scaled) is cut annually, in addition to which another 1,500,000 board f e e t of farm logs, sold to the company by local farmers or other sawyers i n these tw o counties, is utilized at the plant in McArthur. A total, therefore, of U,000,000 board feet, 26 Acreage as of March, 1953* for these, and data on the volume of wood cut per year by this company, the author is indebted to Mr. D. B, Fran?)ton, President, Baker Wood Preserving Company, Columbus, Ohio 29 Doyle scale is not comparable to the International scale. For ex­ ample, an 18 inch log, 12 feet long, contains 170 board feet as meas­ ured on the International scale, but only lh7 board feet when meas­ ured by the Doyle scale. The former is the actual number of board feet that will be obtained from the log. 106 which is two-thirds of the annual cut necessary to sustain operations

of the McArthur plant, come from the forests and woodlots of Vinton and

Jackson Counties. If the annual growth increment is 200 board feet pel1

acre, as is estimated by this company, their own acreage is expected to

withstand an annual cut of 2,500,000 board feet indefinitely and the

permanence of the industry in this area is assured.

Nearly all of the finest privately-owned forested tracts of any

very considerable size remaining in eastern Vinton and Jackson Counties,

a large part of which were charcoal furnace lands, were purchased by

this company in the middle 19li0's, and since that time all have under­

gone rather heavy cutting. Nearly all trees over a foot in diameter

have been removed, and on some tracts, there are few, if any, this

large. In contrast with the State-managed lands, however, there has

not been meticulous removal of Chestnut "snags", nor is there as much

evidence of conscious attempt to reduce the numbers of individuals of

loss desirable species. Except for the areas which were nearly clear-

cut in the early days of the company's operations, these lands have been among the most valuable sources of data for this study*

In addition to the Government and Baker Wood lands, which total about li7,000 acres, there are about U?,000 acres classified as "farm woodlots" in Vinton County, and Ul,000 acres in Jackson County (62).

Most of these have probably been pastured during some period of their history, although 65 percent were reported as unpastured in 19U9.

Among these, and the woodlands of the estimated remaining 50-75,000 acres, not included in the lands described above , or in pasture or cropland (Chp. II), or in town sites, roads, spoil banks from coal and 107 strip mining^®, and the like, only an occasionalstand is good second growth as much as 80 to 100 years old. Most are much younger, and occur on land with variable histories of clearing, fire, or agricultural use.

An undetermined number of sawyers are engaged in removing these in whole or in part, according to the wishes of the owner. In some cases they have been cut over as often as a dozen times in the past 20 years.

A single large forested area is known which, if not undisturbed in its entirety, has at least never been severely cut. This is a 250-acre tract lying along both slopes of a short tributary to Salt Creek in Eagle

Township, a mile south of the Vinton-Hoeking County line. Although like­ ly that there has been removal of certain trees in the past, it is re­ ported not to have been touched at least in the present century, and its aspect and structure throughout is that of a primeval forest. Two other small areas, owned by the Tripp family in Section 1 (south) of Richland

Township, Vinton County, are reported to be remnants of the original for­ est. All else that serves as a reminder of the grandeur of the forests of only a century and a half ago is the occasional old veteran which has been spared along a fencerow, or near a residence, or left to tower over a succession of younger forests because it was defective when first a white man cast his critical and covetous eyes upon it.

30 During the five-year period, January 1, 191*8 - January 1, 1953» 1*68 acres in Vinton and 500 acres in Jackson County were stripped for coal or covered with spoil banks (unpublished data of Ohio Department of Agriculture, Division of Reclamation). Data are not available for acreage stripped prior to January 1, 191*8, when the first strip mine law of Ohio, the "Strip Coal Mining Act", became effective. Since in the previous 15 years (1933-1*7) a slightly lower total tonnage was obtained by stripping in both counties than during this five- year period, and little if any was done before 1933, it is estimated that around 2,000 acres have been stripped for coal or are in spoil banks of some age. Townships especially affected are Swan, Elk, Clinton, Milton, southern Madison, and western Wilkesville. Nearly all clays are obtained through stripping, but no data are available for the acreage affected by these operations. 108

Fig* 13* Hillside pasture on steep Sharon slope. Sec. 17, Liberty Township, Jackson County. February, 1903.

Fig. Hi. Strip-mined area. Clinton Township, Vinton County, llarch, 1951 • 109

CHAPTER V. SOURCES OF DATA AND MANNER OF UTILIZATION

Notwithstanding the condition of the present-day forests, they are

still the most fruitful sources of data available. Hence all parts of

the area accessible by automobile have been visited one or more times,

and in addition many otherwise inaccessible areas have been observed

during field work which has extended over a period of nearly three years (August, 1950 - June, 1953)• During the course of the field

studies, it became evident that, although the secondary and tertiary

forests could be misleading in certain respects, over much of the area

they are still the best indicators of the associations which formed the pattern of the original forest cover.

Utilization of secondary forests of this area toward an understand­

ing of the floristic composition, structure, and aspect of the primary forests has been guided by certain principles which have evolved during this study. These would not necessarily be of utility where the topog­ raphy, lithology, or land use history have differed from that of these two counties.

1. The physical and chemical properties of the soils in no region of the area have been so altered through the direct or indirect conse­ quences of man's activities over such wide and continuous areas but what in at least some localities plant comnunities not unlike the original ones may still grow upon them.

2. The primary controls of the areal and seasonal availability of moisture are the nature of the bedrock, degree of dissection of the land surface, slope exposure, and the precipitation regime. These are con- 1 1 0 stant factors except for th e last-named, and it is doubtful if there have been any fluctuations in seasonal precipitation since 1600 exceed­ ing those to w h ic h the original forests had been exposed. W here there has been change in moisture availability following removal of th- p r i ­ mary forests, it has always been in the direction of reduced availability.

3* No species today occupies a site less mesic (more xeric) than it did in the original forests, regardless of history of the site. For example, wherever Beech grows today, there must also have been moisture adequate for its growth in the original coumunity of such sites. The community as a whole may have lost other species with greater moisture requirements (which species are prosent on comparable sites where there lias been less disturbance), but the most mesic species present today are indicators of the least mesophytic community that could have devel­ oped on this site in the original condition. Communities which reflect less mesic conditions may occur on sites formerly occupied by a more mesic association, but the converse, i.e., the replacement of less mesic primary forests b y more mesic secondary forests, has not occurred.

The secondary forests, therefore, exhibit an areal increase in the more xeric (less mesic) forest types, or, as is more often the case, the more xeric phases of the original forest types*

U* Man has not brought about the extinction of a whole population of any given species in a given area, consciously or otherwise, except­ ing perhaps species with originally restricted distributions. Where a species is wholly absent from an area, it is inferred that it was never in the original forests of that area* For example, the absence today of

Yellow Buckeye in the Sharon conglomerate region of western Jackson Ill

County is interpreted as meaning that the species was not in this area originally, notwithstanding the fact that so-cailed "Buckeye Creek" occurs in the area. If Buckeye had been present originally, it would still be present in at least some localities today as it i s elsewhere, especially in the eastern part of both counties.

5. In areas where a canopy species is abundant today, it was at least a prominent species in the original forest and probably was a dominant, although it may be locally more prominent today than formerly.

The relative abundance of the various species in a community, including both dominants and associated species, has been much more influenced by the activities of man than has the number of species. H ig h frequency of a given species in a present-day conmunity may represent only local variation, often due to fortuity, and while such variations also occurred in the original forests, they were probably neither as extreme nor as numerous•

6. Species with relatively narrow or relatively broad ecological amplitudes are those whose position in the original forests is most subject to incorrect interpretation on the basis of their position in present-day communities. Those species with narrow amplitudes in this area, e.g., Basswood, have undergone the greatest reduction in numbers.

Those with apparent great amplitude, e.g., Shagbark Hickory, which is frequent today in a number of associations, may have increased in numer­ ical importance at the expense of species with greater specificity of habitat. It is not true, however, that all species with broad ecologi­ cal amplitudes are now more prominent than they were in the original forests (e.g., Black Gum). The general relationship between dominance 112 and ecological amplitude, i.e ., species with relatively broad ampli­ tudes are usually the dominant species of upland conmunities, is no less true in the secondary than in the primary forests.

The numerous specific problems related to interpretation of the secondary forests of this area are discussed in Chapter VI in connection with the vegetation areas in which they occur. Some of these problems have arisen because so few forest remnants occur todry over rather ex­ tensive and sometimes discrete areas. For a reconstruction of the pattern of the primary forests in these areas in particular, but also in a ll other areas as well, another source of data has been invaluable, v iz . , the d ia rie s o f the Government and other surveyors who worked in the area at the turn of the eighteenth century.

The easternmost tie r of townships of Vinton County (Brown, Madison,

Knox, Vinton and W ilkesville) were surveyed as a part of the second purchase of land by an organization made up of New Englanders known as the Ohio Company of Associates (U6). Jackson County and the remainder of Vinton County were surveyed as a part of the Government lands re­ ferred to as the "Congress lands east of the Scioto River". Survey of the Ohio Company's Purchase was conducted a t it s own expense in accord­ ance w ith the land ordinance o f 1785, and the Congress Lands were sur­ veyed by Government surveyors under th is ordinance and i t s la te r amend­ ments*

In both areas the land was divided into townships six miles on a side* Townships of the Congress lands were alternately (from north to south) surveyed into 36 square-mile sections and nine four-square mile blocks* Six surveyors participated in these surveys during 1798, 1799, 113 and 1801, and four others completed the subdivision into square-mile

sections in 1805, where this remained to be done (Table 11). The

townships lying in the Ohio Company’s purchase were divided into

square^nile sections for the most part, but also into a number of 262-

acre tracts to enable equable distribution of the land to stockholders.

The system of numbering sections was also different in the two surveys.

These differences, together with many other details relating to the

manner in which the surveying o f both areas was executed, have been re ­

corded by Sherman (1*6) • The Ohio Company survey was made in 1798 by

two surveyors working at the same time in different parts of a given

township; in the Congress Lands, each township was entrusted to one

man except where subdivisions were made later as noted above. Of these

surveyors, whose work antedated white settlements in this area except

possibly around the Salt Licks in Jackson County, Sherman (1*6) writes:

’’The e a rly surveyors o f the Seven Ranges, the Ohio Company Purchase, and the lands between the Miamis were in almost as much danger as the surveyors of old Virginia lands, because Congress had definitely adopted the policy of surveys in ad­ vance of the sale and settlement of public lands. So the Government surveyors were then as they have been since, pioneers in the untamed wilderness. After the Greenville treaty (1795) Indian troubles had abated, but there remained the d ifficu ltie s of extending survey lines over densely wooded h ills , through brushy dales, and across boggy swamp lands, without roads through forests upon which to bring supplies, nor bridges upon which to cross swollen rivers. land was exceedingly cheap, surveying instruments were crude, and the surveyor was paid only two or three dollars in depreciated currency per mile of line surveyed, from which he had to pay the salaries and expenses of his entire p a rty . **

Among the duties of the deputy surveyor and his party, a s he systematically "chained” his way through a ll parts of each township, were the follow ing*^ 31 !From winstructions for Deputy Surveyors" by E. T iffin , Surveyor Gen­ eral United States (1*6). liu Table 11. Deputy surveyors, townships surveyed, and date of survey o f the Congress Lands East o f the Scioto R iver and the Ohio Com­ pany's Second Purchase lying within the present boundaries of Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio.

Deputy Surveyor Vinton Co* Date Jackson Co. Date

Jesse Spencer Eagle A p r., 1801 Jackson Mar., 1801 R ichland A p r., 1801 Lick, so. Coal Dec., 1801

Thomas W orthington H arrison A p r., 1799 Washington, Jackson Nov., 1798 no. Coal Aug., 1799 May, 17 99

E lia s Langham L ib e rty May, 1798 June, isor Scioto June, 1801 June, 17981 Hamilton rtpr * ^ 17 99 F ra n k lin May, 1798

John G. Macan Jefferson June, 1801 Madison Lug., 1801'

Benjamin F. Stone Swan Nov., 1801 Bloomfield Oct., 1301 C lin to n Nov., 1801

Levi Whipple Elk June, 1798 M ilto n June, 1798 W ilkesville J u ly , 1798* Madison July, 1798

Jonathan Stone and J e ffre y Mathewson Brown ) Madison ) Knox ) Began A p r., 1798 Vinton ) W ilkesville) SUBDIVISIONS

James Denny H arrison 1805 L ib e rty 1805 Hamilton 1805

John C o lle tt Jackson 1805 Washington, no. , Coal 1805 E lk 1805 M ilto n 1805

Thomas Evans F ra n k lin 1805

Joseph Fletcher Madison 1805 Tier of six sections surveyed as a part of another township not in Vinton or Jackson Countyj in W ilkesville Township, six sections not surveyed as a p a rt o f the Ohio Company's Purchase. 115 "You will be careful to note in your field book all the courses and distances you shall have run, the names and estimated diameters of all corner or bearing trees, and those trees which fall in your line called Station or line trees notched as afore­ said, together with the courses and distances of the bearing trees from their respective corners, with the letters and numbers marked on them as aforesaid; also all rivers, creeks, springs and smaller streams of water, with their width, and the course they run in crossing the lines of survey, and whether navigable, rapid or mountainous; the kinds of timber and undergrowth with which the land may be covered, all swamps, ponds, stone quarries, coal beds, peat or turf grounds, uncommon natural, or artificial productions, such as mounds, precipices, caves, etc., all rapids, cascades or falls of water; minerals, ores, fossils, etc.; the quality of the soil and the true situation of all mines, salt licks, salt springs and mill seats, which may come to your know­ ledge are particularly to be regarded and noticed in your field books."

The field notes thus recorded, and preserved either in the original or

as copies, are among the oldest and most valuable documents available

to the historian or surveyor of southern Ohio. Copies of the field notes for the Congress lands reside in the vault of the State Auditor's office, State House, Columbus, Ohio; and the original field notebooks, presumably in the handwriting of Jonathan Stone and Jeffrey Mathewson who surveyed the eastern tier of townships in Vinton County for the

Ohio Company, are in the office of the Librarian, Marietta College,

Marietta, Ohio*32

Thoroughness with which the instructions noted above were carried out, varied with the surveyor. By all, two or sometimes three bearing

(witness) trees were cited at each section corner, and in some surveys, two additional trees were also notched and recorded at "half-section" comers. Only certain of the surveyors cited trees occurring in the survey line. But the greatest variability of significance here is in

32 Permission of the late Mr. 0. B. Clifton, Deputy State Supervisor of School and Ministerial Lands, Office of the Auditor of state, and Mr. 0. J. Blasier, Librarian, Marietta College, to copy these field notes in their entirety is gratefully acknowledged. 11 6 the generalized descriptions of the vegetation occurring along each mile or segment of a mile. The forests, including the secondary layer, were rather meticulously described by some, but by others, the shortest description possible sufficed. Hence the extent to which these descrip­ tions, hereafter referred to as the "line descriptions", can be used as sources of data regarding the original vegetation is as variable as the care with which the several surveyors made and noted observations of tne forests through which they passed. AH of them, however, are of con­ siderable interest in this study, since they are the only known descrip­ tive record of the original forests of this area ever written. Field notes w ith such a comprehensive coverage of an area, have not been used in previously published Ohio primary vegetation studies.

Witness trees, line trees, and line descriptions were recorded on the topographic quadrangles of the area, certain of which have been reproduced in Chapter VI. Although the present-day section lines some­ times d iffe r as much as one-eighth to one-quarter mile from those run in the original survey, usually there are enough reference points given in the survey notes to enable accurate distinction of at least the upland data from that of the lowlands. In some cases, notably from the data of Levi Whipple, the line followed by the surveyor can be traced rather precisely on the topographic map, even though it does not exactly coincide with today's section or township line. In the case of Whipple, who made frequent record of the vegetation along the

rather than a summary at the end of the mile, the particular slope, ridge, or portion of a bottomland described can be precisely located on the map and in the fie ld . This is mostly not the case with other 117

surveyora, however. Excellent notes made in this area by Anselm Tupper

in 1788 and a Mr. Green in 1789, which are among the Marietta College

collection, are unusable because their lines cannot be followed on the

map.

Reliance upon the survey data as an important source of information

about the primary forests is based upon the following assumptions:

1. The trees (and shrubs) were correctly identified for the most

part. This implies a rather thorough acquaintance of the surveyors with

the species they found in this area, an assumption which seems to be well justified. Only in a few instances has there been cause for doubt

in their identification, and in these cases there is usually no diffi­

culty understanding what species was meant, e.g., Pin Oak on a ridgetop was undoubtedly Scarlet Oak. Altogether about 60 different species were mentioned, although the names used by each surveyor were not necessarily the same; of these, were tree species, and all but one of the remainder were shrubs. Greatest number of species mentioned by any one surveyor was UO by Elias Langham, 39 by Benjamin Stone, and 38 by Levi Whipple. Fewest was nine by John Collett, whose subdivision notes are likewise the poorest from all other points of view. The

Hickories were not distinguished by any surveyor, and the specific Pines,

Walnuts, and Locusts were named only by some. Otherwise the trees re­ ferred to as "Water Oak" and "Swamp Oak" are the only ones which are not translatable with reasonable certainty into species, and they but rarely occur in the notes. The "P. Ash" of Joseph Denny was probably

Fraxinus americana var. biltmorsana, since Pumpkin Ash (F. toaentosa) is not known to occur in the area. 118

2. No bias was shown in the selection of witness trees, and there was some uniformity in the bases used for the line descriptions, at least those of any given surveyor. Tree species mentioned in the line descriptions were the conspicuous ones, but whether they attracted the surveyor's attention because of relative abundance, size of individuals, potential wood value, or even rarity of occurrence, the choice was a subjective one and probably varied with the different surveyors or even the same surveyor. However, in most line descriptions it appears that numerical importance was the principal criterion used. It is further assumed that the "mile descriptions" were usually based upon the promi­ nent species in the forests along a whole mile, or half mile, as the case may have been, and not merely upon the species within sight at the time of recording. It cannot be assumed that all species mentioned in a given mile description were a part of the same cotsuunity, or that beyond the first two or three named there was any relationship between order of naming and numerical abundance.

Certain generalizations can be made concerning the inferences which can be drawn from the surveyors' data in this area. The state­ ments which follow apply only to areas in which there is strongly three-dimensional topography, such as that of the Allegheny Plateau in

Ohio, and where all of these data, especially the line descriptions, are available.

1. The survey data rather clearly indicate the following} (a) The regions in which the more prominent tree species of the area were most and least abundant; (b) tbs dominant species of the most characteristic upland community, or comnunities (with certain exceptions noted below); 119 and (c) the general part of the area in which this community predominated,

and sometimes a definition of its boundaries, depending upon the qual­

ity of the notes.

2. The more simple the community is floristically, the more sug­

gestive are the survey data of its presence and a real prominence, e .g.,

Oak-Hickory. Likewise, the more complex the community the less suggest­

ive are the data, and where the community is composed of a relatively

large number of species, e.g., Mixed Mesophytic, its presence usually

would not even be suspected from the data alone, unless superior field

notes are available.

3. Communities occupying a relatively small proportion of the

total area are detectable only where revealed through the presence of

a particular species known to be an indicator of that conmunity, e.g.,

Hemlock and the Hemlock-Mixed Mesophytic association. Since valley

bottoms constitute only a small fraction of the total area, relatively

few data are available for the forests of the floodplains and terraces;

exceptions are in valleys a half mile or more wide.

U. The greater the dissection, in general, the fewer the infer­

ences which can be drawn concerning any but the most widespread upland

communities. This is related to an increase in the number and area of

floriatically complex coB&unitiea•

5# Witness and line trees constitute a very small sample of a large population in any given area, but the frequency of citation of at least the more abundant species is usually in close agreement with their frequency of citation in the line descriptions. Hence the popu­ lation sa^ale is to be considered an excellent one, and somewhat greater importance can be attached to it than would ordinarily be justified in 1 2 0

view of its size* Witness and line trees are uniformly comparable

over the whole area, but the line descriptions of the various surveyors

are often difficult of comparison by any one method of analysis because

of the variability in general quality and style of recording; the line

descriptions of any one surveyor, however, are comparable* The specific

maimer of analysis of all data is elaborated in connection with the vege­

tation areas in Chapter 71.

While the survey data have bean an invaluable source of informa­

tion, it would be a fallacy to suppose that from them alone, anything

resembling a detailed picture of the pattern of the original forest

communities could be inferred. Their principle utility with respect

to the pattern and composition of the primary forest types of this area

is in the corroboration of inferences drawn from the present-day for­

ests; and it is only when used in conjunction with intensive field

study in this three-dimens ional topography that both their real value

and their limitations become apparent. These data, like the present-

day forests, require interpretation, and only when each is employed as

a background for interpreting the other can the ma-ari muyn number of valid

conclusions be drawn from both* In one part of the area (Salt Creek

valley), these data of necessity have been the sole source of informa­

tion concerning the original forests, and in other regions they alone

have suggested certain problems which might not otherwise have been recognised*

An additional source of information has been certain long-time resi­ dents of the area who in their lifetimes have known of or perhaps have helped to cut stands of virgin timber* Such information Is usually 121 subject to local application only, and, like the secondary forests and the survey records, requires interpretation because the quality of the information is highly variable. 122

CHAPTER VI. THE PRIMARY FORESTS

The primary forests of Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, were a

part of the Deciduous forests of the Appalachian Plateaus lying entirely

within the Mixed Mesophytic Forest region of Braun (5) and Chestnut-

Chestnut Oak-Yellow Poplar region of Shantz and Zon (U5) • Nearly all

sites of the area were at the time of European immigration covered by

forests of one kind or another, in which more than 60 tree species

occupied the canopy and understory layers. It is the combinations of

these species, as they occurred in the primeval forests, with ltfiich

this investigation has been primarily concerned. The assemblages

formed a complex mosaic on the uplands and in the lowlands, with the

continuity of the forest cover broken only by occasional treeless

swamps in the bottoms, or areas denuded by fire. That the primeval

forests were spotted with fire-ravaged areas, sometimes covering sev­ eral square miles, is testified to by the numerous references of the

surveyors to timber which in the period 1 798-1801 had been recently more or less destroyed by fire and oftentimes already replaced by

"thick underbrush" or a "thick growth of saplings" •

The general pattern of the plant conmunities appears to have been originally, as it is today, under the major control of soil noisture.

On residual soils, moisture gradients are governed by the nature of the underlying rock, degree of dissection of the land surface, topo­ graphic position, and slope exposure. Over alluvial and lacustrine soils of the bottomlands, these gradients ore under control of the physical properties of the parent materials and proximity to the water table at all seasons of the year* On the uplands the overall pattern

of the vegetation is controlled by the variations in quantities of

water available and how effectively it is conserved, but in the low­

lands, to variations in its accumulation and how effectively it is re­

moved* In either case, it is the quantity of water which is present

which directly or indirectly becomes the most effective variable in the

distribution of the plant communities over the area* The critical factor

or factors governing the floristic composition of these communities,

however, may be related also to certain other edaphic conditions, local

climatic regimes, or historical events which have modified the flora

and its specific distribution in this area*

Communities of the original forests over residual soils were nearly

all in equilibrium with the climate and s elf-perpetuating, and there is

no evidence that forest succession, except in disturbed areas, was occur­

ring, or ever would occur, so long as the macroclimate did not markedly

change and the uplands remain maturely dissected* Without such changes,

xeric habitats will remain excessively drained as long as the habitat

exists, and slopes, or parts of slopes, which are continuously moist

from seepage water will continue indefinitely to be mesic sites occu­ pied by the same plant communities* To say that Oak-Hickory, for ex­ ample, where it occurs today would ever be succeeded by any other associ­ ation, is to ignore the controls of the differentiation of this forest type, i»a*, the bedrock and topography, and the constancy and permanency with which these factors have operated, and will continue to operate in­ definitely, so long as southeastern Ohio lies in a Deciduous Forest climate and dissection is not accelerated* The term "climax", therefore, 12U

is a term which appears to have little meaning when used in connection

with the upland vegetation of this area. No one association represents

the climax in the sense that it is the end of a theoretical forest suc­

cession on the uplands, for there is no replacement of one association

by another. Nor is there any one association which fits the climatic

climax of Braun ($), which "occupies the average sites", for it appears

to be an impossibility to choose just what might constitute an "average"

site in a region of such great site heterogeneity. Only in the sense

that a climax community is one which is self-perpetuating and in equi­

librium with the climate can the term climax be used in this kind of

topography, in which case all upland communities of the original forests

described here are climatic climaxes. More appropriately, they might

be referred to as edaphic or physiographic climaxes which will persist

as long as the climate and topography remain unchanged.

In the lowlands, however, forest succession does occur with changes

in drainage as stream channels are deepened and the position of the

forests above the water table is altered. In the sense that a climax

association is one which is not only self-perpetuating and in equilibrium with the climate, but also terminates a succession of forest types on

the 8 ame site, then there is a general climax association over non­ residual soils in this area. But even here, there were certain communi­

ties which would never be replaced by others unless the present edaphic

conditions were modified by the deposition of new parent materials, in which case the site is a new and different one. 125

The two counties have been divided into three vegetation areas

(Plate V), which closely coincide with the three physiographic areas

distinguished in Chapter III. The coincidence of the physiographic

and vegetational areas is considered to be a natural one, since it is

in the bedrock properties that the bases of differentiation of both

reside* Differences in properties of the Cuyahoga, Logan, Pottsville,

Allegheny, and Conemaugh rocks of the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian

systems have been the ultimate control of the variations in physio­

graphic features, including the extent to which they have been modified by historical events* Differences in these and other properties of the bedrock types, through their direct or indirect influence upon the

edaphic and microclimatic conditions, have resulted in variations in

the vegetation from one region to another*

No one of these three areas is vegetationally distinct* For the most part, the same plant communities occur with variable intensity in all three* Their distinction, therefore, is a somewhat artificial one,

since the occurrence of most communities to at least some extent through­ out points to an overall vegetational unity* Each of the areas, however,

is distinguished by the outstanding prominence of certain associations, which may be either absent or sparingly present in one or both of the other areas, and such associations impart a more or less distinct unity to the regions in which they occur* These communities, which reflect and emphasize the differences in topography, soils, parent materials, and bedrock, constitute the principal basis for the division of the counties into three vegetation areas*

Since the topography, soils, parent materials, and bedrock do not necessarily change along marked geographic boundaries, the delimitation of these areas, aa Indicated on Plate V, cannot be more than an approxi­ mation of the regions in wich there were certain vegetation differences in the original forests* Because of the complexities in the mosaic of the plant communities in this three-dimensional topography, and their overlapping occurrence in the vegetation areas, any effort to record all or part of them on a single map is not feasible. Therefore, no vegetation map purporting to show the distribution of the associations is presented here, since such a map requires a geographic preciseness which of necessity is lacking in this region of variable topography, bedrock, and physiographic history. The regions in which the various associations appear to have reached their best development within each of the vegetation areas, however, are pointed out in the text.

Scientific names of trees and shrubs referred to in the following pages by common names are listed on pages 286 and 287. Scientific names are essentially those of Gray's Manual, Eighth Edition* Plate V. Location of vegetation areas in Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio.

Area I Marietta River area Area II Raccoon Creek area Area III Salt Creek area 128

'4. s* f,

5 M O H VNssSJCfc if-.SB! 12?

AREA. I: MARIETTA RIVHt AREA.

Approximately 300 square miles are included within this vegetation

area, lying in central and southern Jackson County and in a peninsula

extending northward into south central Vinton County. It is the area

traversed by the major preglacial rivers, i.e., the Teays and its prin­

cipal tributary, the Marietta River, and the latter*s largest tributary

in these counties, Hamden Creek. The area coincides closely with

Physiographic Area 3 (Chp. III).

Except for ridges along the preglacial divides, the whole area was presumably inundated by Lake Tight and lacustrine deposits of

varying thickness laid down. Those on the uplands have mostly long

since bean eroded away, but over 100 feet of fill remains in the aban­

doned major river valleys and other lowland areas, in all of which

drainage has barely become established again and downcutting through

the sediments has progressed but slowly. Because of the deep valley

fill and relatively low resistance of the more or less friable Penn­

sylvanian sandstones and shales which outcrop throughout this area,

local relief is uniformly low (mostly 100-200 feet). Ridges are well rounded, and slopes are characteristically long and of relatively low gradient, becoming steeper near the preglacial divides. This gently rolling to moderately steep topography is only locally represented in the other vegetation areas*

In this area correlation between location of bedrock and vegeta­ tion is strikingly evident. Certain species are absent, become spor­ adic, or of general distribution, or even dominant, in north-south 130

bands whoaa direction Is In accordance with the dip of the strata and

hence with the various aged rock outcrops of the area. The inference

that major control of the vegetation in this Plateau area is soil

moisture, and that this in turn is governed largely by physical prop­

erties of the underlying rock, is evident when the distribution of

these species, and the communities of which they are a part (or are

absent ftom) is followed from west to east across the area. This re­

lationship between vegetation, soil moisture, and bedrock appears to

hold in general throughout the whole two-county area, but is nowhere

else as clearly manifested as here where the vegetation as a whole is

at its simplest, and the distribution of particular species, which may

be used as indicators of moisture availability, can be easily followed

from one part of the area to another. In general, the more mesic com­

munities pass from floristically simple ones in the western part to

more complex ones in the eastern part, coincident with the outcrop of

successively younger Pennsylvanian rocks across central and southern

Jackson County. As the communities become more complex, the boundaries

become less distinct, as a result of which the eastern boundary of

this vegetation area has in places been more or less arbitrarily set,

as discussed later. The northwestern boundary, however, is rather dis­

tinct, following the preglacial Salt Creek-Hamden Creek divide and the

Marietta valley, beyond both of which occur marked changes in topog­ raphy, presumably associated with changes in lithology.

Mo one vegetational characteristic distinguishes this area from the other vegetation areas, but a combination of characters does de­ limit it rather well. These are as follows * 131

1* Upland plant coianunities were prevailingly Oak-Hickory. Al­

though this association may also have been the most prominent In Area

II, it was as a part of a mosaic with other Oak conmunities, and was represented principally by the drier phase. In the present area, the

comunity was only locally replaced by other types on the uplands, and was most commonly represented by its moister phase.

2. Oak-Chestnut was either not present, or present only locally, although Chestnut was an associated species of the Oak-Hickory through­ out, most of the area. In Areas II and III, and especially the latter,

Oak-Chestnut was distinctly the most prominent, or one of the most prominent upland communities.

