doi: 10.2143/GBI.38.0.3139358

THE DECORATION IN GOD’S HOUSE

LATE GOTHIC VAULT PAINTING IN THE

PRISCA VALKENEERS

Introduction stylistic features of the painting indicate otherwise. There- fore, the study of late Gothic vault paintings is impossible The paper here presented is the synthesis of a Master paper, without addressing the subject of the Gothic Revival. supervised by Arnout Balis.1 A lecture on the topic of late Gothic vault painting was given at the colloquium in hon- Anna Bergmans already demonstrated in her thesis that the our of dr. Walter Schudel in May 2008. Actually, I discov- modern-day interior of a Gothic church in many respects ered the polychrome finishing layers in Walter’s studio at does not recall the once colourful decoration of medieval the Royal Institute for the Study and Conservation of Bel- times. She pointed out that the nineteenth century should gium’s Artistic Heritage and became intrigued, which made be taken into account whenever we discuss medieval wall me decide a little later to devote my Master dissertation to and vault paintings.4 This conclusion will also emerge from it. For the specific art-historical approach Walter referred my own survey of Brabantine vault paintings, subject to me to professor Anna Bergmans who, in an equally enthu- this research. siastic manner, guided me through this research. I would like to thank her for her guidance and for the opportunity The influence of the Reformation (from 1517 on) and the to share my insights with specialists in the field. decisions of the Council of Trent (1545-1563) are often cited as the main reasons for the disappearance of the poly- An important change in the methodology of the analysis of chrome finishing layers under a coat of white plaster.5 In wall and vault paintings and finishing layers of architecture general – there are exceptions6 – the whitewashing belonged can be observed since the 1970s, especially after the publi- to the widespread maintenance procedures of the churches cation of the ‘Mora book’ in 1977. Since then, wall and up to the nineteenth century.7 From then on we can see vault paintings form an integral part of the architectural such whitewash being removed. This new invasive aesthetic ensemble (at least in theory). Hence the surface layers are view was promoted by protagonists such as Viollet-le-Duc. no longer examined individually as pictorial objects, but in Mettre à nu la belle pierre became a normal procedure in relation to the whole – the architecture.2 the nineteenth century, although it goes completely against the aesthetic ideal of the Middle Ages. In Flanders and the Because the vault paintings are an integral part of the archi- the uncovering of the parement also became tecture they are also subject to building history research. popular from the 1870s on.8 This forms an important starting point for dating the paint layers. The rendering of the vaults usually took place soon Because of the nineteenth-century aesthetic perception after the framing of the roof.3 Hence dendrochronological many vault paintings vanished either entirely or partially, examination of the roof can give a clear indication of the but others were restored. Hence the authenticity of the date. I used these dendrochronological data whenever avail- remains of the medieval decorations of Gothic churches able. Obviously the painting can never be older than the should always be questioned. After in situ research and roof and the latter can then be used as a terminus post quem photographical documentation of the current situation, for the dating. Other indirect methods for dating are ana- archival research into the nineteenth and twentieth century lysing the (rather rare) inscriptions, heraldic devices and restoration campaigns yielded important data.9 With this archival data. We may sometimes be confronted with a significant intermediate step, we tried to retrieve as best as medieval decoration, as the dating would suggest, but the possible the original decoration of the vaults. 104 PRISCA VALKENEERS

Documenting was prioritised for conservation purposes and often only a procès-verbal de l’existence was made.10 How- ever, the vault paintings or their ‘disposals’ were not always documented. The dividing line between documentation and restoration was very thin, evidenced by the fact that the documentation was sometimes used for neo-Gothic pro- jects.11 (fig. 1) Throughout the archival documents, the restorers regularly speak of ‘resumption of the pattern’ or ‘in primitive style’. In 1875 the priest of the church of St Sulpitius wrote to the Commission of Monumental Care: Des peintures primitives sur les voûtes, datées de 1474, ont été repeintes fidèlement.12 In the church of St Peter in Louvain the life-sized painted angels in the vaults were treated als follows: Peinture que nous restaurerons dans leur état primitif.13 Other extant forms of documentation are watercolours, such as those of Camille Tulpinck (fig. 2), and some rare full-scale Fig. 1. Floral motifs, tracing of the polychromy in the canvases.14 Important to note is the high degree of unifying church of St Dimphna, Geel, nineteenth century. – Louvain, style, because the same restorers were at work in different KADOC, nr. KPL BR 83. (Photo P. Valkeneers © KADOC)

Fig. 2. Painted angels in the church of Sts Guido and Peter, Anderlecht, watercolour by Camille Tulpinck, 1906. – Brussels, Royal Museums of Art and History (Photo P. Valkeneers © Royal Museums of Art and History) THE DECORATION IN GOD’S HOUSE 105 places. Gothic and neo-Gothic are thus very much inter- twined and a critical attitude towards what is actually visi- ble is necessary. This should not be regarded as criticism of these earlier researchers, since I believe that they acted with the best intentions and with the knowledge available at that time, just as we do nowadays. These findings are not only important to understand the current state of vault painting, but also indispensable for any type of research into medie- val wall and vault painting. As for the graphic documenta- tion in present-day North Brabant (Netherlands), we found that this was not as systematically carried out as in , as may be seen in the sparsely surviving records.

The late Gothic vault paintings

After this introduction to the Gothic Revival we can turn our attention once more to the late Gothic vault paintings in the Duchy of Brabant. Geographically, the historical Duchy of Brabant is nowadays divided into North Brabant Fig. 3. The Duchy of Brabant and its four quarters. (Netherlands) and Antwerp, and Brussels (Photo P. Valkeneers) (Belgium). In the period 1430-1530 the Duchy of Brabant formed the heart of the Burgundian and Habsburg Nether- lands.15 The vault itself served as the support for the painting. In Brabant a cross rib vaulting was usually applied in four The chosen research objects always come from a religious parts. Occasionally net vaulting or star vaulting were context. However, there are vault or rather ceiling paint- found as well. These more complex types of vaulting were ings in civic houses known as well. For the Duchy of Bra- used in the crossing of Our Lady of and in the bant, a total of twenty churches – cathedrals, chapels and southern aisles of the former parish chapel of the Cathe- parish churches – with ensembles of vault paintings were dral of Our Lady in Antwerp, but these are exceptions in selected.16 (fig. 3) For the Belgian part of Brabant this the area. The structure of the vault also offers possibilities selection was mainly based on Anna Bergmans inventory.17 for variation in the painting. On a cross rib vault a circular For the Netherlands I searched the Lijst van Monumenten decoration around the boss is a logical choice (fig. 4), and supplemented this with other secondary sources.18 An up-to-date inventory is not yet available for the Nether- lands. Not only existant vault decoration but also lost ensembles were taken into account. To form an idea of the nature and location of the vault paintings subject to the study, I briefly presented each of the churches in my lec- ture. In this article I will make reference to the catalogue in my Master dissertation, which describes all the vault paint- ings and their most important features.19

