HUNGARIAN CULTURE (Fall Semester) Materials Compiled By

BUDAPEST UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS

FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

CENTRE OF MODERN LANGUAGES

HUNGARIAN CULTURE (Fall Semester) Materials compiled by:

Aradi András (Education),

Bakonyiné Berényi Katalin (Literature, Fine Arts, Music),

Kaplonyi Barbara (History),

Sziklainé dr. Gombos Zsuzsa (Science, Technology, Sports, Holidays)

Technical Staff: Perényi Józsefné, Gyarmatiné Pados Katalin

Editor in charge: Dr. Sárvári Judit Director of Centre of Modern Languages

3rd edition 2015. September

2 CONTENTS

COURSE DESCRIPTION ...... 4 Chapter 1 - Study Abroad as a Cultural Challenge ...... 7 Portfolio Development for Chapter 1...... 14 Chapter 2 - Hungarian History ...... 15 Portfolio Development for Chapter 2...... 21 Chapter 3 - The Hungarian Education System ...... 22 Portfolio Development for Chapter 3...... 32 Chapter 4 - Hungarian Literature...... 33 Portfolio Development for Chapter 4...... 46 Chapter 5 - Hungarian Music ...... 47 Portfolio Development for Chapter 5...... 53 Chapter 6 - Famous Hungarians in Science & Technology ...... 54 Portfolio Development for Chapter 6 ...... 67 Chapter 7 - Hungarian Sport and Sportsmen...... 68 Portfolio Development for Chapter 7...... 78 CHAPTER 8 - Hungarian Holidays, Celebrations, Festivals...... 79 Portfolio Development for Chapter 8...... 87 APPENDIX to Chapter 3...... 88 Faculties of BME...... 88 COURSE DESCRIPTION

Subject name Hungarian Culture Part 1 (for international students) Subject code BMEGT658363 Lesson type Seminar Lessons per week one 90-minute contact lesson/week plus fieldwork and individual research Type of Grading practical course mark Number of Credits 4 credits Entrance Requirements level B2 according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages or similar level of language knowledge Objectives of the Course This interdisciplinary course aims to provide a comprehensive picture of Hungarian Culture through the centuries to the present day. In line with the students’ academic profile, special emphasis is given to Hungarian cultural heritage in the fields of science, engineering and economics. Hungarian poets, writers and composers are also presented in their historical and social context. International students will gain a deeper understanding of the cultural environment they live in by completing projects on related topics. Competences Students will become acquainted with the culture of the host country and develop cultural awareness to gain a better understanding of inter-cultural phenomena and reduce cross-cultural shock. They will acquire a range of cross-cultural skills that will contribute to successful professional studies abroad and which will be valuable later in professional workplaces in a multilingual / multicultural setting. Topics covered • Study abroad as a cultural challenge. • Hungary/Budapest University of Technology and Economics as an academic experience • Motivations, first impressions, expectation of students • Features of everyday life • Hungarian education system • Chapters of Hungarian history • Famous Hungarians in science • Hungarian sport and sportsmen • Holidays, celebrations, festivals Requirements for “If a student is absent from more than 30% of the total number of lessons attendance of seminars [...] then he/she cannot obtain the credits of the subject.” Code of Studies and Exams, Article 14 (3) Subject requirements • 1/3 – active participation at lessons • 1/3 – a 10-minute team-presentation • 1/3 – portfolio compiled (requirements, topics attached) Course material • Handouts, notes taken at lessons, selected readings, independent research • Complementary material: o John Lukacs: Budapest 1900. A Historical Portrait of a City and its Culture o Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek and Louise O Vasvári: Comparative Hungarian Cultural Studies (Purdue Series of Books) o Paul Lendvai (2003): The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat. C. Hurst & Co. o Duncan J.D. Smith (2006): Only in Budapest

4 Subject name Magyar Kultúra - Hungarian Culture Part 1 (for international students) Subject code BMEGT658361 Lesson type seminar Lessons per week one 90-minute lesson/week Type of Grading practical course mark Number of Credits 2 credits Entrance Requirements level B2 on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages or similar level of language knowledge Objectives of the Course The interdisciplinary course aims to provide a comprehensive picture of Hungarian Culture through the centuries to the present day. In accordance with the students’ academic profile special emphasis is given to Hungarian cultural heritage in the fields of science, engineering, and economics. Hungarian poets, writers and composers are also presented in their historical and social settings. Projects by international students with their Hungarian counterparts help students to gain adeeper understanding of the cultural environment they live in. Competences Students will become acquainted with the culture of the host country and develop cultural awareness to gain a better understanding of inter-cultural phenomena and reduce cross-cultural shock. They will acquire cross- cultural skills that contribute to successful professional studies abroad and later on will promote professional workplace activity in multilingual / multicultural setting. Topics covered • Study abroad as a cultural challenge. • Hungary/Budapest University of Technology and Economics as an academic experience • Motivations, first impressions, expectation of students • Features of everyday life • Hungarian education system • Chapters of Hungarian history • Famous Hungarians in science • Hungarian sport and sportsmen • Holidays, celebrations, festivals Requirements for “If a student is absent from more than 30% of the total number of lessons attendance of seminars [...] then he/she cannot obtain the credits of the subject.” Code of Studies and Exams, Article 14 (3) Subject requirements • 1/3 – active participation at lessons • 1/3 – a 10-minute team-presentation • 1/3 – a short essay (based on the topics covered) Course material • Handouts, notes taken during lessons, selected reading, independent research • Complementary material: o John Lukacs: Budapest 1900. A Historical Portrait of a City and its Culture o Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek and Louise O Vasvári: Comparative Hungarian Cultural Studies (Purdue Series of Books) o Paul Lendvai (2003): The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat. C. Hurst & Co. o Duncan J.D. Smith (2006): Only in Budapest

5 Dear Students,

Welcome to the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. This course, "Hungarian Culture", was developed specifically for international students participating in different programs of study at our university. Our intention is to present the rich cultural heritage of our country and to make your academic work a real cross-cultural experience. We hope that our course can ease your cultural adjustment and help you feel more comfortable in a new academic setting.

Wishing you a successful semester

Language and Culture Training Staff

6 PORTFOLIO REQUIREMENTS

To fulfil the requirements of the Hungarian Culture course BMEGT658363 students are required to put together a portfolio by the end of the semester.

The course book covers eight topics. A list of tasks is attached to each chapter, each of which involves some kind of field work. Read through the list carefully and choose six tasks from six different chapters. In the course of the semester you will have to carry out the tasks you have chosen and present the results in your portfolio.

The deadline for handing in your portfolio is the 12th week of the semester.

(N.B. None of the tasks in the portfolio can be used as the topic of your presentation.)

7 Chapter 1 - Study Abroad as a Cultural Challenge

This introductory lesson will enable you to • talk about your first experiences of living and studying abroad • speak about your expectations of both your professional and cultural studies at a Hungarian University

Task 1. (brainstorming)

Welcome to Hungary, welcome to Budapest University of Technology and Economics! You arrived in Hungary several weeks/days ago. Think about your first experiences and add your answers below to the “Alien Encounters” of expatriates interviewed in Budapest!

Reading

Where are you from? England Why are you here? My wife is Hungarian! If Budapest were a movie, what would it be? Meet the Parents What’s the most tongue-twisting Hungarian word/phrase you know? Öt török öt görögöt dögönyöz örökös örömök között (Five Turks massage five Greeks amid perpetual pleasures) If you had a magic wand, what would you change about Budapest? I’d make the heat in summer slightly milder What’s the weirdest thing that’s happened to you in Hungary? My first taste of Unicum – it was quite unlike anything else! Tell us something everyone should do in Budapest before minus temperatures set in. Visit the Széchenyi Baths – it’s a great day out when the weather’s good!

Where are you from? Pruttby, Sweden Why are you here? Teaching English and occasionally Swedish. If Budapest were a movie, what would it be? Road Trip, if it had been directed by Ingmar Bergman. What’s the most tongue-twisting Hungarian word/phrase you know? Egészségedre! (Cheers!) If you had a magic wand, what would you change about Budapest? I’d make the heat in summer slightly milder What’s the weirdest thing that’s happened to you in Hungary? Bureaucracy is a weird experience. Tell us something everyone should do in Budapest before minus temperatures set in. Take the HÉV to Szentendre and check out Skanzen. (Hungarian Open-Air Museum) – Source: Budapest Funzine

8 Your name

………………….…………………. Where are you from?

………………….…………………. Why are you here?

………………….…………………. If Budapest were a movie, what would it be?

………………….…………………. What’s the most tongue-twisting Hungarian word/phrase you know?

………………….…………………. If you had a magic wand, what would you change about Budapest?

………………….………………….

What’s the weirdest thing that’s happened to you in Hungary?

………………….………………….

Tell us something everyone should do in Budapest before minus temperatures set in.

………………….………………….

9 Task 2.

You must have informed your family about your first impressions in Hungary. List the main points you told them about. (keywords) • Highlight the most pleasant experience(s) (max. 5 items in a list of preferences) • include a case of misunderstanding (if you have had any)

(The photos below might help you.)

10 Task 3

You enrolled on a study abroad program (full time/part time). List some advantages of studying abroad from a cultural point of view (with a maximum of 5 items).

………………….………………….………………….………………….

Task 4

What were your main reasons for choosing Hungary for an academic experience? Make a list of the factors which influenced your decision (with a maximum of 5 items). ………………….………………….………………….………………….

………………….………………….………………….………………….

Task 5

What do you expect from the Hungarian culture course? (You can use expectations of former students to help you)

11 Reading

12 I expect that the course will: ………………….………………….………………….…………………………………….

………………….………………….………………….…………………………………….

Task 6.

Dynamic workgroup based on Task 3, 4 and 5. Motivation for studying abroad, for coming to the BME, and for taking a cultural studies course are compared and assessed.