3. Oak-Pine comnunities were absent except in eastern and south­ ern Madison Township, Jackson County. Outside of this area, the Pines were not prominent enough to be considered even associated species of the upland communities• Oak-Pine communities elsewhere were either widespread, as in Area III, or of local occurrence throughout, as in

Area II.

It. Oak-Hickory-Tuliptree communities were well-developed and widely represented in certain parts of this area, but were not a wide­ spread type in the other vegetation areas. In the vicinity of the major preglacial divides, Oak-Chestnut-Tulip tree was the prevailing type} this association was of such greater areal prominence in Areas

II and III.

£• Oak-Sugar Maple communities, in which Beech is entirely absent and Sugar Maple is clearly one of the dominants, occurred in the west­ ern part of the area. Elsewhere in the two counties, Beech is always 1 3 2

associated with 3ugar Maple in coianunities where the latter is of

numerical importance, except perhaps in certain local areas of Area II*

6. Mixed Mesophytio conmunities were mostly absent, but were

weakly developed in the eastern part of the area* These were well de­

veloped and prominent elsewhere, especially in Area III*

7* The filled, abandoned preglacial valleys in this area were

covered mostly by White Oak forests; elsewhere, these topographic sites

were occupied by Beech-Sugar Maple conmunities, which were mostly

absent throughout the present area*

8* Swamp forests were distinguished by Pin Oak-Red Maple com­

munities; in Areas II and III, this type was mostly not represented,

and never more than locally*

In this vegetation area, the order in which the plant comnunities

are considered is first, the upland conmunities which occur throughout,

and secondly, those which are confined, or mostly so, to the western,

central, and finally the eastern parts of the area where they occur

mostly in north-^outh bands coincident with the outcrop of successively younger Pennsylvanian rocks* The latter also follows, in general, the

order of complexity of the communities as they appear when the region

is crossed from west to east*

Oak-Hiclcorr association

Throughout this area open forests of Oak-Hickory almost uniformly constituted the upland plant communities, and White Oak was without question by far the most abundant species* There is some doubt, there­ fore, about the proper name for these communities, but although White Oak 133

occurs with such outstanding prominence, other species are equally

characteristic and are well represented, if not generally as abundant.

Hence these communities are here referred to as Oak-Hickory, with the

realization that they might justifiably be called White Oak comnunities

over much of the area and the codominants named below considered more

or less prominent associates.

Two phases of the Oak-Hickory, a moister and a drier phase, and

their intergradations, appear to have occurred in this area. Neither,

of course, is a moist site comnunity, both reflecting a critical water

supply at least during certain seasons of the year or during drought

years. There is no evidence that the causes of moisture deficiency in

this particular area are climatic, or that as long as present-day

topography and climate are maintained, uplands will ever be dominated by any but this vegetation type. That Oak-Hickory was so widespread

and well developed over such a large area is believed to be the result primarily of the prevailing low relief, and secondarily to heavier- textured soils associated with the presence of shales, and in the eastern part clays, in the Pennsylvanian rocks. In areas of low relief, regardless of bedrock type, accumulation of water in bedrock is at a minimum, since surface area above stream level is an obvious factor governing the amount of water percolating down to and through bedrock.

In such terrain its availability to plants becomes largely dependent upon current precipitation, and drought periods, such as that of 1930

(Chp. Ill) or those which are characteristic of late summer and autumn in this region, nay eliminate most tree species which might otherwise grow on these uplands. White Oak, a species of great ecological ampli­ 1 3 k

tude and without a doubt the most abundant species of the two counties

both in the original and secondary forests, appears to be well adapted

to the rigorous soil moisture regimes which obtain on the >lopes and

ridges of these low hills*

The dominant position of White Oak, and relatively low frequency

of Chestnut Oak and Chestnut except in areas of greater relief, may

also be related to heavier soils derived from shales which outcrop

throughout the area* White Oak was also the dominant species over the

heavy-textured ICinford clays of the major preglacial valleys, as dis­

cussed later* Although the extreme edaphic conditions of the uplands

and these valleys would not necessarily be the result of the same

causes, the known widespread presence of shales and clays in the bedrock

outcrops suggests a relationship between the Oak-Hickory here and

heavier-textured soils* In the other vegetation areas, where relief on

the whole is greater, the correlation between heavier soils and this

association is a rather distinct one*

The aoister phase of the Oak-Hickory, in general, occupied slopes

of lesser gradient, or lower slopes in areas of greater relief and

greater slope gradients* On the latter slopes, it extended somewhat

farther up on north- and east-facing exposures, or was confined to the upper portions of such slopes occupied by a more me sic comnunity on the

lower part* Dominants were, in their common order of abundance, White

Oak, Black Oak, and Shagbark Hickory, and associated canopy species were Red Oak, Black Gum, Red Hickory, Mocker nut, Red Uaple, Sour wood, and Sassafras, and sometimes Chestnut and Shingle Oak* When other more masic species were present as scattered individuals, particularly 135

Tuliptree and Sugar Maple, the community was not strictly this one,

but a transition to one of the more me sic types discussed later*

The drier phase occurred on the driest sites of the area, that

is, the gentle ridges and uPP®r south- and west-facing slopes, especi­

ally where local relief was greater* Here dominants were Black Oak,

White Oak, Pignut, Mockernut, and often Chestnut Oak. Associates were

especially Chestnut, Shagbark Hickory, Post Oak and Scarlet Oak, and

Black Gum, Red Maple and Sourwood*

Areally the moister phase was more important, or perhaps more

accurately, transitional communities more closely related to the

moister phase may have occupied more upland area than either phase in

itself* A common transition type in the secondary forests today is

one composed primarily of White Oak, Black Oak, Shagbark Hickory,

Mockernut, Pignut, and Post Oak; Chestnut Oak and Scarlet Oak from

the drier phase, and the more mesic Hickories and Red Oak from the moister phase, are essentially absent* This may have been a widespread

type in the original forests, but since it is roally the moister phase,

through the dominance of White and Black Oak and Shagbark Hickory, it may also be the result of disturbance*

It is likely that the transition between phases was never sharp, but structure and aspect were much the same throughout, thus emphasis­ ing that both are but phases of the same association* Forests were open, though probably not park-like, the understory was predominantly

Dogwood, and ground cover sparse* Ericaceous species were either absent or inconspicuous*

(X>vious abundance of the Hickories nearly everywhere today in the woodlots of the area, no matter what their history since time of settle- ment, would doubtless be misleading as a measure of their frequency

in the original forest* But their position, as a group with respect

to all other species, is today what it was in the original forests,

that is, second only to White and Black Oak; this is clearly evident

in the survey records.

So many surveyors participated in the surveys, each with his own

style of recording line descriptions, that it is not feasible to at­

tempt a comparative analysis of these data over such a large area. The

common denominator of all, however, is the nearly 100 percent mention

of Oaks, which, where distinguished, are usually "White and Black Oak",

or frequently just "White Oak" or "Hansome White Oak" or "White Oak, etc.

and "Hickory" which almost always stands next to the Oaks in order of

naming and is cited far more often than any other species or group of

species excepting the Oaks (up to 77 percent of all descriptions in any

one township). Bulk of the "Hickory" was undoubtedly Shagbark, with

Pignut and Mockernut making up most of the remainder; none is believed

to have been Shellbark in this vegetation area. The picture from these

nearly 900 line descriptions covering the whole area is distinctly one

of great abundance of White Oak with much Black Oak and Hickory, and an

under story principally of Dogwood and "Hickory brush". Chestnut Oak is mentioned only a few times, corroborating the belief that this species was confined to certain topographic sites which are not areally Important

Chestnut is much more often mentioned (up to 30 percent of the descrip­ tions in Jefferson Township), but its more frequent citation is appar­ ently due in large part to its dominance in the Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree association in this region, although it was also an associate of the

Oak-Hickory. 137 Frequency of these sane species among the witness trees and trees

cited in the survey lines is indicated in Table 12.

Table 12• Percentage of certain species cited as witness and line trees in vegetation Area I during land surveys of 1798-1805•

Minimum % in Maximum % in Avg. % in any twp, any twp. all taps.

White Oak bit 60 51 Balck Oak 6 23 17 Chestnut Oak 0 8 2 Hickory 7 21 12

Sum of the above 69 93 82

Chestnut 0 U 3

On an average, 79 percent of all trees cited in the whole area were

White and Black Oak and Hickory, the first two occurring in a ratio of

three to one. Chestnut Oak again is not one of the prominent species*

Although the sample is not largo (1909 trees), it is in excellent

agreement with the surveyors* notations of what they saw on the land­

scape* Lowest total percentages of the first four species occur in

townships where certain others (Tuliptree, Gum, and/or Red Maple) are

especially high because of other associations which are also well

represented*

Of interest in connection with the Salt Lick region, which lay within the present vegetation area, is the description of the landscape by Col* James Smith, mho mas captured in Pennsylvania in 1755 by the

Indians and accompanied his captors on a salt-making expedition while

in Ohio* He wrote as follows t 138 "We then roved to the Buffalo Lick where we killed several buffaloes, and in their small brass kettles, they (the Indians) ■ads about a half a bushel of salt, I suppose this Lick was about 30 or UO miles from the aforesaid town and somewhere be­ tween the Muskingum, Scioto and Ohio, About the Licks were clear open woods, and thin white oak land and at that time there were large roads leading to the Licks like wagon roads," (67)

It is not certain that the Scioto Salt Licks were those to which he referred, but if so, his description of the forests is at no variance with those of the surveyors who passed through the same area almost a half a century later*

Position of Chestnut in the Oak-Hickory comnunities is made some­ what more obscure in this area than in others because it was usually an associated species, a higher percentage of the land has been cleared of any forest cover, and what dead Chestnut there was has been largely cut for fence posts and other uses# In general, it appears to have been most abundant where Chestnut Oak was also present, and here, as elsewhere in the two counties, this appears to be on slopes under­ lain by massive sandstones in the areas of generally greater relief*

That Chestnut was not usually a dominant species in the forests of this area is probably related in some way to the more or less heavy shale or clay interbedding which occurs throughout the Pennsylvanian rocks; that it was present as an associated species of the Oak-Hickory, however, is likely related to the general dominance of sandstones in this vegetation area* The areas in which it is most abundant are those in which at least the caprock appears to be massive sandstone, and here, as well as on local sites throughout the area, it was sometimes sufficiently prominent that the forests were Oak-Chestnut conmunities 139 rather than the usual Oak-Hickory of the uplands. The occurrence of

Oak-Chestnut in this vegstation area, however, is of but little sig­

nificance in so far as total surface area is concerned.

Oak-Sugar Maple and Oak-Sugar Maple-Tuliptree associations

In southeastern Liberty, and central and western Scioto and Ham­

ilton Townships, an area bounded very approximately by the Marietta valley to the north and Dever Valley to the south, ravine bottoms and lowermost slopes were occupied by Oak-Sugar Maple or sometimes Qak-

Sugar Maple-Tuliptree communities. Mississippian rocks are above stream level as much as 60 feet in some of the principal stream valleys, but for the most part upland ravines and valleys in general have been carved from sandstones, shales, and clays of lower Pottsville age.

Bedrock, however, is characterized by less shale and clay interbedding above stream level than in the upper Pottsville and Allegheny beds to the east. Whether the principal sandstones axe here the Sharon, the younger Massillon, or both, or perhaps some other member unnamed as yet in the lower Pottsville of western Jackson County, is not known. The low and gently rounded hills are seldom more than 1 $ 0 feet high, with slopes of usually low gradient but sometimes locally steep.

The siost moist sites in this area were occupied by a community consisting principally of White and Red Oak (the more mesic Oaks from the upland Oak-Hickory), Sugar Maple including Black Maple, and locally

Tuliptree. Sugar Maple probably was more consistently present than

Tuliptree, usually more abundant, and occurred more frequently higher UiO on the slopes. Associated canopy trees were relatively few in number

of species and abundance of individuals, the most prominent being

Black Walnut, Shagbark and Red Hickories, Chestnut, Red Maple, Black

Gum, Shkigle Oak, and Black Cherry; White Vfalnut, White Ash, and Bitter-

nut Hickory were occasionally present; and Redbud, Dogwood, and Witch

Hazel were scattered throughout. The abundance of young Sugar Maples

today along parts of Jacko Run and Sugarcamp Creek suggests that the

Oak-Sugar Maple conmunities may have reached their best development in

this part of southern Scioto Township. Certainly nowhere in the area

is there better evidence of suitability of site for Sugar Maple today.

The line descriptions and bearing and line trees of Major Elias

Langham, who surveyed the area in 1799 and 1801, scarcely refer to any

species except the Oaks and Hickory, exclusive of the Teays and Marietta

valleys* Red Oak is cited as a witness tree more frequently here than

anywhere else in the two counties. Although the presence of these two

conmunities here cannot be inferred from the survey records, failure to

mention "Sugartree" and "Poplar" emphasizes what has been indicated

above, namely, that these were almost strictly ravine bottom and lower­

most slope types, and hence areally unimportant. The survey records,

however, da rather accurately delimit the eastern boundary of these

conmunities, especially in Scioto Township, through the localized

citations of Tuliptree in the line descriptions and as a witness and

line tree in eastern Scioto and Hamilton Townships. Along the line at which these citations begin, Oak-Sugar Maple conmunities today are

sharply replaced by Oak-Tuliptree conmunities in the coves, ravines,

and north- and east-facing slopes* The latter are the prevailing mi mesic communities from here on east through Jefferson, Franklin, and

Lick Townships. The boundary apparently coincides with an abrupt change in bedrock, and that it is yet today quite a distinct one is strikingly evident when the landscape is viewed from certain ridges in eastern Scioto and Hamilton Townships at the time of peak autumn color­ ation. The coincidence of this boundary in the secondary forests with that of the original forests, as indicated by Langham's notes, is of considerable interest considering the long-time disturbance of the forests of this area.

Contrast between the communities of north- and south-facing slopes is less well marked in this area than anywhere else in the two counties, since the effects of slope exposure here appear to be mostly offset by the relatively low soil moisture levels on all slopes. Lowermost slopes apparently have sufficient water of percolation from the predom­ inating sandstones above to enable Sugar Maple, and locally Tulip tree, to grow well, but amounts inadequate, at least during periods of low precipitation, for Beech and many other mesic species to survive*

That particularly low soil moisture levels generally occur throughout this area, at least periodically, may perhaps also be inferred from the average diameters of the White Oak witness and line trees here, as compared with those in all other townships of the two counties* In

Hamilton, Soioto, and Liberty Townships, the average diameter of this species was from 12 to 1U inches, which is from two to eight inches less than that in any other township*

The 0ak-6ugar Maple association, which is not known to occur any­ where else in these two counties, except perhaps very locally in Area II, 1U2 appears to be the Plateau equivalent of the Oak-Maple of Sampson (hi),

Dobbins (10), and others, which occurs as a transitional community between Beech-Sugar Maple and Oak-Hickory near the prairie areas of glaciated Ohio* In the present area, it merely occupies the most moist upland sites in a region otherwise characterized by Oak-Hickory communities. The substrates here and in glaciated Ohio are notably unlike, but as described by Dobbins, the composition of the communi­ ties is almost identical with respect to both the dominant and associ­ ated canopy species. Hence the moisture conditions which obtain in both areas are inferred to be nearly the same, or at least equivalent, including the intense effects of periodic drought which characterize both.

The essential absence of Beech in this area is of considerable interest. Beech is known to occur in but two places in eastern Scioto

Township, and by hearsay at one place in Hamilton Township. That this species was also essentially absent in the original forests is suggested by the survey data (Plate VI). Farther east in central and southern

Jackson County, communities in which Beech is present are more frequent but highly sporadic, indicating a close relationship between bedrock and the distribution of this species. Except for the Oak-Sugar Maple association here in southwestern Jackson County, Beech and Sugar Maple occur in the same conmunities elsewhere in the two counties. From what is known of the distribution of these two species with respect to mois­ ture conditions, it might be inferred that the absence of Beech in the

Oak-Sugar Maple is the result of insufficient moisture since the mois­ ture requirements of Beech appear to be slightly higher than those of

Sugar Maple. However, in numerous valleys throughout the area Sugar 01*3 Maple grows wherever the lower slopes are not entirely cleared, sug­ gesting that moisture levels on such slopes often do not approach that which would be critical far this species. The question then arises as to why, when moisture conditions at least appear to be nearly optimum for Sugar Maple, at least some Beech is not also present. Since the area is not a homogeneous one lithologically or topographically, the additional problem arises as to wh y there would not be at least some valleys here where slightly greater quantities of moisture would be available on the slopes, which theoretically is all that would be necessary for the entrance of Beech, if moisture is in fact the limit­ ing factor. That some other edaphic factor may also enter into its distribution is considered to be a possibility worthy of further study.

That Beech might have been eliminated from the area during the

Xerothermic period (Chp. IV) appears improbable, since the area where it is essentially absent throughout covers less than 7$ square miles, and is surrounded by forested areas containing Beech from which the species could have migrated back into the area from all directions dur­ ing the past several thousands of years, if edaphic factors would have permitted its establishment and survival in the area.

The prominence of Sugar Maple in itself is of interest in this con­ nection also. In other parts of the two counties, Tuliptree is the mssic species which appears to be the most tolerant of lowered soil moisture on the uplands. But here it is believed to have occurred only locally as an abundant species, and mostly surpassed in nuafcers by

Sugar Maple. Sugar Maple is likely a more drought-tolerant species than

Tuliptree, or it is possible that some other edaphic factor not related to moisture is somewhat limiting to Tuliptree in many parts of this area. mh

Oak-Hickory-Tuliptree and Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree associations

Extending in a NNE-SSIT direction, and occuring as a band six to

eight miles wide across central and southern Jackson County, is an area

which appears to have considerable geologic and vegetational unity, dis­

tinct from that to the west but poorly defined along its eastern limits.

Since the direction in which this belt lies is in accordance with the

regional dip of the rocks, the geographic coincidence of bedrock and

vegetation types is apparent*

Surface rocks are predominantly sandstones which exhibit massive

development (up to ^0 feet at least) in much of the area. Sha_j inter-

bedding is not uncommon; the proportion of sandstone to shale, however,

is intermediate between that in the lower Pottsville rocks to the west,

where there are relatively few shale layers, and the chiefly upper

Rottsville and Allegheny rocks to the east which contain abundant shale

and clay beds. Although unnamed by Stout (51)* because of its strati-

graphic position the most prominent sandstone is likely to be the

Massillon of middle Pottsville age. If the Sharon is present, it is

here not exposed.

Local relief varies from less than 100 feet in the vicinity of

the Marietta River valley to well over 200 feet in places along the

ancient divides between the Marietta and adjacent drainage basins.

Topography is gently rolling, to moderately steep near the preglacial

divides. Physiographic aspects of the landscape are not unlike those

of the central western and southwestern parts of the county, but the plant conmunities that give character and unity to this area are Ui5

strongly suggestive of a difference in water-retaining properties of

the bedrock and certain physical properties of the residual soils

derived from it* Whether improved water relations are the result of

rather consistent, though not abundant presence of shale layers, or

properties of the sandstones themselves, or a combination of both

(which seems most probable), is not certain*

Whatever the cause, the most clear-cut effect upon composition of

the forest comnunities has been the elevation of Tuliptree to one of

the three or four most abundant tree species of the area* Possibly it was second only to White Oak in some instances, and in certain coves

and ravines near the preglacial divides it likely grew in nearly pure

stands* In the majority of coves and ravines and on the lowermost

slopes, Tuliptree was clearly a dominant and consistently present*

But its dominance was not confined to these sites, as in the western part of the county, for slopes are a pparently sufficiently moist for its dominance on north- and east-facing exposures and its scattered presence elsewhere*

On the gentle hills of low gradient, especially those adjacent to

Franklin Valley in Franklin Township, Tuliptree occurred on all expos­ ures, but with its highest frequency on north- and east-facing slopes.

Here it was a part of an Oak-Tuliptree-Hickory or Qak-Tuliptree associ­ ation on the lower slopes, and an Oak -Hi c kory-Tu lip tr ee comnunity on the upper slopes, its position among the dominants changing with attend­ ant changes in moisture availability* In reality these are but the moister phase of the Oak-Hickory association enriched by Tuliptree, which in turn is characterized by its own moister and drier phases* 1U6

On upper slopes the dominants were White Oak, Black Oak, Shagbark and

Mockernut Hickories, and Tuliptree, with one or both Hickories, and always White and Black Oak exceeding Tuliptree in abundance; associated species were principally Chestnut, Black Gum, Red Maple, and Sourwood.

In its moister phases (lower slopes), the principal species were White

Oak, Red Oak, Tuliptree, and Shagbark Hickory, Black Oak was largely replaced by Red Oak, but remained a prominent associate along with

Chestnut, Mockernut, Black Gum and Red Maple from the drier phase, and

Sugar Maple, Shingle Oak, Red and Bitternut Hickories, Black Walnut, and sometimes White Ash, which were confined to the more meaic portions of the slope*

Auten (U) has investigated the influence of certain soil proper­ ties and topographic features in relation to suitability of site for

Tuliptree, These studies were made in 77 natural second-growth Tulip­ tree stands in five east-central states* He found that "(this) species requires special qualities of site such as deep permeable, well-drained, but moist soil, and shelter from drying winds." There was no correla­ tion between magnesium, phosphorus, calcium or potassium content of the soil and suitability of site for this species, nor was the pH value of any soil horizon significant. However, "depth of soil to tight subsoil was directly correlated,• and soils less than 2h inches deep over subsoil of pronounced density were poorer than average sites for yellcsr poplar.••• Average or better sites for yellow poplar occur where depth of the Ax horizon is 3 inches or more,,,, (but) of these last two relations the first, or depth to tight subsoil, is the most important and valuable measure in evaluating site Apparently soils derived from and underlain by the sandstones of this area meet these qualifications* They arewell-drained, but not over-drained, and tight subsoils are generally absent* All lie within the area mapped as Muskingum silt loam (32); but since Muskingum soils occupy about 80 percent of the two counties, and the s ilt loam type is the most widely distributed of the Muskingum soil types, it is evident that there is no correlation between soil series or soil type and these plant communities in which Tuliptree is one of the dominants* In the absence of specific data on the soil-forming properties of the rocks, and thickness and occurrence of the Pottsville members above stream level in central and southern Jackson County, soil moisture and aera­ tion conditions and depth of the soil profile are probably best indi­ cated by present-«iay land use in this area* Apparently soils and topography here are generally well suited to apple orchards, for not only is this the center of the prominent apple industry of Jackson

County, but no better map of the area in ihich Oak-Hickory-Tuliptree occurs could probably be made than one based on the location of these orchards* Among native Jackson Countians there seems to be the belief that the industry, reported to have had its beginnings about 35 years ago, has been an enterprise guided entirely by the interests of the human population* It is highly probable, however, that outside of this broad NNE-SSff band through central Jackson County, orchard fail­ ures have been the rule* In other vegetation areas, orchards are mostly confined to the broader uplands, where Oak-Hickory enriched by

Tuliptree on the moister sites is also believed to have been the pre­ vailing vegetation type* The correlation of apple orchards with 1U8 Oak-Hickory-Tuliptree is a striking example of the utility of an

understanding of the original vegetation to the problems of agriculture.

In the western part of the area, especially near the preglacial

drainage divides in western Jefferson Township, Oak-Chestnut occurred

on the steep slopes in this region of somewhat greater relief, and was

enriched by Tuliptree on the more moist sites, i.e., on the north and

east exposures and in the coves and ravines. The occurrence of Oak-

Chestnut and Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree in this region appears to be re­

lated to the presence of massive sandstones which underlie these slopes.

Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree and Qak-Hickory-Tuliptree are comparable associa­

tions which appear to occupy the same relative position in relation to moisture level, but develop over soils derived from different bedrock

types. Although the latter occurs also in the other vegetation areas,

its areal development over the low hills of central and southern

Jackson County exceeds the sum of all other areas in which it is be­

lieved to have occurred, Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree, however, is far more widely represented elsewhere, and is accorded its major treatment in connection with the forests of the other vegetation areas. In the present area the best-preserved secondary remnants occur in the upper

Holland Fork and Hales Creek drainage.

As previously stated, Chestnut was one of the most common associ­ ates of the Oak-Hlckory-Tuliptree communities. In Lick Township, how­ ever, in the northern part of the area under discussion, this species appears to have been only an unimportant associate, and in some areas, at least, may have been absent. Here these communities were rather clearly confined to north- and east-facing slopes, and were best devel­ 1h9

oped in the less deeply dissected terrain east of the city of Jackson.

Causes of the low frequency of Chestnut, ¥hich is suggested both by

field work in the area and by the survey records, are not known.

Prominence of Tuliptree comnunities in the original forests of

this area is well corroborated by the survey records. As pointed out

in connection with the Qak-Sugar Maple comnunities of western Jackson

County, the western limits of the Oak-Tuliptree comnunities are quite

sharply defined through the line descriptions and witness trees of

Maj. Elias Langham in eastern Scioto and Hamilton Townships. Since

most of Jefferson, Franklin and Lick Townships are included within the

area under discussion, a sumnary of the pertinent data is given in

Tables 13a and 13b.

Jefferson Township was surveyed in June, 1801, by John Macan, with

a total of l£0 line descriptions and 179 witness trees (exclusive of

Dogwood)* For Franklin Township, surveyed by Maj. Langham in May,

1798, and subdivided by Thomas Evans in 1805, tnere are 9ii line de­

scriptions and 165 witness trees. Lick Township (including boundaries), which constitutes two-thirds of the township surveyed by Jesse Spencer

in December, 1801, has 66 line descriptions and 129 witness trees; east,

south, and west boundaries had been previously run by Langham in early

May, 1798, and hence there is some duplication in line descriptions, although not necessarily agreement*

Qaulity of the field notes and difficulty of comparison are well illustrated in Table 13b* Macan ranks among the better surveyors in consistence in quality of his notations; unfortunately this was the lone township in the two counties which he surveyed. Langham1 s notes Table 13»* Surveyor*1 witness and line trees (exclusive of Dogwood) cited in Jefferson, Franklin, and ULck Townships, Jackson County, Ohio, 1798-180$.

No. of * of all No. of i of all No. of i of all times trees times trees times trees cited cited cited cited cited cited

White Oak 79 m 71 kk% 63 h9% Hickory 29 16 3U 21 17 13 Poplar (Tuliptree) 17 10 Hi 8 13 10 Black Oak 10 6 11 7 20 16 76% 80* 88* Chestnut 5 3 6 k 1 2+ Chestnut Oak 5 3 0 0 2

6 (Red) Maple 11 12 7 2 0tt ± (Black) Gum 13 7 6 k 1 19% 1$% . ~ _5* 9$*a 9S% 93*(

* Remaining 5*, Beech, Sugar treei, Ash, Red Oak, Elm, Walnut , Cherry, and Black Locust.

^ Remaining $*, "Jack Oak", Beech Sugar tree, Ash, Red Oak, Elm, Mulberry, Pin Oak, and Locust. c Remaining 7*> Beech, Ash, Red Oak, "Burr Oak", Pin Oak, and Sassafras.

o 151

Table 13b. Summary of surveyors* line descriptions in Jefferson, Franklin, and Lick Townships, Jackson County, Ohio, 1798- 180$.*

% of all line Jefferson Twp. descriptions

Number of line descriptions mentioning:

Oaks and Hickory, and no other canopy species 53 3 % Oaks and Hickory 91 60 Oaks and Chestnut h6 30 Oaks and Poplar 27 18 Oaks, Hickory and Chestnut 2h 16 Oaks, Hickory and Poplar 16 11

Other species mentioned: Walnut, Sugartree, Ash, and Maple. Under­ growth: Dogwood, Spice, Blackjack, Sassafras, Aspen, "Hurle”, Sourwood, Greenbriar, and Redbud.

Franklin Twp.

Number of line descriptions mentioning:

White and/or Black Oak (or *'Oak**) and no other canopy species 35 37% Oaks and Hickory k3 U6 White and/or Black Oak (or ”Oak"), plus Hickory or not, but no other canopy species 67 71 Poplar 15 16 Chestnut 12 i3

Other species mentioned: "Jack Oak'*, Walnut, Sugartree, Ash, Maple, Elm, and Pin Oak. Undergrowth: Dogwood, "Hurle”, Spice, "Briars”, and Sassafras.

Lick Twp.

Of the 66 line descriptions, 83^ were simply ”Oak land”, or in some cases, "White and Black Oak”; were ”0aks and Hickory”; and Poplar and Chestnut were mentioned but once each (boundary descriptions by Langham).

Other species mentioned: Maple and Pine. Undergrowth: Spice, Black Haw, and Dogwood.

^ Since each surveyor had his own style for describing the vegetation, the same categories cannot be set up for e ach township. 152

are considered to be but fair, but t h i s is offset somewhat in th e total

picture by the fact that he surveyed four contiguous townships, and

hence his notes are comparable over a relatively large and continuous

area* Spencer's notes in Lick Township are the least enlightening. He

seems to have been disposed toward consistent notice of Chestnut in western Vinton County, and for t n i s reason, the absence of Chestnut

from his notes for Lick Township can be considered in accord with a real decline in its frequency here as compared with the three townships of western Vinton County which he had earlier surveyed in the spring o f the same year*

In an appraisal of the meagerness o f Spencer's notes, the township's geographic relation to the Scioto Salt Licks must be considered, for two-thirds of Lick Township lay within the Salt Lick Reservation, and the area of the salt springs themselves later became the site o f the city of Jackson. The "salt boilers" had been d ra w in g continuously upon the forests since 1795 for fuel used in their brine-boiling operations, and Indians for many centuries had been doing the same. By early idOO, concern over the "destructive waste of timber" in the Salt Licks area had already been officially expressed to Congress (Chp. IV). Over how large an area the original timber had been destroyed in whole or in part, either wantonly by the salt boilers or for fuel by both the whites and Indians by 1801, is not known. But it is probable that much clearing and selective cutting had significantly altered the for­ ests over much, if rot all of central and western Lick Township by the time Spencer laid out township sections in December, 1801* This prob­ ably accounts for the monotony and briefness of his notes, for he most 153

likely was, in fact, seeing little more worthy of note than "Oak land".

Next to White and Black Oak, and Hickory, tfiich includes several

species, "Poplar" (Tuliptree) and Chestnut are distinctly the most

often named species. This is usually true also in other townships of

the two counties, but the interpretation here must be somewhat different.