The cases were individually interesting enough to be inves- tigated, but the purpose was to combine all these data in order to obtain a clearer picture and to reconstruct the vault paintings in the Duchy of Brabant. When we speak of a reconstruction, with this we obviously mean a mental and historical reconstruction of the decoration of the vaults. I examined which patterns were painted on the vaults, what their possible significance was, and from which differ- ent influences these patterns emerged within the period and area under investigation. Thereafter a comparison is Fig. 4. Floral motifs around a roof boss, ca. 1500, restored in made with vault paintings in nearby regions. 1903. – Louvain, church of St Quinten. (Photo P. Valkeneers) 106 PRISCA VALKENEERS

of the church as the Heavenly City, the vault may sym- bolically represent heaven. The verticality of Gothic churches – many of which reach an immense height – cer- tainly supports this ‘idea of heaven’. This architectural symbolism was widespread in the Middle Ages.20 Each church was itself the symbol of the golden City of Heaven and so its beauty was a reflection of God’s glory.21

Different patterns can be found on the vaults of Brabantine churches. Vegetal decorations, such as foliage, are the most common in the Duchy of Brabant. There are also geomet- ric patterns, tracery patterns, and cosmic and figurative paintings to be seen in the vaults, as will be discussed below.

Fig. 5. Floral motifs on a net vault, chapel of the Guild of Geometrical patterns Our Lady, ca. 1517, restoration 1840. – ’s-Hertogenbosch, church of Our Lady. (Photo P. Valkeneers) Architectural polychromy may actually be regarded as a ‘precursor’ of the geometric star decoration.22 On the whereas on a net vault the decoration will be placed vaults the architectural polychromy is applied to the ribs, between the rib-shaped compartments. (fig. 5) The geo- mostly as a colourful chevron decoration and often sup- metric decoration with tendrils in the Cathedral of Our plemented with a Gothic comb ornament on top of the Lady in Antwerp complements the structural star formed ribs, as is the case in the Walloon church (Waalse kerk) in by the star vault itself. (fig. 6) . (fig. 7) Purely architectural polychromy was applied in the earliest Gothic phase. In a subsequent stage it was The church was not only a structural and architectural used in a complementary manner, viz. in relation to foli- achievement. It also was the place where the faithful gath- age or figurative patterns. The manchet decoration then ered: it symbolised the Heavenly Jerusalem or the house of evolved into a more intricate decoration, which manifests God, as is often cited in (contemporary) literature. If we itself through the use of simple geometric star patterns regard the vault in relation to the architectural symbolism instead of, or in conjunction with, the rib decoration around the boss, as may be observed on the choir vaults in the cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp. (fig. 8) A clear

Fig. 6. Geometric and foliage decoration on a star vault, Fig. 7. Architectural polychromy on the ribs around 1470, consolidated 2006-07. – Antwerp, cathedral of Our a roof boss, after 1534? – Breda, Walloon Church. Lady. (Photo P. Valkeneers) (Photo P. Valkeneers) THE DECORATION IN GOD’S HOUSE 107

Brabantine churches, as on the baptismal font of St John in ’s-Hertogenbosch, which may indicate a vegetabilisierung25 of the late Gothic church.

The floral patterns and foliage on the vaults were probably derived from geometric decorations. The star decoration, which dates back to the fourteenth century, adorns the vaults with colourful geometric stars on a white plaster background. This was a well-known decorative scheme.26 The vaults in the Burgundian chapel in Antwerp were dec- orated with rounded pointed leaves with tendrils. (fig. 9) On other vaults, such as that in the church of Our Lady in Aarschot, tendrils were arranged in a diamond format around the boss. (fig. 10) The star vaults in the cathedral of Fig. 8. Geometric painting on a star vault, ca. 1400, restored Antwerp show a mixture of geometric patterns and foliage. 1991-92. – Antwerp, church of Our Lady. From the last quarter of the fifteenth century, the domi- (Photo P. Valkeneers) nant design on Brabantine vaults is a rather symmetrical form of foliage. This far-reaching symmetry contrasts quite strongly with the rampant exuberance of foliage on the white church with polychrome elements actually repre- Flemish, Liège and vaults.27 However, the latter sented the aesthetic ideal of decoration in the fifteenth decoration is still less overwhelming than, for instance, else- century, as can be seen in Rogier van der Weyden’s Seven where Europe, and especially at that time.28 Sacraments altarpiece (1453) in the Museum of Fine Arts in Antwerp (inv. nr. 393) or in a miniature in the Milan- In Brabant we never observe the type of invasive and over- Turin Books of Hours (fol. 116, ca. 1440).23 all vegetal decoration that we find in the German-speaking areas, where the vault itself serves as a type of shrine.29 Instead the Brabantine patterns evolve from a circular foli- Vegetal patterns age around the boss to a very symmetrical vegetal pattern that is repeated across all of the vaults. The symmetrical The vegetal patterns used in the paintings of late Gothic foliage never exceeds the vault compartment where previ- vaults in Brabant are not very specific from a botanical point of view. These patterns are often stylised and only marginally identifiable, such as the thistle and the acan- thus. The patterns also lend themselves well to circular placement around roof bosses, as may be seen in the church of St Sulpitius and other churches in the Duchy of Bra- bant. Although the increased botanical knowledge of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century would suggest otherwise,24 we do not find botanically accurate or identifi- able plants, flowers or tendrils in Brabantine paintings. The flowers depicted as part of the foliage decoration are usually imaginary, both in colour, size and design. In that respect they can be described as composite flowers, i.e. elements of natural flowers were merged to create imaginary specimens.