13 Portfolio Development for Chapter 1.

Options:

• You have just arrived in Hungary. Think about your first cross-cultural observations on campus. Note down the things that have made your study abroad experience especially interesting or difficult in this beginning phase (phenomena, features, encounters, colours, flavours etc. which were new for you). Reflect on these experiences for a Study Abroad Homepage for your school. Raise questions you are expecting answers to by the end of the Hungarian Culture course.

• September is a vivid month full of attractions in Hungary. In the little free time you have it is wise to immerse yourself in the feeling of the city and reflect on your experiences (examples: thermal baths, coffee houses, walking along the Danube, the National Gallop (Nemzeti Vágta), food festivals, entertainment /events for young adults.) Design a weekend tour called “Welcome to Cultural Budapest” for students studying abroad, highlighting events and reflecting on your experiences for a Study Abroad Homepage for your school.

14 Chapter 2 - Hungarian History

Brainstorming

(A) What is history? →What makes a country / what makes a nation?

►The Hungarian flag

1. What do the colours symbolize?

►Coat of arms of Hungary

2. What devices and figures can you identify?

►Historic Royal Insignia (Crown, Orb, Sceptre and Sword)

3. What are they? What do they symbolize?

15 History by period

(Below is a chronology of European history. For a global overview different terms apply.)

Ancient Times

This was the epoch from the times before written records until the end of ancient and classical European history, which western scholars variously define as either the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, the closure of the Platonic Academy in 529 AD, the death of the emperor Justinian I, the coming of Islam or the rise of Charlemagne..)

Middle Ages (Early, late and high middle ages)

The Middle Ages, or Medieval period, lasted from the 5th to the 15th century.

Modern period

(Early Modern Period (1450 AD-1750AD) Age of Revolution (1750AD-1914AD) Contemporary Period (1914AD- present)

Hungarian History in a nutshell

5th century AD The Hungarian tribes (Magyars) left the area of the Urals. They passed along the Volga and the Caspian Sea. After several hundred years of wandering they reached the Carpathian Basin.

896 Magyars under the leadership of Chieftain Árpád settled down on the Danube plain, in what Hungarians call theHonfoglalás. In the first century after their settlement the Hungarians conducted regular raiding campaigns to the West and to the South, thus gaining a similar reputation in continental Europe as the Vikings had in coastal areas.

The expression "Lord save us from the arrows of the Hungarians" comes from this period.

1000 Foundation of the state.

Stephen, a descendant of Árpád, was crowned king of Hungary and ruled the country between 997 and 1038. He was recognized by the Pope as the first Christian/Apostolic king of Hungary. He finished the work of converting the Hungarians to Christianity, for which he was canonized in 1083. He created a strong feudal state.

4. Read some extracts from the Laws and Admonitions of King Stephen I? Why were these measures necessary?

5. Have you heard of his Holy Dexter?

16 6. How can a pyramid be connected to Medieval Hungary/Medieval Europe?

1241-1242

A contemporary superpower the Mongol Empire (Tartars) invaded and devastated large parts of Hungary. However, the Hungarian Kingdom was strong enough to defend its independence. It was a flourishing medieval kingdom, catching up to Western European standards in both economic and cultural aspects.

An example of this development was the Bulla Aurea of 1222 (Golden Bull of Hungary) – a document which expressed similar ideas to the Magna Charta of 1215 in England.

1342-1382

The reign of Louis the Great, who became king at the age of 16 and annexed Dalmatia. He founded the first university at Pécs. He also created a personal union with the Kingdom of Poland and conquered Naples. (He was a soldier king and only three of the 40 years of his reign were peaceful.)

7. How many seas does Hungary have today? How many seas did the Kingdom of Hungary have in the time of Louis?

1456

Forces led by a Hungarian nobleman named János Hunyadi (the most talented military leader of his day and Hungary's greatest military hero ever) defeated the Ottoman Turkish army at the Siege of Belgrade (Nándorfehérvár in Hungarian).

8. The defenders of Belgrade were outnumbered by the Turkish army. Can you guess by how many? 9. What reminds Christian people all over the world of this victory every day?

1458-1490

The rule of king Mátyás (Matthias) Hunyadi son of János Hunyadi. He stopped the advancing Turks with his famous Black Army (mercenary army) and ensured military supremacy over Central Europe. His famous renaissance court at Visegrád attracted many artists and his Corvina library at Buda was also world-famous. Hungary was at its peak.

10. Mátyás the “just ruler” lives on today in folk tales. Read one!

The Ottoman Invasion

1526

The Ottoman Turks defeated the forces of the Hungarian king at the Battle of Mohács, establishing control over most of the country. 150 years of Turkish control started.

Hungary was divided into 3 parts (in 1541, after the occupation of Buda):

- the central areas were under direct Turkish control

17 - a strip in the north-west remained legally the Kingdom of Hungary, but in reality it fell into the hands of the Habsburgs - the eastern part became a more or less autonomous principality of Transylvania (it was under Turkish influence but remained a safe haven for Hungarian culture)

Dark, bloody years of continuous wars (between the Habsburgs and the Turks) followed. On the other hand this was also the age of outstanding bravery and heroism. - The siege of Eger, 1552. - The siege of Szigetvár 1566.

11. How do you think the Japanese samurai are connected to this period of Hungarian history?

1686 Buda was recaptured from the Turks. However, the impoverished country was in no position to retain its independence and was incorporated into the Habsburg Empire.

(An uprising led by Ferenc Rákóczi II, Prince of Transylvania took place from 17031711. His troops were defeated.)

18th century It was a surprisingly peaceful century. Hungary was rebuilt basically from scratch with a predominantly baroque architecture.

The first half of the 19th Century known as the Age of Reform. - the Hungarian Academy of Science was founded (by Count István Széchenyi) - the National Museum was founded - the National Anthem was written - theatres and other institutions were founded - the first railway was built (between Pest and Vác) - the first permanent bridge (Chain Bridge) over the Danube between Buda and Pest was constructed - the river Tisza was regulated - first steam ships (Danube, Balaton)

1848-1849 On the 15th of March 1848 a revolution broke out in Pest.

12. What do you think the revolutionary “youth of March” demanded?

The Habsburg emperor was dethroned in Hungary after the Hungarian army won several significant battles. Lajos Kossuth was elected governor. It was the longest-lasting of all the European national revolutions sweeping through the Continent. It was only finally put down in the summer of 1849 by the Habsburgs with the help of the Russian army.

“The last bastion has fallen. Hungary is red with blood” (Heine: October, 1849)

"Of all the 1848 revolutions, the Hungarian revolution was the only one which did not fall to its weakness and internal conflicts, but because of the overwhelming strength of external military forces." (Eric Hobsbawm, modern British historian)

18 The revenge was dreadful. Executions (most famously of the 13 martyrs of Arad), and imprisonments followed.

1867 The Compromise: the Hungarians concluded a compromise with the Habsburgs. Hungary won autonomy, but not full independence. A double-centred (dual) monarchy was established with seats in Vienna and Pest-Buda. The Habsburg Empire officially became the Austrian-Hungarian monarchy.

The Age of Dualism witnessed very dynamic economic and cultural development.

- Pest and Buda (plus Óbuda) were united - an extensive railway network was built - massive industrialization: electricity, transport industry, telecommunication - buildings constructed at this time still dominate the skyline of Budapest - the first subsurface underground railway of the European continent was put into operation - the Parliament was constructed (the very first air-conditioned building on the continent)

1918 Germany and its allies, including the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy lost the First World War, which they had started in 1914. The monarchy disintegrated.

1920 The Trianon Peace Treaty reduced Hungary's area by two thirds and the population by one third. Since then there have been considerable Hungarian minorities in the neighbouring countries.

After 400 years Hungary regained its independence, but this fact was overshadowed by the tragic consequences of the war. During these years Hungary was seeking the revision of the peace treaty, a policy which drew Hungary towards Hitler's Germany in the 1930s. When the Second World War broke out in 1939 Hungary was once again on the loser's side. The new peace treaty in 1945 confirmed the previous losses once again.

1945 The Soviet forces drove the Germans out of Hungary by early April, occupying Hungary at the same time.

1947-48 The Communists consolidate power under the Soviet occupation. What followed was show trials, imprisonments, harassment, forced industrial development, a drop in living standards and a Stalinist- type dictatorship.

13. In 1946, Hungary issued banknotes with the world's highest denomination of the time. Can you guess what it was?

1956 Uprising against Soviet domination. The uprising was bloodily suppressed by Soviet troops and János Kádár became head of the communist government. In the meantime retaliation and executions started.

1960s Kádár gradually introduces limited liberalising reforms. Political prisoners and church leaders are freed. The Iron Curtain became penetrable.

19 1988 The Hungarian transition period begins. Opposition groups form the Hungarian Democratic Forum.

1989 In May the border with Austria is opened and thousands of East Germans escape to the West. In Hungary the communist state is dismantled and a transition to a multi-party democracy begins. The Communist party gives up its authority. The Soviet army starts to withdraw its troops from Hungary. The remaining 40,000 Soviet troops leave Hungary, starting in March 1990, with the last leaving on June 19, 1991.