Aside from certain 0ak3 and Hickories, Tuliptree has the greatest ecolog­

ical amplitude of what might be termed the dominant "mesic to moist site"

species of the region, and Chestnut the greatest ecological amplitude of

the dominant "drier-site" species. Each occurs as a dominant in associ­

ations reflecting quite different moisture conditions, and yet both may

occur as codominants under similar edaphic conditions which exclude

their principal associates elsewhere (as in the Oak-Tuliptree-Chestnut

association) or include nearly all of their associates (as in the Mixed

Mesophytic association). It follows, then, that both Tuliptree and

Chestnut should have been prominent on the landscape, and it is not

unexpected that in general they are the most often mentioned species in

the whole area next to the Oaks and Hickory. Over most of the two coun­

ties, their frequency of citation by the surveyors does not Justify the

inference that they occurred as dominants in the same plant comnunities, although, of course, they frequently did; they also frequently did not.

In this area in central and southern Jackson County, however, edaphic conditions suitable to the total expression of the "edaphic amplitudes" of both species are not present, hence their codominants of other associ­ ations are largely absent (impressively shown by both the line descrip­ tions and witness trees), and their overlapping moisture and aeration requirements are expressed here on the same sites. 151* Of interest in Table 13a is the order of abundance of the prin­ cipal witness trees cited. In Jefferson and Franklin Townships, Tulip­ tree ranks third, and only the position of Gum differs in the two town­ ships. If the species of Hickories had been designated, it is likely that the order would be White Oak, Tuliptree, Shagbark Hickory, and

Black Oak, instead of White Oak, Hickory, Tuliptree and Black Oak. In

Lick Township, Black Oak ranks second, and this perhaps is related to whatever factors are operative in reducing the percentage of Chestnut in this township.

Percentage of Chestnut among the witness trees and trees in the line in Jefferson Township raises some question, since it is much more frequently cited than Tuliptree in the line descriptions for th is town­ ship, and this is believed to be the region of best development o f the

Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree comnunities in this vegetation area. But when it is considered that Chestnut as a dominant was largely confined to the region near the divides, and that even here it was probably ex­ ceeded in abundance by Tuliptree, the percentage of witness trees is acceptable, if not particularly corroborative.

Red Maple and Gum, both species of great ecological amplitude, occurring in the driest to nearly the wettest situations, rank fifth and sixth in this tabulation because of their prominence in the swamp forests of this vegetation area, although both aure also conspicuous associates of the Oak-Hickory,

Communities containing Beech occur on certain local sites through­ out the area which are topographically comparable to those occupied by

Oak-Tuliptree-Hickory elsewhere. Discussion of these is deferred until 155

the foreats of southeastern Jackson County are considered* since in

that part of the present vegetation area they attain some areal prom­

inence*

Secondary forests* where they occur in this area* offer abundant

evidence of the suitability of the soils and topography for the wide­

spread natural regeneration of Tuliptree* At the time of peak autumn

coloration, nearly everywhere, except tha ridgetops and steeper southl­

and west-facing slopes* the hills are a blaze of golden-yellow pyramids

— the Tuliptrees — standing out in colorful contrast to the somber

greens and russets and siennas of the Oaks and Hickories with which they

are growing* The deep reds of Sourwood and Gum have come and gone; and the yellowing Beech pagodas and brilliant orange of Sugar Maples* so conspicuous at this time in the northern and eastern parts of the coun­ ties* are largely absent from the landscape. This is clearly a panorama of Oaks and Hickories and Tuliptrees* broken only by the meadows and orchards abounding in the area*

If this band of Oak-Hickory-Tuliptree be projected northeastward into Coal* Washington* and Clinton Townships* it is a rough approxima­ tion of an area in which these communities are of but scattered occur­ rence* These apparently represent a weak extension of the association north of Lick Township* where their sporadic occurrence is related to greater complexities in the bedrock of this area* 156

Beech communities

Comnunities containing Beech are nearly confined to the eastern

part of vegetation Area I* This is evident from both the secondary

forests and the survey records (Plate VI). In southern Jackson County,

they are essentially absent in Scioto and Hamilton Townships as prev­

iously noted, are of scattered occurrence in Franklin, Jefferson, and

Lick Townships, but are prominent throughout Madison Township to the

east.

The distribution of comnunities containing Beech and occurring on

residual soils is, for the most part, coincident with the distribution

of upper Bottsville and Allegheny rocks. Where soils are residual

without question, Beech occurs as a part of a community in which it,

together with Red and White Oak, Sugar Maple, Chestnut, Tuliptree, and

White Ash, are the principal species. Black Gum, Red Maple, Linden,

Cherry, Black Walnut, and Shagbark Hickory and other members of the

Oak-Hickory of the uplands, are present in lesser numbers. Various

combinations of these species appear in the secondary forests, but even where the best-preserved stands with the greatest number of species occur, the floristic composition of all layers is that of a rather weakly expressed Mixed Mesophytic, and the relationship to that associa­

tion is clearly evident. Yellow Buckeye is usually absent except locally in western Franklin Township, and west and north of Petrea in

Lick Township. In the former area it is a conspicuous species, par­ ticularly in the secondary layer. Linden is scattered, White Walnut is rare, and Yellow Oak occurs in areas where Buckeye is present. In nearly all areas where these mesophytic comnunities have been

observed* they have developed over massive sandstones, and on either

moderate or steep slopes where local relief is mostly less than 150

feet. On the north and east exposures and where slope gradients are

not high, they may extend to the top. Where exposure and gradient are

otherwise, the communities are confined to the lower part of the slope, with the principal species ascending headward in the shallow ravines in

a variety of combinations. Tuliptree is particularly characteristic of

these latter sites In the Qak-Hickory-Tuliptree area, but Red Olak, Beech,

and Sugar Maple, may be equally well represented, especially in Madison

Township•

Causes underlying the distribution of these, the most mesic slope comnunities of the present vegetation area, are almost surely related in some way to the physical properties of the bedrock which influence the retention of moisture. In the central part of the area, including its northward extension, the bedrock is likely to be the Massillon sandstone, previously mentioned in connection with the Oak-Hickory-

Tuliptree association, in certain phases of which water retention is notably greater. Near the line between Sections 29 and 30, and on a northwest-facing slope along Four Mile Creek in Section 20, both in

Franklin Tomahip, Yellow Buckeye, which never occurs except where there is obviously abundant moisture, goes clear to the ridge top. The spotty distribution of these comnunities to the north and south of Franklin

Township, where they usually extend to the ridge top when they occur, is indicative of a more or less thick caprock which is present only in certain areas, but which exercises control over the moisture of the 158

lower as well a3 the upper slopes when present* In the Franklin Town­

ship area, this rock is evident^ it is a medium-grained, yellow, mas­

sively-developed sandstone, which appears to underlie soils on most if

not all of the slope on which th e s e communities occur* In Madison

Township to the east, the massive sandstone over which they occur is

at least sometimes finer-grained, with a darker weathered surface, and

from its position is inferred to be a younger Pennsylvanian member.

The general increase in the frequency of Beech communities on the slopes

of eastern Jackson County, however, is believed, as in Vinton County,

to be correlated in some way with the increase in shale and clay beds

in the Allegheny rocks, although until the stratigraphy is known from

a number of representative sites on which Beech occurs, proof of this

correlation in this area is lacking*

In abandoned preglacial valleys, or on terrace remnants else­ where, in Madison Township, there is local, but definite development

of the Beech-Sugar Maple association* Lowlands in this area, where uncleared, are today occupied by swamp forest comnunities, and appar­ ently most of them, including many of the terraces, have always been too poorly drained for any other forest types. The Beech-Sugar Maple association theoretically might be expected to occupy a significant proportion of the township since the heavy-textured lacustrine and alluvial terraces, on which it was the characteristic type in eastern

Vinton County (Area II), are here also well preserved and widespread*

But the largest local area known to have been occupied by these com­ munities — the terraces along Black Fork Creek in Section 5 of southern

Madison Township near the Gallia County line — probably does not exceed 159 a few hundred acres; and here, the substrate appears to be principally

sand or silt and not the laminated clays with which these comnunities are conmonly associated in Area II. Such comnunities probably also occurred northeast of Moriah Church in the central part of the township, and in other scattered small areas. That they never were prominent, at

least in so far as being continuous areas, is also suggested by the survey records (Plate VI).

Nearly all areas where this association may have occurred are now under intensive cultivation, but from what little remains in the way of occasional original trees (mostly Beech), and the younger trees associ­ ated with them, it appears to have differed from the Beech-Sugar Maple of eastern Vinton County in the presence of unusual numbers of White Ash and American Elm, relating it as a developmental community from the

Elm-White Ash-Red Maple association which constitutes a significant part of the swamp forests of this township. It also differs in the absence of Yellow Buckeye and White Walnut, which species are either rare or absent in all communities of southeastern Jackson County where they might be expected to occur.

The Beech comnunities above, together with White Oak-Beech-Sugar

Maple, which is weakly and locally developed on lower south-facing slopes in northeastern Madison Township, are accorded their major treatment in connection with the vegetation of Area II. These conmuni- ties are indicative of a close affinity of the forests of southeastern

Jackson County to those of Area II, representing the southwestward ex­ tension of the Beech comnunities of eastern Vinton County in an area also strongly linked to the rest of southern Jackson County through its 160

dominant upland forest type (Oak-Hickory) and its subdued topography.

That lladison Township exhibits vegetational affinities to both Areas I

and II, is a resultant of the influence upon its physiographic features

of the preglacial Marietta River, crossing southern Jackson County from

east to west, and its bedrock which is a part of a north-south band

linking it geologically to the rest of eastern Jackson and Vinton Coun­

ties* The latter, which is in geographical accordance with rock out­

crops of the same age, again indicates the relationship between bedrock

and the pattern of forest types in this Plateau area* In the case of upland Beech comnunities, the expression has been modified, as compared with that in eastern Vinton County, largely through the effects of

factors associated with the low relief of the area*

Pine-Oak comnunities

In southern and eastern Madison Township, Pine-Oak occurs on much of the uplands in certain localities* Unlike the Pine comnunities of

Area III, the Pine here is almost entirely Shortleaf• An occasional

Scrub Pine may be seen in the area today, but Pitch Pine, the only other Pine which is native to these two counties, appears to be absent altogether* Shortleaf commonly occurs in nearly pure stands, which in certain localities constitute the major part of the upland forest rem­ nants* Originally, Shortleaf probably also occurred locally in nearly pure stands, but for the most part grew along with White and Black Oak,

Pignut and Mookernut Hickories, some Scarlet and Post Oak, but rarely, if ever, with Chestnut Oak. 161

The Pine-Oak comnunities occur on the upper slopes and ridges of

the low and gentle hills of this region, where local relief is between

15>0 and 200 feet* Their distribution follows closely the outcrop of

Conemaugh rocks which cap many of the hills in this area. In some

cases, the rocks are fairly coarse, reddish, massive sandstone, but in

others the association occurs over heavy-textured, reddish soils de­

rived from the Conemaugh red clay shales, or from other bedrock which

is not so distinctive with respect to color and texture*

The factors which underlie the relationship between the distribu­

tion of Shortleaf Pine and the Conemaugh rocks in Madison Township are

recognized as constituting a problem in themselves. They are especi­

ally worthy of study not only because of the conroercial value of Short­

leaf Pine, but also from a botanical point of view, because its occur­

rence in this area probably represents the northern limits of extensive

natural stands of this species in central United States* Nothing com­

parable to these is known to have occurred in the native vegetation

farther north in Ohio, although the species is significantly repre­

sented in a part of the Pine forests of northwestern Jackson and west­ ern Vinton Counties; Pines of this latter area, however, are in general predominantly Pitch and Scrub*

F r o m the survey records it appears that these comnunities may have occurred in the original forests as a part of a NNE-SSW band extending northward into eastern Bloomfield, southeastern Milton, and southwest­ ern Wilkesvilie Townships (Plate VII)• The area, which follows for the most part the outcrop of Conemaugh rocks in eastern Jackson County, is so clearly delimited by these records that, although they appear to be 162

confined to Uadlson Township today, the inference is probably Justified

that they originally were of more extensive distribution in eastern

Jackson County*

Surveyor Whipple specifically referred to "fellow Pine" as the

Pine of his witness and line trees of both Madison and Milton Townships, and along his western boundary of Huntington Township, Gallia County, which is also the eastern boundary of Bloomfield Township, Jackson

County- In his line descriptions, the "Pine" was always mentioned in connection with Oaks, indicating that these were not pure stands of

Pine anywhere he observed them* It is not certain, however, t h a t he was distinguishing Shortleaf from Pitch, if the latter occurred in the area, since nowhere in his notes for the two counties does he mention

Pitch Pine* The Pines of Benjamin Stone, who surveyed Bloomfield Town­ ship, and Jonathan Stone in Wilkesville Township, are not distinguished*

Some of the Pine mentioned in the line descriptions probably fol­ lowed fire in northeastern Madison Township and farther north, since some of the citations were contained in such descriptions as "a very thick growth of Oak and Pine saplins"* Whether throughout this north- south band the Pine of the original forests was Shortleaf, and the com­ munities as well developed as in Madison Township, cannot be answered on the basis of what has been seen in the course of field studies in this area* The localities of certain of the line descriptions have been checked specifically, and the Pine? have either been replaced by Oak-

Hickory or the sites entirely cleared, in some cases as a part of ex­ tensive strip mining activities of the r ecent past or present* Inten­ sive field work may reveal their presence in certain local areas, but 163 the Pines as a group appear to be extremely scarce today north of

Madison Township.

White Oak communities of the lacustrine terraces

In the preglacial Teays, most of the Marietta, and Hamden Creek valleys of Area I, and other valleys filled with lacustrine deposits, most of the terraces, whatever their degree of dissection or preserva­ tion, were apparently originally occupied in large part by White Oak,

White Qak-Shagbark Hickory, or White Oak-Black Oak-Shagbark Hickory comnunities. These formed a mosaic with Pin Oak-Red Maple communities in the depressions, as discussed later.

The major valleys, which have a total length of about 70 miles in the present vegetation area, are from about one-half to one and one-half miles wide, and local relief is mostly between 20 and 50 feet since these are areas in which dissection has been slight. Except where modified by alluvial deposits, soils have been derived from the Minford clays, and hence are extremely heavy-textured, tight, and acid. The soils have been mapped in reconnaissance as the Monongahela silt loam on the rises, and Tyler silt loam in the depressions and flats (32).

Both the poorly-drained and better-drained sites are especially subject to intense effects of late summer and autumn droughts or prolonged drought periods such as that of 1930 (Chp. III). Because of the nature of the substrate, the habitat is probably one of the most rigorous in relation to moisture and aeration extremes in the whole two-county area, and without doubt exhibits the greatest such extremes of any 16U

bottomland site. Only a limited number of tree species can survive

under the conditions which these tight clay soils afford, and these

are chiefly species of broad ecologic-1 amplitude.

On the gentle slopes of the rises, White Oak appears to have been

the species of by far the greatest numerical abundance, and likely oc­

curred in nearly pure stands over large areas in these valleys. Its

principal associate was probably Shagbark Hickory, which very locally

outnumbered all other species on "Hickory flats"• Black Oak was a more

or less prominent associate, and in sons areas is known to have occurred

in numbers equal to those of White Oak. Other species also in the

canopy appear to have been chiefly Post Oak, Shingle Oak, Mockernut,

Red Hickory, Black Gum, and Red Maple. The similarity between these

comnunities and the more moist phase of the upland Oak-Hickory (p. 13U)

is apparent. However, such species as Chestnut, Sourwood, and Red Oak,

which were definitely a part of the Oak-Hickory on residual soils, and

the species of the more mesic comnunities with which the upland Oak-

Hickory intergrades, such as Sugar Maple, Tuliptree, White Ash, Black

and White Walnut, are believed to have been absent over the Minford

clays. Where these more mesic species grow in the preglacial valleys

of this area today, they are almost certain to occur on sites which have

been modified by overlying alluvial deposits.

The forests were probably mostly open and sometimes park-like

throughout much of these valleys, with the lower layers either prin­

cipally Dogwood, where the forest was best developed, or mostly limited

to certain grasses and other herbaceous plants where the forests were more open. Among the latter, some if not all of the following species 16S

probably occurred in these areas originally, as they do today, although

their nunerical abundance may have either increased or decreased with

the heavy disturbance these sites have undergone:

Andropogon furcatus Muhl. Cassia marilandica L. Andropogon scopariue Michx. Helianthus mollis Lam* Sorghastrum nutans (L*) Nash Helianthus grosseserratus Martens Acerates floridana (Lam*) Hitch. Helianthus giganteus L. Eupatorium coelestinvun L. Rudbeckia hirta L* Coreopsis tripteris L* Euphorbia c or o Ha t a L* Chamaecrista fasiculata Michx.

These are principally dry prairie species, although some of them are

widespread today throughout eastern United States, e.g., Big Bluestem

(Andropogon furcatus) and Indian Grass (Sorghastrum nutans), and if

intensive floristic studies were conducted in these valleys, it is

likely that a number of other prairie species would be found here*

The prairie species occurwith a number of others which are common

and abundant in the area today, among which are Andropogon virginicus L.,

Vernonia altissima Nutt., Eupatorium perfoliaturn L., Gnaphalium obtusi-

folium L., and Bldens, Desroodium, Brigeron, Cirsium. and Soli dago

species* It may be noted in passing that Andropogon virginicus, a

southern species, and A^ scopariue are the common grasses in abandoned

pastures and other unused but cleared land, and are of about equal

abundance throughout the two counties* Where prairie species occur,

the asseifelagea are not interpreted as being prairie remnants, but

only a reflection of the xeric conditions which obtain over these

heavy-textured soils* As previously suggested in Chapter IV, it is

likely that some of these species which distinctly belong to the flora

of the {dairies, cams into Jackson County during the Xerothermic period when there were continuous migration routes from the west* Others, 166

Fig* 1$• Indian Grass (Sorghastrum nutans) In the Marietta River valley, Section U, Scioto Township, Jackson County, Ohio. October, 195>2. already established, and the assemblages as a whole, could be expected to have Increased in areal importance during this period in which the controllin g edaphic factors doubtless were accentuated in these valleys.

The survey records in these areas are especially significant since very little in the way of forest cover of any kind remains today. As the Teays valley contains the largest well-defined area occupied by the

Uinford clays, the survey data for this valley and the lower Marietta in Scioto Township, Jackson County, are here presented. The western tier of sections in this township was surveyed by Elias Langham in

June, 1798, and subdivided by Joseph Denny in 1&0£; the remainder was surveyed by Langham in June, 1801* Within the boundaries of these valleys, 71 bearing and line trees were cited. The species represented, and the number of times each was cited, are as followst 167

White Oak 32 Hickory lU Gum (Black) 7 Pin Oak 7 Maple (Red) 6 Cherry U Elm 1

Line descriptions, which applied to mile long section lines, or some

portion of them, all lying entirely within these valleys, are as follows:

"Wet, swampy land. Oak, Hickory, and Maple Timber.1'

"Oak and Hickory Timber, Dogwood under bursh."

"Hickory and Oak timber."

"Glady land. Oak and Maple timber."

"Good soil, lies well. B. and W. Oak timber, Dogwood underbrush."

"A flat Maple swamp."

"Level land. White Oak timber."

"Good farming land. B. and W. Oak Timber, Dogwood underbursh, to a flat swampy bottom."

"Wet bottom, good soil, badly timbered."

"Timber B. Oak, W. Oak, Hickory, etc."

"Wh. Oak, B. Oak, Hickory, Maple, Dogwood, Sassafras."

"Land very thin soil, with barren prairies, timber B. Oak, W. Oak grubs, Interspersed with Hazel." (Denny)

"Enter a brushy prairie U6 chns. wide... Land flat and wettish, soil thin, timber W. Oak, Jack Oak, Hickory - underwood Cherry, Aspen, plum, alder, hazel, etc." (Denny)

The general picture from these data is one of abundance of White

Oak, with much Hickory, and some Black Oak (although missing among the witness and line trees here), these communities forming a mosaic with

Pin Oak-Red Maple comnunities in the depressions and flat areas. Black

Gum was a prominent associate on all sites. Data for most other parts 168

of the Marietta valley, and Hamden Creek valley up to within less than

a mile south of McArthur where an abrupt change occurs in the species

cited, are in agreement with the above, both as to the species named

as bearing and line trees and their relative proportions, and those

cited in the line descriptions* Black Oak ranks fourth among the bear­

ing and line trees, considering the valleys as a whole, and is fre­

quently cited along with the White Oak, Hickory and Maple in the line

descriptions* With the exception of two areas, noted later in con­

nection with the swamp forests, no species other than those included

in the Teays and lower Marietta are mentioned elsewhere in the Marietta

or Hamden valleys, except for two "Burr" Oaks, cited at one section

corner in the Marietta valley near the city of Jackson, which are al­ most certain to have been Post Oaks* Where the exceptions occur, the

substrate is obviously not the Minford clays, for they include Beech,

Sugar Maple, White Ash, Walnut, and Tuliptree, which apparently do not grow in the present vegetation area over soils derived from this kind of parent material* Soms of these citations of more mesic species, which represent a total of only nine out of uearly 2$0 witness and line trees in the 70 miles or so of these valleys, probably occur on nearby residual soils, and appear to lie within these valleys when plotted on topographic maps because the surveyors' lines do not coincide precisely with the present section lines*

In the above line descriptions, the Impression is not given that these were forests of excellent quality, as is often the case on other sites in the two counties* In addition to the "Badly timbered" bottoms and "White Oak grubs" (which may have followed fire) in Scioto Township, 16? other references to size or spacing of the trees, or aspect of the

forests, are the following, all of which were written of the Hamden

Creek valley*

Bloomfield Township, Jackson County; surveyor, Benjamin F. Stone.

"This distance (101-*- chains) level land, hard clay soil, thinly timbered with Oak, Swamp Oak, Hickory, Maple, etc. Some glades of open land, grassy without any timber."

"This half mile level land, thinly timbered with W. Oak, Hickory, Hurle bush, etc."

"This mile some low ridges, thin soil, and level glades of land, clay soil, low Oak and Hickory timber, Crabapple and Thornbrush.

Milton Township, Jackson County; surveyor, Levi Whipple.

"Across flat level open woods. Timber principally Hickory."

"Timber White Oak and Hickory, not any undergrowth."

"Over flat land, soil clayey, large timber principally White Oak. Crabapple and Plumb Trees — to bottom."

Clinton Township, Vinton County; surveyor, Benjamin F. Stone.

"This distance level land, generally poor, Timbered with a few scrubby Oak and Hickory trees — briars, etc."

"Timbered with scrubby W. and B. Oak, etc., clay soil."

From the above it may be inferred that at least some of the White and

Black Oak of the original forests on these soils failed to exhibit good

growth. The White Oak witness and line trees in these valleys, however,

were about as large in diameter on the average as those of the uplands within the same township, and over one-third of the trees cited were 16

inches or more in diameter. 170

Only certain parts of these valleys today are tilled, and most of the land is in pasture* The forests were doubtless early cleared be­ cause, as surveyor Langham noted, the land "lies well", but as the more observant surveyors Stone and Whipple noted, the soils are "clayey" and

"generally poor", and attempted cropping has mostly resulted in failures.

Swamp Forests

Since the major preglacial rivers traversed this vegetation area, and their valleys and those of their tributaries remain choked with a variety of lacustrine and alluvial deposits, it could be expected that within this region there would be the largest total area of poorly drained lowlands and the greatest array of swamp forest communities in the two-county area; and such is the case* Small streams which cross the major valleys today have cut down but little into the thick deposits with thich these valleys are filled* Especially in the Symmes and upper Salt Creek basins (Plate III), the drainage pattern is highly contorted, many valleys bear witness to stream reversals and other rearrangements, streams are of low carrying capacity and have low gradients throughout, which have resulted in unusually poor drainage of the lowlands and a number of sizeable swamps. Parts of these latter areas, which occur in both counties, are the only sites known where forests of some kind did not originally occur.

The community which nearly distinguishes the swamp forests of this vegetation area from those of other areas, is the Pin Oak-Red Maple association. Associated with these species, each of which sometimes 171

occurred in pure stands in local areas, were especially Swamp White Oak,

Black Gum, Shingle Oak, Black Cherry, Honey Locust in certain areas, and

scattered Sweet Gum in the Synmes and upper Salt Creek drainage* These

comnunities apparently are restricted to tight clay soils, and hence

are widely represented in southern Jackson County over the Minford

clays which fill the major preglacial channels to depths up to 80 feet.

However, in these valleys, i.e., the valleys of the Teays and Marietta

Rivers and Hamden Creek, they were confined to the depressions and

flats, and were greatly exceeded in areal importance by White Oak,

White Oak-Hickory, and White Oak-Black Oak-Hickory comnunities; these,

which are not a part of the swamp forests, have been previously dis­

cussed and the surveyors' data supporting the mosaic of White Oak and

Pin Oak comnunities presented (p. 167). Pin Oak-Red Maple probably

also occurs on alluvial soils with a comparable heavy-textured subsoil,

and the Red Maple phase has been observed in depressions on the uplands

presumably immediately underlain by clay beds.

The swamp forest comnunity which is the most widespread in both

counties and occupies the greatest total area is the Elm-Sycamore-

River Birch-Soft Maple association. In the present vegetation area,

the Maple is always Red Maple. Willow spp. are present along stream margins, from which sites Elm is usually absent. Since in general throughout the two-county area these occur on the bottomland sites least desirable with respect to natural drainage and spring flooding, several hundreds of acres of these forests are present today, although most have undergone severe cutting in recent years* Rather extensive areas occur in southeastern Jackson County; and along long stretches of 172 Raccoon Greek (Area II), whose length is $9 miles in Vinton County,

the association is continuous, or nearly so.

Of the total of about hj$0O witness and line trees cited by the

surveyors in the two counties, 18 were Elm, 12 Sycamore, and 12 River

Birch ("Black Burch" or "Burch"); this represents a little less than

one percent of all witness trees, which is probably a fair approxima­

tion of the total area covered by the Elm-Sycamore-River Birch conmuni-

ties, considering the counties as a whole. Not all of the Elm cited

was in this association, but most of it probably was; Red Maple is not

included in the tally because of its great ecological amplitude. Of

the nearly 2,000 line descriptions, Elm is mentioned 8 times, Sycamore

but three, and River Birch only once, pointing to the lack of utility

of line descriptions in connection with lowland comnunities whose

areal prominence was of little significance compared with those of the

uplands.

In swamp forests of the present vegetation area, the Elm-Sycamore-

River Birch-Red Maple and Pin Oak-Red Maple are usually distinct associ­

ations, the latter occurring on heavy-textured soils underlain by a

clay pan, and the former over various admixtures of sands, silts, and

clays which make up the alluvial materials of the bottomlands. The

soils of both exhibit mottling indicating poor drainage at least during some part of the year. However, water probably stands for more pro­ longed periods of time and during more seasons of the year where Pin

Oak-Red Maple grows, aeration is generally poorer for longer intervals and far a greater proportion of the time, and the sites are subject to lower moisture levels during the late mnoer and autumn droughts which 173

Fig* 16# River Birch following glaze storm, March, 1951, Madison Township, Jackson County*

characterize this region (Chp* III)* The Eim-Bycamore-River Birch-

Red Maple communities are subject to spring flooding with stream over­

flow, or in general during periods of heavy precipitation, but drainage

in the spring, and other seasons as well, presumably is effected much more rapidly through the looser, more porous silty and sandy alluvium

of the floodplains, with consequent better aeration during most of the year*

In some areas, the species of the two associations are intermingled, presumably where moisture-aeration conditions are intermediate between 1 7 k those where best development of each Is attained* In southern Jackson

County, combinations of Pin Oak-Red Maple-River Birch appear to be locally discrete. As a rule, however, wherever Pin Oak is present,

Sycamore is either scarce or absent, and where Pin Oak is abundant,

Sycamore is always absent. This is especially evident throughout the

Teays and Franklin Valley portion of the old Marietta valley. Where

Pin Oak-Red Maple is enriched by Elm, drainage and aeration are inter­ preted as being slightly improved.

The third swamp forest association which is definitely expressed in this vegetation area, is Elm-Ash-Maple, in which the dominants are

American Elm, White Ash, and Red Maple. Drainage-aeration conditions have sufficiently improved where this combination of dominants occurs, that not only has White Ash invaded the swamp forest, but a number of other species as well. The associates, which include hold-overs from the wetter communities and others which have entered either along with

White Ash or during the phases in which its prominence has increased, consist of the following canopy species: Red Oak, Red Elm, Black Gum,

Shingle Oak, Bitternut Hickory, Shagbark Hickory, Shellbark Hickory,

Black Cherry, Sycamore, and in certain areas, Yellow Buckeye.

The largest area of Elm-White Ash-Red Maple known to have occurred in either county was in Madison Township of Jackson County, in that portion of the Marietta valley beginning in the vicinity of Moriah

Church and following the valley southeastward for nearly three miles.

This area was by no means continuously occupied by the Elm-White Ash-

Red Maple association, for wetter forest types are well represented, but here it appears to have reached its best development and greatest areal prominence. The causes of improved moisture-aeration conditions in

this particular area are not readily inferable. Since it lies in the

Marietta valley, the fill consists of more or less thick deposits of

the Minford clays, which are evident along road cuts, and the soils

have been mapped as the Monongahela-Tyler silt loam complex along with

those of the rest of the Marietta, Teays, and Hamden Creek valleys*

The soils at least in part, however, in this locality are derived from

alluvial silty materials overlying the clay deposits. That the Minford

clays have had little or no influence upon the development of much of

the soil in this area is evident from the veteran White Ashes, Walnuts,

Sycamores, and other species which never occur directly over these

clays. The dominant species of the original forests were sui'ficiently prominent in this locality that surveyors Levi Whipple in 1798 and

Joseph Fletcher in 1805> call attention to the association through their localized citations of "Soft" or "White" Maple (both referring to Red Maple in this case), Ash, and Elm along their lines crossing this area* Of historical interest is the fact that this is the area in which the original settlements of the Welsh were made in 1818, and the virgin forests here were probably among the first to go in either county, outside of the Salt Licks region*

A smaller area of Elm-White Ash-Red Maple appears to have occurred along much of the length of Four Mile Run in Franklin Township, Jackson

County; and although less well defined, from the present-day remnants it was also a prominent community in that part of the Marietta valley lying northeast of McKitterick in Section 17 of western Madison Township.