Typical ‘Gothic asymmetry’ – the type of horror vaccui with angular and sharp designs, such as occurs in other media – is generally not found on Brabantine vaults, except in the cathedral of St John in ’s-Hertogenbosch. Across the Duchy of Brabant, we find instead a more extensive distri- bution and neat symmetry, in which the painted decora- Fig. 9. Camille Tulpinck, watercolour of the vault painting tion never extends beyond its vault compartment. Similar in the Burgundian chapel, Antwerp. ˗ Brussels, ornamental vegetal patterns – sumptuous and vigorously Royal Museums of Art and History (Photo P. Valkeneers depicted – also feature elsewhere in the interior design of © Royal Museums of Art and History) 108 PRISCA VALKENEERS

and in the church of Our Lady in Breda. Unlike in Breda, where only a sun and moon appear on the vault, in Ant- werp a circular structure around the boss was painted to suggest a blue sky filled with cosmic phenomena. (fig. 11) Marjan Buyle extensively discussed the iconographic aspects of this ‘heavenly painting’ in relation to contemporary sources. She pointed out that the Antwerp scheme may be interpreted in connection with the architects and the accompanying lodge, who saw themselves as practitioners of a higher form of geometry. The cosmos created by God was echoed in the construction of the cathedral. The sym- bolism of the golden rectangles (carré-soleil) refers to a higher state of perfection, the ideal relationship between heaven and earth. The astronomical symbols – stars, moon and sun – thus refer to the cosmos.31 Fig. 10. Foliage in a geometric shape, vault painting, In the church of Our Lady in Breda, one of the vault com- ca. 1500?, restored 1912. – Aarschot, church of Our Lady. partments in the third bay of the north aisle of the choir (Photo P. Valkeneers) featured a sun and a moon on a painted blue background. Gerard Van Wezel pointed out that the significance of this vault painting can be linked to their location, viz. the for- ously the circular tendrils were painted ‘under’ the ribs. mer ‘Herenkoor’. The celestial bodies face the cosmos There is no question of an independent vegetal pattern where God reigns as King of the universe. The earthly from the sixteenth century: in Brabant this type of archi- powers – in this particular case, the lords of Breda – were tectural decoration does not exist in isolation or indepen- accountable to this higher authority.32 The lords of Breda dently, but as part of the architecture. also confirmed their status as earthly rulers elsewhere within the church but, as Marjan Buyle also concluded,33 much of the once rich medieval symbolic vocabulary is Tracery patterns now missing.

An important pattern in architectural sculpture of the late Gothic period is the falchion design. These tracery patterns Figurative patterns appear as painted imitations on the vaults, but they are not often applied on Brabantine vaults. Only in the church of Figures appear – or did once appear, because some are St Lambertus in Kessel and in the church of St Dimphna now lost – in seven Brabantine churches, viz. the church in Geel was the falchion design used for the decoration of of Our Lady of Aarschot, the church of Sts Peter and the vaults. These decorations are nowadays covered by Guido in Anderlecht, the cathedral of Our Lady in Ant- whitewash, but their existence was discovered through werp, the church of Our Lady in Breda, the church of St archival research. Sebastian in Herpen, the cathedral of St John in ’s-Her- togenbosch, and the church of St Peter in Louvain. These Such tracery decoration on the vaults gives a special visual vault paintings are not always in a good state of preserva- effect: it lifts the formal structure of the ribs and makes the tion. In the church of St Peter in Louvain twelve life-size architecture of the vault lighter, as if it floats in space. It angels have vanished, but extant documentation offers suggests an area beyond the polychromy because the some insights.34 (fig. 12) In several churches the figures painted traceries create illusionistic openings to the sky. have been restored in a nineteenth- or even twentieth-cen- However, this type of decoration is more commonly used tury Neo-Gothic style, which means that the medieval in Germanophone regions.30 ‘language’ has been completely lost. This is the case in the church of St Sebastian in Herpen (fig. 13), as well as in the church of Our Lady of Aarschot and in the church of Cosmic patterns Sts Peter and Guido in Anderlecht.

Some vaults were decorated with pictures referring to the Where the original painting is still preserved, one may notice cosmos. One such cosmological design is certainly present a strong relationship between the figures in panel painting in two churches, viz. the cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp and manuscript illumination of the period. Medieval panel THE DECORATION IN GOD’S HOUSE 109

Fig. 11. Cosmic pattern, vault painting, ca. 1472-1479. – Antwerp, church of Our Lady. (Photo P. Valkeneers) painters were employed in various media, such as wall paintings visible today would never suggest this date; the painting and polychromy of sculptures.35 As discussed documented restoration was carried out in 1907. before, the problem of restoration makes stylistic dating difficult. However, dendrochronological research may pro- The figures were depicted in a variety of ways. On the vault vide an answer. For instance, in the church of St Sebastian compartments we find both individual, full-size figures as in Herpen the dating of the wooden shed reveals that the half-length figures. The latter are often shown arising from wood was harvested in the autumn of 1507, so that the chalices that were painted in the lower half of the presenta- painting of the vaults can be dated between 1510 and tion. The full-size figures could be presented as single fig- 1530. The heraldry, viz. the arms of Philips of Cleves- ures against a blank plaster background or as figures inter- Ravenstein in the vault of the apse, confirms this date. twined with the foliage, as in ’s-Hertogenbosch. (fig. 14) Philips of Cleves died in 1521, so the painting was created Circular depictions of figures, such as the circle of musical out either under his patronage or in his honour. The vault angels in the church of Our Lady in Breda (fig. 15), can 110 PRISCA VALKENEERS

Fig. 13. Figurative and vegetal decoration, ca. 1520, restored 1907. – Herpen, church of St Sebastian, Herpen. (Photo P. Valkeneers)

Fig. 12. Photographical documentation of the late Gotic vault painting in the church of St Peter, second quarter of the fifteenth century, restored 1890. – Stedelijke Musea, Louvain. (Photo P. Valkeneers) often be observed around roof bosses which makes a circu- lar presentation of the figures a logical choice. This struc- ture and the associated meaning of the space as heaven Fig. 14. Return of Christ, vault painting, ca. 1480, make the depiction of angels and saints high in the vaults restored 1840. – ’s-Hertogenbosch, cathedral of St John. very fitting. An important factor is that the figurative pat- (Photo P. Valkeneers) terns in Brabant were always painted in an exclusive area within the church, such as the choir, the crossing or a spe- cific sacred chapel.36 The painting in the crossing in the between the ribs of which seven of them in different posi- church of Our Lady in Breda, viz. a circle of musical angels, tions playing an instrument. The eighth angel has a bande- was thus stood linked to the liturgy. In the centre of the role upon which was written: ... Asc in C. .. which probably vault a Himmelloch (i.e. an opening in the vault) was cre- means Ascendit in Coelum (He ascends to Heaven). So the ated. This Himmelloch served a function within the liturgy: representation of Christ was once accompanied on his way on Ascension Day a sculpted representation of Christ was to heaven by these musical angels on the vault. The Ordi- hoisted to ‘heaven’ to visualise the event of the Ascension. narius of Halle is an important source for such a liturgical This is confirmed by archival sources from 1539, in par- spectacle and the sculptures (fig. 16) are sometimes pre- ticular for the church of Our Lady in Breda: Noch gheven served. The link with the liturgy is thus quite obvious from van een lijnt tot den sieldreijer daer onser heer mede opwoer.37 the decorative programme in the crossing of the church of Our Lady in Breda. More of these imago ascensionis and Between the ribs an arrangement of grey clouds with rays Himmelloch examples are preserved in Germany.38 Yet it is of sunshine was painted, with a garland of green leaves not only in Breda that this correlation with the function of around the clouds. The eight angels were placed in pairs the church was obvious; we also find a sophisticated icono- THE DECORATION IN GOD’S HOUSE 111

