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Thomas Hieke Menstruation and lmpurity Regular Abstention from the Cult According to Leviticus 15:19-24 and Some Examples for the Reception of the Biblical Text in Early Judaism

Abstract: The biblical instructions in Leviticus 15:19-24 about women's regular shedding of the uterine lining and their religious actvity mostly refer to male conceptualizatons of the female body in Antquit: The male concepts consider women during their menses as unable to participate in the cult. The woman's status during tis period is called "impure." The paper presents the overall structure of Leviticus 15, a short note about the origin of the text, and an exege­ sis of Leviticus 15:19-24: What exactly do the biblical prescriptons regulate and what was the impact fr everyday life? Finally some examples demonstate the recepton of this biblical passage in Early Judaism. Keyords: Menstuaton, Impurity, Purity, Levitcus 15, Ealy Judaism

Tomas Hleke: Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Mainz, Germany

lntroduction

If a menstant woman passe between two me, lf lt 1s at the bginnlng of her mense she will slay one of them and lf lt 1s at the ed of her menses she will cause strlfe bten 1 them.

For the authors and tadents of te Babylonian -the quotaton stems fom the tractate Peschim llla-the menstuat woman is still a problem. From the Bible onward one fnds various regulatons about women, their bodily con­ ditons as the regular shedding of the uterine lining, ad their religious actvity (or religiously motvated restictons fom certain actons).2 The fcus of the

t The Babylonlan Talmud, Tractate Pechlm 111a. Engllsh Translation of all quotatlons fom the Talmud: Te Sonclno Talmud, Broklyn, N. 2 For a general treatment of the menstatlon see, e.g., BUC, Blo Magie. Menstruation and lmpurity - 55

fllowing paper lies on the biblical instuctons in Levitcus 15:19-24 and their recepton in Early Judaism.3 These prescriptons mostly refer to male imagina­ tons and conceptualizatons of the female body in Antquity: The texts were written by men about women and their expected behavior regarding menstua­ ton; women, on the other band, obviously accepted these regulatons, acted according to them ad passed them on to te next generaton. The male con­ cepts consider women during teir menses as unable to partcipate in te cult. The woma's status during this period is called "impure," and she conveys this status to objects beneath her ad to people who touch her or the objects. What exactly do the biblical instuctons regulate and what was the impact fr every­ day life? How was this topic received and teated in later tets? Aer some re­ marks about the topic and the overall stucture of Levitcus 15 as a whole and a short note about te orign of the text, the paper will present an exegesis of Levitcus 15:19-244 and some examples for te recepton of tis biblical passage in Early Judaism.

Levlticus 15

Purltyand lmpurlty

The issue of menstuaton is pat of the major ston in the bok of Levitcus tat deals wit ritual purity and impurity (Levitcus 11-15). In general, the term "purtty/pure" (t1Mr)5 in the book of Levitcus refers to the regular status of the (male or female) individual in which the human being is able to pacipate in te cult (e.g., to eat fom te meat of the sacrifce of well-being, zba� Jl1mf). Due to some "abnoral" behavor of te huma bdy a tempora abstenton fom te cult was an appropriate consequence. But as we lea fom the texts,

[r]itu impurty '" i n judge morally but considere as incompatble with the holiness of G. Tus, the 'staine' pesn is no sinner but only momentarly rmove fom the or-

--3 For the topc of meton in the non-pey litetu se, e.g., PI, Mestaton, 19-42 4 For a G veson of t i pete h, s my commentar: H Lt 1-J.S, 5-S5. 5 Te tes pure/purity and lmpu/lmputy are widely u as tlaton fr the tehnical lebre tems fhOr ad tlmf', athough l is reo tt th lt eee of the lebrew ad the Engish tems is fr fom stctr (se BE'E, Blo Dlscharge,1). 56 - Thomas Hieke

der of life intended by God, in which the ability to participate in the cult was an imprtant part.6

The interim status of "impurity/being impure" (täme') can be overcome by washing (body, clothes, equipment) and the passing of a certain amount of time.