The association was probably locally developed throughout both counties, 176

except in southwestern Jackson County, wherever suitable drainage con­

ditions obtained*

Since all lowland areas exhibit a certain degree of dissection,

and hence relief, and parent materials are seldom uniform in the valleys

of this area, except in those filled with Minford clays, a number of

transitional swamp forest communities occur which reflect intermediate

drainage-aeration conditions resulting therefrom. The wettest areas,

in which water stands the year around, were often referred to as

11 Prairies” or 11 grassy glades" by the surveyors, and apparently always

have been treeless. The principal well-defined communities in these

swamps and their successional relationships are: Cattail ■> Sedge meadows — ^ Alder-Buttonbush-Swamp Rose. It is of interest that

surveyor Whipple not only named the last three species, but cited them as a group and in that order in his line descriptions. Alder is by

far the dominant species on these sites, and today occupies many acres

in the two counties, but especially in the Syrames Creek basin of

southern Jackson County where the largest swamp areas occur. A number of the rare species and State records included in the Bartley and

Pontius collections have been collected from these sites in the Mari­ etta valley of Liberty Township. Alder conmunities, which often form dense and extensive stands, are succeeded by Willow spp., and the course of further succession is largely determined by the nature of the sub­ strate.

Over the Minford clays, the following appears to be the order of succession! Pin Oak-Red Maple ----- ? Pin Oak-Red Map la-Elm ----

White Oak-Shagbark Hickory. Shagbark probably comes in first with better drainage, followed by White Oak, but the transitional stage, if 177

Fig* 17* Alder-Buttonbush-Swamp Rose association in the Mari­ etta valley, Jefferson Township, Jackson County. Note Pin Oaks in the background, and low hills originally covered by White Oak-Black Oak-Hickory forests* March, 1951*

it exists, is not well enough defined to be recognisable today. So

long as the rate of erosion on the uplands is equal to the rate of

downcutting by the streams, or until the physical properties o f the

parent materials are more or less influenced by alluvium derived from

the uplands, the special edaphic conditions in these valleys, and the

Pin Oak-White Oak complex in which they find expression, will continue

indefinitely*

Where soils are not derived solely from the Minford clays, but in part from other surface materials (of alluvial origin), the succession

appears to be* Pin Oak-Red Maple —^ Pin Oak-Red Maple-Elm -----

Elm-Red Maple-White A s h > Elm-White Ash-Red Maple* Where materials 178

are principally alluvial silts and sands, succession apparently pro­

ceeds as follows, with improvement in drainage and aeration: R iv e r

Birch-Sycamore-#ed Maple — y River Birch-Sycamore-Red Maple-Elm

> Elm-Red Maple-White Ash Elm-White Ash-Red Maple*

With still better drainage and aeration, Black and White Walnut,

and Tuliptree invade the Elm-White Ash-Red Maple communities, followed

by Beech, Sugar Maple, and White Oak, in that order* During this

stage of development, the swamp forest in this area is composed of

15-20 canopy species, and is comparable to the "Mixed Swamp Forest

transition" of Sampson (U2) in northern Ohio, although there are

certain floristic differences* While not evident from the secondary

forest remnants in the present vegetation area, where it originally must have been confined to small areas in southeastern Jackson County,

it is rather clearly exhibited as a phase of development leading to

the areally prominent Beech-Sugar Maple conmunities in eastern Vinton

County (Area II)• With slightly better drainage and aeration, Beech

and Sugar Maple segregate out as dominants from the Mixed Swamp Forest, and the Beech-Sugar Maple association, which will be maintained as long as there are terraces in these valleys, becomes the final community in the flwanp forest succession, and the climax association over alluvial and lacustrine soils in this area*

The moisture gradient along which this succession proceeds is indicated in the lower part of Fig* 18* The distribution of the associ ations along this gradient (from bottom to top) is not intended to por­ tray a proportionate decrease in moisture level, but only to place the comnunities in a general relationship with each other with respect to 179

the moisture levels which they reflect* No successional relationships

of any kind are indicated in the upper half of the figure. The limita­

tions of such a diagram are apparent in this area where there is such

geographic diversity of bedrock, physiographic features, and parent

materials of both upland and lowland soils, and where changes in the

consequent complexity of the factors that affect the growth and distri­

bution of trees cannot readily be ascertained or predicted*

White Oak Oak-Chestnut Oak-Hickory Oak-Pine

Qak-Chestnut- Tuliptree Oak-Sugar Maple- Tuliptree "Weak" Mixed Mesophytic

RESIDUAL SOILS

LACUSTRINE AND ALLUVIAL SOILS 4>

Beech-Sugar Maple

(Mixed Swamp Forest)

Elm-White Ash-Red Maple

Elm-Sycamore-River Birch- Red Maple

Sycamore-River Birch-Red Maple Pin Oak-Red Maple Willow-Sycamore-River Birch

Fig* 18* General relationships of the associations of Area I with respect to moisture gradient* 180

AREA II: RACCOON CREEK AREA

The region included within this vegetation area, encompassing

north-central and eastern Vinton County and northeastern Jackson County

(Plate V), is perhaps best characterised by its great heterogeneity.

That the vegetation pattern is the most complex, particularly on resid­

ual soils, is related to the complexities of Pennsylvanian lithology

in this area, and the diverse topography resulting from inequalities

in rock resistance and differential rates of downcutting in the valleys

of the preglacial and present-day stream systems.

Bedrock is conposed of a wide variety of sandstones, shales, clays,

limestones, ores, and coals, variously represented in different parts

of the area, and their influence upon the topography, soils, and vege­

tation result in complexities unmatched elsewhere in the two counties.

Within this area adjacent slopes, or portions of these slopes, may

exhibit rather marked differences in vegetation which do not appear to be due to differences in history of the forests. Such contrasts are

inferred to be mostly the result of local differences in water rela­

tions due to differences in physical properties of the bedrock which

influence the movement of water into soils derived from it; but chem­ ical properties of the latter may also be the causal factors in some cases, especially when individual species rather than comnunities are considered. Before an under standing of the vegetation pattern of any part of the area is possible, a more or less thorough knowledge of a number of aspects of the Pennsylvanian stratigraphy appears necessary.

Of these, the position of clay beds and other impervious strata is 18 1 probably on® of primary importance in relation to the vegetation pat­ tern, inasmuch as they restrict the internal movement of water on slopes and influence its distribution in the soils*

In parts of the area, topography is as rugged as any in the two counties; such areas are chiefly along Raccoon Creek and the lower portions of its major tributaries, where the rejuvenated streams have cut down through massive sandstones leaving steep valley walls along their courses* In other places, as in Wilkesville Township, where the uplands lie near the preglacial Albany River, the topography is as sub­ dued as that of southern Jackson County. Mostly, however, the topography and local relief are somewhere between these two extremes. Relatively broad, gently rolling uplands, occurring especially over the Conemaugh caprocks in the eastern part of the area, are rather conspicuous physiographic features associated primarily with this vegetation area.

Abandoned filled valleys, or valley segments, are hero also well repre­ sented, and on the lacustrine terraces, which have been variously pre­ served, dissected, and modified in composition by materials from the uplands, there is an especially wide variety of sites upon which the later stages of swamp forest succession occur*

Along much of the western boundary, as Indicated in Plate V, the line of demarcation has of necessity been arbitrarily set* At a number of points along this line, the change in vegetation is obvious, and where this is evident it is clearly correlated with a change in topog­ raphy; hence in other areas where there is doubt, i.e., where neither the secondary forests nor the survey records are of any apparent assistance, topographic changes have been used in the setting of this 182

boundary* However, it is clear that there never was a well-defined,

continuous natural boundary between this vegetation area and the others,

for neither the topography nor the bedrock changes with any pronounced

geographic definition* The area lies entirely within the watershed of

Raccoon Creek, and in general includes the regions which have been

more deeply dissected by this stream and its major tributaries, or its

preglacial forerunners*

The area is distinguished by the following combination of vegeta-

tional characteristics:

1, Upland forests included Oak-Hickory, Oak-Chestnut, Mixed Oak,

and in certain areas, Oak-Pine communities. No one conmunity can be

said to have been the prevailing upland type over large areas, as is

true elsewhere in the two counties, although Oak-Hickory was perhaps

the most widespread type and may have occupied the largest surface

area* Although the communities themselves may be well defined, they

occur mostly in a complex mosaic, the pattern of which apparently is

coincident with the distribution of the various underlying Pennsylvan­

ian rocks*

2* Qak-Tuliptree coamunities, including Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree,

were the prevailing ravine communities on the rolling uplands and near

the preglacial divides*

3* Mixed Mssophytic comnunities, including Hemlock, were well

developed in the areas of deeper dissection, and less well developed, both areally and floristically, in regions cf lesser relief* So far as

is known, the association is not anywhere the floristically rich assem­ blage exhibited in Area H I* 183

U. Conmunities In which Beech is a dominant, in general reach

their best development in this area on both residual and non-residual

soils. On residual soils, White Oak-Beech is a distinctive feature of

this area, and on lacustrine and alluvial soils, the late stages of

swamp forest succession, including Mixed Swamp Forest and Beech-Sugar

Maple, reach their greatest areal development. Yellow Buckeye, which

elsewhere is either absent or at least not prominent except locally,

is a conspicuous associate of Beech throughout most of this area.

Oak communities

Upland Oak communities of this area present complexities in composi­

tion and distribution unmatched elsewhere in the two counties. Oak-

Chestnut, Oak-Hickory, Mixed Oak, and scattered Oak-Pine occur in a more or less intricate mosaic throughout the area. The communities, as exhibited by the secondary forests, are frequently well defined, but more often, due to disturbance of one kind or another, such as select­ ive cutting practices and the death and removal of Chestnut, composi­ tion of the original community on a particular slope is often a matter of doubt. Since all are closely related, and their distinction depends on the relative numbers of the various species, it is probable that even in the original forests, so many variations occurred that it would have been difficult to refer many of the concrete comsunities to any one of these associations. Their pattern is without question related to the highly variable nature of the underlying rocks of the Pennsyl­ vanian system. Since the stratigraphy of no one area can be inferred from the present literature, any detailed study of the pattern of 16U these conmunities must be postponed until geologists have mapped the area*

Certain generalizations, however, can be made* The conmunities are nearly all composed basically of White and Black Oak, with White Ode more prominent in the mo ister phases and Black Oak in the drier phases*

Their consistent presence as dominants is a consequence of their great ecological amplitudes and ability to grow on sites upon which most other species of the area cannot grow* Over massive sandstones in areas of greater relief, Chestnut and Chestnut Oak become dominants*

Over fine shales and clays, Pignut and Mocker nut Hickories, which are always present to some degree in all of these conmunities, are domi­ nants* In the Mixed Oak type, neither Chestnut nor the Hickories are prominent enough to be considered codominants; in areas of somewhat lower relief, White Oak may be the most abundant species in the forest*

Where Pines are prominent constituents, it is usually on excessively drained sites over massive, coarse-grained rocks*

The Oak communities are those of the south- and west-facing and upper north- and east-facing slopes, and ridges, whether they be acute or broad and gently rolling* Slope soils are nearly always shallow, with Immature profiles* Bedrock may be only a few inches from the sur­ face, and at best is seldom more than 20-30 inches. Rock fragments are common throughout, and while boulders on the talus slopes are not at all characteristic of this region, rock outcrops are frequent, and the surface is often strewn with smaller fragments of various sizes* Soils have been mapped principally as the Muskingum silt loam and loam, derived from sandstones and shales, with small areas of the Rarden silt 185

loan derived from clay shales* Ch the gentle slopes of the broader,

rounded ridges, the Wellston silt loam occupies the greatest surface

area; such soils develop from a variety of sandstones and shales, and

are three-four feet deep with well developed profiles* However, as

mapped, there is little apparent correlation between the pattern of the

Oak conmunities and these soil types*

Availability of water appears to be the critical factor in the

development of the whole complex* But the associations, for the most

part, cannot be easily distinguished by position along a moisture grad­

ient* All occur on acid, sterile, well-drained to excessively-drained

soils, and mostly exhibit moister and drier phases, but the most effect­

ive variable, or variables, governing the pattern of their distribution

appear to reside In properties of the soils which are not associated primarily with moisture availability* It is here suggested that the

key to these factors lies in the distribution of the Oak-Chestnut

association, for in reality it is the relative abundance of Chestnut upon which the differentiation of these conmunities largely rests* Of

Chestnut it can be said that it, together with Chestnut Oak whose dis­ tribution it closely parallels in this region, occur on sites which are not only well-drained but also well-aerated; over heavier-textured sub­ soils, occupied by Oak-Hickory, aeration may be deficient at least dur­ ing certain seasons of the year, notwithstanding the overall well- drained character of such soils* These heavier-textured soils may also be subject to especially intense effects of drought* Textural and chem­ ical differences may influence the distribution of these communities indirectly through their effect upon the soil flora, and especially upon 186 the root mycorrhizae with which all of these tree species are appar­ ently associated (2l*).

(1) Oak-Chestnut

Oak-Chestnut conmunities appear to have been scattered throughout the area, occurring locally or sometimes as the prevailing type over several square miles. Its most intense development in this vegetation area appears to have occurred over the massive sandstones in central and southern Brown Township, and northern Madison and Knox Townships,

Vinton County. Soils of this area lie within the area mapped as having a predominantly loam texture (Muskingum loam). This is coincidentally the region of most rugged topography, i.e., the greatest relief and steepest slopes in this vegetation area, but whether this is one of the causal factors in the widespread presence of Oak-Chestnut in this locality, or is in itself merely an effect of the same causes which here ultimately govern the distribution of this community, i.e., the sandstone bedrock, cannot be stated with certainty. It is true, how­ ever, that in general wherever this association occurs throughout the two counties, and always where it reaches its best development, the underlying rock is principally massive and apparently resistant sand­ stone which has been comparatively deeply dissected, leaving slopes of steep gradient.

Much of this area in Brown, Madison, and Knox Townships lies with­ in the Zaleski State Forest, from which the Chestnut "snags" have been almost entirely removed. However, the many undecayed stumps, and young sprouts which continue to grow for a year or so and die, bear witness 187 to the abundance of Chestnut in the past. The community, though, here and elsewhere in this vegetation area was probably never as rich in

Chestnut, except locally, as in the northwestern part of the county over the Mississippian rocks (Area 111).

In addition to Chestnut, the dominant species of this association were Black Oak, White Oak, and Chestnut Oak, with White Oak most abun­ dant on the lower slopes and Chestnut Oak on the upper. White Oak char­ acteristically, although by no means uniformly, drops out of the associ­ ation as an important species about three-quarters of the way upslope.

Associated species throughout are Mockernut and Pignut Hickories, Black

Gum, Sourwood, and Red Maple, with Scarlet Oak and occasional Pitch and

Scrub Pinas on the upper slopes, and Red Oak and Tuliptree on the lower

slopes. Shadbush and Dogwood are characteristic of the understory, and

Mountain Laurel, Blueberry, Huckleberry, and Smilax species of the shrub layer. Ground cover species are scarce, with respect to both numbers of species and individuals, but typically include Goodyera pubescene, Epigaea repena, Chimaphila maculata, Gaultherla procumbens,

Malaxis unifolia, Solldago caesia, Cunila origanoldes, and Dicranum,

Polytrichum and Cladonia spp.

Wherever Oak-Chestnut communities occurred, low soil moisture levels obtain at least during some parts of the year. Of the associa­ tion dominants, Chestnut Oak appears to be the most tolerant of low moisture extremes, followed in order by Chestnut, Black Oak, and White

Oak. Consequently, the sharp ridges, which are usually confined to areas where this association is predominant, are today, and apparently were in the original forests, nearly always occupied by nearly pure 188

stands of Chestnut Oak, Upper south- and west-facing slopes and the

broader ridges, which are the rare conmon type in this vegetation area,

were covered by Chestnut Oak-Chestnut or Chestnut Oak-Chestnut-Black Oak

conmunities. The latter type apparently was the more common on these

sites, and was particularly well-defined in the Raccoon Creek Forest

area of Vinton Township.

(2) Oak-Hickory and Mixed Oak associations

The Oak-Hickory and Mixed Oak associations differ principally in

the relative numbers of the Hickories which are present, and transition­

al conmunities are common in the secondary forests. They appear to

have been the prevailing upland forest types over the greater part of

this vegetation area. In general, such conmunities occupy the south

and west exposures, and oftentimes much of the north and east exposures,

as well as the ridges in areas where massive sandstones are not the major bedrock type. In contrast with the resistant, massive sand­

stones of areas where Oak-Chestnut predominated, these conmunities

occur in areas where relatively low-rosistance sandstones, shales,

clays, and other bedrock types are predominant. This is in a general way evident from the broader and more rounded ridges, slopes of lesser

gradient, and lower local relief. But beyond this, little can be ob­ served or inferred regarding the variety of strata which have resulted in these topographic features and the associated soils and vegetation of any specific area.

Dominant species of these communities differ from those of the Oak-

Chestnut association principally in the absence or paucity of Chestnut, 189 lasser nunbers of Chestnut Oak, and greater numbers of the Hickories.

Characteristic ericaceous species of the shrub and herbaceous layers of the Oak-Chestnut are mostly absent. On lower slopes, White and

Black Oak, together with greater or lesser nunbers of Shagbark and

Mockernut Hickories, are the principal canopy trees; Red Oak is a con­ sistent associate, but seldom, if ever, a dominant. On upper slopes,

White Oak, Black Oak, Chestnut Oak, and Pignut and Mockernut Hickories are the principal species, and Scarlet Oak and Post Oak prominent as­ sociates* The upper slope phase usually continues over the relatively broad ridges* and although White Oak may decrease somewhat in numerical importance as compared with the lower slopes, it is nevertheless one of the dominants of these drier phases, as well as the more moist phases of the lower slopes* Other associated species which may occur through­ out are Black Gum, Red lfaple, Sour wood, and Chestnut.

Upland Oak communities of this area in which the Hickories were prominent enough to be considered dominants were probably more wide­ spread in the original forests than would be inferred from the second­ ary forests of today. The greater proportion of the present forests, particularly on the State-owned lands, appears to be of the Mixed Oak type. The composition of the State Forests, however, is known to have been altered through the policy of removal of dead Chestnut trees, and a selection against the Hickories since they are among the less desir­ able tisber species which will grow on these uplands* Even where clear-out examples of Oak-Hickory are distinguishable, the possibility always exists that originally Oak-Chestnut communities occurred on these sites and all traoes of Chestnut have been removed following its 190

death, or the conmunities were originally Mixed Oak in which the

Hickories have likewise increased with disturbance. The former may

be recognized in many cases by the presence of the characteristic eri-

caceous vegetation of the Oak-Chestnut conmunities, but the latter is

usually impossible of recognition from the present forests alone. With

respect to the Hickories, therefore, the survey records are of special

interest, since they give evidence of an abundance of Hickory in the

original forests which greatly surpasses that which would be generally

inferred from the secondary forests. These data are presented in

Table Hi*

The eastern tier of townships, i.e., Brown, Madison, Knox, Vinton,

and Wilkes villa, were surveyed by the Ohio Company Purchase surveyors,

Jonathan Stone and Jeffrey Mathewson, in 1798. Swan and Bloomfield

Townships were surveyed by Benjamin Stone in 1801, and Elk and Milton

Townships by Levi Whipple in 1798 and John Collett in 1805, all as a

part of the Congress Lands. Data for only those portions of Bloomfield

and Milton Townships lying within the present vegetation area (Plate V)

have been included in Table 1U* All field notes, except those of sub­

divider Collett, are considered to be superior, and this is the largest

area in the two counties to be so uniformly represented by notes of

such high quality*

The notes most easily compared are those of the two Ohio Company

Purchase surveyors, both of idiom surveyed about half of each township,

and the contents of whose line descriptions and manner of recording are

so nearly alike as to be indistinguishable. Their data, covering about two-thirds of this vegetation area, in part indicate the following1 Table lU* Siumuury of the dominant species of upland forests of northern and eastern Vinton County and north eastern Jackson County, Ohio, cited as witness or line trees (exclusive of Dogwood) and in line descriptions of the Ohio Company Purchase and Congress Land surveyors, 1798-180$*

lladison Wilkes- E. Bloom­ Brown and Knox Vinton villa Swan Elk E. Milton field Idas Descriptions

Total number 50 67 71 1 2 6 90 78 U6 51

% of total mentioning i Oaks, and no other spp* 36 37 U5 28 2$ 17 2U 6 Oaks and Hickory 3U 3U 3U UO 36 31 50 6U Oaks and Chestnut 36 7 7 11 36 23 20 2U Oaks, Hickory and Chestnut 22 UU 6 1L 9 17 39 Pins 16 0 7 U 0 0 13 27 Poplar (Tuliptree) 18 12 13 2$ 1 6 37 13 27

Witness and Line Trees

Total number 16$ 196 163 11$ 229 196 117 102

% of totali White Oak 27 32 UO 36 59 35 30 U2 Black Oak 20 12 18 18 16 5 18 2U Chestnut Oak 7 1 2 U 1 1 3 5

Hickory 17 18 19 18 6 13 15 9 Chestnut 5 5 3 0 U 3 3 2 Pine l 0 0 0 0 0 2 u Poplar (Tuliptree) 3 U 1 2 l u 6 11 192

!• In approximately one-third of the forests they described,

Hickory was present in sufficient numbers to be mentioned among the two to four or five most prominent species or genera, and it nearly always was placed next to the Oaks in order of naming. Its frequency of cita­ tion is essentially uniform from township to township.

2. One out of every five or six witness trees was a Hickory, which is mostly considerably higher than the percentage of Hickory so cited in Area I, where the uplands were almost entirely Oak-Hickory. Although the sample is small, the prominence of the Hickories cannot be doubted since they constitute from 17-19 percent of the witness trees in each of the townships. Some of the Hickory was undoubtedly Shellbark, which appears to have been a prominent lowland species in this area, and either absent or infrequent in other areas, but species of these topo­ graphic sites could scarcely alter the percentage of the total by more than a few percent in this area.

3. Whereas it cannot be assumed that the "Oak timbered land", which made up another one-third of the line descriptions of these sur­ veyors, meant that there never were any other prominent species pres­ ent except Oaks, it is corroborative of the widespread presence in 1798 of forests in which little else was worthy of note except the Oaks, i.e.. Mixed Oak, as is the case today over much of the landscape.

ii. The infrequency of Chestnut citation in the line descriptions, except in Brown Township, is evidence of its absence or scarcity in many parts of the area. In Brown and northern Madison and Knox Town­ ships, as already noted, lies the area of best development of Oak-

Chestnut, and even in these areas about two-thirds of the line descrip- 193 tions in rtiich Chestnut was named also contain reference to Hickory.

Chestnut, cited as a witness tree in the townships where Oak-Chestnut

was prominent, represents but 5 percent of the total number of such

trees.

Data of the Congress Land surveyors also give evidence of a pre­

ponderance of Hickory over Chestnut in the original forests, except in

Swan Township where the citations were of equal or nearly equal numbers.

Much of this township, and eastern Jackson Township, present features

somewhat different from those elsewhere in this vegetation area, since

it lies in the upper preglacial Hamden Creek drainage, and the topog­

raphy is somewhat more subdued than that to the east or to the west.

The region has been mostly cleared, including the relatively broad

ridges, and is today principally in pasture; and in eastern Swan Town­

ship, sizeable areas are now being stripped of their coal. As a

result, relatively few forest remnants of any kind occur here today.

However, many large dead Chestnuts still dot the hillside pastures,

and it is evident that in some areas Chestnut must have been a prom­

inent species. Where forest remnants remain, the moister phases of

Oak-Hickory or liixed Oak, in which White Oak is the most abundant

species, are the prevailing types. Three out of every five witness

and line trees in Swan Township were White Oaks, a percentage scarcely

surpassed anywhere in Area I where this was also the most prominent upland species. 191*

(3) Oak-Pine conmunities

Except for the possible continuation of the Shortleaf Pine comnuni

ties of Madison Township, Jackson County, northward into eastern Bloom­

field, southeastern Milton, and southwestern Wilkesville Townships, as

previously discussed (p* 161), Oak-Pine, if it existed as such, was of

only scattered and very local occurrence. From both the secondary for­

ests and the survey records (Plate VII), it is doubtful if the Pinas

have ever been of sufficient prominence that they should be considered

more than associated species of the Qak-Chastnut or Mixed Oak associa­

tions* Pitch and Scrub Pines are scattered over the sandy soils where

Oak-Chestnut is the prevailing forest type, and are most abundant on

the driest sites of the sharp ridges and upper south-facing slopes*

Except for certain areas described elsewhere (Area III), Pines are not

characteristic of the forests of any age over the Pennsylvanian rocks,

being essentially absent throughout most of the region in which they

outcrop in these two counties* The numerous Pine plantings on the

Government-owned lands of this area indicate that a number of species

of Pine can grow on these uplands when not competing with other species

In the original forests of most of the area, the Pines were probably mostly confined to areas where there had been disturbance, especially fire, along with such species as Large-toothed Aspen, Black Locust, and

Sassafras* All were likely of little more than scattered occurrence elsewhere in the Oak forests of this vegetation area* 1 9$

Mesic communities of residual soils

A number of mesic conmunities are well developed in this vegetation

area as an expression of a rather wide range in moisture gradient associ

ated dirnctly or indirectly with the more or less deeply and sharply dis

sected land surface and the great variety of Pennsylvanian bedrock types

Exposure effects are typically pronounced, but are frequently modified by bedrock properties Influencing the vertical and horizontal movement

of water through the underlying rock.

The communities here referred to as "mesic" are those which occur

over residual soils on sites more moist than those occupied by the Oak

communities, and their composition is determined primarily by the ex­

tent to which certain of the Oaks and associated species are either

enriched or replaced by other species with an increase in available moisture, or its more effective retention in the soils. With a slight

increase, Tuliptree enters the otherwise Oak-dominated communities.

With further increases in moisture, other species are added to the communities of these sites, until finally on the most mesic sites, i.e., those with the most abundant moisture but also with excellent internal drainage, moisture conditions are within a range which is optimum for a large nusber of species* These include most of those which are dominants on the driest upland sites, and many which are prominent in the lowlands where soils are usually wetter and almost always less well-drained* When regarded from another point of view, the communities reflect the progressive segregating of species from the most mesophytic community according to a progressive decrease in soil moisture, and it is in these comnuni ties that the upper limits of the 196

"moisture amplitudes" of the majority of the tree species of these two counties becomes evident*

Two species distinguish the forests of this area through their notable relative abundance on soils overlying the Pottsville and par­ ticularly the Allegheny rocks* These are Beech and Xellow Buckeye, both of which are also prominent in the terrace and certain floodplain conmunities here. The abundance of Beech in the present-day forests is readily apparent, and is especially striking in the autumn and winter aspects when the area is entered from the west or south* Con­ sidering the area as a whole, the conmunities in which it is a dominant reach their best development here, on both residual and non-residual soils, occupy the greatest surface area, and in general inpart a unity to the highly variable pattern of forest types. Buckeye, which is par­ ticularly conspicuous in the spring aspect, is one of its principal associates, and although almost a "weed" species today of lower slopes and bottomlands, it is not believed to have been more than a prominent associate of Beech in the original forests* However, it doubtless reached its highest frequency in the primary forests of the two coun­ ties within the present vegetation area*

The two species do not occur together everywhere throughout the two counties, but that their distributions are related to some factor, or factors, associated with the bedrock, is inferred from the following:

(1) Both reach their greatest abundance in the area of Allegheny and upper Pottsville rocks; (2) both occur over the Mississippian rocks of northwestern Vinton County, but neither one is generally as prominent in this area; (3) Buckeye is absent in the Sharon conglomerate area 197

(lower Pottsville) of northwestern Jackson County, and although Beech is present here, it is principally over the Uississippian rocks which underlie the lower slopes throughout most of the Sharon region; (U)

Buckeye is absent in southwestern Jackson County over the lower Potts- ville, and Beech is essentially so, although Sugar Maple is one of the two most prominent members of the ravine and lower slope communities of this area and is everywhere else in the two counties usually the most consistent and prominent associate of these two species; and (5) in western Franklin Township and in the vicinity of Petrea, Lick Township, both occur together over the upper Pottsville and are either absent or extremely scarce in contiguous areas* The only locality in which their distributions are not known to parallel each other is in southeastern

Jackson County, where Beech occurs without Buckeye, and more extensive observations in this area might reveal the presence of the latter, al­ though at the most it cannot be more than occasionally present here in the secondary forests*

Both species appear to require constant and relatively high soil moisture levels wherever they occur, and are also tolerant of imperfect drainage and accompanying reduced aeration at least during certain per­ iods of the year* In the latter respect, Buckeye exhibits the greater tolerance* In the present vegetation area there are many sites upon which the ranges of tolerance of both species to these edaphic factors are fulfilled* However, they also appear to be met equally well in

Madison Township of southeastern Jackson County and on the Uississip­ pian and Sharon slopes of northwestern Jackson County, where Beech occurs without Buckeye, although it is not nearly so well represented 198 as in the present vegetation area* In southwestern Jackson County, where the vegetation as a whole i3 the most xeric of the two counties, it is apparent that moisture is usually not adequate for either species, but there is justifiable doubt that even with greater dissection and improved moisture relations, Buckeye would over grow on the most mesic sites as long as soils are derived from the lower Pottsville rocks. It is, therefore, suggested that while the general distribution of both species is under control of available moisture, other factors locally become the most effective variables*

Those which might be of possible significance are two character­ istics of the Pennsylvanian bedrock of this vegetation area. These are, first, the increase in clays in the successively younger rocks as they outcrop from west to east across both counties, and secondly, the presence of limestones associated with the clays, ores, and coals of the upper Pottsville and Allegheny rocks. The general relationship between an increasing proportion of clays and shales and an increase in the occurrence and local abundance of Beech has been previously pointed out in connection with the vegetation of southern Jackson

County. It appears to be a truism that where these bedrock types are most common, other conditions being favorable, Beech is either the most prominent, or one of the most prominent, mesic species of the slopes, and of the drier phases of the lowland communities of such areas as well. However, many examples of communities in itiich Beech is a dominant species over bedrock which is either entirely or predom­ inantly sandstone, are evident in all areas where it occurs. On residual soils, therefore, the relationship would appear to be one pertaining to 199

water retention as it is influenced by the heavier subsoils and hori­

zontal movement of water along impervious strata in areas where the

clays and shales are important members above drainage, and to its

seepage from more or less porous, massive sandstones where this bedrock

type prevails*

Since Yellow Buckeye is sometimes wholly absent from rather con­

siderable areas in which Beech is present, its geographical distribu­

tion and local abundance are apparently governed in part by some factor

other than moisture, and the most likely possibility is the axtent to

which both upland and lowland soils may be influenced by the presence

of calcareous beds of one type or another. Such strata are essentially

absent from the lower Pottsville and Mississippian rocks of western

Vinton County, and although mostly sporadic and variable in composition

and thickness (from a few inches to ten feet), their occurrence in the

present vegetation area is consistent in that one or more members are

represented in most localities. Their total presence is in sufficient

quantities that Stout (52) has stated that ’’the limestones of the coun­

ty (Vinton) have been of value not only for industrial purposes, but more, through their decay, for soil enrichment" and that "(these) cal­

careous soils are excellent for fruit and grazing"•

The only soil type, however, which has been distinguished on the basis of limestone parent material is the Westmoreland silty clay loam, which occurs "wherever limestone outcrops in sufficient quantity to

affect the reaction and composition of the surrounding soil" and occupy'

Ing "ridge tops in scattered areas" (0.1 percent of the total area of

Vinton County) (37)* Such soils are described as being "well adapted 200 for pasture land”. Notwithstanding the absence of recognition in soils studies of the influence of these calcareous beds upon the slope and bottomland soils, differences in chemical composition o f the soils of many of the slopes of this area, and the alluvial materials derived from the uplands, is almost certain to be a measurable one, and a sig­ nificant one from the standpoint of the native vegetation.