Fig. 15. Circle of musical angels, vault painting, after 1450, restored 1903. – Breda, church of Our Lady. (Photo P. Valkeneers) 112 PRISCA VALKENEERS

both a Lower Rhine tradition and a Westphalian tradition. The highly intertwined representations are more common in North Brabant and southern Guelders where they would then refer to the Lower Rhine tradition. The solitary fig- ures – depicted as very clear and ‘readable’ saints against a background of white plaster – and the half-length figures are more prominent in northern and eastern Guelders, which would indicate a more Westphalian tradition.40 Because research into wall and vault paintings has been far more advanced in Germany since the mid twentieth cen- tury, we have to be cautious when applying earlier theories to the situation in Brabant. It must be noted that there remain other non-inventoried areas outside the field of research. There is no clear idea of a ‘Brabantine School’ although influences from the surrounding areas may be observed. These influences are ambiguous and several tradi- tions of depicting figures – solitary, half-length and inter- twined – have been observed in the Duchy of Brabant, as stated before.

Interpretation

The examination of the different patterns brings us to their possible interpretation in late Gothic times.

Vault paintings are decorative elements that are applied to embellish the house of God with brilliant colours and pat- terns. However, they can also sometimes be imbued with a different meaning that relates to the architectural symbolism of heaven, paradise or a heavenly garden. This was demon- strated with the polychromed vaults in Breda where the painting had its place within the liturgy: here a ‘higher level’ of meaning was evident. The same also applies to the cosmo- logical painting in the cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp, yet no direct relation with the liturgy could be observed here. Nonetheless the painting itself points to a more com- plex interpretation that exceeds the decorative level.

As I mentioned before, the foliage around the roof bosses is Fig. 16. , sculpture. Imago ascencionis mostly composed of imaginary flowers and plants rather (© Fribourg, Musée d’Art et Histoire) than actual botanically identifiable vegetation. At first sight, there is no particular significance to note in relation to the botanical-religious aspect. Within a second level of graphic programme painted onto the vaults of the choir in meaning, i.e. the wider context, such decoration can be the cathedral of St John. Here an overall display of the seen as part of the growing vegetabilisierung41 of the Gothic Return of Christ is placed in relation to the liturgy and the arts, as we also find in the rest of Europe during that presence of the monks of the chapter beneath the vault, period. It might be open to religious interpretation in the whose prayers once rose to heaven. Paul le Blanc, who sense of its being part of God’s creation, the natural world. investigated these paintings in detail, even speaks of a true In literature this vegetation is thought to refer to the tableau vivant.39 church, being interpreted as a heavenly garden or para- dise.42 When we look at some of the chapels in Germany, According to Karel Emmens, the portrayal of individual this idea is easy to understand. Here the vault and the pil- figures is geographically defined. There must have been lars were decorated from top to bottom with floral motifs, THE DECORATION IN GOD’S HOUSE 113 and the whole ensemble can be interpreted as a shrine.43 figures follow this stylistic evolution but their display on However, this is never the case in the Duchy of Brabant the vaults is different; they can appear intertwined with where the flowers or foliage around roof bosses are ‘just’ foliage as half-length or individual figures.49 attractive and colourful aspects of the decoration, intended to embellish God’s house rather than to convey a particular Manuscripts were precious and belonged to individuals of iconological meaning. I refer to Walter Schudel who speaks the higher classes. Furthermore, it is difficult to imagine of decorum in a sense of ‘what is suitable’ and who argues that an artist would take such objects with him up on the that this decoration should be seen as more than ‘just put- scaffolding. However unlikely it is that manuscripts were ting on some ornament’: instead it forms an inherent part used directly as models, we see the same ‘vocabulary’ being of the whole of the – in this case Gothic – architecture.44 used in the foliage of the manuscripts. I examined which manuscripts in the Duchy were available at the moment50 Whereas flowers and foliage in vaults somewhat paradoxi- and I noticed that the design of the foliage was in the same cally refer to the earth, stars and saints on the vaults directly style. Therefore, this ‘vocabulary’ of forms seemed to be relate to heaven. The ‘open’ tracery pattern achieves this by widespread and available for the decorative arts and thus to creating an optical illusion of the sky through the architec- the vault painters. ture. This interpretation can be questioned since there is no direct relationship with the liturgy. It may have been just a Early prints and especially ornamental prints – for instance, beautiful and logical form of decoration to embellish the by Master E.S. and Martin Schongauer – were dissemi- house of God. The imagery of foliage, tracery, stars and nated rapidly. Mayr-Harting has pointed out that the art saints was a common feature in daily life and hence used as market of northern Europe lent itself well for this kind of decoration. exchange, in particular thanks to the existence of art cen- tres.51 Especially this first period of graphic art is interest- ing to help determine whether the shapes of leaves and foli- Influences age in prints resembled those found in the vaults of the Duchy of Brabant. However, no one-to-one relationships Influences may have both formal and more substantive were found. From the second half of the fifteenth century impacts. Formal influences from other media – such as on, the printed leaf ornaments evolved into more luxurious early prints – were studied as well as influences from and plastic shapes with their gyrations almost achieving patronage. Finally, neighbouring regions are compared three-dimensionality. Of these sharper, three-dimensional with the Duchy of Brabant. The investigation of influences types of foliage only the vaults in the cathedral of St John on the patterns of vault paintings has shown a noticeable in ’s-Hertogenbosch bear witness. (figs 17, 18) Other prints transfer of shapes from various other media such as panel from graphic art that could have been used as models are painting, prints and manuscript illumination.45 Stained ornamental prints with wildmen as these were represented glass was not included in my research, which can be seen as in the painted vaults of the nave in the cathedral of St John, a hiatus. However, I believe that this medium was more in albeit that they are not visible from the ground. (figs 19, competition with wall painting than with vault painting, as 20) Especially the almost life-size figures from the well Buyle pointed out.46 The formal transfer from other media known Last Judgment ensemble show a relationship with must not be understood as a direct one-to-one relationship German prints, notably in the lines of their garments, in between model and painting, which occurs only rarely. the presentation of their curly hair and the appearance of Nonetheless, several authors cite manuscript illumination their eyelids. Again, it should be said that a one-to-one and especially prints as important influences.47 relationship between print and painting could not be estab- lished for the Duchy of Brabant. Where (part of) the original painting has been preserved, we may observe a strong relationship with figures from From this we can conclude that the spread of the late panel painting and manuscript illumination of that period. Gothic ‘language’ was rather diffuse and that there are no This is not very surprising as panel painters in those days real examples to establish a direct relationship between are known to have been employed in different areas, such vault painting and print-making in the Duchy of Brabant. as wall painting or polychrome painting. Only few details However, the lack of examples does not mean that there are known about this underexposed aspect of the work of was no direct transfer. An important example to demon- Rogier van der Weyden, Jan Van Eyck, Hugo van der Goes strate such direct transfer is the painting of the vault in the and Robert Campin. The painting of church interiors can church of St Pancras in Enkhuizen (North Holland). Here be seen as additional (seasonal) work.48 In figurative wall the direct influence of graphic arts on vault painting can be and vault painting we may observe an evolution of style confirmed because the artist who painted the vaults drew that correlates with the evolution in panel painting. The his inspiration from the Biblia Pauperum and the Speculum 114 PRISCA VALKENEERS