The Topic of Levltlcus 15

Levitcus 15 judges the grade of impurity caused by dischage fom the genitals. "This is the most intense concentaton of verses dealing with reproductive organs in the Bible."7 Both sexes, men and women, are concemed, but teated diferently according to their physical conditions. Te chapter distnguishes between anomalous (i.e., pathological) and non-anomalous (regular) fow. The key fr understanding this chapter may be seen in a deep feeling of in­ security: The sexual powers themselves give reason fr tmidity and awe due to the closeness of love, desire, procreaton, pregnancy and childbirth to the di­ vine realm of creaton- and this feeling increases in the case of anomalous fow in the context of these phenomena of human life. The concept has nothing to do with a disapproval of sexuality, but is rather an admoniton to cauton when dealing with the sexual powers.8 The purity regulatons are not intended to be used as basis fr oppressing men ad women but rather fr reducing (fom a moder viewpoint: irratonal) anxietes and therefre intoducing order and stability. The sphere of human procreaton (including sexuality and related discharges) and the realm of cult as a sphere of encounter with te deity are clearly separated. The simple and clear directves fr dealing with phenomena of disorder overcome insecurity; they meet te huma need fr purit in te sense of order and stability.9

Structure

Levitcus 15 is a two-partte chapter relatng to the to sexes-where both sexes meet, i.e., the case of sexual intercourse, a pivota sentence occurs in the middle

6 Hoss, Bath, 104. 7 MC, Histor, 24-2. 8 S GERSTENBBRGER, Litcus, 181-182. 9 Se GBRSTBBBRGER, Liticus, 190-191. Menstruation and lmpurlty - 57

(V 18). Surrounding this center one fnds a palindromic ring stucture (ABC - C'B'A').10 1·2b lntroductlon to a YHWH speech to Moses A 2c-17 dlscharges regardlng men 2c-15 anomalous flow (lllness) B 2c-3 descrlptlon of the phenomenon 4·12 transmlsslon of lmpurlty by contact 13-15 procedures fr purlfcatlon In the case of heallng 16-17 non-anomalous flow: emlsslon of semen C 18 sexual lntercourse X 19-30 dlscharges regardlng women 19-24 non-anomalous flow: menstruatlon C' 19a-c descrlptlon of the phenomenon 19d·23 transmlsslon of lmpurlty by contact 24 sexual lntercourse wlth a menstruant 25·30 anomalous flow (lllness) B' 25 descrlptlon of the phenomenon 26-27 transmlsslon of lmpurlty by contact 28-30 measures fr purlflcatlon In the case of heallng 31 general stlpulatlon, motlvatlon 32-33 Summar wlth torah formula A' This well-proportoned stucture has the innovatve efect of an equal teatent of men and women: Te women's menstuaton appeas as a regular (non­ aomaious) phenomenon in aalogy to the man's emission of semen (C - C'); bth dischages ae not regaded a pathologcal (or anomalous), ad they ae se in oppsiton to the pathologcal fows of both sexes. Deborah Ellens put it this way: "stctural symmet consttutes gender symmet."11 She therefre opts fr a diferent stcture and regads V 18 not to be a separate cental unit ("X") but rather a pendant to V 24, thus subsuming "X" (sexual intercourse) 1der "C." Howeve, even without this alteratve view of the stcture and With V 18 as cental pa it becomes obvious that men and women in this chap­ te ae con,idered to be equal at leat regarding aomalous ad non-anomalous Dow fom their genitals.

10 S MILRO, Ltcu, 904-905; STAUBU, Lt, 12; WH Lc 15.18, 3; O'GRy, Satcs, 4; M Htor, 2; P, Menstaton, 45-47. U ELs, Me Ipty, 35. CH, Mestt, 276, pts lt th wa: "ther 1s n e­ dence that the lntent or imeate efet of thes law w to dte ag wme." 58 - Tomas Hleke

The Origin of Leviticus 15

The well-proportoned stucture and the signifcant parallel teatent of men and women may point to a literar unity and a compositon (Lev 15:2-30,32-33) by a single hand. The Priestly Writer (P) received the piece fom taditon and added the introduction (V 1-2b) and the mentoning of the entrance of the Tent of Meetng in V 14 and V 29. 12 V 31 difers fom the other verses stylistcally and regarding its content and pragmatcs by using the second person style of direct address, pointing to the sanctuary and providing a theological explanaton or motvation. This verse probably comes fom the redacton of the fnal frm of the book and is shaped in the style of the Holiness Code (H; Lev 17-26).13

A Translation of Leviticus 15:19-24

The fllowing working translaton of Levitcus 15:19-24 considers the JPS Tanakh Translaton as weil as Jacob MILGROM's tanslaton in his commentar:14