1999 Hungary joins NATO.

2004 Hungary is one of 10 new states to join the EU.

20 Portfolio Development for Chapter 2.

Options:

1. a. Visit the Buda Castle! This palace has a turbulent history dating back to the 13th century. Its present form, however, reflects the opulence of the 19th century. → Present an important period of its history. Introduce us to some of its former inhabitants and owners! b. Today the palace (in Buda Castle) houses some of the city's finest museums. Visit one of them and share your impressions! 2. “Having survived two terror regimes, it was felt that the time had come for Hungary to erect a fitting memorial to their victims” (Source: http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/first_page.html) Visit the House of Terror Museum. What terror regimes are involved? How would you characterize them? What did you learn about them? Would it make sense to build houses of terror in other countries that were crippled by dictatorships? Why? Scrapbooking is a widely practiced pastime today. It is a method for preserving personal history. Now give your scrapbook a professional form and academic content. (Personalize the “book” with your own pictures, ideas, etc. (Typical memorabilia include photographs, printed media, and artwork. Scrapbook albums are often decorated and frequently contain extensive journaling.) 3. There are several history museums in Budapest and its neighbourhood (e.g. National Museum, Aquincum, the Citadel, Museum of Ethnograpy, Gödöllő Royal Palace, Military History Museum, Holocaust Memorial Center, Hospital in the Rock, the Tomb of Gül Baba, Memento Museum, etc. Write about your visit(s) using the scrapbooking method. 4. Did you know that 1956 revolution was sparked by a student demonstration? Today 23 October is national holiday. Visit some sites of remambrance and comment on your experience.

21 Chapter 3 - The Hungarian Education System

22 Primary and Lower Secondary Education Basic education is provided predominantly in 8-grade (single structure) primary schools (általános iskola). In small villages where there are few students, a school may offer only 4-grade primary education. In such communities the kindergarten and the school are often organized as a single administrative unit. General upper secondary schools (gimnázium) may offer a lower secondary programme in a single structure programme with 6 or 8 grades.

The school year starts on the first working day of September and ends in mid-June. In this period 185 days are teaching days, five days a week from Monday to Friday. There is a school holiday in the autumn, the winter and the spring. Lessons typically last for 45 minutes. The school may also organize longer (maximum 60-minute) or shorter lessons. The school day typically starts at 8 a.m. and ends at 4 p.m. Most basic schools offer lunch and daytime study centre service, where students can prepare their homework with the support of a teacher, who also organizes leisure activities for the children. Catering is usually provided in secondary schools as well.

The performance and progress of students are regularly assessed and evaluated by teachers throughout the school year. Students receive an end-of-term and end-of-year progress report in each grade. This is usually an assessment of progress on a 5-point scale, where 5 is the highest mark, 2 is the pass mark and 1 is fail. A detailed descriptive report has to be used in Grade 1 and at the end of the first term in Grade 2. Students may be assessed on the traditional numeric scale of 1-5 from the end of Grade 2. Upper Secondary Education and Post-Secondary Education

There are three types of programmes at the upper secondary level in Hungary: • secondary general programmes (gimnázium) provide general secondary education and prepare students for the secondary school leaving examination (érettségi), which is a prerequisite to entering tertiary education. • secondary vocational programmes (szakközépiskola) provide upper secondary general and pre-vocational education and prepare for secondary school leaving examination (érettségi) as well.. Students taking secondary school leaving exams in these schools usually choose tertiary vocational education or post- secondary non tertiary forms of training. • vocational programmes (szakiskola) typically provide two years of general and pre- vocational education and 1 or 2 years of vocational education and training. From September 2010, a three-year-long early vocational programme is also available, which provides the opportunity in some vocational areas to start vocational training in Grade 9. Post-secondary programmes are vocational programmes with an entrance requirement of completed secondary general or secondary vocational programmes. In some of the post-secondary vocational programmes, the secondary school leaving examination (érettségi) is not an admission requirement.

The programmes in upper secondary education are more diverse than in basic education both in terms of content and in length. There are also more elective subjects depending on the students’ career orientation. However, the typical way of organizing learning is based on the class as a permanent learning group kept together from the beginning to the end of the secondary programme. The maximum class size in Grades 9 to 13 is 35.

For practical reasons, the learning of some subjects (like foreign languages, sports and vocational subjects) may be organized in learning groups other than the administrative class. In foreign languages, it is typical to stream students according to the level of progress, in sports by gender and in vocational education by the type of training. However, the primary learning group is the class, which is meant to develop into a learning community over the years. Each class has a form teacher, who is one of the subject teachers teaching that particular class. The form teacher is responsible for that particular class throughout the secondary programme. His or her function is to care for community development, keep contact with the parents of the students, and organize field trips and study tours. The number of the obligatory classes may not exceed five or six a day (5.5 as a weekly average) in Grades 9 and 10, and six classes from Grade 11.

23 Admission to upper secondary general and vocational programmes is conditional on completing basic education (Grade 8). The free choice of upper secondary school is laid down in legislation. Upper secondary schools that have more applicants than study places may select students on the basis of the end-of-term and end-of-year marks of the student, the results of the nationally organized written entrance examination and an oral examination. The written entrance examination tests to secondary education are developed and administered centrally by the Educational Authority. Students may apply for admission to several upper secondary schools. In each school district, there is at least one secondary school that guarantees admission for every student who lives in the district and has completed basic education.

Assessment, progression and qualification: students receive a mid-term and end-of-year progress report in each grade. At the end of upper secondary education in general secondary school (gimnázium) and vocational secondary school (szakközépiskola),as mentioned above, students sit for the national secondary school leaving examination, which is a prerequisite for admission to higher education. It is a state examination held according to uniform central examination requirements. Schools may supplement the central examination requirements with local examination requirements as prescribed by their local curriculum (in accordance with the examinations code). Since 2005, the secondary school leaving examination has been a two-tier exam (standard and advanced levels). The standard level examination consists of 3 compulsory exams (Hungarian, Maths and a foreign language) and one elective subject.

Tertiary / Higher Education The Higher Education Act currently in force with some modifications was adopted in December 2005, and, in accordance with the principles of the Bologna process, it introduced the three cycle degree structure (BA/BSc, MA/MSc, PhD/DLA).

Types of programmes Within the framework of the new multi-cycle system, BA/BSc programmes of 6 to 8 semesters with 180-240 ECTS credits lead to a first degree (ECTS = European credit transfer system). Master level programmes (60-120 ECTS credits) of another 2 to 4 semesters require a first degree as admission criterion. The pre-requisite to entering doctoral programmes is a MA/MSc degree. Besides the BA- MA system, there are a few fields of tertiary education (e.g. law and medical studies) where undivided long programmes remain the standard form of study (10 to 12 semesters, 300-360 ECTS credits) leading to a first degree but equivalent to a MA/MSc degree.

Short cycle advanced vocational programmes (felsőfokú szakképzés, 120 ECTS credits) are relatively new in the Hungarian education system. These programmes can be launched by higher education institutions and provided both by higher education institutions and upper secondary schools. These programmes lead to an advanced vocational qualification included in the National Qualification Register.

Higher education also includes post-graduate specialisation programmes (szakirányú továbbképzés). These can be launched by higher education institutions and, in some areas (like banking and fiscal trades), by national authorities.

In Hungary, higher education institutions can be state-owned or run by legal entities determined by the law. Private higher education institutions can ask for the official recognition of the state on the basis of satisfactory results of an accreditation process. Accreditation is granted by the Hungarian Accreditation Committee.

There are two types of higher education institutions: non-university institutions/colleges (főiskola) and universities (egyetem). Both types of institutions may launch courses in all of the three cycles, but, in order to qualify as a university, an institution has to offer a Master programme in at least two fields of

24 study and PhD programme in at least one study field. Higher education institutions – irrespective of being state owned or private – may offer state funded and fee-paying places for applicants. The number of state funded places for each cycle and study field is annually determined by the government. The amount of fees is determined by higher education institutions in accordance with regulations stipulated by government decrees.

Qualifications Access to and pathways in tertiary education The precondition for admission to higher education institutions-as already mentioned- is the successful passing of the upper secondary school leaving examination “érettségi” (at standard or advanced level), which thus also functions as an entrance exam. A student’s admission to the first cycle (Bachelor and higher vocational training programs) depends on study performance as expressed in scores. Scores are, on one hand, calculated from the student’s end-of-year certificates in relevant subjects in the last two years of secondary education – and, on the other, from the student’s secondary school-leaving certificate’s scores in the relevant subjects. The minimal requirements for admission are expressed in scores that are standardized and defined annually by a governmental agency. Aptitude tests are also required for admission to certain areas of study (e.g. sports, art).

After completion of the first cycle, students are entitled to continue their studies either in a 60–120 credit postgraduate course (which only provides a further qualification but does not award a degree of higher level) or in a MA/MSc program, following a successful entrance examination. Legal requirements stipulate that all Bachelor programs have their counterparts at a Master level, but there are no requirements for continuing BA/BSc studies on a corresponding MA/MSc course. Enrolling on a different Master’s program, however, may require the completion of specific courses, ones determined by national guidelines, and requirements relating to the given qualification.

With a Master degree, students can either enrol on a 60–120 credit postgraduate course (again, which only provides a further qualification) or matriculate to a Doctoral school after taking an entry examination. During their doctoral studies students need to earn at least 180 credits.

Higher education plays a signifivant role in lifelong learning. It gives multiple opportunities for acquiring a higher level of qualification, such as via full time training in follow-up cycles or flexible, part-time training for employees of different fields, there are courses for the unemployed and also degree-supplementing courses. The number of Hungarian adults getting formal or non-formal adult education isrelatively low in comparison with international data..