That Yellow Buckeye may be a species whose distribution in these two counties is correlative with certain chemical properties imparted to the soils by the calcareous beds, and may be used as an indicator species in this respect, is suggested by the following: (1) Its great­ est abundance is coincident with the area in which calcareous rocks occur; (2) wherever Yellow Buckeye occurs, Yellow Oak, a recognized species of calcareous soils, is also present in the area, and the rela­ tive abundance of the two species appears to be directly proportional; and (3) Ohio Buckeye, which is confined to the upper Salt Greek valley, where soils are derived from calcareous glacial outwash, occurs on the only soils in the two counties which are not acid in reaction, thus suggesting that the distribution of the genus is influenced by differ­ ences in chemical properties of the soils* The correlation with distri­ bution of Yellow Oak is evidently a close one here, for in the local area of western Franklin Township the occurrence of these two species is striking, since both are essentially absent throughout the rest of the area in which this local region lies* Yellow Oak is most frequent in eastern Vinton County, where Buckeye is also most abundant, and it occurs over the Missiesippian rocks in northwestern Vinton, where Buck­ eye is present but not abundant* Both apparently are absent altogether 201

In northwestern Jackson County in the Sharon conglomerate areaj neither has been collected by Bartley and Pontius in Liberty Township, probably the most intensively collected area of its size in the State,

There is also a possible relationship here between the distribution of Beech and these same chemical properties, whatever they may be. If such a relationship exists, the critical concentration at which this factor, or factors, becomes limiting must be slightly lower for Beech than for Buckeye, since the former does occur where the latter does not.

That the presence of calcareous materials in the substrate may result in increased numbers of Beech is also suggested in this area by the original forests of the Salt Creek valley, in which Beech appears to have reached its most effective dominance in the two counties over soils either composed of or influenced by calcareous glacial outwash deposits.

The presence of Ohio Buckeye on the terraces and bottoms in this valley, where it is the ecological equivalent of Yellow Buckeye, may be evidence that Ohio Buckeye requires soils with a higher calcium content, or at least a higher pH, than Yellow Buckeye, and since the latter is absent on the bottoms but present on the residual soils of slopes along this valley, the upper limits of tolerance of this species to this factor may be exceeded on calcareous glacial outwash. The intensity to which it is expressed is suggested as the most effective variable in differentiating the distribution of the two members of this genus in southern Ohio, and possibly is the explanation of the essential absence of Ohio Buckeye in the unglaciated areas of Ohio, and the failure of 20 2

Yellow Buckeye to extend its range beyond the glacial border, Braun

(5) has commented as follows concerning the latter:

HThe two most characteristic species of the canopy of the Mixed Mesophytic forest, Aeaculua octandra and Tilla heterophylla, are abundant almost to the glacial boundary and locally within the area of Illinoian glaciation in southwestern Ohio and south­ eastern Indiana, but have scarcely invaded into the area of Wisconsin ice. In neither of these is there any evidence that a climatic limit has been reached at the north, and in neither is the limit of range at a soil boundary."

The mesic communities of this area described below, as well as

the Oak comnunities previously discussed, may all be considered segre­

gations from the Mixed Mesophytic association of this area. The gen­ etic relationships of the comnunities to the Mixed Mesophytic are

clearly exhibited in this vegetation area, where rather wide variations

and intergradations of comnunities are the rule rather than the excep­

tion, The order of discussion of the best-defined segregations in general follows that of decreasing moisture along a gradient which ob­ tains from the higher to the lower elevations or is expressed through slope exposure,

(1) Qak-Tullptree coiunitles

Nearly everywhere on the uplands of this area, where moisture ap­ pears to be inadequate for most species other than the Oaks, whether be­ cause of topographic position or bedrock influences, the moister phases of the Oak communities were enriched by Tuliptree, resulting in Oak-

Che s tnut-Tuliptree , Mixed Oak-Tuliptree , or Oak-Hickory-Tulip tree com­ munities, Such communities appear to have been the prevailing type of the moist ravines and coves near the drainage divides and on the rolling uplands, i.e., the most moist sites at the higher elevations. Although 203

Oak—Chastnut-Tuliptree Is a well-defined association in the secondary forests of certain areas, Mixed Oak-Tuliptree and Oak-Hickory-Tuliptree, which in all liklihood were of greater areal prominence on these uplands, are poorly represented and not so well-defined in today's forests, since they lie in areas which almost always have been extensively cleared or otherwise highly disturbed.

In addition to Tuliptree, which probably often was the most abun­ dant species on these sites, White Oak, Red Oak, Chestnut in the areas where this species was comnon, and other members of the upland Oak forests were present in variable numbers, depending upon how complete was the dominance of Tuliptree. The comnunities were replaced more or less gradually on the upper slopes by the Oak associations, and toward local base level, i.e., down the ravine, by Beech-Sugar Maple-Tuliptree, as discussed later. They represent a segregating out of Tuliptree as the mesic species with the greatest tolerance of lowered soil moisture, and in some rather local areas appear also to have been the lower north- and east-facing slope types, where moisture is not adequate for even the "weak" Mixed Mesophytic comnunities.

That Tuliptree was originally a prominent part of the vegetation throughout the area is indicated by its frequency of citation in the surveyors1 line descriptions (Table li*). Although it was prominent in other comnunities, it is noteworthy that in as high as 90 percent of the descriptions in which it was cited, no other species except the

Oaks, Chestnut, or Hickory were also mentioned, and it, together with

Beech, are by far the most often cited mesic species throughout most of this vegetation area. 20U

(2) White Oak-Beech-Sugar Maple association

The characteristic community of lower south- and west-facing slopes

of this area, and Area III, is one in which White Oak, Beech, and Sugar

Maple are dominants* It is usually best-defined in valleys where other

exposures are occupied by Mixed Mesophytic. In general, the more

gentle the slope, the farther upslope the community extends, which does

not often include more than the lower one-third, even on the most favor­

able sites. In many cases it is little more than a fringe bordering

the Oak communities constituting most of the forests on such exposures.

Proportion of the dominants, and the number and kinds of associates

and their frequency in the conmunity, are highly variable in the second­

ary forests. This undoubtedly is due in part to disturbance, but it is

also an expression of local variations in surface and internal edaphic

conditions, which have characterized the lower slopes of such exposures

since this region became maturely dissected. In some cases, Beech is

poorly represented, and in others, Sugar Maple, and both may drop out

gradually or abruptly in the transition to the Oak comnunities of the

middle and upper slopes. Associated species may be any of those of

the Mixed Mesophytic or Oak-Chestnut associations, but especially Red

Oak, Tuliptree, Chestnut, and Shagbark Hickory; White Ash is usually

present but never prominent, Tallow Buckeye is present in some areas,

and Linden may be prominent locally. Shrub and herbaceous layers, also

of great variability, are at best only moderately well developed.

The association is a segregate of the Mixed Mesophytic, between which and the Oak-Chestnut association it is transitional in this area.

It is not genetically related to the Beech-Sugar Maple of the nearby

terraces, with which it often merges without a sharp break, and with 205 which it also has often been confused#

The existence of these communities is rather clearly uncer the primary control of available soil moisture, although the specific com­ position on a given site may be influenced by other factors as well.

As a valley narrows toward its head, and the effects of slope exposure are lessened, the communities may pass gradually into Mixed Losophytic.

Where exposure effects are especially intense, as on a spur projecting out beyond an opposite valley wall at the mouth of a valley, they are usually replaced by one of the Oak comnunities. Seepage waters from above appear in large part to control the quantities of water available in the soils of these lower 3lopes. In so far as water loss and effect­ iveness of precipitation are relate to the distribution and local ex­ pression of White Qak-Beech-Sugar Maple communities, the accumulation of leaf litter on the lower slopes, as one of the many indirect effects of slope exposure, is probably of significance throughout this area.

(3) White Oak-Beach association

The community which gives character to, and most nearly distin­ guishes, this vegetation area from the others, is the White Oak-Beech association. So far as is known, it has not previously been described from other areas in the Allegheny Plateau of Ohio, although Braun (5) has stated that "the White Oak-Beech association segregate is a well- marked forest type (in the Climber land Mountains), (and is) extensively developed throughout the Mixed Mesophytic Forest region". In the Cumber- lands it is "the usual southerly slope forest type"; in the present area it has never been observed on any but south- or west-facing exposures.

If it occurs elsewhere in southern Ohio, remnants of this conmunity have 206

been considered by other workers to be impoverished M3aech-Maple", a

community with which it has almost nothing in common except the dom­

inance of Beech.

The community may occupy only the lower third or so of the slope,

or may extend clear to the top, especially where local relief is not

In excess of 1^0-200 feet. Usually it occupies the lower one-half to

two-thirds, however. The proportion of Beech is variable, but as high

as £0 percent of the canopy trees is not unusual, and the average is

probably around 30 percent. Its numbers generally decrease somewhat

from the lower to the upper range of the community. On some sites, an

estimated 80 percent of the canopy is Beech, which in some cases may be

the result of selective cutting practices of the past. Proportion of

V7hite Oak is also variable, but it is usually either the first or

second-most important species. Associated species, likewise occurring

in variable numbers, are Chestnut, which is often the third-most abun­

dant species, Black Oak, Sourwood, Black Gum, Red Oak, Red Mapla, Chest­

nut Oak, and Pignut, Shagbark, and Mockernut Hickories.

In some cases, the community is distinctly a Mixed Oak-Beech

combination, where Black Oak, in particular, may be as abundant as

White Oak. These, and the comnunities in which Chestnut is prominent

enough that the association would properly be referred to as Oak-Beech-

Chestnut, or Oak-Chestnut-Beech, are considered to be variations of the

White Oak-Beech*

The aspect and structure of such a community are scarcely differ­

ent from that of any other Oak community on a dry, south- or west-facing

slope in this region, except for the presence of Beech. The secondary 207

layer is principally young Beeches and White Oaks, the shrub layer, if

present, is typically Dogwood, and ground cover is sparse# This appar­

ently is a self-perpetuating community on these sites, which without

question are the most xeric on which Beech grows throughout the whole

two-county area* There is little about the habitat that is suggestive

of mesic conditions. Certain mesic species, particularly Sugar Maple

and Tuliptree, may occur as a fringe along the lowermost part of the

slope, but where this association exhibits its best development, these

or other such species are absent, or present in insignificant numbers,

in the conmunity proper.

These communities appear to represent a dry phase of White Oak-

Beech-Sugar Maple, since in general (1) White Oak-Beech is likely to

occur on the steeper slopes in the area and White Oak-Beech-Sugar Maple

on the more gentle slopes; (2) the lowermost slopes in some cases are

White Oak-Beech-Sugar Maple, middle slopes White Oak-Beech, and the

upper slopes Oak-Chestnut; and (3) apparent gradations between the two

may be seen in the secondary forests. Confusion arises most frequently

from stands in which White Oak and Beech are obviously the dominants,

but Sugar Uaple occurs to a greater or lesser degree in the understory.

Usually these communities are referable to White Oak-Beech-Sugar Maple

on the basis of the scattered presence of other mesic species in the

understory, together with the somewhat more mesic nature of the shrub

and herbaceous layers.

The recognition of these as discrete, although genetically related, associations, whose differentiation in the secondary forests has not been primarily related to disturbance, is based upon the following: 208

(1) The frequency of White Oak-Beech stands in which there is no evi­ dence of Sugar Maple or other mesic species coming into the present comnunities; (2) White Oak-Beech-Sugar Maple rarely goes more than one- third of the way up slope, while White Oak-Beech usually extends farther up and may go nearly to the ridge; (3) examples of secondary White Oak-

Beech, while scattered throughout the vegetation area, are most common in certain regions of the area; and (U) corroborative evidence from comparable survey records that Beech originally greatly outnumbered

Sugar Maple, and its prominence, as compared with Sugar Maple, was associated with its presence in upland Oak communities. Survey data for the eastern tier of townships of Vinton County are presented in

Table 1$, which data have been extracted from the diaries of Capt.

Jonathan Stone and Jeffrey Mathewson, both of whom surveyed about one-half the area of each of the townships for tne Ohio Company in 1798.

In the area covered by these data (approximately 150 square miles), nearly 20 percent of the line descriptions refer to Beech, which is almost five times more often than Sugar Maple is mentioned. Nearly every time Sugar Maple is referred to, Beech is likewise, and as indi­ cated in Plate VI, when the two were paired in a description, they were in lowland forests. Over one-third of the Beech is containedin the descriptions "Oak and Beech" or "Beech and Oak", and over one-half refer, in addition to Oak and Beech, to Hickory or Chestnut, or both, but to no other species. Nearly all of these descriptions were for particular slopes, or segments of the mile line. Moreover, some were further qualified as being slopes covered with "Dry Beech and Oak", or

"Dry Oak and Beech". Table 15* Summary of line descriptions and bearing trees of surveyors Jonathan Stone and Jeffrey Mat hews on, in Brown, Madison, Knox, Vinton, and Wilkesviile Townships, Vinton County, Ohio, spring and stumer, 1798.*

Brown Madison Vinton Wilkesviile All twps. and Knox % of % of % of % of % of No. total No. total No. total No. total No. total Line descriptions mentioning:

Beech, + other spp. 8 16 17 25 12 17 22 17 59 19

Sugartree, * other spp« 3 6 3 5 0 0 5 h 11 k

Beech and Sugartree, + other spp. 3 6 2 3 0 0 5 h 10 3

Oak and Beech, and no other spp. k 8 h 6 5 7 7 6 20 7

Oak and Beech, with or without Hick­ ory or Chestnut, but no other spp. ✓< 10 10 15 6 8 10 8 31 10

Oak and Beech, + any other spp. except Sugartree 5 10 13 19 8 11 13 10 39 13

Witness trees:

Beech 8 5 18 10 8 5 9 7 U3 7

Sugartree 3 2 9 5 5 3 h 3 21 3

* Southernmost tier o f six sections o f W iXkasville Twp. surveyed by Levi Whipple in 1798 a nd s u b d iv id e d by- Joseph Fletcher in 1805. 210

Plate VI. Location of citations of Beech and Subar Maple in Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, by a ll surveyors, 1798-1805*

• Beech bearing or line tree

• Sugar Maple bearing or lin e tree

Mile along which Beech is mentioned in one or more line descriptions

M ile along which Sugar Maple is mentioned in one or more line descriptions 211

A*-.-* • V- ,>■!' ‘ -. ; x « ■%& * ■ fel&vi. • '.. ■• ••s ; ' ■

T',i--

— -if' w *■ v-.* * ' . * . ? w w i -* . .t' ^ ™ * - t J * d ^ 1 2 S Z » .

• •* **.r.; % : * $ 'i * r N ‘\ '•*/■* f-' |j?4i

• **< > i*'*'*'- ' *W*-. -«v ' * V ' * • ■ f * • ' •'■< ♦. “VS , A- * *.1 7^ . *. ■ . ‘ * , 'V : . r v . • > . * 4 ** f 1V *! •C V-:'

if* 4d»K< ■‘ Tv >*fir» ' 4 - <

Plate VI. 212 That there could have been very much bias in favor of Beecn is

denied by (1) the fact that both surveyors concurred in c it in g Beech

several times more often than Sugar Maple, and referred to "Oak and

Beech" forests in about the same percentages of line descriptions, and

(2) Beech was c ite d over tw ice as many times as Sugar Maple among the

bearing trees. The overall uniformity of the notvs o f these two sur­

veyors with respect to the occurrence of Beech and Sugar ’.laple, and a ll

other respects as well, is remarkable, especially in contrast with the

conspicuous absence of uniformity among notes of the surveyors of the

Congress Lands. Since the notes cover such a large continuous area,

and the surveyors were in complete agreement, township by township, the

inference that much of the Beech in eastern Vinton County was not a s s o c i­

ated with Sugar Maple in the original forests, but with the Oaks and

Hickories and Chestnut on the uplands, is considered to be one of the

most v a lid th a t can be drawn from survey data .anywhere in the two coun­

tie s *

It is not implied, either in the interpretation of the survey

records or the secondary forests, that White Oak-Beech was the prevail­

ing community of southerly exposures. Its occurrence in the secondary

forests is much more characteristic of some areas than others, but even

in areas where it is most conmonly represented, e.g., along the several

tributaries of L ittle Raccoon Creek in southern Milton and Bloomfield

Townships, Jackson County, it is s till of local occurrence and greatly-

exceeded in areal prominence by other Oak communities on these exposures.

It seems likely that disturbance of one kind or another has significantly reduced the proportion of the area originally occupied by this associa­ 213 tion, since to begin with tnese sites were, at best, only slightly more mesic than those of other upland Oak communities. But the best inference that can be made in this connection on the basis of present- day forests, is that while its true proportion in the upland Oak com­ munities is probably not apparent today, it was always restricted to certain sites, and these sites were more prominent in certain lo ca li­ ties. Evidence for this exists in certain places where two conmunities of adjacent slopes, one Oak-Beech and the other Oak-Chestnut or Mixed

Oak, exhibit a sharp vertical separation without any apparent difference in a g e .

Wherever White Oak-Beech and its variations occur, Pennsylvanian rocks underlie it, even in the few examples remaining in the Oak-Chestnut area of western Vinton County. It has never been observed over Mis- sissippian rocks, although White Qak-Beech-Sugar Maple is w ell devel­ oped in such areas. The conclusion is, therefore, inevitable that its distribution is in some way related to the physical properties of the underlying rocks. Since the association is best represented in the ex­ treme eastern townships of both counties, where Pennsylvanian clays and shales reach their greatest prominence, the hypothesis is advanced that the distribution of White Oak-Beech is related to a particular set of moisture conditions under control of these strata. In many instances, e.g., along the west-facing slopes of Little Raccoon C reek in Milton

Township, Jackson County, the clay-shale nature of the bedrock is ob­ vious. In others, though, where cuts through bedrock are n o t available, all that can be seen are outcrops of sandstone on th e slopes, w h ic h does not mean, of course, t h a t clays and shales are not present a t some lev­ 2lU els. But the frequent abundance of Chestnut, which except in this community is never associated with soils suspected of having a rela­ tively high clay content, offers the greatest challenge to any explana­ tion of this association which is based upon soil properties related to an unusually high percentage of clay in the parent materials.

The problem is one of unusual ecological interest in that Beach appears to be out of place in these otherwise Oak communities. Even if the existence of the association were dismissed as a feature of the secondary forests bearing no important relationship to the primary forests, the presence of Beech, much of it young Beech in highly dis­ turbed areas, far up on these dry, south- and west-facing slopes and associated only with species of the driest habitats of the region, still is in need of explanation. For this, the help of both geologists and pedologists is necessary.

(li) Beech-Sugar Maple-Tuliptree association

The common segregate of the Mixed Mesophytic, which occupies coves, gulleys, and ravines, particularly along the major streams and their principal tributaries, is one composed of Beech, Sugar Maple, and Tuliptree. The order of dominance is variable with the locality, both within this vegetation area and along the length of a given ravine.

Scattered individuals of any of the other species of the Mixed Meso­ phytic may also be present.

This community is developmentally unrelated to the Beech-Sugar

Maple described later. The assemblage represents those species of the

Mixed Mesophytic which usually increase in abundance where the highest 215 moisture levels obtain on the uplands. In general, the closer to local base level, i.e.. the major streams, the higher the proportion of Beech. With a decline in the abundance of Beech toward the head­ waters of the ravines, there is a corresponding increase in Tuliptree, which in the vicinity ox divides, as previously mentioned, is likely to be the only mesic species present in any significant numbers.

Tuliptree, it may be noted here, is primarily a species of residual soils throughout this Plateau area. Although it is a part of the Beech-

Sugar Maple on alluvial and lacustrine soils, where it may locally be a prominent associate, its numerical abundance, high quality, and ex­ ceptional size are features associated with the well-drained but moist soils of the uplands.

(5) Mixed Mesophytic comnunities

Mixed Mesophytic comnunities appear to have been we11-developed in this vegetation area, and are no less characteristic of the area than of Area III. However, since the sites upon which they reach their best development are here not as well represented, the proportion of land surface covered by such comnunities is somewhat less than in

Area III. Their finest expression obtains on the steep, often pre­ cipitous north- and east-facing slopes which occur along most of the length of Raccoon Creek, and for the most part appear to have been carved largely from massive sandstones. While it cannot be said that these communities are not well expressed over other bedrock types, the correlation of best development with massive sandstones is generally evident in this area. This is due in part, at least, to the topographic features associated with these mor; resistant strata, i.e., long, steep 216 slopes, but is doubtless also related to permeability and water-retain­ ing properties of the bedrock which result in a continuous supply of moisture at all seasons of the year. These are the sites in this Plat­ eau area where there is the maximum available moisture together with uniformly excellent aeration, resulting from bedrock properties and topographic position, respectively, and where there is also the most effective conservation of moisture on the uplands through the direct and indirect influences of slope exposure.

In its best development, the Mixed Mesophytic association in this area is composed of twenty or so canopy specie3, no one or two of which can be characterized as dominant, although some may be more prominent than others. These species are the following: White Oak, Red Oak,

Yellow Buckeye, Tuliptree, Beech, Sugar Maple (including Black Maple),

Chestnut, Linden, Black Walnut, White Walnut, Yellow Oak, White Ash

(including F. biltmoreana), Bitternut, Shagbark and Mockernut Hickor­ ies, Chestnut Oak, Black Oak, Red Maple, Red Elm, Black Cherry, Black

Gum, Sourwood, and Hemlock locally* Other layers are well developed, and the herbaceous flora, which is largely spring-flowering, is the richest of all of the associations recognized in this area, both as to species and numbers of individuals.

Various combinations of these arboreal species occur in the second­ ary forests. Away from the valley of Raccoon Creek and the lower parts of its major tributaries, Little Raccoon Creek and Elk Fork, the Mixed

Mesophytic assemblages today are usually not as rich floristically, and probably never were. However, it is admittedly difficult to evaluate how many species may have been eliminated through disturbance. In such 217 areas, Beech, Sugar Maple, Tuliptree, Yellow Buckeye, Chestnut, TThite

Oak, Red Oak, and sometimes Linden, are most commonly represented, but this assemblage does not constitute a well-defined segregate of the

Mixed Mesophytic, since at least some of the other species are usually as well represented, and not all of those named are consistently pres­ ent* Since these communities, like the others of residual soils of this area, are under control of available soil moisture, which in turn is influenced by bedrock properties, it is probable that aside from those over massive sandstones along the major streams, the association was expressed to varying degrees in the forests of the north- and east- facing slopes in this region of bedrock complexity. Their composition was probably variable from valley to valley, or even on the slonss within the same valley, and the communities are comparable to those previously referred to as "weak*1 Mixed Mesophytic comnunities since they represent a weak expression of the Mixed Mesophytic association.

These are especially conspicuous in that part of the present vegetation area lying in the Hamden Creek drainage, where relatively steep valley walla are of more or less local occurrence in an area of generally lower relief and gentle, rounded hills* Such assemblages also appear to have been not uncomnon on the lower south- and west-facing exposures in areas of greater relief, apparently as an expression of local bedrock influences, and on such slopes of narrow, sharply dissected valleys where rigorous exposure effects are at a minimum. In addition to varia­ bility in floristic composition, throughout this vegetation area the elevation to which any of these Mixed Mesophytic comnunities may have ascended on all exposures was probably as variable in the original 218

forests as it is t o d a y , where they may occur all the way from a fringe

on the lower slopes of any exposure to a clearly-defined and well-

developed community extending to ridgetops on north- and east-

facing exposures*

The ecological status of Hemlock in this area is somewhat obscured

by the fact that in the original forests it was only locally present,

principally along Raccoon Creek (Plate VIII), and all forest remnants

in which it is present today have undergone heavy cutting. The com­

munities of which Hemlock is now a member occur on all but strictly

south-facing exposures, and may cover only the lower portion of the

slope or extend its full length. In some cases, it is of only scat­

tered prosence in what is clearly an otherwise Mixed Mesophytic com­

munity* Where Hemlock is a prominent species, however, its associates

are usually limited, and appear always to have included at least Beech,

Chestnut, and White Oak, and lesser numbers of Red Oak, oftentimes

Tuliptree, but only sometimes Sugar Maple. Other species of the Mixed

Mesophytic are mostly either absent or of unpredictable presence.

On the west-facing slope along Raccoon Creek in Section 7, Brown

Township, in addition to Beech and Chestnut, its associates are Red Oak,

White Oak, Chestnut Oak, Red Maple, Sourwood, and an occasional Tulip­

tree* to an even steeper west-facing slope in Section lU, Wilkesvilla

Township, where a few of the original trees remain, the forest con­

tained at least Hemlock, Chestnut, Beech, Red Oak, and Chestnut Oak,

from the base to the top of the approximately 120-foot slope; at least

White Oak was in all liklihood present in the original condition. Both of these comnunities are suggestive of the "dryer slope forests" con- 219

taining Hemlock described by Braun in the Cumoerland fountains (£),

and their relationship to Oak-Chestnut here, as in that region, is

evident from the composition throughout, and from an increase in

Chestnut Oak and Chestnut on the uppermost slopes*

The distribution of Hemlock, regardless of the exposure on which

it occurs, appears to be under control of the moisture-aeration con­

ditions afforded by these steep slopes underlain by porous massive

sandstoneB. But the factors governing the composition of the coranunity

as a whole, except in those clearly referable to Hemlock-Mixed Meso­

phytic, constitute a problem which p03es special difficulties in this

area because of the original restricted distribution of the communities,

and the poor condition of the remnanLs which remain*

Comnunities of the Swamp Forest succession

Here, as nearly everywhere else on the floodplains of the two coun­

ties, the comr.on association of the wetter bottoms is Sycamore-River

Birch-Soft Maple* In most areas these sites are sufficiently well-

drained to be enriched more or less by American Elm. Along the stream margins Willows may or may not be pr sent. In local areas a few Box-

elder, Cottonwood, and Hackberry occur, but these are not character­

istic species of the swamp forests of this vegetation area* Pin Oak and Swamp White Oak are also either absent or scarce, noticeably occur­ ring only in very local are^s of the upper Hamden Creek drainage in

Swan Township.

As elsewhere, the Elm-Sycamore-River Birch-Soft Maple association is composed almost exclusively of these four canopy species* Any others 220 which maybe present are not usually prominent enough to be considered associates, or if so, drainage-aeration has sufficiently improved that a transitional conmunity is represented. The principal variation in this area is the species of Soft Maple which is present. Along the entire length of Raccoon Creek, its tributaries Little Raccoon and Elk

Fork, the Maple is exclusively Silver; elserhere throughout the two counties, except along Salt Creek, it is Red Maple. Although these two species appear to be ecological equivalents in tnis association, it is worthy of note that Silver Maple does not occur along any other tributary of Raccoon Creek, whatever its size, and the transition of the comnunities with Silver Maple to those with Red Maple is usually sharp, complete, and at the mouth of the tributary, within a hundred yards or so of the valley of the major stream. The possible explanation of this very clear-cut distribution is discussed in connection with the swamp forests of Area III, where Silver Maple also occurs with re­ stricted distribution.

With slight improvement in drainage-aeration, Yellow Buckeye ap­ pears to be the next species to enter the swamp forests, particularly in the northeastern part of the area. It is present in the swamp for­ ests of moat parts of this vegetation area, but is never abundant ex­ cept locally* There is a good bit of scattered evidence in areas where it is a conspicuous part of the floodplain vegetation today that this species enters just a little ahead of Elm. This is especially well exhibited in the floodplain forest near the point where Two Mile Creek joins Raccoon in Section 35* Brown Township. Here it occurs in almost a pure stand, or is prominently associated with Sycamore and River Birch 221 or in places, with small numbers of Elm. If it was ever a dominant in a well-defined association which occupied a significant part of the floodplains of this area, however, it is not readily evident from the few scattered and disturbed forest remnants which remain in all but the remotest areas along Raccoon Creek and its tributaries. It is probable that it was not as abundant in the original forests of even these local areas, although where it does grow today, except where artificial drain­ age may have modified the habitat, it must also have been able to grow before disturbance.

Jones (22) has described a "Birch-Maple-Buckeye" association in adjacent Meigs County, composed of River Birch, Yellow Buckeye, and presumably either Red or Silver Maple although this is not stated, and characterizes it as being "strictly a major stream bank association and consequently quite limited in extent". This would not be an accurate portrayal of what appears to be the equivalent conmunity in Vinton County, where Buckeye almost never occurs as a stream-bank species, and the conmunity is interpreted as being Sycamore-River Birch-Soft Maple, being enriched by Buckeye where there has been a local improvement in drainage. Lacking evidence of a well-defined association in this area, the presence of Buckeye is here considered to represent the beginning stage in the development of the Mixed Swamp Forest from the communities occupying the wettest and most poorly drained sites of the floodplains, in which this is only one of a number of transitional communities which might be pointed to as the species enter the swamp forests with slight improvements In drainage* 222

In areas where Buckeye is not. so prominent, White Ash appears to be the next species to enter the swamp forest in significant numbers.