Fig. 17. Detail of a vegetal vault painting, after 1450. – ’s-Hertogenbosch, cathedral of St John. (Photo Theo Gieles)

Humanae Salvationes.52 These two works were disseminated widely through the graphic arts and were real ‘bestsellers’ at the end of the fifteenth century when printmaking was in full flow. The example of Enkhuizen shows that there was direct influence from the graphic arts, but that we can not always detect it anymore.

Patronage is a very important aspect for the choice of the decorative programme. There is a clear connection between the patronage of guilds, brotherhoods and crafts and the decoration of a church, as we may see especially in the major city churches in the four quarters of Brabant. The cathedral in Antwerp was entirely decorated by the guilds. Fig. 18. Ornamental print, Master E.S., ca. 1420-1468. Even the chapter and the nobility – e.g. Philips of Cleves- (© Vol. 8, Early German Artists. Retrospective Conversion of Ravenstein in the parish church of St Sebastian in Herpen The Illustrated Bartsch (Abaris Books), by ARTstor Inc. and (see above) – had a major hand in the decoration of the authorised contractors (Leiden University, november 2007). church, although not always directly. In ’s-Hertogenbosch [Lehrs 309] 113-I (44) it may be assumed that the painting of the choir with its magnificent ensemble of saints and angels depicting the Last Judgement or the Return of Christ was carried out for Rhine and Westphalian area, as has been explained before the occasion of a meeting of the chapter of the Golden (see above, under figurative patterns). From this large Fleece in 1481. The Burgundian heraldry on the banners region, which is situated to the east and north of the Duchy on the angels’ trumpets points firmly in that direction.53 of Brabant, several ensembles of vault paintings were found in the Broederkerk in Zwolle, the church of St Walburgis When comparing the vault paintings in the churches in in Zutphen, the church of St Martin in Zaltbommel, the surrounding areas with those in the Duchy of Brabant, Lebuïnis church in Deventer, the old church of Calixtus in similarities with the decorative foliage in the neighbouring Groenlo and in the parish church of Vorden. Remarkable regions of Flanders, Liège and Limburg were noticed.54 are the similarities in the vault decorations between these However, the effect of the foliage in these vaults is differ- churches: foliage around the intersections of the ribs, ent. Here a true horror vaccui occurs, i.e. a veritable over- clearly defined saints on the vaults, and a white background growth of floral patterns, whereas in Brabant the vaults that enhances legibility. were painted in a more symmetrical way, as discussed before. In northern and eastern regions, and in particular Could these similarities be associated with contemporary in the Duchy of Gelre, more religious iconographic pro- religious influences, which were stricter in the more remote grammes could be observed.55 This duchy has been repeat- northern regions? An alternative explanation could be that edly mentioned because of its relationship to the Lower there were other reasons why the churches in Brabant did THE DECORATION IN GOD’S HOUSE 115

Fig. 20. Ornamental print with wildmen, anonymous (© Vol. 23, German and Netherlandish Masters of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. Retrospective conversion of The Illustrated Bartsch (Abaris Books) by ARTstor Inc. and authorised contractors (Leiden University, november 2007). [L.III.130.102] 1 (62)

the northernmost part of Brabant where Herpen and ’s-Hertogenbosch form the border. In the east part of the Duchy of Brabant this virtual line seems to meander along the Meuse valley, where we may observe a specific variety Fig. 19. Detail of a vault painting with wildmen, after 1450. of decorative scheme. ’s-Hertogenbosch, cathedral of St John. (Photo Theo Gieles) Conclusion not need any elaborate figurative religious programmes on Church vaults in the Duchy of Brabant were painted acc- their vaults. During this period the core production of altar- cording to the Gothic tradition of colourful elements, pieces was flourishing in the Duchy of Brabant and Flan- which in this case were plants and flowers, stars and angels ders. Even smaller parish churches featured colourful and against a mostly white plaster background. As a general elaborate altarpieces.56 Could that be a reason to paint the trend the vault paintings have a predominantly decorative vaults of Brabantine churches with additional decorative value, yet there is no question of a specific ‘Brabantine patterns? The presence of mural paintings should also be school’. Influences from several different neighbouring taken into account when answering the question about the regions may be identified. ‘functioning’ of a Gothic church. This is a very interesting aspect and could be a starting point for further research. Whether a higher level of meaning can be attributed to the vault paintings is a matter of interpretation. Some of the The findings of the examination of the immediate sur- paintings were situated in a specific ‘sacred’ space that was rounding regions of the Duchy of Brabant can be summa- used for, or stood in relation to the liturgy, but this rela- rised as follows. The further north and east we go, the tionship could be observed only in the northern part of more prominent the religious representations that we find Brabant. Perhaps the Duchy of Brabant can be seen as a on the vaults in these areas. If we look at the geographical transitional area regarding both formal and material aspects. position of the Duchy of Brabant it is evident that the more elaborate religious iconographic programmes can be 1 Valkeneers 2007. found on the vaults in the northernmost part of the Duchy. 2 Buyle 1997: 205; Mora, Mora, Philippot 1977: 1-2; Schudel We can thus draw a virtual dividing-line that would end in 2000: 152-156; Schudel 2005: 101, 165, 119. 116 PRISCA VALKENEERS