There is a wide range of co-operation between multi-national companies and higher educational institutions in Hungary, giving numerous benefits to educational institutions: there is an opportunity to access the most advanced technologies, the integration of corporate educators into their educational programs, support given to the most talented students with scholarships, fellowships and professional training programs, all ensuring a constant supply of highly-qualified professionals and researchers and opening the possibility of participating in joint R&D (research and development) and patent projects. Hungarian colleges and universities have a long tradition of welcoming foreign students; their number has increased almost tenfold in the past thirty years

Sources:

The System of Education in Hungary. Published by the Ministry of National Resources http://english.tpf.hu/upload/docs/angol/Magyar_oktatasi_rendszer_en.pdf Facts & Figures – Higher Education in Hungary 2011. Hungarian Institute for Educational, Research and Development http://www.ofi.hu/kiadvanyaink-110630/facts-figures-higher

25 Topics for discussion 1. Describe the main characteristics of the Hungarian education system in terms of its structure. 2. Who are entitled to establish and maintain public and higher education institutions in Hungary? 3. What do you know about the Hungarian secondary school leaving examination? 4. How are performance and progress assessed at “upper secondary” schools? 5. What are the requirements for gaining admission to higher education in Hungary? 6. What types of higher education programmes are offered in the multi-cycle system? 7. What are the advantages of the Bologna process in European higher education? 8. Characterize the requirements, credit values and possible qualifications of the three cycles of higher education. 9. What are the similarities and differences between tertiary education in your country and higher education in Hungary? 10.What are the conditions and requirements of foreign language learning in your country? 11. Consider the importance of sports in higher education.

26 II. BUDAPEST UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS PAST AND PRESENT

A brief history of BME

The Budapest University of Technology and Economics (Hungarian: Budapesti Műszaki és Gazdaságtudományi Egyetem or in short Műegyetem), abbreviated as BME, , is the most significant University of Technology in Hungary and is also one of the oldest Institutes of Technology in the world., In 1635 Péter Pázmány, Primate-Archbishop of Hungary, founded University in Nagyszombat. Late 18th century the University moved to Buda and became the University of Buda. In 1782 Emperor Joseph II established the legal predecessor of BME as part of the Faculty of Liberal Arts at the University of Buda. The newly established institute was named Latin: Institutum Geometrico-Hydrotechnicum / Institutum Geometricum ("Institute of Geometry and Hydrotechnics").It was the first institute in Europe to train engineers at university level:its goal was to train professional engineers qualified to survey, regulate waterways, and build roads. These professionals played an important role in rebuilding Hungary after 150 years of Turkish rule. The Institutum Geometricum trained engineers for three years, and the educational program concluded with examinations in both theory and practice. In 1848, as an aftermath of Hungary's fight for independence from Austria, the Institutum temporarily lost its right to confer engineering degrees.

In 1860, the then Royal Joseph Polytechnic began conducting classes in Hungarian (all classes had been previously taught in Latin).

In 1856 the Institutum Geometricum merged with the Joseph College of Technology, and the merged institutions became the Royal Joseph Polytechnic.

Beginning in 1864, students spent five years studying civil and mechanical engineering, three years studying chemical engineering, two years studying agricultural engineering or economics. The Royal Joseph University (from 1871) had five departments: Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Agriculture and Commerce. In 1872, the university regained its autonomy and ability to confer engineering diplomas.The university provided a very solid background to the rapid development of industrialization during the golden age of Millenium (1867-1914)

In 1910 the university moved to its current site near Gellért square. In 1925 the first women students enrolled.From 1934 on, the Faculty of Civil Engineering incorporated the Department of Architecture; the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering was combined with the Department of Chemical Engineering; the Faculty of Agriculture included the Department of Veterinary Sciences; and the new Faculty of Mining, Metallurgy and Forestry was established.

Between World Wars I and II, the Royal Joseph University was the largest university in Hungary to offer comprehensive educational programs in engineering and economics. The university was restructured after the Second World Warandin 1949 the name "Technical University of Budapest" becomes official. At this time the university consisted of the faculties of Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Architecture, Chemical Engineering and Electrical Engineering (in historical order).

27 Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics (1949) Faculty of Transportation Engineering (1955) Faculty of Natural Sciences (1998) Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences (1998)

In 1994 the Technical University of Budapest was among the first universities in Hungary to introduce the credit system. The university applies the credit assignment according to the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) in its accredited academic programs. This helps students to enrol in the student exchange programs of the European Union (eg, the Erasmus) and participate in trainings for double degrees.

In 1998 two new faculties were established: Faculty of Natural Sciences and Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences. In 2000 the official name changed to Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Following the demands of the last decade, the University introduced new interdisciplinary fields of engineering, like the Environmental Engineering M.Sc. program at the Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology. At the same time, environmental engineering is naturally built in the B.Sc. programs of different faculties (Faculty of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Electrical Engineering and Informatics and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering).

Presently more than 110 departments and institutes operate within the structure of the eight faculties. About 1100 lecturers, 400 researchers and other degree holders and numerous invited lecturers and experts participate in education and research at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Approximately 800 of the university's 14.000 students are from 50 countries. The Budapest University of Technology and Economics issues about 70% of Hungary's engineering degrees.

History and Architecture of the campus

The campus of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics is located in Buda along three bridges of the Danube River. Its eclectic collection of buildings dominates the right side of the riverbank and the varied architecture constitutes a study in the history of Hungary itself.

Library of the university

28 Location and Architecture In the late 18th century, the University of Buda hosted the Institutum Geometricum. In the 1850s, the Institutum moved to private houses in Buda and later in Pest. In 1881, Imre Steindl, the architect of the Parliament building in Budapest, designed a Neo-Renaissance building for the then Royal Joseph University. Alajos Hauszmann and Samu Pecz, both professors of the University, completed the campus between 1892 and 1898. When the campus became too small, a new site, the present one on the Buda banks along the Danube River, was given to the university.

The "K", central building looking from the river Danube The structural plans for the new campus were prepared by Győző Czigler, professor of the Department of Architecture. Győző Czigler built the physics building (Building F), the chemistry building (Building Ch) and an electronics building, all in the conservative eclectic style. Samu Pecz, one of the last proponents of the Gothic style, designed the observatory, laboratories and the Central Library.. Alajos Hauszmann, architect of the Royal Palace of Buda, took over the direction of building the university after Győző Czigler's death. Alajos Hauszmann, one of the most successful architects of the Hungarian eclectic movement, designed the university's central building (Building K) with its amalgamated baroque elements. In 1987 UNESCO declared this entire building an ensemble part of the World Heritage.

The new part of the campus, to the south of Petőfi bridge, has been under construction since the 1990's. Including the newest buildings of the University, called Building I (for informatics), Building Q (for economics) and buildings of another Budapest university (ELTE), the area has become a research center, which is known as Infopark. The faculties and departments of BME co-operate with a number of international enterprises (Ericsson, General Electric, Hewlett Packard, IBM, Nokia etc.), many of which have impressing research centers here, and give opportunity to our master and doctoral students to do research work.

Sources Bulletin University of Technology and Economics 2010-2011 http://old.bme.hu/C13/Bulletin/Downloads/2010- 2011%20BULLETIN%20pdf%20files/Bulletin%202010-2011%20001- 044%20General%20Information%20I.pdf Budapest University of Technology and Economics from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest_University_of_Technology_and_Economics (Faculty structure of BME see in Appendix)

29 Questions for discussion

1. Did you know that it was as early as 1367 that the Anjou king of Hungary, Louis the Great established the first Hungarian university in Pécs? What disciplines do you think were studied there? 2. When was the predecessor of the BME founded? Trace the main stages of the history of the Institution up to the 20th century. 3. When did the first woman gain admission to the BME? What is theproportion of female students today? 4. Give an overview of the engineering program you are attending at the BME and justify your choice of subject. (see Appendix at the end of this section). 5. Did you know that the 1956 Hungarian Revolution was launched by students and professors of our university? Search for historical sites of the ’56 uprising on campus.

30 III. LABOUR MARKET PROSPECTS FOR UNIVERSITY GRADUATES

Some essential aspects of discussing success in the labour market

Role of education A well-educated and well-trained population is essential for a country’s social and economic well- being. Education plays a key role in providing individuals with the knowledge, skills and competences needed to participate effectively in society and in the economy. Most concretely, having a good education greatly improves the likelihood of finding a job and earning enough money. Across OECD1 countries, 83% of people with university-level degrees have a job, compared with just below 56% for those with only a secondary school diploma. With regard to employability, in many countries there has been some catch-up of the less educated group over the last decade. However, those with tertiary education continue to have a much higher probability of being in employment.

Important questions In recent decades, there has been rapid expansion of tertiary-level education across many countries. Studies examining the potential consequences of this expansion put the questions: Is there now ‘over- supply’ of graduates? Is there evidence of ‘over-qualification’ and skill mismatch? Are students studying the ‘right type’ of subjects at tertiary-level? Is there a shortage of science and technology graduates in particular? Finally, how does type of institution matter for labour market prospects?

Graduates in the labour market Interest in the economic performance of graduates has been fuelled by continued expansion in higher education. How much can the labour market successfully absorb its more qualified workforce, and is there still a separate graduate labour market for the highly qualified? Among recent graduates there are some signs that the nature of graduate jobs is changing. Over the last decade there has been a relative shift in graduate employment, from professional to associate professional and technical occupations. This may either reflect a growth in graduate numbers that has exceeded the growth in demand for professional workers, or alternatively, an upgrading in associate professional and technical jobs, for example, the professionalisation of jobs such as social welfare / social work. Graduate expectations

It sometimes takes a long time for some (usually less well performing) graduates to find jobs after leaving tertiary education and even then, some graduates are not observed in jobs that appear to be well matched to their qualifications. But researches suggest that new graduates understand the labour market, and most do not expect to enter graduate level work straight away, but rather to achieve this perhaps three years on. Many realise they will need to progress through a number of ‘stepping stone’ jobs to develop relevant work experience that will increase the currency of their degree qualification before developing a clear career path.

Factors of employment success The success of new graduates in the labour market depends upon a number of highly inter-related factors, including the socio-economic background of those graduates, their willingness to relocate for work and the subject from which they graduated.

Subject choice Employment outcomes are still contingent on choice of degree subject made by graduates. Graduates who have studied professional subjects such as engineering, veterinary science, education and medicine are consistently more likely to enter (and quickly) into a graduate level occupation than

1 OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

31 those who have studied more general arts and humanities courses. Indeed, those following professional courses are most positive about the value of their higher education and are most satisfied with their careers. There is evidence of shortages of science and technology graduates, in part because the demand for them has been rising so fast that the supply increases have not kept pace. There is evidence of much international mobility among science and technology graduates. The market is such that these graduates will not stay in countries when conditions of employment are better elsewhere.