With better drainage, Sycamore, as a dominant, and River Birch, usually altogether, drop out, but whether or not this point is also marked by a sufficiently great increase in Ash that an Elm-Ash-Soft Maple associa­ tion in this vegetation area ever occupied any more than local sites, is not evident from the secondary forests observed in the course of this stucty. Rather, the forests appear to h a v e been mostly sharply delimited as being either of the wetter type, or else what would h a ve to be referred to as Mixed Swamp Forest, in which drainage is much improved, and without any well-defined intermediate associations be­ tween the two. This i s i n part due t o the fact that there are tw o rather sharply defined kinds of swamp forest sites available in this vegetation area: (1) the floodplains which b y and large have been drained by low-gradient streams since the many reversals and modifica­ tions of the whole drainage system during Pleistocene, and (2) the many terraces along the preglacial drainage lines which exhibit various de­ grees of preservation and dissection, and altogether afford quite dif­ ferent moisture-aeration conditions*

Along a given valley, e.g., Sandy Run in Brown Township where ter­ races are conspicuous only near the mouth, the change in drainage con­ ditions on the floodplain progresses with the gradual change in eleva­ tion between the headwaters and mouth, and a corresponding gradual change in species composition along this gradient* This same sort of relationship prevails along most valleys of this area, whatever their history, and the shorter the valley, the more telescoped in space is 223 this sequence from the wetter to the drier phases of the swamp forest.

It is evident, therefore, that there are few sizeable areas in which

drainage conditions are sufficiently alike that the intermediate stages

of swamp forest development might become well-defined, and where they

do occur, practically nothing in the way of forest remains since the

land has long been in agricultural use.

After the entrance of American Elm, Buckeye, and White Ash, the

Walnuts, especially White Walnut, Shellbark Hickory, Red Elm, and Black

Cherry, constitute a group which appears to invade the swamp forests at about the same level of drainage. With somewhat improved drainage, tne

community is further enriched by Tuliptree, Red Oak, Shagbark and 3it- ternut Hickory, Yellow Oak, and Linden, and these are followed by 3 ech and Sugar Maple, in that order, with still better moisture-aeration conditions. Throughout its development, Sycamore and Red Maple are

likely to occur in significant numbers, with scattered Swamp White Oak,

Shingle Oak, Honey Locust, and Black Gum.

All such communities may properly be referred to as a ML'i_xed Swamp

Forest", for they are composed of a relatively large number of species, whatever their stage of development, and the final stage, in which all of the species named above may be present, is in itself but a transi­ tional community to the Beech-Sugar llaple of this vegetation area. The

Beech-Sugar Mirle association here is essentially the Mixed Swamp Forest in which these two species have attained the position of dominance, but with the addition of a very few others from the uplands. In fact, the distinction between the two is sometimes not e asily made in the second­ ary forests. Both occupy the lacustrine and alluvial terraces of the 22k area, with the later stages of the Mixed Swamp Forests on the less well-drained parts and Beech-Sugar Maple on the slightly better-drained sites. The existence as a discrete community of the last stage of the swamp forest succession prior to dominance of Beech and Sugar Maple, however, was aoparently well expressed arealiy in the original forests, an especially good example of which occurs in the valley of Flat Run in

Madison Township, Vinton County.

Beech-Sugar Maple association

The final stage in the 3wamp forest succession occurred principally on the lacustrine and alluvial terraces, and is one in which Beech and

Sugar Maple share dominance. Except for the Mixed Mesophytic, to which it is closely related floristically (but wholly u m ^ l a t e d devjlopm ent- ally), this association consists o f t h e groate.it n u m b e r o f species in all layers of any community known in these counties, ana the secondary, shrub, and herbaceous layers are all well developed.

Except perhaps locally, as previously indicated, it is not oelieved that Beech and Sugar Maple often achieved such effective dominance as to nearly exclude all other species. On the contrary, the association in this vegetation area appears mostly to have been composed of a large number of canopy species among which Beech and Sugar Maple (including

Black Maple and Acer sac char urn forma Rugelii) were only the two most prominent. Beech was probably somewhat more abundant than Sugar Maple, although there are some areas in which the reverse was almost certainly true, judging from the scarcity of Beech in those areas today. In cer­ tain valleys, where Sugar Maple far outnumbers Beech today, the history 225 is known to have been one of removal of Beech for burning in nearby

"sugar camps" of the past.

The most prominent associated canopy trees are Yellow Buckeye, Red

Oak, Red Elm, Bitternut, Shagbark Hickory, White Ash, Shingle Oak, and

White Walnut. Others, which are also usually present in lesser numbers but are no less characteristic of the association, are Black Cherry,

Black Gum, Tuliptree, Linden, Red Maple, Black Walnut, Yellow Oak,

Shellbark Hickory, White Oak, American Elm, and sometimes Chestnut.

The secondary layer, in addition to young individuals of the above species, characteristically contains Mulberry, Hop Hombean, Blue

Beech, and Papaw, and the shrub layer, Witch-hazel, Spicebush, and

Viburnum spp. Ground cover is luxuriant and composed of many herbaceous species, a large part of which are spring-flowering, and a number of which remain green throughout the winter.

These communities occur largely on what has been mapped as the

Monongahela silt loam, including its high-terrace phase. This is also the soil type upon which the White Oak conmunities of Jackson County occur, communities which are comoletely different from those of Beech-

Sugar Maple with respect to floristic composition, structure, and as­ pect. How the same soil type can be occupied by two such different communities suggests one of the outstanding and probably the most clear-cut soil classification problem in the two-county area. The answer, at least in part, lies in differences in the physical and chem­ ical properties of the profile through the deposition of alluvium de­ rived from the uplands of this area, over the Minford clays, resulting in soils which are in reality quite different from those of the aban­ doned valleys in Area I. VThatever their proper designation on a soils map may be, the materials occupying the position of the parent materials are still silts and clays of lacustrine or alluvial origin, and the subsoil is more or less highly mottled, indicating slow internal drainage and deficient aeration, at least during periods of heavier precipitation.

Wherever Beech-Sugar Maple communities occur in this two-county area, regardless of the soil type mapped, either internal and/or underdrain­ age is evidently at least somewhat impeded, usually through the pres­ ence cf heavy-textured subsoil or parent materials, as in the Mononga- hela silt loam. Aeration, as compar:d with that of all residual soil communities, except for depressions on flat uplands underlain by im­ pervious clay, is distinctly poorer at least during certain seasons of the yeciT. So far as is known, Beech-Sugar Maple communities are con­ fined to sites with t iese characteristics and do not occur on residual soils in this area.

Terrace surfaces of this region are always more or less dissected, and the larger number of canopy species in this association, some of which are much more abundant in communities of drier or wetter habitats, is probably related to a rather wide range in moisture-aeration grad­ ient which exists through a relatively short vertical distance, and from a few to a hundred feet, or so, above stream level. In local flat areas on the floodplains, whe^e suitable drainage conditions ob­ tain, it is probable that many of these associated species dropped out and the others were less well-Hropresented, and the dominance of Beech and Sugar Maple, and Beech in particular, was as effective as it is be­ lieved to have been over the large area of the Salt Creek floodplain in

A r e a III. 227

The abundance of Yellow Buckeye in this vegetation is even more

pronounced in the Beech-Sugar Maple than in the Mixed Mesophytic, and

is likewise one of the features distinguishing it from similar communi­

ties of parts of Area III.

Very little remains in the way of concrete examples of the Beech-

Sugar Maple association today, since wherever it occurred it occupied

the soils and topographic sites most suitable for agricultural use*

The best remnants occur on the former charcoal furnace lands. Else­ where, except for old trees which have been spared for one reason or

another, which are mostly Sugar Maples or Beeches, only an occasional

secondary or tertiary woodlot gives evidence of the former existence

of such a forest type* The largest areas of Beech-Sugar Maple origin­

ally were, without question, along preglacial Hamden Greek, from north

of the village of Creola to a mile or so south of McArthur, and the

several tributaries along this part of its course in southern Swan, Elk,

and Madison Townships, Vinton County. This region abounds in abandoned

valleys and broad, high terraces, and is the largest area of its kind

in Vinton County*

The prevalence of Beech-Sugar Maple in this particular area, es­ pecially in Elk Township, is strongly corroborated by the field notes

of the surveyors. This township, which constitutes the greatest part

of the area, was surveyed by Levi Whipple in 1798* and subdivided by

John Collett in 1805* Of their 196 bearing and line trees, 21 percent were either Beech or Sugar Maple (11 percent Beech, 10 percent Sugar

Maple)* These are the highest percentages of Beech and Sugar Maple occurring within a 36-square mile area of the two counties, and the species here are exceeded in numbers only by White Oak (3f? percent); 228

Hickory, represented by 13 percent, includes several species. Species associated with Beech and Sugar Maple, however, are poorly represented in these data.

Of the line descriptions, Beech is mentioned in 19 percent, Sugar

Maple in 31 percent, and the two together in 13 percent. Although

Whipple's notes are, on the whole, among the finest available for the whole area, he apparently had a marked disposition toward ignoring

Beech in his line descriptions; Beech and Sugar Maple are cited in about equal numbers, however, among his witness and line trees, the choice of which presumably was not subjective. Collett's line descrip­ tions, which are uniformly the briefest of any of the surveyors in the two counties, refer to Beech and/or Sugar Maple 12 times, eight of which descriptions make reference to both species, three to Beech only, and one to Sugar Maple only. The preponderance of Sugar Maple over

Beech in the percent of total number of line descriptions in this town­ ship is, therefore, due entirely to Whipple's notes. Since from what is known of the usual quality of Collett's descriptions, it can be con­ cluded that both of these species must have been exceedingly abundant to have justified mention in his very brief notes, it is probably a valid inference that every time Whipple recorded "Sugartree" in his line descriptions, he should also have mentioned Beech, had he been unbiased in his choice of species.

Whipple did, however, regularly name a number of associates of

Beech and Sugar Maple, and placed the assemblages so precisely with respect to the topography that there can be no doubt that the conmuni- ties he was observing were mostly of the Beech-Sugar Maple type. In some cases, he was describing Mixed Uesophytic, which also occurs in 229 this township and contains many of the same species, but these can be distinguished by their topographic site. The following are Whipple's descriptions which are believed to refer in whole or in part to the

Beech-Sugar Maple forests in Elk Township.

"To a ... bottom. Timber Beech, Buckeye, Sugartree, Poplar etc."

"Ascending a hill to the top. Hill land of the first qual­ ity. Timber Sugartree, Black Walnut, Butternut, Iynn, Poplar, etc."

"Over upland of the first quality. Timber White Oak, B. Oak, Hickory, Poplar, White A3h, B. Walnut. Undergrowth Spice- bush."

"Descending a hill to a run L links wide, to bottom. Tim­ ber Sugartree, Buckeye, etc."

"Over rich land. Timber 3utternut, Mulberry, W. Ash and Hickory, undergrowth Spicebush."

"Over land level of excellent quality. Timber B. and W. Oak, Chesnut and Iynn. Undergrowth Spicebush."

"This mile is of an excellent quality. It is almost level as a plain. Timber White and Black Oak, Hickory, Poplar, Lynn, some Butternut, Black Walnut, and Sugartree, undergrowth Spice bush, some Papaw."

"Rising up a rich hill to the top, descending to the east, rich soil. Timber White Oak, Black Oak, Hickory, Butternut, Sugartree, etc."

"Along a side hill to a gulley, descending to the north. Land of the first quality. Timber Sugartree, Buckeye, Poplar, etc."

"Off of bottom. Timber Elm, Poplar, Sugartree, etc. Under­ growth Spicebush."

"Over uneven land but very rich. Timber Poplar, Sugartree, Oak, Hickory, undergrowth Spicebush."

"Land of an excellent quality. Timber Sugartree, Poplar, W. and B. Oak, Hickory. Undergrowth Spicebush."

"Land exceeding hansome and rich. Timber Chesnut, Poplar, some Sugartree, W. and B. Oak, Hickory, and undergrowth Spicebush." 230

"Ovor level land, rich soil. Timber White and Black Oak, Hickory, Butternut, Chesnut, Poplar, etc."

"Land rich and very level, excellent for small grain. Timber W. and B. Oak, Hickory, Poplar, Chesnut, Sugartree. Undergrowth Spicebush." (This at a section corner where he had just marked a Sugartree and a 3eech as bearing trees)

In this township, therefore, the bearing and line trees of both surveyors, and the line descriptions oi Collett, give what is probably an accurate picture of the numerical and a real dominance of Beech and

Sugar Maple, and the line descriptions of Whipple complete the picture through the addition of the prominent associated species.

In Elk Township, as indicated both by field studies and the sur­ vey records, the Beech-Sugar Maple association was especially well developed in the broad valley running northwest from McArthur, includ­ ing the flats upon which the town is located, in Hamden Creek valley proper, and along parts of Elk fork. It was also charicteristic of the abandoned valley east of McArthur, in which the Baltimore and Ohio

Railroad runs today, and in Madison Township, particularly in the tributaries of the praglacial valley in which the village of Pratts- ville lies. Elsewhere it occurred in certain parts of the valley plains of Raccoon Creek (especially south and west of the village of

Zaleski), which in general are those areas along this stream under cultivation today, and on the terraces along Little Raccoon Creek in

Milton Township, Jackson County. These areas are more or less evident in Plate 71, on which is recorded the location of all Beech and Sugar

Maple citations throughout the two-county area.

The areas mentioned above are those in which the association was mostly continuous, or at least occupied a considerable fraction of the 231

total surface area. But throughout the lowlands of the present v e g e ­

tation area, wherever better-drained conditions obtain, the association

apparently formed a mosaic with the swamp forests of the more poorly

drained sites. How great may have been the total area occupied by

these local communities, there is little basis for ju d g m e n t today,

except perhaps the extent to which valley bottoms are under cultivation.

With the best drainage conditions possible on these terraces, the

dominance of Beech and Sugar Maple could be expected to reach its

greatest effectiveness, and under th e s e conditions the community to

be maintained as long as the terraces re m a in in existence. With further

dissection the terraces will be removed, and the habitat as it exists

today eliminated. That Beech-Sugar Maple may be a community leading

to the development of Mixed Mesophytic, as implied by Sampson for

northeastern Ohio ( IiO ) , or that Mixed Mt3sophytic might ultim ately be

succeeded by Beech-Sugar M a p le , as indicated b y S hanks (UU) for the

same region, would not hold for this Plateau area from what is known

of the sites upon which these two associations occur, and t h e i r appar­

ent vegetational histories.

The Beech-Sugar Maple association terminates the swamp forest suc­

cession which began on what are now terraces following the filling of

the valleys during Pleistocene, and the association is not known to occur on residual soils in this area. Mixed Mesophytic, on the other hand, is restricted to residual soils, and in one form or another must have occupied its present sites since its constituent species have been in the area (Tertiary). On residual soils at all slope levels, because of topographic position and regardless of parent materials, 232 drainage-aeration conditions appear to be almost always at least

slightly better than those of the best-drained sites of the terraces, and hence are not capable of supporting even the last stage in the swamp forest succession where drainage is always more or less imperfect.

Where moisture and aeration conditions are the most favorable on resid­ ual soils for Beech and Sugar Maple, they appear to be just as favor­ able, or more favorable, for one or more other species, and since the bedrock and exposure are forever constant as long as this remains three-dimensional topography, there does not seem to be any possibility of Beech-Sugar Maple ever replacing Mixed Mesophytic conruinities through any natural process of vegetation. Even in a considerably more moist climate, the character of the drainage on these slopes would be un­ modified since its controls would remain unchanged; and under a less moist climatic regime, the association would be expected to be re­ placed by one of the drier upland types, although the sites would still be the most moist over residual soils.

On Beech-Sugar Maple sites, at least aeration is almost never quite adequate for many of the other species of the Mixed Mesophytic

(nor moisture levels quite high enough for many of the species of the

Mixed Swamp Forest) to maintain their positions in the comnunity in­ definitely against Beech and Sugar Maple, for which two species these sites appear to be the most nearly optimum; Mixed Mesophytic, therefore, does not develop on these topographic sites.

The absence of any genetic relationship between these two associ­ ations is plainly evident in this area, although their position along the moisture-aeration gradient from the wettest to the driest sites in the area is one of contiguity, Successional relationships of the comnunities of the swamp forest succession with improvement in drainage are indicated in Fig, 19. The upper half of this figure indicates, as in the comparable figure for Area I, not successional relationships, but the relation of the associations to each other with respect to the levels of soil moisture which they reflect. Since other factors in­ fluence the expression of these communities, the relationships indi­ cated can represent only a broad generalization of their distribution from the most poorly-drained lowlands to the most excessively-drained uplands* 23U

Oak-Pino

Oak-Chestnut Mixed Oak

Qak-Cnestnut- Qak-Hickory- Tuliptree Oak-Tuliptree Tuliptree

White Qak- Beech

White Oak-Beech- Sugar Maple

"Weak" Mixed Mesophytic

Mixed Mesophytic Beech-Sugar Maple- Tuliptree RESIDUAL SOILS

ALLUVIAL AND LACUSTRINE SOIIS

Beech-Sugar Maple

Mixed Swamp Forest

Conmunities transitional to the Mixed Swamp Forest

Elm-Sycamore-River Birch- Soft Maple

Sycamore-River Birch-Soft Maple

Sycamore-River Birch-Willow

Fig* 19* Relationships of the associations of Area II with respect to moisture gradient* 235 AREA III: SALT CREEK AREA.

Western Vinton and northwestern Jackson County constitute a natural area (Physiographic area 1, Chp. Ill) which physiographically and veges- tationally is the most discrete of the three areas into which the coun­ ties have been divided. The preglacial drainage divide between Hamden

Creek and the Salt Creek system forms a natural and often distinct eastern boundary, beyond which there is frequently an abrupt and strik­ ing change in the vegetational and physiographic features. This is readily evident in a conparison of the landscapes to the east and the west at certain points along the divide in Washington Township. The eastern boundary is least well defined in the northern part of Jackson

Township, where the divide is here used to set the limits of this vegetation area because its position probably reflects changes in lithology and physiography which, although not apparent without de­ tailed study of the area, are nevertheless present and are correlated more or less with the vegetation pattern. To the south, the boundary follows closely the ridges overlooking the liarietta valley, along which there is a sharp change in topography, accompanied presumably by a somewhat abrupt change in bedrock.

Both the physiographic and vegetational features which character­ ize this area are related to the Mississippian and lower Pennsylvanian sandstones, conglomerates, and shales. These are of unusual resistance and have been long dissected by streams little deflected but much rejuv­ enated in post-Tertiary time. The area is that with the uniformly greatest relief (mostly 300-h00 feet), slopes are generally steep, and terraces have been largelyzemoved by the actively degrading and deeply 236 entrenched streams. Although there are certain erosional features and bedrock properties which distinguish the southern from the northern part (Chp. Ill), as a result of which the area could rather easily be subdivided into two vegetational physiographic regions, it is here treated as a single area because of an overall unity in certain respects, related primarily to greater relief, which sets it apart from Areas I and II. The notable differences between the northern and southern parts are pointed out in the discussion of the vegetation.

No one characteristic distinguishes the vegetation from t h a t else­ where in the two counties. The basis for i t s recognition as a dis­ crete vegetation a re a is principally one of degree of expression of plant communities shared to a greater or lesser extent with the other areas.

1. The Oak-Chestnut association here reaches its best develop­ ment over the largest continuous areas, and in the northern part was the principle Oak conmunity of the uplands. It is poorly expressed in Area I, and only in certain regions of Area II was it the prevail­ ing upland type.

2. Oak-Pine or Pine-Oak communities here reached their greatest areal development, particularly in the southern part of the area.

Where such communities occur elsewhere, they are either not of areal importance or the Pine conmunities are floristically different.

3. Qak-Hickory, although prominent in the southern part, was not a dominant upland community as compared with Areas I and II.

ii. Mixed Mesophytic communities are the characteristic forest type on north and east exposures throughout the area. These are absent 237 or weakly expressed in Area I, and although also prominent in Area II,

here reach their greatest areal development and richest floristic com­

position. Such species as Yellow and Sweet Birch, and Great-leaved and

Umbrella Magnolias, are a part of the Mixed Mesophytic of this area and unknown elsewhere; and Hemlock is more than occasional in this area.

5. Qak-Chestnut-Tuliptree is most clearly expressed in this reg­

ion as a segregate of the Mixed Mesophytic toward the boundaries of the area where the physiography and bedrock are transitional to that of other areas.

6. White 0ak-3eech-Sugar Maple communities are exceptionally well defined as the lower south- and west-facing slope type over Mississippian rocks.

7. Beech-Sugar Maple communities arp the climax of the swamp for­ est succession, as elsewhere, but the dominance of these two species was probably most effective over the alluvial soils in this area.

On the whole, the conmunities in this area are the most complex floristically, but the vegetation pattern the most clearly defined.

The flora of the southern part of the area is exceedingly rich, as shown by the collections of Bartley and Pontius in Liberty Township, in which respect it is scarcely surpassed in the State. In this strongly three-dimensional topography, northern and southern species, a number of which are disjunctive or at the margins of their ranges, here find an apparent wide array of microclimatic and microedaphic conditions which have enabled them to invade the area, and persist during Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene time. The rather sharp differentiation of upland 238

conrounities is in part r e l a t a to the greater vertical distance through which they extend, and in part to the greater uniformity of bedrock

types with respect to texture and other physical properties, especially

those relating to water movement. Because of this relative uniformity

in the Mississippian and lower Pennsylvanian rocks, the effects of

slope exposure are here the most pronounced in the two counties.

Oak comnunities

It is in the upland Oak communities that the greatest diversity and most complex pattern of forest types occur in this vegetation area.

The mesic communities of the north and east exposures are those which

impart to this area a vegetational unity and are a reflection of the properties which the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian rocks have in com­ mon. These are related to (1) their resistance to weathering, which has resulted in steep slopes and relatively great relief, and (2) their general high porosity and water-retaining capacities, which on these exposures ensure at all seasons of the year quantities of moisture adequate for a large number of species. Cfri other upland sites, however, the differences in the properties of the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian rocks are rather clearly manifested through the vegetation, when the effects of exposure are superimposed upon slopes underlain by rocks which are in reality markedly dissimilar in a number of respects.

In the northern part of the area, rocks are predominantly Mississip- pain sandstones and silt stones, being replaced above stream level to the east by the lower Pennsylvanian sandstones and shales. In this 239

region, ridges axe characteristically sharp, becoming less so as the

influence of the Pennsylvanian rocks becomes more pronounced. In the

southern part, although Mississippian rocks are still above stream

level in most of the area and have a distinct influence upon the lower

slope vegetation, it is the lower Pennsylvanian which has influenced

directly or indirectly the upland physiographic and vegetational fea­

tures, Here the ridges are broad andrelatively flat, resulting in

forest sites which are essentially absent in the northern part. The

soils, and the plant communities growing on them, are directly in­

fluenced by whichever of the Pottsville members happens to cap these

ridges. These are the older Sharon conglomerate or sandstone, the

younger Massillon sandstone which may directly overlie either the Sharon

or the Mississippian members, or any of the shales or clays vtnich are

associated with and lie above both the Sharon and Massillon. The

shales and clays appear to be of particular importance on the broad

ridges, but of much less importance on the slopes where their vertical

outcrop is of only minor significance, Edaphic conditions associated

with these rocks, when in essentially horizontal exposure on the ridges,

are as variable as the sandstones, conglomerate, shales and clays them­

selves, and the vegetation presents an exceedingly complex pattern which is clear only in that it is unquestionably an expression of the

mosaic of bedrock outcrops* It is evident that an understanding of

the pattern of the original upland Oak communities here is dependent

upon an understanding of the local bedrock geology, and until this is

known for even representative sites upon which these communities occur, 2U0 tha relationship between the bedrock and vegetation of northwestern

Jackson County can be only tentatively stated. The work of Weiss (61i) and Fuller (lU) is helpful in this connection, but is not recorded in detail sufficient for proof of specific relationships.

The Oak communities characteristic of the northern part of this vegetation area were chiefly Oak-Chestnut, and in the southern part,

Qak-Pine and Oak-Hickory. The prominence of Oak-Hickory in the south­ ern part strongly relates this area vegetationally to that of Area I, the westernmost part of which is also under the influence of Lower

Pottsville rocks. The Sharon conglomerate and sandstone, however, which is the ultimate cause of the unique vegetational and topographic features of the southern part of the present vegetation area, is mostly absent to the south, and except for the Oak-Hickory, the areas have little else in common.

(1) Oak-Chestnut association

Oh the uppermost north and east exposures, whatever the underlying rock, tha characteristic association was Oak-Chestnut, and over the

Mississippian rocks of Eagle and Harrison Townships, it was the pre­ vailing south- and west-facing slope type as well. Here, as every­ where else this association is known to have occurred as a dominant vegetation type it- the two counties, it is identified with steep slopes and shallow, sandy or silty soils which are well-drained to excessively- drained. ldssissippian rocks in this deeply dissected topography, and the soils derived from them, appear to afford edaphic conditions which are optima for this association, since it is over the Cuyahoga and 2U1

Logan beds that it reaches its finest development in the two-county area.

As in Area II, Oak-Chestnut intergrades with the Mixed Mesophytic on the north and east exposures, representing a segregation of White

Oak, Black Oak, Chestnut Oak, and Chestnut from the Mixed Mesophytic with a decrease in moisture on the uppermost part of the slope. The associated species again are Mockernut and Pignut Hickories, Red Maple,

Black Gum, Sourwood, and Scarlet Oak. On the south and west exposures, it intergrades with the White Oak-Beech-Sugar Maple of the lower slopes.

Upslope it passes from its moister phase, in which White Oak is one of the dominants, to the drier phases in which the dominants are Chestnut

Oak, Black Oak, and Chestnut, or Chestnut Oak and Chestnut, or finally on the sharp ridges, Chestnut Oak alone. In the drier phases Pitch and

Scrub Pines are often of scattered occurrence.

In the Sharon-Massillnn sandstone area, Oak-Chestnut is just as characteristic of the upper north and east exposures as where Mississip­ pian rocks predominate, but on other exposures the comnunity is mostly

Oak-Pine, and on the broad ridges, Oak-Pine and Oak-Hickory. In this area also, the ericaceous species, particularly Mountain Laurel, are more frequent in the Oak-Chestnut forests than over Mississippian rocks, where they are frequently absent.

Southeastern Liberty Township is a rather clearly defined area in which Oak-Chestnut appears to have been a well-developed type on most exposures, and the Pine communities are absent. The area is south of that in which the Sharon conglomerate and sandstone occur, and the principal rocks are Mississippian sandstones and silt stones, and the 21x2

Massillon sandstone on the upper slopes* Here the Oak-Chestnut does

not in ter grade with Mixed Mesophytic conmunities, as in most of this

vegetation area, but is enriched by Tuliptree on the north and east

exposures* A similar relationship exists toward the eastern margins

of this vegetation area, particularly in Richland Township, where again

the Mississippian rocks of the lower slopes are overlain in part by

Pottsville sandstones which include the Massillon but not the Sharonj

Pine comnunities, however, are also well developed in parts of this

area over the Pennsylvanian rocks.

Eagle Township and western Harrison Township, whore relief on the whole is the greatest and Mississippian rocks are almost entirely those

above stream level, constitute an area in which field studies indicate that Oak-Chestnut unquestionably was the prevailing Oak forest type.

It is of interest that the surveyors also left no doubt that this was

the principal association they were seeing on the uplands when the primeval forests were at hand. Of Jesse Spencer's 78 line descriptions referring to the upland vegetation in Eagle Township, £U mention Chest­ nut, which was always mentioned with Oaks of some kind, 28 refer to

Chestnut Oak (other Oaks were mostly not distinguished, which is in itself a point of significance); 13 were simply "Chestnut and Chestnut

Oak", and 1$ others were wOak and Chestnut"; the remainder include mention of Pine, Hickory, Tuliptree, or sometimes the Oaks alone. The township is unique in that the citations of White Oak as a bearing tree are surpassed in number by those of another species, in this case,

Black Oak (Table 16), which was cited as one out of every five such trees in the township* From the citations of Chestnut Oak and Chestnut 2k3 in the line descriptions of Eagle Township, and as bearing aid line

trees in both Eagle and Harrison Townships (Table 16), where percent­

ages of nine or ten percent exceed those for these species anywhere

else in the two counties, it could be inferred directly, without cor­

roboration by field studies, that Chestnut and Chestnut Oak hers reached their greatest numerical abundance. The high frequency of

these two species, together with that of Black Oak among the bearing

trees (although equalled or exceeded in a number of other townships in

the counties), is evidence of tiie special prominence of the drier

phases of the Oak-Chestnut. This is as might be expected in a deeply

dissected region where the association occurred on all exposures.

Line descriptions for Harrison Township are the poorest, both in

quality and quantity, o f those of a l l the surveyors other than some of

the subdividers, and if used alone w o u ld be somewhat m isleading as to

the prevailing upland vegetation. Descriptions of surveyor Thomas

Worthington, later Governor of O h io and one of its first two s e n a t o r s , were chiefly "Oaks, etc.", "Oak and Hickory", or "Oak and Pine", and most of the citations of Chestnut in this township, which are indicated

in Table 16 are to be credited to the subdivider, James Denny. From the secondary forests, it is evident that Oak-Chestnut was here equally as well expressed as in Eagle Township, where Spencer's notes can be em­ ployed as strong corroborative evidence for its position in the original forests, and the bearing and line trees further substantiate the like­ ness of the dominant upland species in the two townships. Unfortunately,

Worthington also surveyed Jackson Township, Vinton County, and Washing­ 2 h h

ton Township, Jackson County, Cor which his notes are aciually unreliable

sources of data*

(2) Qak-Pine association

Communities in which the Pines become dominants are one of the out­

standing features of this vegetation area* They occur over both the

Mississippian and Pennsylvanian rocks, and are rather consistently

represented in the upland vegetation throughout most of the area, al­

though not everywhere expressed with the same intensity. They are

either absent or not characteristically present in the other vegetation

areas, except over the Conemaugh rocks in Madison Township of southern

Jackson County* The conmunities appear to be of three kinds, although

the distinction is sometimes not easily made, and the causal factors

which distinguish them are not well understood.