19 When a woman has a discharge, her dge bing blod fom her bdy, she shall remain in he monthly period see days; whover touches he shall b impure untl ee­ ning. 20 Any that she lies on during her monthly perio shall b impure; and any­ thing that she sits on shall b impure. 21 Anyone who touches her bdding shall wsh bis clothes, bathe in water, and remain impure untl eeing; 2 and ayone who touche any objet on which she has st shall wsh bis clothes, bathe in wate, ad reain impure un­ tll evening. 23 If it [the object] is on the bding or on the seat on which she 1s sittng whe he touches it [the objet], he shall b impure untl eening. 24 Ad if a man lies with her, her monthly prio is communicated to him; he shal b impure seen dys, and any bd· ding on which he lies shall bcome impure.

1 Se NIHN, Priestly Torah, 282. l Se NI, Petly Torah, 282-283; PILIP, Meton, 47. 14 The JPS TANAH, a new taton (into conteprar Egish) of Te Holy Scipture according to the tditonal Hebrew text (Masretc). Te Jewish Publication Sciety, 1985; MILGROM, Liticus, 903. Menstruation and lmpurit - 59

An Exegesisof Leviticus 15:19-24

The Key Word nldda-"Monthly Period"

The Hebrew term nidda is the key word of Lev 15:19-24. In the context of Leviti­ cus U, nidda refers to the temporary abstenton fom the cult by a woman after childbirth. Levitcus U teats this situaton in analogy to menstuaton and thus connects it to Levitcus 15. Regarding the limited tme span and the regularity of the phenomenon, the term "(monthly) period" might be an adequate tanslaton of nidda, since the term "period" refers to the temporary abstenton fom the cult and avoids negatve connotatons of the term "impurity," which the text does not insinuate.15 The basic meaning of niddä probably is "separaton, secre­ ton," and this may refer to the secreton of the menstual blood as weil as to the separaton of the menstuant fom the cult fr seven days.16 As V 24 indicates, te cultc status of the woman in her period (i.e., her abstenton fom the cult) is commumcated to the man who has intercourse with her; in that case he is sub­ ject to the same regulatons as the menstuant herself. The use of nidda in diferent contexts, however, creates a terminological Problem: Other biblical passages, especially prophetc literature, use the taboo topic "menstuat" (no partcipaton in te cult, no sexual intercourse) as a Ietaphor fr "things which may not be touched under ay circumstances," i.e., Worshipping freign gods (e.g., Ezek 7:19-20; 36:17; 2 Cr 29:5; Eza 9:11). As the freig gods and their images are in the same context called "detestable abomi­ natons," a ftal inference happens to te term nidda: A normal phenomenon in te lie of a woma bcomes terminologcally connected with pejoratve terms like abominaton.17 Hece, the prophets ad theologias who wante to illus­ tate the tabo of freig gods ad their images with the sexual tabo of the Ienstuat created misogynic connectons of terms ad concepts. Havng te disastous histor of misogynic Interpretaton of te bible in mind, moder exegesis has to aler readers to these problems.

---1 S EBE·KOSR, Kö und Gchleht, 121-135; ER-KOS, Kult(un)fhlgeit, 27. 1 S, e.g., GRNBBG, Etyolog, 74-75. 1 S, e.g., MC, Htor, 27; ERBB·KOSR, Kult(un)ft, 2. For the etologcl Cn btwe the bc meng of "ston" ad "d on (f disgut or abborce) s GRBBNBBR, Etymolog, 75-76, who dee nd fm t rot ndd a COn: "Heb. nidd ap to contain bth lde: cg and ston due to abhor­ lce," S as FONROBE, Mens Pt, 18: "Meng dends upn cotet." 60 - Thomas Hleke

TemporaryAbstentlon from the Cult; Washlng

The period fr the reglar abstenton of women fom te cult is limited to a fed amount of seven days in order to respect te privacy of te woma. There is no inspecton by priests (as it is te case wt scale diseases in chapter 13);18 the countng ad the faton of begining ad ending belongs entrely to te re­ sponsibilit of the woman, albeit the rabbinic lteratre discusss ts issue elaborately (se, e.g., b.Niddah69a). The woma may use this seen day period as reteat and shelter19 (see, e.g., Rel in Gen 31:35). Altough it is not men­ tioned, one must assume that washg body ad clotes20 was obligator. This conclusion ca be drawn fom te fct tat if already te one-day impurity of the male boy requires washing (see Lv 15:16-17), ten te seven-day impurity period of the female boy even more (a conclusion fom light to heavy, qal wa­ homer).21 The omission of te mentoning of te obligator ablutons may be due to a "shorand technique," as Deborah Ellens calls it. 22