Arts and humanities students are among the least satisfied in relation to career opportunities, have lower average earnings, and are the most likely to anticipate changing career direction in the medium term. This group needs support to build relevant work experience, and to identify and access suitable careers.

Moving for work The mobility of graduates may also play a key role in labour market success. Graduates who show themselves to be hypermobile, in terms of their willingness to move away from home to study and then again to find work, are also the most likely to be employed in higher level jobs, to have above average salaries, and to be in perceived high quality jobs. They operate in a national or international labour market, moving to locations that offer the best jobs. These graduates tend to have traditional backgrounds, are more likely to come from higher socio-economic groups, and to be younger; they are also the most highly qualified, with high entry qualifications and good degree classifications.

Sources A graduated labour market. The Institute of Employment Studies http://www.employment-studies.co.uk/news/es2art3.php Hungary – OECD Better Life Index http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/hungary/ Tertiary Education System and Labour Markets by S. Machin and S. McNally http://www.oecd.org/education/country-studies/38006954.pdf

Questions for discussion 1. What is the relationship between educational level and success in the labour market? 2. Outline some factors determining employment success. 3. How can choice of subject influence the employability of graduates? 4. How does the mobility of graduates affect their labour market prospects? 5. How mobile is the labour force in the country/area you live in; is migration of manpower common in your country? 6. Have you ever been to a job / placement fair?Comment on the experience

Portfolio Development for Chapter 3.

Brief comparison of the educational system of Hungary and my home country. My reasons for studying abroad in Hungary. Labour market prospects for university graduates (generally and in my country)

32 Chapter 4 - Hungarian Literature

WARM-UP Who are the most famous writers/poets in your country? Who are the most popular ones? In your opinion, what makes a writer/poet popular? How important is reading for young people of your age in your country? How important is it for you? What do you like to read?

No written evidence remains of the earliest Hungarian literature, but through Hungarian folktales and folk songs elements have survived that can be traced back to pagan times. Also extant, although only in Latin and dating from between the 11th and 14th centuries, are shortened versions of some Hungarian legends relating the origins of the Hungarian people and episodes from the conquest of Hungary and from the Hungarian campaigns of the 10th century.

Earliest writings in Hungarian The earliest known written traces of the Hungarian language are mostly proper names embedded in the Latin text of legal or ecclesiastical documents.

The 15th century saw the first translations from the Bible. A great part of the vocabulary, created for the purpose, is still in use.

Hungarian literature was not entirely religious. In the 14th century secular literature developed and literary forms were introduced from abroad.

33 Renaissance and Reformation

In 1367 the first Hungarian university was founded, at Pécs. About 100 years later King Matthias I Corvinus established the first Hungarian printing press. The King became known for his library and his patronage of foreign scholars; during his reign Latin literature in Hungary reached its peak in Janus Pannonius, who had been educated in Italy.

The 16th century brought changes. After the Battle of Mohács (1526) the Ottoman Turks occupied a large part of Hungary and the country was split into three. It was in the era of the Reformation that Hungarian national literature really began.

The second half of the 16th century saw the beginnings of Hungarian drama. Perhaps the greatest single literary achievement of the Hungarian Reformation was a translation of the Bible by Gáspár Károlyi and others (1590).

Up to the 16th century religious literature seems to have fared better than secular literature, in part because secular literature was not written down. The late 16th-century minstrels were more learned than their predecessors and in many cases were driven to their profession by difficult economic conditions. Perhaps the most important was Sebestyén Tinódi, by temperament more historian than poet. He described the wars against the Turks with remarkable accuracy. A great poet emerged in Bálint Balassi (1554–94), who displayed originality with a cycle of love poems of great beauty and emotional intensity. His songs of war, while reflecting the vicissitudes of fighting the Turk at the borders of the Christian world, celebrate nature and individual bravery in almost hymnlike tones. The poetry of his last years is imbued with a deep religious feeling.

34 The 17th century In the 17th century Hungary was still divided into three parts. The first, under Turkish rule, played no part in the development of Hungarian literature. The second, under Habsburg rule, was open to Italian and German Roman Catholic influence; the third, Transylvania, was in close relationship with Dutch and English Protestant thought. The leading Protestant scholar and writer of the 17th century was János Apáczai Csere. His chief work was a Hungarian encyclopaedia in which he endeavoured to sum up the knowledge of his time. The work, published at Utrecht in 1653, marked a development in technical vocabulary.

Effects of the Counter-Reformation By the end of the 16th century the Counter-Reformation was gaining momentum in western Hungary. A Jesuit cardinal, Péter Pázmány, a master of Hungarian prose, was outstanding as an orator and essayist. Under the influence of the Jesuits, many Hungarian aristocrats returned to the Catholic faith and sent their sons to the Austrian Catholic universities and to Rome. The Italian Baroque is evident in the work of Miklós Zrínyi, a great Hungarian statesman and military commander. Most of his prose work was an exposition of political and strategic ideas. His greatest literary achievement was an epic, Szigeti veszedelem (1651; “The Peril of Sziget”), in 15 cantos, on the siege in 1566 of Szigetvár, which had been defended against the Turks by Zrínyi’s great-grandfather.

Period of decline The period between 1700 and about 1770 was a time of decline and slow consolidation in Hungarian literature. The poetry of this epoch has little to offer. This period of literary decadence produced notable works only in the fields of history and history of literature.

The period of the Enlightenment The Hungarian Enlightenment was more receptive to French and English ideas than it was productive of original developments. The period between about 1772 and 1825, though immensely important in the development of the Hungarian spirit, produced few writers of the first rank.

With the publication in 1772 of the first literary work by György Bessenyei, a translation (from the French) of Alexander Pope’s Essay on Man, the new era began. The end of the 18th century was a period of experiments with poetic language. The pioneers of the use of Greek and Latin metres in Hungarian verse were followed by Dániel Berzsenyi, who published a single volume of poetry, in 1813, and showed what use a great poet could make of classical metre. His ode “A Magyarokhoz” (“To the Hungarians”), his “Fohász” (“Prayer”), and his elegy “A közelitő tél” (“On the Nearing Winter”) express the transitoriness of power and of friendship.

The ideas of the Enlightenment were not universally welcomed in Hungary. Traditionalists looked with distrust on any imported ideas, and the government was increasingly suspicious of a spirit of intellectual freedom, which it believed had led to the French Revolution and, in Hungary, to the Jacobin conspiracy of Martinovics, crushed in 1794. Several writers went to prison for harbouring radical views. The most talented among them, János Batsányi, secured his place in the history of Hungarian literature by his poem “A Franciaországi változásokra” (1789; “On the Changes in France”), a vigorous warning to all tyrants “to cast their watchful eyes on Paris.”

The first important lyric poet since Bálint Balassi was Mihály Csokonai Vitéz, who continued the purely Hungarian poetical tradition. His many songs to a woman named Lilla are a happy blend of

35 playful grace and subtle thoughts. The influence of Rousseau is very noticeable in some of his longer philosophical poems. Alexander Pope’s Rape of the Lock served as a source of inspiration for Csokonai’s comic epic Dorottya (1804), but Csokonai’s poem is original and his context very Hungarian. The language of the poem is vigorous, even vulgar, and the plot is full of hilariously comic situations.

Ferenc Kazinczy, a mediocre poet but an influential man of letters, was the pivot of literary life for about 40 years. For his involvement in the conspiracy of Martinovics he paid with six years’ imprisonment. He became the head of the neologi, or linguistic innovators, who tried to renew and enrich the Hungarian language so that it could express the most elaborate concepts. The success of the language reform was due, to a large extent, to Kazinczy’s efforts.

The 19th century

Romanticism The literary revival initiated by Kazinczy continued after his death. One of Hungary’s best tragedies, Bánk bán (the bán was a high Hungarian dignitary) by József Katona, was published in 1821. Set in the 13th century and written in vigorous prose, the play was a masterful combination of national and individual conflicts, and one of its characters, Tiborc, a poor peasant, has remained ever since a symbol of the oppressed.

Ferenc Kölcsey’s impressive “Hymnusz” (1823) became the Hungarian national anthem. After Kisfaludy’s death, Mihály Vörösmarty became a central figure in literary life, producing writings of value in every genre.

36 The folk song and ballad collections of János Erdélyi and János Kriza exerted an influence on the further development of Hungarian poetry. “Popular poetry is the only real poetry” was the opinion of Sándor Petőfi, one of the greatest Hungarian poets, whose best poems rank among the masterpieces of world literature. He was an innovator and made a break with conventional subjects and poetic language. His poems are striking in immediacy of perception and directness of language and cover a vast range of subjects. The fervour of his patriotic poems inspired the revolution of 1848. Petőfi’s many songs are enchanting in their simplicity, and in this genre he remained unsurpassed.

János Arany shared Petőfi’s conviction of the value of popular poetry, but his approach was different, for his subjects were often taken from history and showed deep understanding of the human mind. He had the assurance of one who knew that what he wrote was the language of the people, lifted to a degree never surpassed in Hungarian. His ballads, often romantic, had vigour, conciseness, and uncommon evocative power. His great narrative poems, the Toldi trilogy (1847–79) and Buda halála (1864; The Death of King Buda), reflected eternal human problems; Arany’s philosophy appeared through his characters and not in lengthy digressions and was accompanied by subtle humour.

Writers of the late 19th century Hungary, after being defeated in the war of independence of 1848–49, was ruled from Vienna until 1867. External political pressures on Austria and the willingness of Hungarian society to end passive resistance made possible the Settlement (or Compromise) of 1867, which created the Austro- Hungarian Monarchy.