On the sharp ridges of Eagle and Harrison Townships, Oak-Pine

occupies the most excessively drained sites, and is composed of Pitch

and Scrub Pines, together with Chestnut Oak, Black Oak, Scarlet Oak,

Pignut Hickory, and an occasional Chestnut, Gum, and Sourwood* It is

apparent that this is tha community which occurs on the sites where moisture is at its lowest level, but still adequate for forest growth of some kind* To the south, in most of Jackson and Liberty Townships of northwestern Jackson County, the same sorts of communities grow on the upper south and west exposures over the Sharon conglomerate and

sandstone, where dissection is on the whole not as gr.at, but where this very porous bedrock on these exposures affords large areas of dry, sterile, sandy and shallow soils for which Scrub Pine appears to be the best adapted species of the region* These conmunities were probably 2U5 originally Oak-Pine, or Pine-Oak, in which Scrub and lesser nurib :rs of

Pitch often outnumbered all other species, but only rarely, if at all, occurred in neaidy pure conifer stands as is frequently the case today.

Low ericaceous shrubs are typically abundant in this forest type, and include Huckleberry, Deorberry, Blueberry, and Mountain Laurel. Rhodo­ dendron calendulaceum, a southern Appalachian species of very restricted distribution in four counties of southeastern Ohio, occurs on a few local sites in the Sharon area as a part of this association*

Scrub Pine communities of the Sharon region are also widespread on the gently rolling or nearly flat uplands. But conspicuously miss­ ing from them on these sites is Chestnut Oak, and in its place is White

Oak* The communities form a mosaic with the Oak-Hickory over the

Sharon and Massillon beds, and that the distributions of the two associ­ ations are somehow related to the pattern of rock outcrop on these ridges is apparent* Throughout, on both ridges and slopes, Oak-Pine occurs over large and continuous, or nearly continuous, areas, and is essentially absent from others. It is suggested that the Oak-Hickory may occur over the heavier soils in areas where surface rocks are the shales or clays associated with the Sharon or Massillon members, and in a few instances this is definitely known* Where the Sharon itself is the caprock or is overlain by a Massillon sandstone caprock, the original forests were probably Oak-Pine* If the distribution of the

Pine communities is governed on these ridges by arid conditions result­ ing from excessive movement of water downward through these porous sandstones, the absence of Chestnut Oak and the presence of White Oak are not easily explained, for Chestnut Oak is a species in this Plateau 2U6

Fig. 20. Shortleaf, Pitch and Scrub Pines, Section 35, Harrison Township, Vinton County. February, 1953.

Fig. 21. Oak-Pine over the Sharon conglomerate, and Hemlock (darker colored to the right) on the cliff face. Along Little Salt Creek, Section 12, Liberty Town­ ship, Jackson County. October, 1952. 2U7

area which is much more tolerant of low soil moisture conditions than

White Oak. The explanation of the distribution and floristic composi­

tion of these ridge conmunities awaits detailed and combined studies

of the vegetation, geology, and soils of northwestern Jackson County.

A third type of Oak-Pine community appears to have occurred in

eastern Harrison and western Richland Townships of Vinton County, and

the first two tiers of sections in northeastern Jackson Township,

Jackson County. The area is to the immediate northwest of that in­

fluenced by the Sharon, but is coincident with the outcrop of Pennsyl­

vanian rocks which cap the Mississippian rocks on the relatively broad

and gentle ridges of this region. Hera, Shortleaf Pine is prominently

associated with Pitch and Scrub, and is in general the most abundant

of the three, sometimes occurring in pure stands. The forests, how­

ever, are not believed to have been comparable in abundance of Short­

leaf to those in southeastern Jackson County, although the inference

that there is a close relationship is probably justified. Associated with the Pines are White, Black, and Scarlet Oaks, and Pignut and

Mockernut Hickory. On certain sites these Pine communities are known

to occur where subsoils are heavy and the parent materials are shales

or clay-shales. In others, however, as in the SW l/U of Section 10,

Jackson Township, Jackson County, where the Pine is entirely Shortleaf, the soil is a silt loam down to about 30 inches, below which it is a

sandy loam derived from the Massillon sandstone. The explanation of the occurrence of Shortleaf here may not be relatrad to textural prop­ erties of the soils, but to some other edaphic factor, or factors, associated with the particular Pottsville rocks from which the soils 2!i8 are derived in this area. The possibility is strengthened by tne re­ stricted distribution of this species wherever it occurs as a dominant in the two counties, and its absence over most of the region where the range in soil texture and drainage characteristics of sites it might potentially occupy is abundantly represented.

The locations of Pine citations in the surveyors1 line descrip­ tions and witness and line trees are shown on Plate VII, and their frequency of citation as compared with that of other upland species in

Table 16. A better generalized map of the area in which Pines occur today in this vegetation area could scarcely be made. The eastern and southern boundaries, in Richland, Washington, and Liberty Townships, are almost precisely as delimited by these records. The boundary is such a sharp one even today, that it is believed that it ^ould be possible to map it with considerable accuracy by traversing certain ridges and noting the landscapes on either side. A particularly con­ venient point at which this boundary may be observed is along the road in the northeast corner of Section 19, Liberty Township, where the striking vegetational feature to the north is the abundance of Scrub

Pine, and to the south, its complete absence5 a change in topography and land use also occur at this point.

The outstanding prominence of the Pines in Jackson and Liberty

Townships, the area to which the Sharon conglomerate and sandstone is nearly confinea, is readily evident from both the line descriptions and bearing trees in this area. Only a small percentage of line descrip­ tions of both Jesse Spencer in Jackson Township, and illias Langham in 2h9

Plata VII* Location of citations of Pine in Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, by all surveyors, 1798-180$*

• Fine bearing or line tree

------liile along which Pine is mentioned in one or more line descriptions 250

Plate VII. Table 16, Summary of certain species of the upland forests of northwestern Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, cited as bearing or line trees (exclusive of Dogwood) and in line descriptions of the Congress Lands surveyors, 1798-1805.

Eagle Harrison Jackson Liberty* Jackson* Richland* (Jackson Co.) (Vinton Co.) Line descriptions

Total number 88 55 96 86 32 52

% of total mentioning: Chestnut 6U 20 19 7 6 38 Pine 27 Uo 90 58 0 19 Hickory 8 25 8 2 31 2 Poplar (Tuliptree) 8 8 0 9 6 17

Bearing and Line trees

Total number 256 177 253 202 U|2 161

% of total: White Oak 18 29 27 3U 25 Uo Black Oak 20 15 18 22 Hi 17 Chestnut Oak 10 9 5 6 7 2

Chestnut 9 10 3 k li 7 Pine 5 8 13 10 0 2 Hickory 10 7 10 5 15 10

Poplar (Tuliptree) 9 5 9 6 8 7

* Including only the parts of these townships lying within the present vcgetition area (Plate V). 252

Liberty Township, failed to mention Pine in tnis region, and 13 and 10

percent of the witness trees are frequencies not even approached for

these species anywhere else in the two counties. The line descrip­

tions and witness trees are, therefore, in complete agreement as to

the abundance of the Oak-Pine communities here in the original forests,

and also with their prominence in the secondary forests, as thoroughly-

cut over as they have been* In view of this agreement, both as to

numerical abundance and distribution, these must be considered s e lf-

perpetuating, edaphically controlled conmunities, the origin and per­

sistence of which are not related to fire or other disturbance*

(3) Qak-Hickory association

On the broad ridges of Liberty and Jackson Township, Jackson County,

and locally on the broader ridges elsewhere, which are always under­

lain by the Pennsylvanian rocks, Oak-Hickory occurred in a mosaic with

Oak-Pine, as mentioned above, or in some cases with Oak-Chestnut•

White Oak was undoubtedly the most abundant species, as in the Oak-

Hickory of Area I, with Black Oak ranking second, followed by Pignut

and Mockernut Hickories, and with Post Oak, Scarlet Oak, Black Gum, and

Red Maple as prominent associates* Chestnut and Chestnut Oak are be­

lieved to have been absent from this association in the Liberty-Jackson

Township area* Blackjack Oak is a rare member of the association in

this same area* Ericaceous shrubs, which are so characteristic of the

Oak-Pine and Oak-Chestnut, particularly in the southern part of the present vegetation area, are usually absent where Oak-Hickory grows

today* 253

As previously suggested, with detailed vegetation and bedrock studies, it is believed that the distribution of these communities may be found to be correlated with heavier-textured soils derived from the lower Pennsylvanian rocks. There is no evidence that they occurred over kississippian strata in the original forests, although they appar­ ently were present, as today, in areas where these are the principal rocks above drainage, but with ridge cappings of the lower Pennsylvan­ ian. In northeastern Jackson Township, Vinton County, and other local areas along the Salt Creek divide, where bedrock complexities are evi­ dent, this association appears to have formed a mosaic on the upper slopes with Oak-Chestnut, as in Area XI,

Ms sic comnunities of residual soils

Ussic communities which replace the Oak associations on north, east, and lower south-facing exposures, or ravines, coves, and gorges, reach their clearest definition, finest expression, most consistent and predictable occurrence, and largest total coverage of the land surface in this vegetation area. Transitional or intergrading communities are relatively few. These vegetational characteristics are associated with the relative uniformity of certain bedrock properties and topographic features which have resulted in the area’s physiographic distinctness.

Long steep slopes underlain by porous bedrock govern the quantities of seepage water which are available, and moisture effectiveness on these slopes is under the major control of exposure. These relationships are pronounced, and since the causal factors are present to much the same 2$h

degree throughout, except in marginal areas, the pattern of these

communities is the most uniform, easily definable, and the least com­

plex of any comparable^ized area in the two counties.

(1) Mixed Mesophytic association

Mixed Mesophytic is the association which is consistently present

on north and east exposures throughout most of this vegetation area,

but is also well developed on certain west-facing slopes, as along Salt

Creek in Eagle Township, Vinton County. While its floristic composi­

tion is not of uniform richness throughout, it is in this forest type,

as it occurs in this area, that there is the greatest nuur>er of species

in all layers, including mapy of restricted distributions in Ohio. Its

floristic composition is of outstanding interest because of the diverse

geographical elements which are so heavily represented in these forests,

and the association as a whole is probably unexcelled in the State in

this respect, except in the Hocking Hills with which this area is con­

tiguous along its northern boundary.

The Mixed Mesophytic is here composed of nearly 30 canopy species, which include the following! White Oak, Red Oak, Tuliptree, Beech,

Sugar Maple, Black Maple, White Ash (including var. biltmoreana),

Linden, Chestnut, Bitternut, Shagbark Hickory, Red Hickory, Mockernut,

Pignut, Black and White Walnut, Red Elm, Red Maple, Chestnut Oak, Black

Gum, Sourwood, Black Cherry, Black Oak, Hemlock, Yellow Buckeye and

Yellow Oak in the northern part, and Yellow and Sweet Bit'ch locally.

Such an association, occupying nearly the full length of 300-500 foot slopes, exhibits moister and drier phases with elevation above local base level* Those species of the Oak-Chestnut association which are 255

also a part of the Mixed Mesophytic, commonly become more prominent on

the upper slopes, and where they are the most effactively segregated

out on these drier sites, Oak-Chestnut communities occupy the uppermost

parts of such slopes* Species whose moisture requirements are also met

in the drier phases of the swamp forests are most numerous on the lower

slopes. However, nearly all of the species listed above may occur at

any level, although not all are necessarily present on any given slope.

The position of Yellow Buckeye and Yellow Oak in these communities has

been mentioned in connection with the Mixed Mesophytic of Area II, and

the communities containing Hemlock and the Birches are discussed later

in this section.

The secondary and shrub layers are rich both as to numbers of in d i­

viduals and species. In addition to young individuals of the canopy

species, these layers include the following»

Corylus americana Walt. Dirca palustris L. Ostrya virginiana (Mills.) K. Koch Cornua alternifolia L. f. Carplnus caroliniana Walt. Cornus obliqua Raf. Morus rubra L. Cornus florida L. Magnolia macrophylla Michx. Kalmia latifolia L. Magnolia tripetala L. Rhododendron marlmum l . Aaimina triloba (L.) Dunal Rhododendron nudiflorum (L.) Torr. Itindera benzoin (L.) Blume Chionanthus virginicus L. hydrangea arborescens L. Diervilla lonicera Mill. Haaamlis virginiana L. Rubus odoratus L. Amslanchier arborea (Michx. f.) Fern. Viburnum acerifolium L. Amelanchier sanguinea (Pursh) DC. Viburnum cassinoides L. Cere is canadensis L. Viburnum mo lie Michx. Qymnocladns dioica (L.) K. Koch Viburnum dentatum L. (including Ptelea trifoliata L. vars. scabrellum (T. & Q.) Chapm., Euonysus amerlcanus L. venosum Britt., and deamii Suonyaos atropurpureus Jacq. (Rehd.) Fern.) Staphylea trifolia L. Viburnum prunifolium L. Rhasnus lanceolate Pursh.

Certain of these, as well as the herbaceous species listed below, are of particular interest to plant geographers and e cologists, since they 256

represent geographical elements whose arrival in this area apparently

occurred in Pleistocene or pre-Pleistocene time, and whose survival

during the ice age required a no less exacting set of climatic and

edaphic conditions than appears to be required today.

Those with very restricted distributions in the State, viz., Mag­ nolia tripe tala, M. aacrophylla, Rhododendron maximum, R. nudiflorum,

Chionanthus virginlcua, and Euonymus americanus, all o f waich are

southern Appalachian or at least southern species, must hava been in

this area since Tertiary, but survived the Pleistocene and post-Pleist- ocene only on certain local sites in southeastern Ohio. Magnolia macro- phylla is known in Ohio only from a few valleys in the Sharon conglom­ erate area of Liberty Township. Magnolia tripetala is somewhat more frequent, but is still a rare species, occurring in Vinton County in the principal tributary valley of Salt Creek in Section 10, Eagle

Township, from the headwaters of which valley the Hocking County record was also taken; its occurrence in the Sharon area is scattered, and it has been reported also from Scioto County to the south. Rhododendron maximum occurs in profusion high up on a Sharon cliff east of Savage- ville School in Section 27 of Jackson Township, Jackson County, and is known nowhere else in either Jackson or Vinton Counties, although the habitat appears to be well represented elsewhere in this vegetation area; in Hocking, Fairfield, Lawrence, and Scioto Counties, it occurs in a number of local areas. Rhododendron nudiflorum also grows at the base of this same cliff and in a few other localities in the Sharon area, as well as in several other Plateau counties. Euonymus americanus is known only from Gallia County outside of the present vegetation area, 257 and Chionanthua virginlcua also occurs as a rare species in several

other southeastern Ohio counties in addition to the Sharon area o f

Jackson County. These, and other relict or more or less disjunctive species of all communities of this vegetation area, including Boreal or Hemlock-Hardwood species, e.g., Yellow and Sweet Birch, emphasize tha importance of microclimatic and microedaphic conditions wnich have existed in this three-dimensional topography since the Tertiary, and, as well, the influence of historical factors upon the f lo r is t ic com­ position of the plant communities of southeastern Ohio. The latter have been discussed in connection with the history of the vegetation

(Chp. IV).

Herbaceous species (and vines) which have been collected by 3artiey and Pontius in the Sharon area, and which are either characteristic of the Mixed Mesophytic or, in the ca3e of rare species, occur in this association, are the following:

Iycopodium lucidulum Michx. Dryopteris phegopteris (L.) Iycopodium complanatum var. flabel- Christens. liforme Fern. Adiantum pedatum L. Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw. Poa autumnalis Muhl. Osmunda claytoniana L. Poa sylvestris Gray Woodsia obtusa (Spreng.) Torr. Poa cuspidata Nutt. Cystopteris fragills (L*) Bernh. Diarrhena americana Beauv. (Kory- Dryopteria spinulosa (0. F. Muell.) carpus arundinaceus Zea) Watt Kystrix patula Moench* Dryopteris spinulosa var* intermedia Sphenopholis nitida (Biehler) (Muhl.) Underw. Scribn* Dryopteris marginalia (L*) Gray Sphenopholis pallens (Biehler) Dryopteris noveboracensis (L*) Gray Scribn* Dennstaedtia punctilobula (Michx*) Agrostis perannans forma ather- Moore ophora Fern. Athyrium thelypterioides (Michx*) Muhlenbergia sobolifera (Muhl.) Trin. Desv* Muhlanbergia sylvatica Torr* Athyrium filix-femina (L.) Roth Muhlenbergia tenuiflora (Willd.) Athyrium pycnocarpon (Spreng.) BSP Tidestr* Brachyelytrum erectum (Schreb.) Dryopteris hexagonoptera (Michx.) Beauv. Christens. Panicum yadkinense Ashe 258 Panicum villosissimum Nash Dioscorea villosa L. Panicum comnutatum var. Ashei (Pear­ Iris cristata Ait. son) Fern. Cypripedium calceolus var. parvi- Panicum boscii Poir. florum (Salisb.) Fern. Panicum columbianum Scribn. (P. Orchis spectabilis L. tsugetorum Nash) Corallorrhiza wisteriana Conrad Carex backii Boot (C. durifolia Bail.) Liparis lilifolia (L.) Richard Carex jamesii Schwein. Aplectrum hyemale (Muhl.) Torr, Carex pensylvanica Lam. Tipularia discolor (Pursh.) Nutt. Carex artitecta Mackenz. (C. varia Asarum canadense L. Muhl.) As arum canadense var. acuminatum Carex hirtifolia Mack. Ashe. Carex oligocarpa Schkuhr. Asarum canadense var. reflexum Carex hirsutella Mack. (Bickn.) Robins. Carex virescans Muhl. Aristolochia serpentaria L. Carex woodii Dew. Claytonia virginica L. Carex plantaginea Lam. Silene stellata (L.) Ait. f. Carex care/ana Torr. Ranunculus liispidus Michx. Carex platyphylla Carey Thalictrum dioicum L, Carex digitalis Willd. Anemonella thalictroides (L.) Carex laxiculmis Schwein. Spach. Carex albursina Sheldon Hepatica americana (DC) Ker. Carex blanda Dew. Hepatica acutiloba DC. Arisaema dracontium (L.) Schott Anemone virginiana L. Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Schott Anemone canadensis L. Luzula acuminata var. carolinae (S. Anemone quinquefolia L. Vats.) Fern. Aquilegia canadensis L. Luzula echinata (Small) F. J. Herm. Delphinium tricorne Michx. (?) (L. campestre (L.) Ktz.) Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt. Chains lirium luteum (L.) Gray Actaea rubra (Ait.) Villd. Stenanthium gramineum var. robustum Actaea pachypoda Ell. (Actaea (S. Vats.) Fern. alba (L.) Mill.) Uvularia perfoliata L. Hydrastis canadensis L. Uvularia grandiflora Sm. Podophyllum peltatum L. Uvularia sessilifolia L. Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Liliua canadense L. Michx. Erythronium americanum Ker. Sanguinaria canadensis L. Erythronium albidum Nutt. Stylophorum diphyllum (Mx.) Nutt. Clintonia umbellulata (Michx.) Morong. Dicentra cucullaria (L.) Bernh. Smilacina racemosa (L.) Desf. Capnoides flavula (Raf.) DC Maianthemum canadense Desf. Dentaria diphylla Michx. Polygonatum canaliculaturn (Muhl.) Dentaria laciniata Muhl. Pursh. Dentaria heterophylla Nutt. Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell. Sedum ternatum Michx. Medeola virginiana L. Tiarella cordifolia L. Trillium erectum L. Heuchera americana L. Trillium grandiflorum (Michx.) Mitella diphylla L. Salisb. Aruncua dibicus (Walt.) Fern. Aletris farinosa L. Qillenia stipulate (Muhl.) Baill. Smilax herbacea L. Waldsteinia fragrarioides (Michx.) frail** ecirrhata (Bigelm.) S. Vats. Tratt. Tradescantia ohianais Raf. (T. re- Geum virginianum L. (including G. flexa Raf.) flavum (Ports.) Bickn.) 259

Desmodium nudiflorum (L.) DC Sanicula gregaria Bickn. Desmodium cuspidatum (Muhl.) Loud. Sanicula trifoiiata 3ickn. (D. grandiflorum (Walt.) DC) Sanicula canadensis L. Qxalis europaea forma cymosa (Samll) Erigenia bulbosa (Michx.) Nutt. Wieg. (0. cymosa Small) Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.) DC Qxalis grandia Small Pyrola rotundifolia L. (P. amer- Geranium maculatum L. icana Sweet) Hybanthus concolor (T. F. Forst) Monotropa uniflora L. Sprang. Cfcolaria virginica L. Viola hirsutula Brain. Polemonium reptans L. Viola pallens (Banks) Brain. Phlox divaricata L. Biola blanda Willd. Hydrophyllum canadense L. Viola primulifolia L. Cynoglossum virginianum L. Viola pubescans Ait. Collinsonia canadensis L. Viola pennsylvanica Michx. (V. erio- Scrophularia marilandica L. carpa Schwein.) Epifagus virginiana (L.) Bart. Viola canadensis L. Fhryma leptostachys L. Passiflora lutea L. Mitchella repens L. Circaea quadrisulcata (Maxim.) Franch Triosteum perfoliatum L. & Sav., var. canadensis (L.) Hara Triosteum angustifolium L. (C. lutetiana L.) Campanula americana L. Aralia racemosa L. Aster macrophyllus L. Aralia nudicaulis L. Aster divaricatus L. Panax quinquefolius L. Aster shortii Lindl. Sanicula marilandica L. Aster cordifolius L.

Comnunities in which Hemlock becomes a dominant species occur with their greatest frequency in this vegetation area, where they are o f local occurrence on the steep, perpetually moist slopes underlain by

Mississippian and lower Fottsville rocks. The areas o f best develop­ ment are (1) along Salt Creek over the Vinton County phase o f the Black- hand sandstone, (2) in northern Jackson Township, Vinton County, over the typical Hocking County phase of this Mississippian member, and

(3) in Jackson and Liberty Townships of Jackson County, in the gorges and steep-walled valleys carved from the Sharon sandstone and conglom­ erate (Plate VIII). Although all have been more or less severely cut in the past, they appear to have been principally Hemlock-Mixed Meso­ phytic in which the most abundant associated species were Beech, Red Oak, 260

Plata V III. Distribution of Hemlock in Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio. 261

S B - , -; r-sy*'— w - -

» & • &' Vsfo#. v,;

BOHM? •■’ •

JIN* 'J Jti r <«k*T '•Mb*.

i r 1* *

Plate VIII. 262

Tuliptree, and Chestnut, with Red Maple mostly replacing Sugar Maple, and Umbrella Magnolia the most prominent understory tree in the local areas in which it occurs. In the recently cut valley in Jackson Town­ ship, Vinton County, Yellow Birch was especially well represented as an associate of Hemlock, but it, together with Sweet Birch, are only very locally taora than scattered members of the Hemlock-Mixed Mesophytic .

Neither of the Birches is known to occur, even as isolated specimens, in areas where Hemlock is not also present today, or at least in the near vicinity.

A striking example of bedrock influence upon floristic composition occurs in Section 13 (west) of Liberty Townshio, along the tributary to

Dry Bun in which Hemlock is indicated on Plate 7111* Along the north­ east-facing slope toward the mouth of this valley, Hemlock-Mixed l..eso- phytic, containing the species mentioned above and with no Sugar Maple, abruptly ends and is replaced on this slope by an all deciduous Mixed

Mesophytic in which Sugar Maple is prominent. The presence and aosence of these two species is exceedingly well marked on either side of this point, which apparently coincides with a sharp change in bedrock.

Where Sugar Maple occurs and Hemlock is absent, the underlying rocks are those of the Cuyahoga formation; where Hemlock occurs and Sugar

Maple is absent, bedrock is that of the Logan formation; and the Hem­ lock on the opposite slope, in which Sugar Maple is also absent, is over the Sharon (Hi). A similar situation occurs on the north-facing slope along Raccoon Creek in Section 13, Wilkesville Township (Area II), where Sugar Maple is absent from the Hemlock-Mixed Mesophytic remnant present here, but on either side of which, where the slope has been clear-cut in recent years, much young Sugar Maple is growing today.

In view of the relationship observed in these specific examples, and the frequent replacement of Sugar Maple by Red Maple in communities containing Hemlock in both this Area and Area II, it would appear tnat the direct influence of bedrock is upon the distribution of Hemlock, the presence of which, in turn, results in the frequent (but not uni­ form) in a b ility of Sugar Maple to grow where this conifer is a dominant.

In some cases, it should be pointed out, Sugar Maple is distinctly a prominent associate of Hemlock, as on the west-facing slopes along Salt

Greek over the Mississippian rocks. Whatever the factors may be wnich result in the replacement of Sugar Maple by Red Maple in many cases, it appears that they are eliminated once the Hemlock has been removed.

The relationship of Hemlock and Sugar Maple is suggested as being one worthy of study.

(2) Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree association

In the vicinity of the eastern boundary of this vegetation area, which coincides essentially with the preglacial Galt Creek-Kamden Greek drainage divide, and toward the principal divides within the Salt Creek watershed, Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree appears to have been the prevailing • « association of the ravines, coves, and north and east exposures. As in Area II, th e communities occur on the most moist upland sites in the regions which are the farthest from the controlling base level. Their clearly defined expression in the region of the divides of the central and northern part o f t h is vegetation area is related to the widespread prevalence of Oak-Chestnut on the uplands, since these conmunities are 26h

in re a lity but Oak-Chestnut enriched by Tuliptree on the most moist

sites. Where they occur, Mississippian rocks are mostly below straam

level, or if present above, outcrop only on the lower slopes.

A rather well defined area of Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree also occurs

in southwestern Liberty Township, where its presence is not related to

r e la tiv e p o s itio n above base le v e l, but to a change in bedrock. In

this part of the township, the Sharon conglomerate and sandstone are

replaced above drainage largely by the Massillon sandstone, and as a

result of the differences in bedrock properties, the most mesic communi­

ties which can grow on these slopes anpear to be those in which Tulip-

tre e is the lone mesic species associated in any s ig n ific a n t numbers with the Oaks and Chestnut. Forest remnants are few in t ’nis area, tut

from what remain it is evident that beech and such species as Linden

and Buckeye are absent, and Sugar Maple is scarce. In the ravines and

on the lower slopes are principally Tuliptree, with ned Oak, in ite Oak,

Chestnut, Shingle Oak, Red Maple, Black Gum, and an occasional White

Walnut, passing into clearly defined Oak-Chestnut on the up er slopes

as previously discussed. Much secondary Tuliptree is growing through­ out the area today in abandoned pastures and other cleared land. The

conmunities are probably comparable to those of southern Jackson County

(Area I), and lie within a region which is distinctly transitional between that to the north in which the mesic communities are character­ is tic a lly Mixed Mesophytic (over the Sharon) and that to the south where the most moist sites are occupied by Oak-Sugar Maple or Oak-dugar Maple-

T u lip tre e • 265

Where Mississippian rocks outcrop on at least the lower slopes,

which is true over most of t'lis vegetation area, White Oak-Beech-

Sugar Maple is the usual lower south- a n d west-facing slope association.

Other species of the Oak-Chestnut and Mixed Mesophytic a re present to

varying degrees, but Red Oak, Chestnut, and Tuliptree are connonly the

most prominent associates.

The '•weak” Mixed Mesophytic of area II appears to occur in certain

areas, but many times it is obvious that its occurrence i n th e second­

ary forests today has followed disturbance, and the present assemblages

cannot be used as an index to the variety of canopy t r e e s w iiich th e s e

sites probably supported in the original forests. However, such com­

munities doubtless did exist as transitions between the Mixed Mesophytic

and Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree with decreasing moisture toward the head­

waters of the streams* Such transition areas were probably not areally

important, and where "weak” Mixed Mesophytic communities did occur in

the original forests, they were far less often an expression of bedrock

variations than in Area II. As in Area II, a Beech-Sugar Maple-Tulip-

tree segregate of the Mixed Mesophytic commonly occupied the lowermost

ravine slopes a t the lower elevations, i.e ., in the vicinity o f the

m ajor streams*

Conmunities of the Swamp Forest succession

Communities o f the swamp forest succession of this area appear to have formed essentially the same pattern as in Area II, although Beech-

Sugar Maple probably occupied much larger areas of the floodplains and the wetter phases of the swamp forest a much smaller proportion of the total lowland area# Here Pleistocene stream changes were very few, and the deeply entrenched streams are actively degrading their channels, thus effecting the best bottomland drainage in the two counties# The fewest terrace remnants and the flattest valley plains in general occur in this vegetation area. These plains, which in the larger val­ leys of Salt Greek and Middle fork vary from 0#3 to a mile in width and average around a half a mile, afford the best agricultural land in either county, as a result of which, forest cover is practically non­ existent except as a fringe along the stream margins. Occupancy of these valleys by the earliest settlers is testified to by the 1805 and

1807 grave markers of Ruth and John Ratcliff in the cemetary west of

Eagle Mills in the Salt Creek valley.

The swamp forest communities which particularly distinguish this area are those of the Salt Creek valley, due to die influence upon the soils of glacial outwash which came into the Vinton County portion of this valley from the north during Illinoian and Wisconsin time. Except for low terraces which are local in extent, most of thjs material has been removed, but its influence upon the physical and chemical proper­ ties of the soils throughout has been so pronounced that the soil types mapped are distinct from those of all other bottomlands of the two coun­ ties# The terraces are here occupied by the Hocking silt loam, and

Chenango loam and silt loam, underlain by gravel or stratified sands and gravels and characterized by good underdrainage, and the Braceville silt loam in which underdrainage is "imperfect” although described as also being underlain by gravel and sand# The Huntington silt loam is characterized by a neutral reaction and good underdrainage, and

"occupies about 90 percent of the alluvial soils on the floodplain a..on

Salt Creek" (37)• Small areas are occupied by the Lindside silt loam,

with fair to poor underdrainage. Although all of these soils appear

to be subject to revision in classification with respect to the soil

series to which they belong (Chp. III), their drainage and other char­

acteristics as described in the 1937 soil survey are o f no less value

as evidence that these are quite different soils from those which

exist elsewhere in the lowlands of the two-county area. It is there­

fore not surprising t h a t although the communities represented are the

equivalent of those occurring elsewhere, their flo ris tic composition

and areal prominence appear to have been somewhat different.