18 Se, e.g., CoK, Boy Language, 55: "At no time dos the bibllcal mateal refer expllcltly to the priest conductng an eation in the way that he d in the case of the lepr; howeer, neither does the bibllcal mateial refe to self-e:ton." Te feuetly metoned sef­ examinaton of the woman in m.iddah is a new (in rlation to the bibllcal materal) idea. "In summar, in the context of the , the mature woman is capable of self-examlnaton and ls respnslble fr her ow determinations of status in the rtual cosmos in rlaton to menstra· ton" (p. 56). 19 Se, e.g., GERSTENBERGER, Leviticus, 189-190. 20 Se MILROM, Lticus, 934-935; LINE, Leticu, 97; KN, Discepancies, 355. 21 Ablutions are omitted fom the thre major impurlty cases fr women (the pet, the menstruant, the one dlscharglng chronically), baus the were takn fr gante. Whe the prformance of ablutions is nece fr the narrtive, the wter mentions them (as with Bathsheba in 2 Sam 11:2-4). Se MILROM, Ltcus, 935. For a diferent opinion se, e.g., PHIUP, Menstruaton, 50-51. 2 Se ELLES, Leticus 15, 141: "In Leiticus 15 the tehnique work in at least to ways. Firt, the author allows one scton of text to rely upn anothe setion fr the completon of its prescriptions. Second, the author allow one phras to signif more than lt denote at fce value. The absence of ablutions in v. 9-30 is a fnction of bth frs of this tehnique."­ RuA, Bathlng, 74-80, tries to demonstate a gender dlerence in the text b assuming that the women (the menstruant and the zb) do not bathe bause lt is not exllcitly mentoned: "The bathlng is an additional cultc acton that mark the zb of fom the zb as more cult· cally complex and consequently reveals bis higher status" (p. n). Howee, as Ruane berself admlts (p. 74), the chapter shows a signlfcant smetr in text ad gender descripton (see abve), and this leads to the concuion that the ablutons ruire fr the male part of the chapter also apply fr the femae part and hece ne not b repate.-CK, By Lnguge, 42-53, demonstrates that "the ritual sytes of Bible and Mishnah ae profound stateents of blief and the fundaton of psitve self-identt fr the human bing in geel a the Israel· Menstruation and lmpurlty - 61

Conveylng lmpurlty by Physlcal Contact

The impurity of a woman is passed on through physical contact (in the same way as in the case of a man who sufers fom fow, see Lev 15:7). Having ac­ quired a woman's impurity, a man can himself contaminate others in the same way. Usually the parts of the female body where one touches a woman (fce, ans, hands) are not contaminated with menstual blood, while the bed, seat, blanket etc. on which the woman sits potentally carry taces of menstual blOod. Thus diferent procedures fr purifcaton are required: The one who touches her clothed body only has to wait until evening; the person has ac­ Quired a lesser impurity tan the one who touched something she sits on, be­ cause tis one has to wash bis clotes and body in water and wait untl evening (see Lev 15:19-20). This also means that the priestly lawgiver reduces te source of impurity to the manifest or potental occurrence of blood and thereby seems to reject the tabooing of the menstuant and the erroneous idea that the woman is the victm of a demon or the like. The text itself does not imply any need to lsolate the woman fom eeryday life:23 she does her tasks; only her cohabitants have to avoid contact with eerg she has contaminated. The text specifes which things get contaminated by impurity: all objects she sits or lies on, including the saddle (mentoned in the secton about men in Lev 15:9 and hence included here without exlicit mentoning; see, e.g., Gen 31:34-35). These objects need to be cleaned at the tme she purifes herself, "oterise, they would recontainate her."24 Other objects that the menstuant touches do not become impure. This enables a rater normal life during her "peod." The Hebrew text of Lev 15:2 adds a kind of tertar impurit: I a menstu­ at woman sits on a bed ad an object lies on that bed, the touching of the ob­ iect renders one impure untl evening. This tertary impurity only occurs when