In 1837 a national theatre was established to produce works of merit, but, with few exceptions, the standard of plays was low with the only exception of the plays of Imre Madách, whose masterpiece Az

37 ember tragédiája (1861; The Tragedy of Man) dealt with universal human problems. This poetic drama followed man’s destiny from creation through stages of history into a future of a phalanstery (a Utopian commune) and the ultimate extinction of life. The play was first staged in 1883 and remains a favourite with the Hungarian public.

The most popular novelist of the time was Mór Jókai, an exceptional storyteller able to evoke any epoch and any milieu. His characters were idealized, and his descriptions tended to be brilliant rather than accurate. Among his numerous works (he published more than 200 books in his lifetime) were historical novels on problems of contemporary society. Az arany ember (1873; “The Golden Man”; Eng. trans., Timár’s Two Worlds) is one of his best novels. Kálmán Mikszáth was also popular: he recorded with keen observation and sly humour the shortcomings of society but, although a politician and a member of parliament, was little concerned with improvement.

The 20th century

Early years

The year 1906, when Endre Ady burst upon the literary scene with his Uj versek (“New Poems”), marked a turning point. In matters of style Ady was influenced by the French Symbolists, but in content he was concerned with radical political ideas. He rejuvenated the language of Hungarian poetry, introducing new themes and powerful new imagery. His rise was helped by the periodical Nyugat (“The West”), which was launched in 1908. .Among poets associated with Nyugat were Mihály Babits, an excellent translator of foreign poetry who became editor in 1929; Dezső Kosztolányi, who wrote with empathy on childhood and death and whose novels and short stories established high standards in narrative prose; and Árpád Tóth and Gyula Juhász, who voiced the distress of the poor and the oppressed in society.

38 The prose writers of Nyugat included Zsigmond Móricz, whose tales of provincial life portrayed peasants and gentry; Margit Kaffka, the first major woman writer in Hungary; and Gyula Krúdy, who created a nostalgic dreamworld with his stream-of-consciousness technique.

The interwar period The leading poet of the 1920s was Lőrinc Szabó, a master of poetic technique and fine observation, whereas the 1930s were dominated by Attila József, whose experience of alienation and Socialist ideas were expressed in great poetic tableaux and in poems probing the subconscious, and by Gyula Illyés, who found inspiration in the life of the peasantry. The poetry of Miklós Radnóti reached a tragic climax in the serene and polished poems he wrote in the last years of his life.

In Hungary, as elsewhere, the novel became the principal form of literary expression. While Sándor Márai depicted the life of the bourgeoisie, János Kodolányi, László Németh, and Zsigmond Remenyik exposed the conflicts of the individual with society (often against a background of injustice and misery). Áron Tamási wrote beautifully stylized novels on the life of the Szeklers, an ethnic group of Transylvania. Tibor Déry, whose chief work was published only after 1945, wrote realistic novels and a challenging autobiography.

39 Writing after 1945 The period since 1945, though officially designated one of “Socialist transformation,” has seen but little change in writers’ traditional orientations and preoccupations. During the first decade, particularly the years 1948–53, many writers were forced into silence by the regime’s attempts to introduce Socialist Realism as the only correct style and creative method. After the failure of the 1956 uprising a number of writers were imprisoned, but by the mid-1960s most efforts to enforce ideological purity in the arts were abandoned. Since then there has been comparatively little official intervention in Hungarian literature and the margin of free experimentation has grown. This allowed writers such as Géza Ottlik, Miklós Mészöly, and István Örkény to publish work that showed ways in which the technique of modern fiction could be applied in Hungary. Among the best new authors are György Konrád and Péter Esterházy.

The best poetry was written among others by Sándor Weöres, whose poetic span ranges from Eastern philosophy to delightful children’s verses, and János Pilinszky. Other noteworthy poets included the urbane László Kálnoky and István Vas, and Ferenc Juhász and László Nagy, two poets of peasant origin whose work grew out of native tradition to express universal rites and myths of mankind such as marriage, the struggle among generations for power, and cosmic destruction.

Frontier changes since World War I have placed substantial Hungarian minorities in countries outside Hungary, especially in neighbouring Slovakia, Serbia and Romania. In Romania, for example, where approximately 2,000,000 Hungarians live, the best known Hungarian writer is the playwright and novelist András Sütő. There also has been a large diaspora in the West, where, apart from Márai, the versatile modernist Győző Határ and the post-Romantic poet György Faludy have the largest following.

(Source: www.britannica.com/EBchecked/)

40 WARM-UP

Are there any“magic” numbers in your culture? What are they used for? Try to think of reasons why seven could be a magic number.

HOMEWORK Look up some information about József Attila (1905-1937) on the internet. Then read the poem below.

The Seventh (A hetedik)

(translated by John Bátki)

If you set out in this world, better be born seven times. Once, in a house on fire, once, in a freezing flood, once, in a wild madhouse, once, in a field of ripe wheat, once, in an empty cloister, and once among pigs in sty. Six babes crying, not enough: you yourself must be the seventh.

When you must fight to survive, let your enemy see seven. One, away from work on Sunday, one, starting his work on Monday, one, who teaches without payment, one, who learned to swim by drowning, one, who is the seed of a forest, and one, whom wild forefathers protect, but all their tricks are not enough: you yourself must be the seventh.

If you want to find a woman, let seven men go for her. One, who gives heart for words, one, who takes care of himself, one, who claims to be a dreamer, one, who through her skirt can feel her, one, who knows the hooks and snaps, one, who steps upon her scarf: let them buzz like flies around her. You yourself must be the seventh.

If you write and can afford it, let seven men write your poem. One, who builds a marble village, one, who was born in his sleep, one, who charts the sky and knows it, one, whom words call by his name, one, who perfected his soul, one, who dissects living rats.

41 Two are brave and four are wise; You yourself must be the seventh.

And if all went as was written, you will die for seven men. One, who is rocked and suckled, one, who grabs a hard young breast, one, who throws down empty dishes, one, who helps the poor win; one, who worked till he goes to pieces, one, who just stares at the moon. The world will be your tombstone: you yourself must be the seventh.

YOUR OPINION

Summarize each of the five stanzas about. What characters does the poet describe in each stanza? Choose one stanza and sum up the extreme situations it describes.

42 HOMEWORK

Below is a short story written by Zsigmond Móricz (1879-1942). Look up some information about the writer on the Internet. Then read the short story and answer the comprehension questions.

SEVEN PENNIES (Translated by George F. Cushing)

What a good thing it was the gods ordained that even the poor should be able to laugh. In their hovels can be heard not only the sound of weeping and wailing but quite a lot of heartfelt laughter too. Indeed, it is true to say that the poor often laugh when they have more cause to cry. I know that world well. The generation of Sóses to which my father belonged plumbed the lowest depths of destitution. At that time my father was a day-labourer in a machine-shop. He does not boast about this period, nor does anyone else. But that is the truth. It is also true that I was never to laugh so much in the rest of my life as I did during that couple of years of my childhood. How can I laugh, when that merry, rosy-cheeked mother of mine is no longer alive—she who could laugh so sweetly that in the end tears trickled from her eyes and she was seized by such a fit of coughing that it almost choked her... And even she never laughed so much as when the two of us spent a whole afternoon searching for seven pennies. We searched for them and we found them too. Three in the drawer of the sewing- machine, one in the cupboard – the rest were more difficult to find. The first three pennies my mother discovered herself. She thought she would find more in the sewing-machine drawer since she took in sewing and always put there whatever money she was paid. For me this drawer was an inexhaustible treasure-hoard; you only had to put your hand inside and there was the fairy-tale table that spread itself. So I gazed in astonishment when my mother searched through it, scooping everything out, pins, thimble, scissors, pieces of ribbon, braid, buttons, and all of a sudden said with great surprise: “They’ve hidden themselves away.” “What have?” “Those little coins,” said my mother with a laugh. She pulled the drawer right out. “Come on, sonny; we’ll find the naughty things all the same. Wicked, wicked little pennies!” She crouched down on the floor and put down the drawer as if she were afraid they would fly away; she turned it upside down suddenly, in the way you catch a butterfly with your hat. It was impossible not to laugh at that. “Here they are, they’re inside,” she kept laughing and was in no hurry to lift it up. “Even if there’s only one, it must be in here.” I squatted on the ground, watching to see whether a gleaming little coin was peeping out anywhere. There was no sign of movement. As a matter of fact we had no great hope of finding anything inside. We looked at each other and laughed at the childish joke. I stretched out my hand towards the upturned drawer. “Sh!” my mother scared me. “Quiet! It can still slip away. You don’t yet know what a sprightly animal a penny is. It runs very fast; it just rolls away. And how it rolls away!” We rocked from side to side with laughter. We had already had a good deal of experience of the swiftness with which pennies run away. When we recovered I stretched out my hand again to tip the drawer over. “Hey!” shouted my mother at me again, and I was so scared that I snatched back my fingers as if they had touched the hot stove.