3 le Blanc 2003: 82. This also was observed several times during 31 Buyle 1990: 12-24. research of the building history of the churches in Brabant. 32 Van Wezel 2003: 106-107. See Valkeneers 2007, vol. II. 33 Buyle 1990: 24 4 Bergmans 1998b. 34 Bergmans 1990: 1-21; Valkeneers 2007, vol. II: 111-112. 5 Buyle, Bergmans 1994: 8; Buyle 1995: 5-7; Vanthillo 1996: 35 Bergmans 1994: 50; Bergmans 2003: 125; Hammer 1990: 36. 93-94; Vanthillo 1996: 35. 6 During archival research of ecclesiastical financial documents 36 Vanthillo already mentioned the relation between certain in the Netherlands le Blanc noted the remark behoudens het vault and mural paintings and a specific sacred area. (See Van- beschilderde, meaning that the whitewashing would be carried thillo 1996: 37); Valkeneers 2007:121, specifically for the out without touching the vault or wall paintings. See le Blanc Duchy of Brabant. 2002: 12. 37 Van Wezel 2003: 109; Emmens 2005b: 99-101. 7 Bergmans 1988b: 28; Bergmans 1999: 114; Janse 1979: 63. 38 Brocket 1991: 208-212; Emmens 2005b: 99; Krause 1987: 8 Bergmans 1998b: 107-137; Bergmans, De Maeyer, Densla- 280-354. gen, Stijnen, van Leeuwen, Verpoest 1999: 9-18. 39 le Blanc 2002: 34. 9 The photographic and archival documentation of all the vault 40 Emmens 2005b: 102-103. paintings as well as the synthesis of the archival research can 41 See n. 25. be found in the catalogue (volume II) of my Master disserta- 42 Büchner 1967: 266; Oettinger 1962: 202. tion (see Valkeneers 2007). For each church the following 43 Königfeld 2001: 88. aspects are described: building history of the church, impor- 44 Schudel 2000: 152-156; Schudel 2005: 214-215. tant restoration campaigns, and the vaults and their paintings. 45 Koldeweij 2003: passim. 10 Bergmans 1998b: 155; Schudel 2005: 161. 46 Buyle 1997: 214. 11 Bergmans 1998b: 155-164; Bergmans, De Maeyer, Densla- 47 Bergstedt, Heimann 2005: 185; Buyle, Coomans, Esther, gen, Stijnen, van Leeuwen, Verpoest 1999: 16. Genicot & Pauwels 1997: 220; Brockow 2001: 224; Eick- 12 Valkeneers 2007, vol. II: p. 58. holter, Hammel-Kiesow 1993: 64; Emmens 2005b 2005: 13 It was the architect Langerock who wrote this during the res- 107; Feld 1989: 215-219; Hammer 1990: 33; le Blanc 2002: toration campaign at the Church of St Peter in Louvain in the 13, 15, 55. 1890s after discovering the twelve life-sized angels (now lost). 48 Bergmans 1994: 50; Bergmans 2003: 125; Buyle 1997: 211, See Valkeneers 2007, vol. II: 108. 232-233; Hammer 1990: 93-94; Koldeweij 2003: 451-454. 14 Vermeiren, Bergmans 1993: 5-6; Bergmans 1998b: 155-164; 49 Bergmans 1994: 50; Bergmans 2003: 125-126. Bergmans 1999: 117; Rousseau 1926: passim; Tulpinck 50 Valkeneers 2007: 99-100. 1902: passim; Tulpinck 1906: passim. 51 Mayr-Harting 1997: 5. 15 Duncker, Weiss 1983: 7. 52 Broekhuijsen-Kruijer 1982: 3-17. 16 Ensembles of vault paintings were found in the following 53 Peeters 1985: 29-33. churches: 1. cathedral of St John, ’s-Hertogenbosch; 2. church 54 This had already been noticed by Marjan Buyle. See Buyle of St Sebastian, Herpen; 3. church of Our Lady, Breda; 4. 1997: 222-225. Walloon church, Breda; 5. cathedral of Our Lady, Antwerp; 55 Buyle 1997: 225. 6. Burgundian chapel, Antwerp; 7. church of St Lambert, 56 De Boodt, Schäfer 2007: 46. Kessel; 8. church of St Dimphna, Geel; 9. church of St Rom- bout, Malines; 10. church of Sts John the Baptist and John the Evangelist, Malines; 11. church of St Peter, Louvain; 12. church of St Quinten, Louvain; 13. church of Our Lady, Aar- schot; 14. church of St Sulpice, Diest; 15. church of St Leon- BIBLIOGRAPHY ard, ; 16. church of St Gudule and St Michael, Brussels; 17. church of Our Lady of the Sablon, Brussels; 18. ANONYMOUS 1931 church of St Martin, ; 19. church of St Ambrose, Dil- beek; 20. church of Sts Guido and Peter, Anderlecht. Rijkscommissie tot het opmaken en uitgeven van een 17 Bergmans 1998b: 294-337. inventaris en eene beschrijving der Nederlandsche 18 Anoniem 1931. Monumenten van Geschiedenis en Kunst, Voorloopige 19 See n. 9. lijst van de Nederlandsche Monumenten van Geschiedenis 20 Bergmans 1998b: 264-267; Buyle 1997: 211; Kavaler 2005: 230; Königfeld 2001; le Blanc 2003: 82; Timmermans 2003: en Kunst, deel X, De provincie Noordbrabant, The 45, 47; Wylleman 2002. Hague, 1931. 21 Königfeld 2001: 82 BERGMANS 1990 22 Bergmans 1994: 46; Koldeweij 2003: 454. Anna Bergmans, ‘Het interieur van de Leuvense St.- 23 Bergmans 1994: 47; Koldeweij 2003: 454. Pieterskerk ontpleisterd onder alle oogpunten van onte- 24 Buyle 1997: 220. 25 This term was first introduced and is often used in the gensprekelijk nut?’, Arca Lovaniensis, 18 (1990): 1-21. German literature. I could not find an adequate translation. BERGMANS 1994 For the use of this term see Büchner 1967; Oettinger 1962. Anna Bergmans, ‘Waardering en onbegrip’, Middeleeuwse 26 Koldeweij 2003: 454. muurschilderingen in Vlaanderen, M&L cahier 2, Brussel, 27 Bergmans 1998b: 304, 317, 323, 330, 331, 335, 336; Buyle 1997: 220-225. 1994: 38-65. 28 Buyle 1997: 225. BERGMANS 1998A 29 Büchner 1967: 276. Anna Bergmans (ed.), Dirk Bouts. in de late 30 Gramatzki 1991: 164; Kavaler 2005: 230. middel eeuwen. Het Laatste Avondmaal, Tielt, 1998. THE DECORATION IN GOD’S HOUSE 117