---it/e I pacla, regardle of gnde. More rerkbly, r I te Bible ad Mlha i de tod reonttg the reigou ad sa evet I the aet of cata­ tphe, an wmen ar incrorat a eal prer inthat endeor" (. 42-43; eph ae). S also p. 53: "Pop cnteizton of the sty of blo ma lt cle tt We•s blo is not vue detly fo mae blo-nr fo aa blo, fr tat late; rthe, th wh she blo otside te conte of scca wrhp boe tmeh." � Athoug late Iteations deelop det id ad ilate met wme f0 te cout, s blo. 2 MlROM, Ltcs, 937, 62 - Thomas Hleke the woman is present, as the paciple yösebet ("she issitting") indicates.25 The Septuagint reduces this complexity by speaking about the menstuant herself, not about an object; thus the issue of Lev 15:19d (touching the menstuant) is repeated.

Sexual lntercourse wlth a Menstruant

The temporary impurity of a menstuat during the tme spa of seven days is conveyed to a man who has sexual intercourse with her (Lev 15:24).26 Regardless on which day of her impure stats the intercourse happens, the man is impure fr seven days. One has to distnguish two diferent cases: (1) The couple notces the begg of the menstruaton during the sexal act. Thus both tespass unintentonally against God's commandment in Lev 18:19 ad 20:18; they have to ofer a sin ofering according to Lev 4:2-35 (see also m.Nidda 2:2). (2) The man and the woma bot know about the woman's menstruation, but they nevertheless have sex. This is an intentonal tasgressing of God's law (Lev 20:18); both will be "cut of fom their people" (kret, see Lev 7:20). To avoid sexual intercourse with a menstuant is one of te characteristcs of a just ma {Ezek 18:7); having sex during the period of the woman is regarded as a infa­ mous acton like the veneraton of freign gods ad intercourse with the wife of one's fther {Ezek 22:10). However, the priestly lawgiver dos not deal with punishment here but only with ritual law. From the cultc point of view it is irrelevant whether the trespassing against Lev 18:19; 20:18 occurred intenton­ ally or unintentionally. As a matter of fct, if menstual blood comes upon a man, it renders him impure fr seven days. The impurity is tasmitted to bis bedding; washing is required.

Posslble Reasons for lmpurlty Caused by Menstruation

The fow of blood alone does not sufce as reason fr the regular temporar abstenton of a menstuant fom the cult. Bleeding wounds that are even more dangerous ae not regarded as a reason fr impurity.27 The chapter exclusively deals with fow fom one's genitals: "Nur im Kontext der Reprodukton ist Blut

2 S MROM, Ltcus, 939. 26 S, e.g., O'GRAY, Santics, 9-13 2 S WHIK, Ltical Tought, 37. Menstruation and lmpurity - 63 verunreinigend bzw. ... wird es in Zusammenhang mit Kultunfhigkeit ge­ bracht." 2 In additon to the fow of blood as an indicaton fr the closeness of the sphere of death the fllowing oppositon matters: The peril fr the genital tact or a reduced fnctonality of the genitals stad in confict to the living and life­ gving sphere of God.29 At frst glace this appears to be plausible for the patho­ logical fows fom the genitals of men and women; an encounter with the living deity in the cult is not recommended. At second sigt, howeer, every fow of semen and blood fom te genitals symbolizes that reproducton does not oc­ cur, that new life is not generated. A menstuant woma cannot conceive; dis­ seminaton of life does not occur-in the priestly system this is a symbol stad­ ing in oppositon to the living deity in the sanctuary. Hence, a temporary abstenton fom the cult is established. Afer the fed period of seven days and a ritual cleansing as a smbol fr reintegraton, the woman regains the ordinary Status of purity. After the menopause, the indicator fr cultc impurity does no longer apply. Witin the priestly system neither the fow of blood nor barren­ ness per se ae problems. However, the menstual blod fowing fom the life­ gvg organs of the woman indicates "non-life" (no concepton).30 The phe­ nomenon is a smbolic oppositon to "life" tat is associated with the sanctu­ ary. Hence, every sort of contact has to be avoided.31