43 “Look out, you little prodigal! Why are you in such a hurry to send it on its way? It’s ours so long as it’s underneath. Just leave it there a little longer. You see, I want to do some washing, and for that I need soap; for soap I need at least seven pence, I can’t get it for less. I’ve got three already and I still need four, and they’re here in this little house. They’re living here, but they don’t like being disturbed, because once they’re angry they go away never to be seen again. So be careful: money is very touchy, you’ve got to treat it gently. With respect. It gets into a huff as easily as young ladies of quality... Look, don’t you know some rhyme, some spell that might perhaps charm it out of its snail-shell?” How many times we laughed during this chatter I don’t know. But the snail-charming spell was a very odd one: Penny, penny, come outside, For your house is all alight… With that I tipped up the house. Underneath it were a hundred kinds of rubbish, but no money. My mother scrabbled around, her lips pursed, but it was no use. “What a pity,” she said, “that we haven’t got a table. If we had turned it out on one it would have been more respectable, and the money would have been underneath.” I swept together all the bits and pieces and piled them into the drawer. Meanwhile my mother was thinking. She racked her brains to remember whether some time she had put some money somewhere, but she could not recall it. But something was pricking my conscience. “Mother, I know a place where there’s a penny.” “Where, son? Let’s find it before it melts away like snow.” “It was in the glass-fronted cupboard, in the drawer.” “Oh you wretched child, what a good thing you didn’t tell me earlier, or it wouldn’t be there now.” We stood up and went to the cupboard, which had long ago lost its glass front, but in the drawer there was the penny I had known about. For three days I’d been preparing to pinch it, but I hadn’t dared to. And yet I’d have bought sweets with it if I’d got as far as that. “Well now, we’ve got four pennies. Never you mind, sonny, we’ve got over half. Now we only want three. And if it’s taken an hour for us to find this one, we’ll discover those three by teatime. Then I can still do one lot of washing before evening. Come along quickly—there may be one in each of the other drawers.” Just suppose there had been one in each drawer! Then there would have been a lot. For the old cupboard in its more youthful days had been in service somewhere where there must have been a lot to stuff away. But in our house it was not overburdened, poor thing ; not in vain was it so wheezy, worm-eaten and gap-toothed. My mother gave a little sermon over each new drawer. “A rich drawer this one – was. This one never had anything. And this one always lived on credit. So, you wicked, wretched beggar, you haven’t got a single penny either. Oh, this one won’t have anything; for it preserves our poverty. And as for you, unless you give me something now when I ask you don’t ever have anything inside. And this one has the most – look!” she exclaimed, laughing as she pulled out the bottommost drawer, which had no sign of a bottom. She draped it over my head, and then we sat down on the floor laughing. “Wait a moment,” she said suddenly, “we’ll have some money right away. I’ll find it in your father’s clothes.” There were nails driven into the wall, and on these hung the clothes. And, wonder of wonders, immediately my mother felt in the very first pocket, a penny fell into her hand. She hardly dared to believe her eyes. “Got it!” she exclaimed. “Here it is! How much have we got now? We shan’t be able to count it all. One, two, three, four, five... Five! Now we only need two more. And what’s that? Two pennies are nothing. Where there are five, there’ll be two more to come.” She searched through all the other pockets with great keenness, but all in vain. She did not find a single one. Even the best joke would not tempt another two pennies out from anywhere.

44 Now great red roses were burning in my mother’s face with all the excitement and labour. She was not allowed to work, because it made her ill immediately. Of course this was exceptional work; nobody can be forbidden to look for money. Teatime came and went. It would soon be evening. My father had to have a shirt for tomorrow, and it couldn’t be washed. Well-water alone would not remove that oily dirt from it. And then my mother clapped her hand to her forehead. “Oh, oh! What a donkey I am! Why, I’ve not looked in my own pocket. But now I’ve thought of it I’ll have a look.” And she did. And there too she discovered a penny, if you please. The sixth. We became feverish. Now we only needed one more. “Now you show me your pockets too, in case there’s one there. ” My pockets! Well, I could certainly show them. There was nothing at all there. It grew dark, and there we were with our six pennies, which were still not enough. It was just as if we had none at all. The Jew who kept the shop would not give credit, and the neighbours were just as poor as we were, so we couldn’t ask for a single penny. There was nothing else to do but laugh away our penury with a pure heart.

TASK Stop reading and without looking at the last part try to figure out how the story will end. Then read on and compare your version with the writer’s. Be ready to discuss the differences in class.

And at that moment a beggar turned up. He launched into a long wailing plea in a sing-song voice. My mother was almost overwhelmed with laughter. “Give over, my dear man,” she said; “today I’ve been wasting the whole afternoon because I haven’t got one penny—that’s all I want for the price of half a pound of soap.” The beggar, a kindly-faced old man, stared at her. “One penny?” he asked. “Yes.” “I’ll give you that.” “Well, that’s all I need—alms from a beggar.” “Don’t worry, my dear, I shan’t miss it. There’s only one thing I’m missing, a patch of land. With that, everything will be all right.” He put the penny into my hand and tottered away with profuse thanks. “Well, thank God!” said my mother. “Now run along... ” But she stopped for a moment, then burst into a huge peal of laughter. “A fine time we’ve got all the money together! Why, I can’t do any washing now! It’s dark, and I haven’t got any oil for the lamp.” Her laughter ended in a fit of choking; painful, devastating choking, and as I went and stood by her to hold her up as she swayed with her face in her two hands, something warm poured onto my hand. It was blood, her own precious blood. My mother’s who could laugh as only few can, even among the poor. 1908

45 COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

Where does the story take place?

Who are the main characters?

What do you find out about the life of the family?

How does the writer show poverty? Find examples in the text.

What do you think of the ending of the story?

Do you like the story? YES/NO Why?

Are there any writers in your literature who deal/dealt with similar topics?

Portfolio Development for Chapter 4.

Options:

LITERATURE

There is a beautiful statue garden on Margaret Island. Take a walk on the island and find the statues there. Among them you will find statues of poets and writers whose names should look familiar to you after you have read the history of Hungarian literature in your course book. In your portfolio: • give a list of the poets and writers you have found • pick one name and give some information on the person (you can collect information from the internet or from your Hungarian fellow students)

FINE ARTS

The best way to get to know the fine arts is to see the works of art themselves. You can do that in several places in Budapest (e.g. the Museum of Fine Arts or the National Gallery). Your teacher will recommend a couple of exhibitions you can choose from. Visit one of your choice and in your portfolio give: • the name of the museum you went to • a short description (5 to 8 sentences) of the exhibition • the name of the piece(s) you liked best • a short rationale explaining your choice

46 Chapter 5 - Hungarian Music

WARM-UP

What kind of music do you like most?

When do you like listening to music?

Who are the most famous composers/performers in your country?

Is classical music popular with young people in your country?

Can you sing? Do you think everybody can be taught to sing?

Do you play any musical instruments?/Would you like to learn to play one?

TASK

Work with another student. Put together the program for a classical/pop music concert for the students of your university. Discuss the list of performers you would like to invite and the pieces of music you would like to put on the program. Support your choice with arguments. When you have finished, present the result to the class.

A History of Hungarian Music

The first reference to a Hungarian song comes from a chronicler of the eleventh century who describes how Bishop St. Gellért arrived in Hungary from Venice and was amazed by the peculiar lilt of a Hungarian song sung by a maid. Unfortunately, no musical notation of secular music has been preserved from this early era.

The sacred music of medieval Hungary has more exact documentation. From the 11th century on, there was regular teaching of singing in monastery schools, churches and cathedrals, while minstrels, bards and lute players kept the interest in music and songs alive. In the 14th and 15th centuries, many musicians became travelling showmen and were called igricek.

At the Royal court, musical life was enriched by famous European musicians who visited Hungary from the 13th century on. In the meantime, Hungarian students also studied in Italy and Germany. However, the catastrophe at Mohács in 1526, which was followed by 150 years of Turkish occupation, halted the development of an independent Hungarian polyphonic style.

The Late Renaissance Period

During the 16th and 17th centuries the centre of Hungarian music was Transylvania - a region free of Turkish occupation. The first song books were printed in Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca). One of the best known lute-playing rhapsodists, known as kobzos or lantos, was Sebestyén Tinódi (1505-1556). He was the most important early Hungarian epic poet, a man of culture and experience, equally familiar with the traditions of the courtly minstrels and the popular fiddlers.

47 The Baroque Period

The dawn of the eighteenth century in Hungary was marked by her fight for freedom against Habsburg oppression, a fight led by Ferenc Rákóczi II. During this period, the nation produced a remarkable folklore, eloquently expressed in the so-called Kuruc poetry and music. The Kuruc songs are among the finest in Hungarian music, but most of them existed only by oral tradition.

The Kuruc era also produced a unique instrument, the tárogató. This is a double-reed woodwind instrument, similar to the oboe, with a penetrating sound. It was used primarily as an instrument for signaling fighting troops, but after the battle, the tárogató-players would use it to entertain the tired soldiers. After Rákóczi's freedom fight was finally lost, the Imperial forces ordered that all tárogatós be burned as symbols of Kuruc resistance. But their efforts to eradicate the instrument failed.

The Pre-Classical and Classical Period

Western trends emerged in Hungarian music from the middle of the eighteenth century. With the Kuruc era gone, the nation became reconciled to the rule of the Habsburgs. The high aristocracy spent most of its time in Vienna, basking in the glamor of the Court, speaking French and German instead of their native tongue and learning to appreciate the minuets and rondeaux of the then-fashionable Louis XIV style. A new period began. resulting in the "contamination" of the original musical heritage of Hungary. Imitating foreign composers, Hungarian composers produced tunes in Western patterns, composing melodies for the minuet and waltz. Eminent foreign musicians and composers, like

48 Michael Haydn, Joseph Haydn and others were employed in the residences of the aristocracy and high clergy.

The Recruiting Dance (Verbunkos)

At the end of the eighteenth century, a characteristic musical style was born. In recruiting soldiers for the Emperor's army, military committees engaged Gypsy bands to stir up among young people enthusiasm for military life. The roots of the Verbunkos go back to Hajdu dances and even Islamic and Slavic influences can be detected in them; but the performance and special interpretation given by Gypsy musicians molded all these elements into a style which left its imprint even on the art music of the mid-nineteenth century.

The Beginning of Hungarian Opera

The revolutionary influence of the Verbunkos had changed all of the existing theatre music in Hungary. The scripts of early plays had historical backgrounds and their style was inspired by Mozart and Rossini, but many of the scenes and arias were composed in the Verbunkos style.