BERGMANS 1998B BUYLE 1994 Anna Bergmans, Middeleeuwse muurschilderingen in de Marjan Buyle, ‘Voorwoord’, in Marjan Buyle and Anna 19de eeuw. Studie en inventaris van middeleeuwse muur- Bergmans, Middeleeuwse muurschilderingen in Vlaanderen, schilderingen in Belgische kerken, KADOC Artes, 2, Lou- M&L cahier 2, Brussels, 1994: 7-12. vain, 1998. BUYLE 1995 BERGMANS 1999 Marjan Buyle, ‘Middeleeuwse muurschilderingen in Anna Bergmans, ‘De omgang met middeleeuwse muur- Vlaanderen’, Openbaar Kunstbezit Vlaanderen, 1 (1995): schilderingen in België (1830-1914)’, in Anna Bergmans, 1-39. Jan De Maeyer, Wim Denslagen, Wies van Leeuwen, BUYLE 1997 †Herman Stynen and Luc Verpoest (eds.), Negentiende- Marjan Buyle, ‘De kleurige afwerking van de gotische eeuwse restauratiepraktijk en actuele monumentenzorg, architectuur’, Marjan Buyle, Thomas Coomans, Jan KADOC Artes, 3, Louvain, 1999: 114-122. Esther, Luc Genicot and Oswald Pauwels, Gotische archi- BERGMANS 2003 tectuur in België, Tielt, 1997: 205-233. Anna Bergmans, ‘La peinture murale’, in Christian Heck, BUYLE, BERGMANS 1994 L’art flamand et hollandais. Le siècle des Primitifs 1380- Marjan Buyle and Anna Bergmans, Middeleeuwse muur- 1520, Paris, 2003: 125-127. schilderingen in Vlaanderen, M&L Cahier 2, Brussels, BERGMANS 2005 1994. Anna Bergmans, ‘Mittelalterliche Wandmalereien in BUYLE, COOMANS, ESTHER,GENICOT, PAUWELS 1997 Leuven’, in Uta Maria Bräuer, Emanuel Klinkenberg and Marjan Buyle, Thomas Coomans, Jan Esther, Luc Geni- Jeroen Westerman (eds), Kunst & Region. Architektur und cot and Oscar Pauwels, Gotische architectuur in België, Kunst im Mittelalter. Beiträge einer Forschungsgruppe, Tielt, 1997. Utrecht, 2005: 221-237. BUYLE, CELIS ET AL. 2002 BERGMANS, DE MAEYER, DENSLAGEN, VAN LEEUWEN, STYNEN, Marjan Buyle, Marcel Celis, Jan Klinckaert, Linda Wyl- VERPOEST 1999 leman and Christine Vanthillo, De beeldentaal van sym- Anna Bergmans, Jan De Maeyer, Wim Denslagen, Wies bolen, M&L cahier 7, Brussels, 2002. van Leeuwen, †Herman Stynen and Luc Verpoest, DE BOODT, SCHAFER 2007 Negentiende-eeuwse restauratiepraktijk en actuele monu- Ria De Boodt and Ulrich Schäfer, Vlaamse Retabels. Een mentenzorg, KADOC Artes, 3, Louvain, 1999. internationale reis langs laatmiddeleeuws beeldsnijwerk, BERGSTEDT, HEIMANN 2005 Louvain, 2007. Clemens Bergstedt and Hanz-Dieter Heimann, Wege in DE CLERCQ 1998 die Himmelsstadt, Berlin, 2005. Lode De Clercq, ‘Het koor van de Sint-Pieterskerk in de BRÄUER, KLINKENBERG, WESTERMAN 2005 late middeleeuwen. Nieuwe inzichten in de organisatie Uta Maria Bräuer, Emanuel Klinkenberg and Jeroen en decoratie van de koorpartij’, in Anna Bergmans (ed.), Westerman (eds), Kunst & Region. Architektur und Kunst Dirk Bouts. Leuven in de late middeleeuwen. Het Laatste im Mittelalter. Beiträge einer Forschungsgruppe, Clavis Avondmaal, Tielt, 1998: 88-103. Kunsthistorische Monografieën, 20, Utrecht, 2005. DUNCKER,WEISS 1983 BROCKET 1991 Dieter Duncker and Helmut Weiss, Het hertogdom Brabant Oscar Brocket, History of the theatre, London, 1991. in kaart en prent, Tielt, 1983. BROEKHUIJSEN-KRUIJER 1982 EICKHOLTER, HAMMEL-KIESOW 1993 Klara Broekhuijsen-Kruijer, ‘De gewelfschilderingen in Manfred Eickholter and Rolf Hammel-Kiesow, Ausstat- de St.-Pancraskerk te Enkhuizen’, Bulletin van de Stich- tungen Lübecker Wohnhäuser, Raumnutzungen, Malereien ting Oude Hollandse Kerken, 15,1982: 3-17. und Bücher im Spätmittelalter und in der frühen Neuzeit, BÜCHNER 1967 Neumünster, 1993. Joachim Büchner, ‘Ast-, Laub- und Masswerkgewölbe EMMENS 2005A der endenden Spätgotik. Zum Verhaltnis von Architek- Karel Emmens, De oude Calixtuskerk te Groenlo, Utrecht, tur, dekorativer Malerei und Bauplastik’, in Hans Sedel- 2005. mayr and Wilhelm Messerer (eds), Festschrift Karl Oet- EMMENS 2005B tinger zum 60. Geburtstag, Erlanger Forschungen, Reihe Karel Emmens, ‘Veelkleurige beeldverhalen. Muur- en A, 20, Erlangen, 1967: 265-301. gewelfschilderingen in Groenlo en Gelre’, De oude Calix- BUYLE 1990 tuskerk te Groenlo, Utrecht, 2005: 89-109. Marjan Buyle, ‘Een hemel vol sterren. De conservering FELD 1989 van een 15de-eeuwse gewelfschildering in de Onze-Lieve- Marion Feld, Heilige Ranken. Spätgotische ornamentale Vrouwekathedraal te Antwerpen’, M&L. Monumenten en Wand-und Gewölbemalerei in rheinischen Kirchen, Disser- Landschappen, 9 (1990) 1: 12-24. tationen zur Kunstgeschichte, 30, Cologne, 1989. 118 PRISCA VALKENEERS