2-- ERBE-KOSR, Krpe und Gehleht, 159. 2 S WHmK Ltcal Tougt, 3O.-Te reasning by FE, Mestaton, that imp­ rt come fom coslng the bue bn Inside and outsde, nomal and abOal, 8s to b Ies convndng. 30 S, e.g., EILBRGSA, Svage, 183-18. 31 Accor t b.dda 31a, the huan bg has th parts: "His fther supplle the seme of the Whte sbe out of whtch are fme the chlld's bne, s, nails, th brin in bis hd ad the whtte In bis e; bs mothe supplle the se of the re subtance out of whtch 1s forme bis sln, ßeh, hair, blo and the black of bis ee; and the Holy One, ble b He, B htm the spt ad the beth, bauty of fetures, egbt, the pwe of heg and the altty to spk and to walk, unerstanding an diseet." Hece, one ma sk of (re) fe se with whtc the (whte) male sme is ml (s GROH, Feale Se, 48; MRGIS, Nachor, 192). The loss of this "feale se" In th proe of meto lndicate the close of the sphe of death. Consuetly, the tet stplate a pio of hPty ad abtenton fm the cult (in analog to the eaculao of male se In L 15:16-18). A meton Iats Iong than a mae eaculaon, a po o se das is f f Wme, whtle me have to re fom partdptn In te clt f only one day ("unden 'tl e"). 64 - Thomas Hieke

Examples for the Reception of the Biblical Text in Early Judaism

The biblical instuctons itself limit the restictons fr the menstuant consid­ erably. She conveys her impurity only to objects beneath her (virtually or in reality contaminated with menstual blood). Who touches her, her bedding or an object on the place she was sittng or lying, becomes impure "untl evening." But the text does not teil what happens if she touches someone or an object. In contast, Lev 15:11 tells explicitly that if a man sufers fom genital fow, he passes his impurity on to everyone he touches if he does not wash his hands. From this regulaton one may conclude that a menstuat may touch someboy or an object without rendering him or it impure as long as she washed her hands. Under tese circumstances a rather "normal" day-to-day life seems to be possible.32 During the recepton of the Torah instuctons wtin Judaism the biblical passages were elaborated in more detail.33 For the land of Israel sticte prescrip­ tons were in use (see Num 5:2): Josphus renders the ictons of Levitcus 15 in such extent that wome had to dwell sepaately during their menstual prod (Al 3:261).34 The Temple Scroll fom the Qumran literature instucts the com­ munity to allot special separate places fr people with a skin disease, with a flow fom their genitals and fr menstruant women (11Q19 [llQT•] 48:14-17).35

32 Se, e.g., HA, Seual Relatons, 17-18; FONR0BE, Menstal Purlty, 17.-One als has to bar in mind that menstrtion in antquity ws by fr more sldom than toy. Te improved meical and fo conltons enabled an earlier date of s maturty and a later menopaus. In antiquity the fertle tme of a woman was shrer (betwn the age of 14 and 35), and within these yers many months bonged t the tme of preganc, chlldbirth and nurs· Ing perio-no menstruaton oe. Hence the teporar abtenton fom the cult due to menstuation tok place comparately sldom (se MlGR0M, Ltcus, 953; BE'E Blo Dlscharge, 158-159). 33 For exmples fr the reepton in erly Cty se, e.g., COHEN, Mnstant, 288-2. 34 Josephus als relate the obseraton that te bitume of the Ded S 1s only st lose wth the mestral blod of wome, ad with urine, to which aone lt yleds (J 4:480; s a Pliny, Hitor Natral, 7:13).-A separate "place of wome" ss to b attete in andent Egt; howeer, due to the sarcity of the surce the edece is to limite, s tht lt 1 not clear whether women went there alwys durng their meton, and one als dos not kow what the dld thee. lt is clear, though, that there was no fral metal tabo i Egpt (see WILONG, Menstal Synchrony, 432). 3S For frthe onces in Q and rabbinic Uteature se MII.R0M Liticus, 949. Menstruation and lmpurity - 65