From the trees which are growing in the area today, it is probable

that the wetter phases of the swamp forests, which here attained the lowest areal prominence of those of any comparable sized valley in the two counties because of che prevailingly good drainage on the flood- plains, were characterized by the presence of certain species which were either absent or rare on floodplains elsewhere, and by the absence of others which were widespread in most other parts of the counties.

The presence of Ohio Buckeye along u-per Salt Creek, where soils have been mapped almost entirely as the Huntington silt loam, and the absence of Yellow Buckeye on this floodplain, although present on the adjacent slopes, has been previously discussed (p. 200). Along the stream margins of this part of Salt Creek, River Birch is scarce, but elsewhere in the Salt Creek valley and along Pike Run, it appears to be almost absent; however, it comss in sharply near the junction of 268

Pretty Run and Salt Creek and is prominent along tne streams from that

point east* Since this species is one of the two or three most cnar-

acteristic species of the wetter phases of the swamp forest everywhere

else in the two counties, its general absence along the streams of the

whole Salt Creek area is particularly striking.

Silver Maple, which is one of the codominants of River Birch along

the major streams of eastern Vinton County and a species itself of

restricted distribution in the two-county area, occurs here, although

it is not as conspicuous in the remants as in the forests along Rac­

coon Creek and its major tributaries. Box Elder, Cottonwood, and Hack-

berry, all sparingly or only locally present in the communities in

which Silver Maple is so prominent in the Raccoon Creek area, appear

to be equally as characteristic of the entire Salt Creek valley as

Silver Maple. Box Elder is today a weed species of the bottoms nere,

but while its abundance in the original forests, as well as that of

Cottonwood and Hackberry, is uncertain, they nevertheless must have

been characteristic of th ; swamp forests of this area. The point of

particular significance is that wherever they occur, they are associated with Silver Maple, which casts some light on the possible causes of

the restricted distribution of this species, as well as the others, in

these counties. All apparently grow on floodplains which have in common

the presence of at least some calcareous materials, in the Salt Creek

valley from glacial outwash, and in the eastern part of the county, calcareous alluvium. Since calcium is generally more prevalent in valley soils than in upland soils (28), the highest concentration of this ion might be expected to occur along the major valleys in areas 2 6 ^

where it is derived from upland sources, and it is tc tnese valleys

that Silver Maple is restricted in eastern Vinton County, fno relation­

ship appears to be the most plausible one that can ue ointeu tc in an

e f f o r t t o explain the distribution of Silver Maple in the two-county

area, and the coincident distributions of Box Elder, Cottonwood, and

H a c k b e rry .

Over the much larger areas where 6ood drainage prevails, essen­

tia lly nothing remains that might be used as evidence of the composi­

tion of the original forests. As a source of information concerning

these, a ll that is available arc the survey recorns, since not on

are there no longer any original or secondary forests, but not even

the oldest re.;LUsn+r on recall. ae:xn0 . iests of any kind in this

valley on the better-drained sites. The survey records, however, are adequate for a reconstruction of the picture of the coirr. uni ties oefore their clearance for agricultural use, which apparently aegan w ithin ’-he decade following the survey of Eagle Township in which tnis valley lie s.

The township was surveyed by Jesse Spencer in A p ril of 1831, who care­ fully distinguished his descriptions of the vegetation on tne bait.

Creek, Pike Run, and Pretty Run bottoms from that on the adjacent up­ lands. The descriptions of each of his mile lines w.nich crossed these valleys are as follows, and the locations of the lin e s have been indi­ cated on Plate VI.

Salt Creek

"This mile is part overflowed bottom and part hilly, the bottom timbered with Sycamore, Berch (or 3eech), Hackberry, etc., and the hills with O ak, Hickory, etc." (West along south boundary of Sec. 31) 2 7 0

"This mile is hilly except the creek bottom, tne bottom is timbered with 3eech generally and very wet. Timber on the hills Oak, etc." (North between Secs. 31 and 32)

"Tliis mile is creek bottom, except the first 8 chains and the last 2 chains. Timber Beech generally." (hest between Secs. 2? and 32)

"This mile is hilly, stonay, and poor, the creek bottom ex­ cepted which is timbered generally with 3oech and very wet." (North between Secs. 28 and 29)

"Down a hill to Salt Lick Creek 100 links wide, course S 50 W — the bottom on the west side of the creek is 30 chns. wide, timbered with Beech generally." ('.Test between Secs. 21 and 28)

"On a bottom 15 chns. wide, Timbered with 3ee^h." (host between Sacs. 15 and 22)

Lower Pike Run

"This mile, the last 30 chns. is level Beech Bottom, very wet, the other part hilly and stoney. Timber Oak, Pine, etc." (West between Secs. 20 and 29)

"This mile is hilly, except 20 chns. of Beech bottom on the branch, the hills well timbered with Chesnut and Chesnut Oak." (West between Secs. 17 and 20)

Lower Pretty Run

"To a branch 50 links wide, course N 76 W, the bottom on this creek 25 chains wide, Timber Beech generally." (North be­ tween Secs. 22 and 23)

"This mile is hilly and poor. Timber Oak and Chesnut, except the last 30 chains, which is tolerable good bottom, Timbered with Sugartree, Beech, etc." (West between Secs. Hi and 23)

The dominance of Beech along lower Pike and Pretty Runs, and on the Salt Creek floodplain and low terraces from north of Eagle Mills west to near the township line (a distance of about five miles), is apparent from these notes. Within this area, however, but a single

Beech tree is known to occur today. The original abundance of Beech here is not interpreted as representing another of the "Beech flats" 2 7 1

which have been described in southern and other parts of Ohio, and

which occur over heavy clay soils, but is inferred in tnis area of

light-textured soils to have been but a phase of toe Beech-Sugar kaple

association in which Beech outnumbered all other species. Sucn a Beech

phase is probably related to a particular set of conditions in which

drainage is generally good, at least for a floodplain or low terrace

site, but in which there is some water accumulation usually during tne

spring months, as emphasized by Spencer.

The magnitude of the area in wnich this community appear;; to have

predominated is probably related to the comparatively level nature of

the floodplains and the consequent relative uniformity of drainage con­

ditions. Its occurrence on the Salt Creek oottoms is also coincident with neutral soils derived from glacial outwash, but a possible cause and effect relationship cannot be inferred on the basis of the descrip­ tions of the vegetation offered by Spencer's notes, since his descrip­ tions for lower Pike and Pretty Runs are no different from t.nose for

Salt Creek, and the distinctive soils are confined strictly to the major valley, without any extensions into the lower parts of its tribu­ taries. If his line descriptions are accepted as evidence of an out­ standing abundance of Beech along Salt Creek, they must therefore be accepted as evidence of equally large numbers in these other valleys, where the soils mapped are the comnon floodplain soils of the two coun­ ties.

Within this area but 19 witness or line trees ware citec. These are as follows* 5 Beech (along two lines); 6 Sugar Laple (scattered locations); 2 Ashj and 1 each of Red Oak, White Oak, White Walnut, 272

Hickory, Sycamore, and Cottonwood* The sample is far too small, of course, for the proportions to be of any significance, but large enough to leave a record of other species besides 3eech in these valleys, al­ though those which occurred on the terraces and floodplains are not dis­ tinguishable* Without question the terraces, or other lowland sites, where drainage is slightly improved, were occupied by 3eech-Sugar Maple communities in which Sugar Maple was a orominent species. This probably explains the numbers of Sugar Maple above, and in general along the streams throughout the rest of this vogetation area (Plate \lI), where this association was as characteristic of the terraces as in Area II*

The citation of Cottonwood here represents its single mention in the survey records of the two counties, and the reference to Hackberry in the line description quoted above is one of the two times this species is mentioned in any way.

In the abandoned portion of lower Middle Pork of Salt Creek in western Harrison Township, a valley segment aoout two miles long and averaging from a third to a half mile wide, and filled with Minford clays33> the original forests appear to have been similar to those which occupied these same heavy-textured soils in the Teays, Marietta, and

Hamden Creek valleys in Area I, i.e., predominantly White Oak communi­ ties* The two line descriptions of surveyor Thomas Worthington (179?) both refer to this as being "White Oak land”. In other areas, where these deposits remain and have not been modified by alluvium from the uplands, essentially the same communities probably prevailed, but they could never have been more than local and few in number in this vegeta-

33 In conversation with Dr. Wilber Stout, January, 1953* 273 tion area. The "White Oak fla t" ox surveyor Spencer, on the line be­ tween Sections 7 and 18 of Richland Township, is probably one of these local areas. 27U SUMMARY

Objectives of this study have been (1) to describe the original

forest types of Vinton and Jackson Counties, Ohio, and the pattern in

which they occurred immediately prior to European settlement; and ( 2 )

to explain in so far as possible the distribution of these forest types*

The study has been conducted as a contribution to the program of recog­

nition, description, and mapping of the original Ohio vegetation in

progress at the Department of Botany, The Ohio S ta te University.

Sources of data have been primarily the secondary forests of the area,

and field notes of the Government and Ohio Company surveyors who worked

in these counties during the period 1798-1805, mostly before European

settlements of any kind. Data o f the surveyors include nearly U ,5 0 0

"bearing" and "line" trees, and nearly 2,000 descriptions o f the forests

along the section lines or segments of these lines. Line descriptions

with such a comprehensive areal coverage have not been used in previous­

ly published Ohio primary vegetation studies.

The counties, constituting an area of 837 square miles, lie w it h in

the Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau of Fenneman (1 3 ) and the Cliff Section

and Low Hills Belt of Braun (5). The long and complex physiographic

history of southeastern Ohio is exceptionally well recorded in the sur­

face features of these two counties. The major events and their order

of occurrence are: (1) Emergence of the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian

strata at the close of the Permian, and their tilting on an average of about 28 feet and 12 feet per mile to the east and south, respectively;

(2) uplift and peneplanation during the Mesozoic, and again during the

Harrisburg and Lexington erosion cycles in Tertiary; ( 3 ) uplift in late Tertiary, and this cycle (Parker), ending with maturely dissected up­

lands, brought to a close by an early Pleistocene ice sheet; (U) impound

ing of waters of the northwestward-flowing Tertiary stream system

(Teays), and formation of a vast lake covering at least 90 percent of

the land surface of Vinton and Jackson Counties; (5) deposition of

lacustrine materials (Minford clays); (6) drainage of the lake and

establishment of a new southwestward-flowing stream system on the land

surface, which included abandonment of the major preglacial valleys,

i.e., the Teays in Scioto Township, Jackson County, the Marietta extend­

ing from east to west across southern Jackson County, and Hamden Creek

valley in northeastern Jackson and central Vinton Counties; (7) acceler­

ated downcutting (Deep Stage dissection); (8) lllinoian ice less than

two miles from the northwestern corner of Vinton County, resulting in

the formation of the present Salt Creek and the deposition of outwash materials in this valley; (9) Wisconsin ice less than four miles to the northwest of Vinton County, and additional outwash deposits in the Salt

Creek valley. A map on which is indicated the preglacial drainage system and drainage divides in this area, and the lllinoian and Wis­ consin glacial boundaries, is included.

Represented in the bedrock above stream level are the upper Cuya­ hoga, Logan, and Maxville formations of the upper Mississippian, and the complete Pottsville and Allegheny formations and lower Conemaugh of the Pennsylvanian system. Mississippian rocks are principally resistant sandstones and siliceous shales, and outcrop in the northwestern part of the area. In the remainder of the two counties, the mature topography has been carved from Pennsylvanian strata consisting of a wide variety 276

of sandstones, shales, clays, and thin beds of ores, coals, and lime­

stones, of variable composition, resistance, and continuity of distri­ bution. Most members which have been influential in the formation of

the landscape are unnamed in the literature, except the massive, coarse,

and resistant Sharon conglomerate and sandstone of the lower Fottsville which underlies many of the slopes and ridges of Liberty and Jackson

Townships in northwestern Jackson County. Successively younger rocks

outcrop in NNE-SSHT bands across the counties in accordance with the

regional inclination of the strata.

Three physiographic areas are recognizable as a result of differ­

ences in resistance of the various bedrock types and the extent to which Pleistocene phenomena modified, or resulted in modification of pre-Pleistocene surface features, and the extent to which these modi­ fications are preserved on the landscape today. These are: (1) The

area traversed by the major preglacial streams (Teays and Marietta

Rivers and lower Hamden Creek), where low relief (100-250 feet) and gentle hills have resulted from relatively low resistance of Pottsville and Allegheny sandstones, shales, and clays, and/or deep valley fill

(largely Minford clays) in the broad preglacial valleys abandoned since establishment of the new drainage system during Pleistocene; (2) the area more deeply dissected by Raccoon Creek and its preglacial fore­ runners, where physiographic features are characterized by great hetero­ geneity resulting from wide variations in bedrock types in the upper

Pottsville, Allegheny, and lower Conemaugh formations; and (3) vary approximately, the preglacial Salt Creek watershed, where bedrock is

Mississippian and lower Pennsylvanian (Pottsville) more resistant to 277 weathering than the average in the two counties, relief is uniformly the greatest (300-Ai00 fe e t or more), and the deeply entrenched streams were but little deflected during Pleistocene draina6e changes.

The Muskingum silt loam and its steep phase are the principal soils

of the uplands, as mapped (32, 37)’ The Muskingum loam is the predom­

inant type in eastern Vinton County. Principal terrace soil is the

Monongahela silt loam, derived from the Minford clays and in the north­ ern part of the area inferred to be more or les' influenced by lighter- textured alluvium from the uplands. Floodplain soils mostly belong to

the Philo-Pope-Atkins complex. Soils of the Salt Creek valley, derived

from glacial outwash, differ from all others in the area in that they are neutral in reaction; elsewhere soils are acid, essentially no

correlation between the soil units and vegetation types is demonstrable.

Notably different plant communities occur on the same soil type, e.g.,

White Oak in Jackson County and Beech-Sugar Maple in eastern Vinton

County, which are associations wholly different in floristic composi­ tion, structure and aspect, occur on what has been mapped as the Monon­ gahela silt loam. A given association may occur on different soil types with different drainage and other characteristics. It is there­ fore concluded that the edaphic variable, or variables, most effective in the differentiation of the plant community often is either not recog­ nized or is not employed as one of the bases for distinguishing soil types in this area.

That this area was originally covered with Deciduous Forests is the best index to its general climate. However, analysis of a compos­ ite 59-year record of the McArthur, Jackson, and Waverly Weather Bureau stations has been made, w it h emphasis on tne extremes of one terpcratcr'-

and precipit tion regimes wnich have occurred curing this Tne

data have also been analyzed to jive a ^eneralioed pic t .re o : one

temperature and precipitation patterns whioh obtain in tr.is region#

None of the data is considered to oe o: utility in explaining the pattern of the forest types in this area, except perhaps the periodicity

of late sumoer and autumn drought periods. The data req-ire micro-

climatic analysis, not yet possiole, to be useful in indicating their role in delimiting tne various plant connunities.

Throughout tne counties, the most effective variable controlling the distribution of plant communities apoears to be soil moisture, .ji residual soils, available moisture is controlled by (1) the horizontal and vertical movement of water through bedrock and into tne soil pro­ file, (2) the physical properties of the soils ar.d their parent mater­

ials, (3) 9lcpe exposure, and (h) elevation aoove base level. In gen­ eral, the greater the uniformity of bedrock types, tne greater tne uniformity of the vegetation pattern, and the more pronounced ar~ the effects of slope exposure. In this Plateau area, geographic coinci­ dence of bedrock types and upland vegetational characteristics is clearly exhibited, examples of which are cited. In alluvial and lacustrine soils of the bottomlands, aoisture-aeration gradients are under control of the physical properties of the prrent materials and proximity to the water table at all seasons of the yoar. I he critical factor, or factors, governing the floristic composition of all conrouni- ties may be related to certain other edaphic conditions, local climatic regimes, or historical events wnich have modified the flora and its specific distribution in this area. 279

Except for swamps and areas denuded by fire, the land surface was

forest-covered at the beginning of the’ nineteenth century. Three forest

areas are recognized which are largely coincident with the three physio­

graphic areas (Plate V). The same forest types are mostly represented

in all three, but variations in intensity of expression are sufficiently

well defined that the pattern of the original plant communities is more

or less unique in each cf the areas. Boundaries, however, cannot be

drawn with geographic preciseness. The associations recognized in this

study as having occurred in the primeval forests are the following:

1. Upland Oak communities. Of these, most widespread was Oak-

Hickory. The moieter phase, in which White Oak, Black Oak, and Shag-

bark Hickory were the dominant canopy species, was the prevailing

forest type over uplands of Area I. In Area II, the drier phase, in

which the Hickories were mostly Pignut and Lockernut, appears to have

occupied the greatest surface area, as a part of a mosaic with Oak-

Chestnut and Mixed Oak. In Area III, the association was confined to

the broad ridges of Liberty and Jackson Townships, Jackson County, as

a part of a mosaic with Oak-Pine communities. Its distribution appears

to be related to edaphic factors associated with heavier-textured soils

derived from Pennsylvanian shale and clay bedrock.

Oak-Chestnut, in which Black Oak, White Oak, Chestnut Oak, and

Chestnut were the dominants, attained its best development on the steep

slopes underlain b y Mississippian sandstones in the northern half of

Area III. Here it was the prevailing upland forest type, and was also

characteristic of the slopes in the northeastern part of Ar ;a II over massive Pennsylvanian sandstones. Elsewhere in Area II, it was of more 280 local occurrence, and in Area I was essential!/ confined to the region of the preglacial drainage divide in western Jefferson and eastern

Hamilton Townships* In Areas II and III, the driest phase o f this association was represented by nearly pure stands o f Chestnut Oak on the sharp ridges, and on the somewhat broader ridges, by Chestnut O a k-

Chestnut or Chestnut Oak-Chestnut-Black Oak communities. As a rule, the association appears to have been restricted to sandy soils in the areas of greatest relief. Mixed Oak, in which neither Chestnut nor the Hickories are abundant enough to be considered dominants, appears to have been areally more prominent than Oak-Chestnut in Area II, out less so than Oak-Hickory*

Oak-Pine, in which White and Black Oaks, and Scrub and Pitch Pines were dominants, was areally the most important slope and rid ,e conmun­ ity over the Sharon sandstone and conglomerate in the southern half of

Area III* Locally it occupied the driest s i t e s i n tne northern half over Mississippian rocks or Pottsville strata other than the Sharon member* Elsewhere, Oak-Pine as a self-perpetuating community, was essentially absent over Pennsylvanian rocks, except in southeastern

Madison Township, Jackson County (Area I), where Shortleaf Pine, with associated White and Black Oaks and Hickories, occurred on the Cone- maugh-capped ridges of this local area. These are believed to repre­ sent the northernmost natural stands of extensive Shortleaf Pine in central United States*

2* Mssic communities of residual soils. These are the communi­ ties which occur on the more moist sites over residual soils and inter­ grade with the Oak communities of the slopes above. The most flor- 261 istically complex is the Mixed Mesophytic, which was exceptionally well developed on north and east exposures throughout most of Area III, and well-defined, but not as floristically rich, on comparable sites along the major streams of Area II. Its occurrence is restricted to sites where there is abundant moisture the year around. In its best expression the association was composed of 30 or so canopy species, no one or more of which were dominant, although some were often numerically more important than others. These include the following: White Oak,

Red Oak, Tuliptree, Beech, Sugar Maple, Black Maple, White Ash (includ­ ing var. biltmoreana), Linden, Chestnut, Yallow Buckeye, Yellow Oak,

Hemlock, Yellow Birch, Sweet Birch, Bitternut Hickory, Snagbark Hickory,

Red Hickory, Mocker nut Hickory, Pignut Hickory, Black .Iain at, White

Walnut, Red Elm, Red Maple, Chestnut Oak, Black Gum, Sourwood, 31ack

Cherry, and Black Oak. Hemlock, and Yellow ana Sweet Birch were of local occurrence only, and Yellow Buckeye and Yellow oak were absent in the association in the southern part of Area III over the Sharon conglomerate and sandstone. On lowermost Mixed Mesophytic slopes,

Beech, Sugar Maple, and Tuliptree often were the principal species.

The Mixed Mesophytic was only weakly expressed in Area I in certain local areas, where the principal species were White and Red Oaks,

Tuliptree, Chestnut, Beech, Sugar Maple, and White Ash. "Weak11 Mixed

Mesophytic communities also occurred on the north and east exposures away from the major stream valleys of Area II.

White Oak-Beech-Sugar Maple was the usual lower south- and west- facing slope type in both Areas II and III, intergrading with the Oak coamunities of the middle and upper slopes. In Area II, White Oak-Beech, 282 heretofore not described as an Ohio primary forest type, occurred on certain south- and west-facing slopes in Area 11. This appears to be a dry phase of White Oak-Beech-Sugar Kapls, but occurs under conditions only slightly more mesic than the other Oak communities of these ex­ posures. The occurrence of this association is inferred both from the surveyors' data and field studies in this area.

In Scioto arid Hamilton Townships of southwestern Jackson County,

Oak-Sugar Maple and Oak-Sugar Maple-Tuliptree conmunities, in wnich the

Oaks are principally White and Red, occurred in the ravine oottoms anu on lowermost slopes. Throughout this area Beech, usually t-he most pre­ dictable associate of Sugar Maple elsewhere in t-he two counties, and a number of other mesic species, are essentially absent both in the secondary forests and among the surveyors' tree citations.

Qak-Hickory-Tuliptree or Gak-Tuliptree-Hickory communities were the prominent conmunities of a NNE-SSW band extending through central

Jackson County (Lick, Franklin, and Jeff -rson Townships). These repre­ sented a pronounced enrichment of the moister phases of the upland Qak-

Hickory by Tuliptree. The area has a distinct western boundary, and appears to coincide with the outcrop of up. er Pottsville rocks. The distribution of Jackson County's extensive apple orchards is coincident with this natural vegetation area. Where Oak-Chestnut occurred in this area, the most moist sites were occupied by Oak-Chestnut-Tuliptree.

Oak-Chestnut-Tu lip tree, '3ak-Hickory-Tulip tree , and Mixed Oak-Tulip tree occurred in Area II as the ravine and lowermost slope communities inter- grading with Oak-Chestnut, Oak-Hickory, and Mixed Oak, respectively, in the regions farthest from controlling base level, i.e., the major streams. 283

In Area III, Oak-Che stnut-Tulip tree was the prevailing mesic forest

type toward the Salt Creek-Hamden Creek preglacial drainage divide, and

in southwestern Liberty Township.

3» White Oak communities of the lacustrine terraces. Over soils

derived from the Minford clays, occurring to a depth of 80 feet in the

abandoned preglacial valleys, White Oak, White Oak-Sha^bark Hickory,

and White Oak-Black Qak-Shagbark Hickory conmunities occurred on the

gentle rises in a mosaic with Pin Oak-Red Maple of the depressions.

A number of prairie species apparently grew in the somewhat open White

Oak forests, but no true prairies are known to have occurred here, or

elsewhere in the two counties. Except for a few local areas, these were the communities of the Teays and Marietta River valleys, lower

Hamden Creek valley, and their abandoned tributaries, all in Area I, where they remain the potential forest cover as long as soils are de­ rived from these extremely hsavy-textured parent materials. In Areas

II and III, they were of only local occurrence.

U. Conmunities of the swamp forest succession. On the flood- plains throughout the area, the most poorly-drained sites were usually occupied by Sycamore-River Birch-Soft Maple conmunities. Along Raccoon and Little Raccoon Creeks, and Elk Fork, all in Area II, and oalt Creek in Area III, the Maple was Silver Maple; along all other streams it was

Red Maple. It is suggested that the clear-cut distribution of Silver

Maple here is related to calcareous parent materials — alluvium in x.he

Raccoon Creek area, and glacial outwash in the Salt Creek valley. The occurrence of Cottonwood, Hackberry, and Boxelder in these same valleys suggests a similar relationship. River Birch is absent along Salt Creek, 261 and Ohio Buckeye is confined to this valley.

With slightly improved drainage-aeration conditions, American E lm invades the swan?) forests, and an Elm-Sycamore-River Birch-Soft Maple association occupies large areas of the floodplains toriay* With f u r t h e r improvement in drainage-^eration, this is succeeded by an Elm-White A s h -

Soft Maple (usually Red Maple) association, which wan best represented in certain local areas in Madison Township, southeastern Jackson County.

Cn the lacustrine and alluvial terraces of Area I I , a Mixed Swamp For­ est, composed of 20 or more species, constituted a rather w e l l defined association* Where the best drainage-aeration conditions obtain on these topographic sites, and also on the best-drained floodplains of both Areas II and III, Beech and Sugar Maple become dominants, with most of the Mixed Swamp Forest species and certain others from the uplands as associates* The Beech-Sugar Maple association is then the final community in the swamp forest succession, and is self-perpetuating as long as the terraces are in existence* The association is not known to occur on residual soils in either county, and although floristically similar to the Mixed Mesophytic association, is not genetically related to the latter* Largest area occupied by Beech-Sugar Maple was along preglacial Hamden Greek in southern Swan, Elk, and Madison Townships,

Vinton County, a region which abounds in abandoned valleys and broad terraces* Its occurrence here is strongly corroborated by the sur­ veyors* data* Beech-Sugar Maple was also the important terrace conmun- ity of Area III, and Beech appears to have reached its most effective dominance in this association here on the level valley plains of Salt

Creek and loner Pike and Pretty Huns* 285

Other subjects treated include the following:

1. Cultural history from time of occupancy by the Shawnee Indians to the present, with particular emphasis on the development of the mineral industries and land utilization in the past century and a half.

2. History of the vegetation since Tertiary. Tfhat is known of the manner and periods in which the virgin forests were removed is discussed in some detail, particularly the p riod 1.50-1880 when the forests were clear-cut over much of the area for charcoal used in the

16 iron-smelting furnaces of the central and eastern parts of the counties•

3. The condition of today's forested areas, and certain prin­ ciples used in their interpretation toward an understanding of the primary forests.

U. Analyses of the survey records, and discussion of their utility and limitations in primary vegetation studies in this kind of three- dimensional topography. SCIENTIFIC NAMES of TR ;E AND SHRUB SPECIES referred to in the te xt conmon namesi

Acer negundo L. Boxelaer Acer nigrum Michx. Black Maple Acer rubrum L. Red Maple Acer saccharinum L. Silver Maple Acer saccharum Marsh, (including forma Rugelii) Sugar Maple Aesculus glabra Willd. Ohio Buckeye Aesculus octandra Marsh. Yellow Buckeye Alnus rugosa var. americana (Regel) Fern. Alder Alnus serrulata (Ait.) Willd. Alder Amelanchier arborea (Michx. f.) Fern. Shadbush Amelanchier sanguines (Pursh.) DC. Shadbush Asimina triloba (L.) Duval Pawpaw Betula lenta L. Sweet Birch Betula lutea Michx. f. Yellow Birch Betula nigra L. River Birch Carpinus caroliniana Walt. Blue-beech Carya cordiformis (Wang.) K. Koch Bitternut Hickory Cary a glabra (Mill.) Sweet Pignut Hickory Carya laciniosa (Michx. f.) Loud. Shellbark Hickory Carya ovalis (Wang.) Sarg. Red Hickory Carya ovata (Mill.) K. Koch. Shagbark Hickory Carya tomentosa Nutt. Mockernut Hickory Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Bork. Chestnut Celtis occidentalis L. Hackberry Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Buttonbush Cereis canadensis L. Redbud Cornus florida L. Dogwood Cor/lua americana Marsh. Hazel Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. Beech Fraxinus americana L. (including var. biltmoreana (Beadle) J. Wright) White A s h Gaylussacia baccata (Wang.) K. Koch Huckleberry Gleditsia triacanthos L. Honey Locust Hamamelia virginiana L. Witch-hazel Hibiscus Moscheutos L. (including H. oculiroseus Britt.) Swamp-rose Hydrangea arborescens L. Wild Hydrangea Juglans cinerea L. White Walnut Juglans nigra L. Black Walnut Kalmia latifolla L. Mountain Laurel Linder a Benzoin (L.) Blums Spice-bush Liquidanbar Styraciflua L. Sweet Glim Liriodendron tuliplfera L. Tuliptree Magnolia macrophylla Michx. Great-leaved Magnolia Magnolia tripetala L. Umbrella Magnolia Morus rubra L. Mulberry Nyasa sylwatica Marsh. Black Gum Oatrya virginiana (kill.) K. Koch Hop-hornbeam Qxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC. Sourwood Pious echioata Mill. Shortleaf Pine Pinus rigida Mill. Pitch Pine Pinus virginlana Mill. Scrub Pine Platanus occidentalis L. Sycamore Folycodium stamineum L. Deerberry Populus deltoides Bartr. Cottonirood Populus grandidentata Michx. Largetooth Aspen Primus americana Marsh. Wild Plum Prunus serotina Ehrh. Black Cherry Quercus alba L. White Oak Qusrcus bicolor Willd. Svramp White Oak Quercus rubra L. Red Oak Quercus coccinea Scarlet Oak Quercus imbricarla Michx. Shingle Oak Quercus mar Handle a Muench. Blackjack Oak Quercus montana Willd. Chestnut Oak Quercus Muehlenbergii Engelm. fellow Oak Quercus palustris Muench. Pin Oak Quercus stellata Wang. Post Oak Quercus velutina Lam. Black Oak Robinia Pseudoacacia L. Black Locust Salix nigra Marsh (and other spp.) Willow Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees. Sassafras Tilia americana L. Basswood, Linden Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. Hemlock Ulsns americana L. White Elm, Elm Ulmus fulva Michx. Red Elm Vaocinium Yacillans Kalm. Blueberry 288 LITERATURE CITED

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AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, Janie® Carson 3eatley, was born in Columbus, Ohio, March 18,

1919* I received my secondary education at North High School, Columbus,

Ohio, from which I was graduated in 1935* Ity undergraduate training was obtained at The Ohio State University from 1937-19UO, where I re­ ceived the B. A. degree in August, 19U0. From 19h3-kS$ I was the science teacher at McArthur High School, McArthur, Ohio, prom 19U5 until the present time, I have been enrolled in the Graduate School,

The Ohio State University, where I received the M. Sc. degree in 19U8.

During these years, I have held the appointments of Graduate Assistant and Assistant Instructor in the Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, and University Scholar in the Spring Quarter, 1953* During the spring of 1952 and summers of 1952 and 1953> I have been an Instructor in the

Department of Botany, University of Tennessee.