GRAMATZKI 1991 grafkapel voor Oranje-Nassau te Breda, red. G. Van Wesel Rolf Gramatzki, ‘Bemalte Kirchendecken: Wandel in and A.M. Koldeweij, Zwolle, 2003: 82-86. Ornament und Sinngebung’, in Rolf-Jürgen Grote and MAYR-HARTING 1997 Peter Königfeld (eds), Raumkunst in Niedersachsen. Die Ursula Mayr-Harting, Early Netherlandish Engraving Farbigkeit historischer Innenräume Kunstgeschichte und c. 1440-1540, Oxford, 1997. Wohnkultur, München, 1991: 157-218. MESURET 1967 GROTE, KÖNIGFELD 1991 Robert Mesuret, Les peintures murales du Sud-Ouest de la Rolf-Jürgen Grote and Peter Königfeld (eds), Raumkunst du XIe au XVIe siècle, Paris, 1967. in Niedersachsen. Die Farbigkeit historischer Innenräume, MICHLER 1977 Kunstgeschichte und Wohnkultur, München, 1991. Jürgen Michler, ‘Über die Farbfassung hochgotischer HAMMER 1990 Sakralräume’, Wallraf-Richartz-Jahrbuch 39 (1977): 29-64. Karen Elizabeth Hammer, Sakrale Wandmalerei in Däne- MÖBIUS, SCHUBERT 1987 mark und Norddeutschland im ausgehenden Mittelalter, Friedrich Möbius and Ernst Schubert (eds), Skulptur Hamburg, 1990. des Mittelalters. Funktion und Gestalt, Weimar, 1987. HECK 2003 MORA, MORA, PHILIPPOT 1997 Christian Heck (ed.), L’art flamand et hollandais. Le siècle Paulo Mora, Laura Mora and Paul Philippot, La conser- des Primitifs 1380-1520, Paris, 2003. vation des peintures murales, Bologna, 1977. JANSE 1979 OETTINGER 1962 Herman Janse, ‘Kleur in Hollandse kerkinterieurs’, Bulletin Karl Oettinger ‘Laube, Garten und Wald. Zu einer van de Stichting Oude Hollandse Kerken, 4 (1979): 63-76. Theorie der süddeutschen Sakralkunst 1470-1520’, in Karl KAVALER 2005 Oettinger (ed.), Festschrift für Hans Sedlmayer Münich, Ethan Matt Kavaler, ‘Nature and the Chapel Vaults at 1962: 201-228. Ingolstadt: Structuralist and other Perspectives’, The Art PEETERS 1985 Bulletin, 87/2 (2005): 230-248. Cees Peeters, De Sint-Janskathedraal te ’s-Hertogenbosch, KOLDEWEIJ 2003 The Hague-Zeist, 1985. Jos Koldeweij, ‘Schilderkunst ten tijde van de “Bra- ROUSSEAU 1926 bantse gotiek” in het hertogdom Brabant’, Bijdragen Henri Rousseau, Catalogue des relevés exécutés par M. C. tot de geschiedenis Universiteit Antwerpen, 86 (2003): Tulpinck de peintures murales anciennes décorant divers 431-465. monuments de la Belgique, Brussels, 1926. KÖNIGFELD 2001 SCHUDEL 2000 Peter Königfeld, ‘De schoonheid van Gods huis. Kleur- Walter Schudel, ‘De stille revolutie. Restauratie van gebruik in de middeleeuwse kerkruimte’, Wandmalerei muurschilderingen’, Bulletin de l’ Insitut Royal du Patri- in Niedersachsen, Bremen und im Groningerland. Fenster moine Artistique, 27 (2000): 152-156. in die Vergangenheit, Munich-Berlin, 2001: 82-107. SCHUDEL 2005 KRAUSE 1987 Walter Schudel, Muurschilderingen tactiel bekeken. Een Hans-Joachim Krause, ‘“Imago ascensionis” und “Him- niet zo praktische gids voor de restauratie van muurschilder- melsloch”. Zum “Bild”-Gebrauch in der spätmittelalter- ingen, Brussels, 2005. lichen Liturgie’, in Friedrich Möbius and Ernst Schubert TIMMERMANS 2003 (eds), Skulptur des Mittelalters. Funktion und Gestalt, Michel Timmermans, ‘De bouwplastiek binnen de kerk’, Weimar, 1987: 280-354. in Jos Koldeweij and Gerard van Wesel (eds), De Onze- KRYSTOF 1991 Lieve-Vrouwkerk en de grafkapel voor Oranje-Nassau te Doris Krystof, ‘Vom gotischen Laubwerk zur Jugendstil- Breda, Zwolle, 2003: 43-64. ranke. Ornamentgeschichtliche Betrachtung zu den TULPINCK 1902 Holzdeckendekorationen’, in Rolf-Jürgen Grote and Camille Tulpinck, Étude sur la peinture murale en Peter Königfeld (eds), Raumkunst in Niedersachsen. Die Belgique jusqu’à l’époque de la Renaissance, tant au point Farbigkeit historischer Innenräume, Kunstgeschichte und de vue des procédés techniques qu’au point de vue Wohnkultur, München, 1991: 113-132. historique, Mémoires couronnés et autres mémoires LE BLANC 2002 publiés par l’Académie royale des Sciences, des Lettres Paul le Blanc, Kerk in kleur. De middeleeuwse schilderin- et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels, 1902. gen in de St.-Janskathedraal te ’s-Hertogenbosch, ’s-Her- TULPINCK 1906 togenbosch, 2002. Camille Tulpinck, La peinture décorative réligieuse et LE BLANC 2003 civile en Belgique, aux siècles passés, Brussels, 1906. Paul le Blanc, ‘De functie en betekenis van muur- en VALKENEERS 2007 gewelfschilderingen’, De Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekerk en de Priscilla Valkeneers, Een bijdrage tot het onderzoek naar THE DECORATION IN GOD’S HOUSE 119

laatgotische gewelfschilderingen in het hertogdom Brabant, campaigns were obtained through archival research of the 2 vols, Master dissertation, Vrije Universiteit Brussels, documentation relating to these Neo-Gothic campaigns. My unpublished, 2007. research brought to light an evolution in the ‘system of deco- VANTHILLO 1996 ration’ of the late Gothic church and made it possible to dis- Christine Vanthillo, ‘Monumentale kleur’, M&L. Monu- cern different motifs, such as floral, figurative, cosmic and menten en Landschappen 15/4 (1996): 35-42. tracery motifs. As for the influence from other media, notably VERMEIREN, BERGMANS 1993 panel painting, prints and manuscript illumination, a similar Rie Vermeiren and Anna Bergmans, Inventaris van het ‘vocabulary’ and style were noticed. In comparison with other neogotische tekeningenarchief Bressers-Blanchaert ca. 1860- regions, the Duchy of Brabant can be placed within a larger 1914, Louvain, 1993. cultural landscape where the decorative aspect of vault paint- WYLLEMAN 2002 ing is imperative to the religious aspect. The latter can be seen Linda Wylleman, ‘Het kerkgebouw als symbool van het in more distant regions, although in the northern part of the hemels Jeruzalem’, De beeldentaal van symbolen, M&L Duchy of Brabant some of the ensembles of vault paintings cahier 7, Brussels, 2002: 72-87. did appear to confirm a relation with the liturgy. Hence it is likely that the Duchy of Brabant can be regarded as a transi- tional area. In general it seems clear that the decoration of the SUMMARY vaults served to embellish the Brabantine churches and The aim of this paper is to achieve a historical reconstruction enhance the sacrality of the late Gothic church. of the late Gothic (ca. 1430-1530) painted decoration on the church vaults in the Duchy of Brabant. Therefore, my research included painted motifs, their evolution over time, and differ- Prisca Valkeneers is an art historian. She is a a research ent influences on the decoration system in late Gothic reli- and editorial assistant at the Centrum Rubenianum in gious buildings of the area under investigation. Important Antwerp. insights into the nineteenth-century Neo-Gothic restoration