lt is, however, questonable whether this utopian law was ever carried out in everyday life.36 In Early Judaism te topic of purity and impurity becomes a matter of ex­ tensive discussion, 37 especially in the Mishna (see the fourth seder , "purites", with telve tactates) and in the Talmud.38 The Mishna tactate m. deals wit questons about menstruation: how it is to identfy, how ambiguous cases are to be decided, how to proceed at childbirth, how the impu­ rites inßuence men and women, how blood stains are to be teated. 39 Since the Proceedings of ritual ablutons are not regulated in detail in the Torah, te rab­ binic literature adds the instuctons in the tactate m.Mika'ot.40 The earliest archaeological evidence fr ritual baths (stepped pools), mika'ot, points to the end of te second century B.C. or te very ealy frst century B.C.41 As the ritual of complete Immersion is independent fom the , it is prac­ tced even afer the destucton of the sanctuary in 70 A.D. On the contrary the impurity of men is closely related to te rituals at the Temple and hence loses its relevance with the loss of the cental sactuary. Because the menstual impurity of women inßuences marital life, this issue is teated intensively in the literature of Early Judaism.42

3-- 6 SCOHN, Menstants, '8-'9. Y S, e.g., COHN, Mestuants, '76-287. 3 S, e.g., WBGNE Catte}, FONROBE, Mest Pty; MORGENS, Nachwor, 173-202. 39 For an English tanslatlon se Te Mihnah, tanslated fom th Hebrew b Hebe DAY, 745-757; s als Coox, By Lngage, 54-57;DESTRO, Witnes, 12-13.-Te Msh d not tat mestaton in the Dsion ofWome, but in the Dion of Ptes: "meton i ltsf has no bag on the topic of wome's psnal status bt only on tt of cultc pu­ rt .... In that contet the met 1ssimply a pllutng obJet. At the sme te the rle deot&a ve of a wman as a psn. In rg her to ee helf regularly and t o ke an accurate reord of her ccle, the sge assume that she ca and wl fllo cople Poure to deteine pey whe he po b ad eds" (WBNE Cate, 163). "e ve ccumtace that ma a woma a plutg objet frce the sste to rely o he Pn s of repnbflty to protet men fom sin" (ibd., 165). 4 O t Je r b (m ma'o) s e.g„ BA/GJ/ . 2-2; \RGH, Baths, 19-214; on the tctate Mia 'ot in the Mh and the Tosf s EHR, M•ot, 24. •t S, e.g., Hos, Baths, 103-119; MBC, Histor, 2. 4 S, eg., L Ltus, 2.-Sme sors of elusio of wome fm the cult due to lto a occu i Anclet Eg, i Meptaia and in Zo (s MlLROM lts, 9592). Even te Qur'an kows icton to re fm a met wman (Sua 2:2; fr the oral tdlton s STAUU, Ltus, US). 66 - Thomas Hleke

The laws relating to the niddah comprse some of the most fndamental principles of the halakhic system. They also constltute one of the few remnants of blbllcal regulations pr­ talnlng to ritual lmpurltles that surved in Jewlsh llfe fllowlng the destruction of the Seond Temple.43

The Babylonian Talmud mentions no isolaton of the menstruant4 and lists only some restictons:

R. Isac b. Hananla frther stated in the name of R. Huna: All klnds of work whlch a wle perfors fr her husband a menstuant als may perform fr her husband, wth the ex­ ceptlon of flling bis cup, maklng ready bis be and washlng bis fce, hands and feet (b.Ketbbot 61a).

There are taces in the Talmud that the menstuant and the menstual blood45 were associated with irratonal male anxetes and ideas about magic powers (the fllowing example was mentoned at the beginning):

If a menstant woma passe bteen two [me], lf lt ls at the bg of he menses she will slay one of them [l.e., caus perjur to one of the] and lf lt ls at the end of her menses she will cause strlfe betwen them. What ls the remedy? Lt them comence [a verse] with el and end with el (b.Pesahim ma).46

In b.Shabbath 110a the following measures are recommended fr a woman in order to repel a snake:

43 TA-SHA/BASKIN, Nlddah, 253. 4 Nelther do the Mlshnah, se WBGNR, Chattel, 162: "No Mlshnalc rle frblds menstts to st fot in the publlc domaln (whether stet or synagogue);" see als F0N0BE, Men Purlty, 18.-Sme klnd of social Islaton of the menstant espy fom her husband was nede, however, not fr purlty reasns but to prevent s intmacy or s arusl (se C0HBN, Menstrants, 279-280). 4S Menstral blood itself is a substnce that defles heavly; thus Pslms of Solomon 8:12 reads: "They would tample the altar of the Lord baus all klnd of unclenness and wth menstrual blo they defle the scrifce as if they were profne met" (NE). Howee, thl verse probably doe not insinuate the immeiate appllcaton of men blo on scce, but crtcizes wlth this drastic idea the paricpaton of mestrant women in the cult of the sacrifce of well-bng or other cultc actvte of women during their me (s, e.g., HIBLARB, S Relations, 32). 46 One has to note, however, that thls passage ss to b an exepton, since ote rabblnic literature kows nothlng of that klnd, se CoH, Mestuants, 21. "In sum: the bief that a menstant pses a danger to thos around her apprs in Jewsh surces fr the ft time in the sixth or seenth cetury c.B." (ibid.). COH pints t the work Bait de Nida with its exteme retctons and to Malmonlde' pleicng against th stds of Jewish piety. F0N0BBR, Men Purlty, 36, state on the passage fom b.Pehim llla: "T tet flls into the categor of flk literar genr." Menstruation and lmpurlty - 67

she should take some of her hair and nails and throw them at it and say, 'I am mestru­ ous•.47

In Talmudic tmes a essential change in the entre laws fr the niddah (te menstuant) relates to te additon of seven "clean" or "white" days; in the middle of the Amoraic period lt was already accepted as axiomatc that seven "white" days were to be counted fr any blood see (.iddah 66a), i.e., after the last day on which the woma obsered menstual blood fowing fom her genitals seven days without blood were counted. Fixing a minimum of fve days fr the menses themselves, the minimum period of abstenton fom marital intmacies is twelve days. On the evening of the seventh day witout sign of blood the woman immerses herself in a and normal marital relatons are resumed.4s

Conclusion

The stucture of Levitcus 15 demonstates that menstuaton is not regarde as an illness. However, according to the priestly system, the female body's men­ stuatons as weil a the emission of semen fom the male body are both con­ nected with the sphere of death. In antquit, one assumed that new human life is contained in the male semen which is sown into the "erth," i.e., the female boy. Spilled semen, though, smblizes loss of life. A woma symbolizes "life" as long as her body potentally can reproduce human life; a woma in her men-

--47 Se also TA-SHA/BASKN, Niddah, 26.-Josehus, to, kos a stor abut the aptoaic U of menstral blood in order to get an elusive and dangerous rot wt healing pwers (probbly Mandragora o/1f dnalis), s BJ 7:181.-Als Pliny the Eder in bis Historla naturalis (7:13) tentos "marous efets" of the mental discharge: "On the appoach of a woman in this state, must wll bcome sor, ses which are touche by he bome stele, g Wthe away, garden plants are parche up, and the flt will fll fom the te beath which she sits. Her ver lok, even, will dim the brgtess of mirors, blunt the ege of ste, and tae aw the polish fm ivor. A swar of b, if loke upn b he, will die imeiately; b and irn wll itly be r, and emi an ofenve oor; whle dog which ma ha taste of the matte s dishrge are s wth madne, an ther bte is veomou ld incurable" (Trnslaton: John Bstock, Lnon 1855). Piny re een more magica e in 28:2, al of which a-fm a moe prpwthout the sllgtet fundatn. " TA-SHA/BASK, Niddah, 2-25; s also M Eiminato, 25-2. For the fhe deeopent wthin Ju s MEC. Hstor, 31-37. She cnlude: "Jeh me la hae undegone eorou chge fom bbllcal to moe te." In fct, the disto ben the zba and the menstrant disppared, s CoH, Mets, m. 68 - Thomas Hleke ses, however, defnitely cannot conceive and hence symbolizes "non-life." Her body in that particular status is perceived as an opposite to te sanctuary where the living and life-giving holy God dwells. Hence, the priestly legislation or­ dered her to abstain fom te cult fr seven days. The abstenton fom the cult is called "impurity," ad it is overcome by washing and the passing of a certain time span. Such kind of impurity is not a moral fult or guilt. In contast, cultc impurity caused by moral sins and wickedness cannot be cleansed by ritual (abluton of the body). As menstruation is an important part of te female life and infuences mari­ tal life considerably, the recepton of Lev 15:19-24 in Early Judaism receives much attenton in the Halakhic literature.49 Many details are added to the bibli­ cal text. Since the second century B.C. specifc ritual basins (mika'ot) came in use, and as custom demads een today many Jewish women are going to te mikeh prior to marriage, fllowing nidut (i.e., afer their menses), and fllow­ ing the birth of a child.so

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