In 1837, however, the Verbunkos mode began to change when the National Theatre was opened in Pest, its first music director being Ferenc Erkel, who was to become Hungary's best known operatic composer. His creation of genuine Hungarian national operas coincided with the national and cultural awakening of Europe.. Erkel's most important works were Hunyadi László, composed in 1844 and Bánk Bán, composed in 1861. Both have become permanent fixtures in the repertoire of the Hungarian Opera.

Folk-style Popular Songs

The various Gypsy bands and their leaders, each of whom formed "dynasties" after Bihari's death, were instrumental in popularizing the folk-style songs - called nóta.

Since the general population did not much care for the higher forms of music - symphonies, sonatas, operas - it was the nóta that filled their musical needs. Strictly speaking, the nóta is not a folk song, because the songwriter's name is known, and because the writer uses intervals which do not appear in real folk songs. But the nóta is Hungarian, simple, and in a certain mood everyone can find joy or consolation in singing one, or listening to one. Many individual nótás have had lasting popularity.

Romanticism in Music

Ferenc (Franz) Liszt (1811-1886)

Ferenc Liszt was born in Doborján, a German speaking Hungarian village, of a Hungarian father and an Austrian mother. Although Liszt never spoke Hungarian, he proudly declared his adherence to his country when he said:

"Although, unfortunately, I don't speak Hungarian, I want to remain Hungarian in heart and mind from cradle to grave. I want to work for the development of Hungary's musical culture."

Since Liszt did not speak Hungarian and spent most of his life abroad, it is understandable that he failed to realize the significance of peasant folk material, which was in danger of being lost forever. This is why Liszt eloquently but erroneously identified Hungarian music with Gypsy music in 1859 in his book The Gypsies and their Music in Hungary, which only further contributed to the myth.

49 Liszt first visited Hungary in 1839-40 after a flood devastated Pest in 1838. Prior to this visit he raised 24,000 guldens in Vienna through a series of piano recitals, the largest single donation to victims of the flood. In Pest he was received as a national hero. In 1846 he again visited Hungary in a concert tour.

He wrote most of his rhapsodies in Weimar, as he did many of his more important orchestral and choral works of Hungarian character. His Ungaria Kantate was the first of a series of longer pieces. It is a strongly patriotic work that was inspired by the Hungarian War of Independence.

In the last period of his life, Liszt divided his time among Rome, Weimar and Budapest. Before 1869, he had visited Hungary only for the premieres of his Coronation Mass (1864) and his Legend of St. Elizabeth. In 1875, Liszt was appointed by the king to the presidency of the Academy of Music in Budapest, where he also became head of the piano department. One of his admirers, Saint-Saens, wrote in 1893:

Liszt has the inestimable advantage of having typified a people: Schuman is the soul of Germany, Chopin of Poland, Liszt of the Magyar. He was a delightful combination of pride, native elegance and wild, untamed energy.

It was not his fingers alone which made him such a marvellous performer but the qualities of the great musician and the great poet which he possessed, his large heart, his beautiful soul - and above all, the soul of his race.

The Twentieth Century (1900-1945)

The dawn of the new century found Hungarian musical life steeped in controversy. The Academy of Music was producing artists, composers and performers of worldwide stature. International stars were performing at the Royal Opera House and the concert halls. But those who attended the operas and the concerts tended to be the same audience. The general public was more inclined toward Viennese operettas, Gypsy music and the songs of the cabaret.

This was the situation when two young men arrived in Budapest to study composition at the Liszt Academy: Béla Bartók (1881 - 1945) and Zoltán Kodály (1882-1967), who started their studies at the same time and became good friends. They searched for a way to appeal to both the concert goers and the general public. Anxious to create a new style of Hungarian music, they reached out to the oldest root: the almost forgotten peasant songs. Bartók and Kodály spent several summer vacations together in remote villages, recording on wax cylinders the songs the village elders remembered, and in 1906 they published their first collection. Today, as a result of their efforts, an incredible 60,000 folk melodies are classified and preserved at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

50 Both Bartók and Kodály were subsequently appointed professors of the Academy of Music. Bartók as a professor of piano, and Kodály as professor of composition helped to develop the talents of many outstanding artists while, through their own compositions, they successfully achieved a synthesis of Hungarian music and national character, creating compositions which have gained international significance.

Although Bartók was accepted at home as the most original musician of his time, he left Hungary before World War II and finally settled in America, where he died a disillusioned man, not without material worries.

Zoltán Kodály, who chose to remain in the country in spite of two world wars, is, among Hungarians, one of the most widely accepted Magyar composers of the 20th of the century.

Next to his compositions, Kodály's great achievement lies in the introduction of general music education, From 1929 to 1953 he led a protracted fight for the introduction of universal and uniform music education in Hungary. In his crusade, he propagated the ideas that: music belongs to everyone; musical illiteracy, which prevents the masses from enjoying higher levels of music, should be done away with; music education has to be based on folk songs as the musical heritage of the nation; daily musical education contributes to the well being of body and soul as much as does physical education; and the basic foundation of musical culture has to be first vocal, to be followed by instrumental studies.

The 20th century has also seen a number of Hungarian composers whose international reputations rest on their Viennese-style operettas.

The best known is Ferenc Lehár (1870-1948) who placed the plot of each of his operettas in a different country, attempting to recreate the musical atmosphere of that particular land.

Imre Kálmán (1882-1953) ranks second to Lehár in the field of operettas. The tunes he composed in his Csárdás Queen, Countess Marica and Circus Princess are rich in Hungarian elements.

(Source: hungarianhistory.com/lib/hunspir/hsp51.htm)

51 TASK

Have you ever heard of the Kodály Method or Concept? Are the hand signs below used in schools in your country to teach children to sing?

Look up some information on the Method on the Internet and discuss in class what you have found.

52 Portfolio Development for Chapter 5.

Options:

There are a lot of places in Budapest where you can go to listen to classical music. Some of the most prominent ones are the Opera House, the Erkel Theatre, the Palace of Arts or Franz Liszt Academy of Music. Occasionally they offer tickets for students at a reasonable price. Keep an eye on the programmes of these places (you can easily do so on the Internet), and choose one performance to visit. In your portfolio give: • the date and place of the performance • the programme • the name of the performer(s) • the thing you liked best about the performance/music • the thing you liked the least about the performance/music

53 Chapter 6 - Famous Hungarians in Science & Technology

Introductory task

Brainstorming about famous Hungarian innovations, development in science and technology. The Rubik’s cube is likely to be mentioned! The attachment might help you. Look around you at structures, vehicles and technical solutions which are new for you in your environment.

Task 1

While watching the video (Budapest get engaged / Hungary world of potentials) jot down the name of scientists and innovators mentioned and their fields of activity.

Task 2 (team-work)

From the random list of names below choose one you are familiar with or whose work is relevant to your own field.

Famous inventors

OSZKÁR ASBÓTH (1891 –1960) Invention: HELICOPTER

Oszkár Asbóth was born in Pankota and died in Budapest. He finished his studies at Arad and became an engineer. He was a student of Tódor von Kármán, the Father of Supersonic Flight.

In 1917, during World War I, Oszkár Asbóth worked on designing the helicopter. After many years of experimentation following the war, he built the Asbóth- helicopter. On September 9, 1928, witnessed by many foreign experts, his model "AH 1" helicopter ascended from a standing position vertically to a great height for the first time in the world.

Representative from the British Air Ministry who travelled on the helicopter wrote in a Journal of the Aeronautical Society in 1931: “The Asboth-helicopter ascends vertically with a remarkable speed to any height where it can hover stationary for some time. It can be perfectly navigated. But the most remarkable is that, unlike other tested helicopters, this one remains absolutely stable around all.”

54 DONÁT BÁNKI (1859–1922) Invention: BÁNKI-CSONKA PETROL ENGINE, CARBURETOR, FRONTWHEEL RUNNING CAR, WATER TURBINE

Donát Bánki was born in Bánk and died in Budapest. He studied mechanical engineering in Budapest. From 1899 to his death he taught at the Technical University in Budapest.

In 1892, before Diesel, Donát Bánki created the first great compression low consumption gasoline engine, the Bánki-motor. In 1892, Donát Bánki and János Csonka invented the carburetor for their gasoline engine. Even though their invention went through some changes as time passed, every modification was based on this invention.

In 1917, Bánki invented the water turbine, which was useful for utilizing the energy of small and medium sized waterfalls.

ZOLTÁN BAY (1900–1992) Invention: LUNAR - RADAR, GLOWING FLUORESCENT LIGHTS, DEVELOPER OF RADAR ASTRONOMY

Zoltán Bay was born in Gyulavár and died in Washington D.C. He studied in Debrecen and Budapest, where he received his Ph.D. degree, and also in Berlin. In 1930 he became professor of physics at the University of Szeged.

Zoltán Bay, the world known physicist performed the following experiment as a research engineer of the Standard Factory in Budapest in 1943: he sent ultra-short radio waves to the moon and detected the reflected signal. The equipment worked like radar.

He was engaged in the development of television as early as 1936. In 1948, he left Hungary, and became professor of the Physics Department at George Washington University. After he retired, he continued his research activity till the end of his life.

LÁSZLÓ JÓZSEF BÍRÓ (1899–1985) Invention: BALLPOINT PEN, AUTOMATIC SHIFT

József László Bíró was born in Budapest and died in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He first studied medicine, but was a many sided person. Between 1921 and 1938 he was a journalist, sculptor, painter, art critic, stock broker, hypnotizer, race-car driver, car salesman and of course an inventor.

József László Biró's most famous invention was the ballpoint pen. By 1938, he had patented it in over 100 countries. Finally in 1948 the Parker Company bought his patent. In the USA it became known as the Biro.

His other important invention was the automatic gear shift. In 1932, he traveled with his engineer friend from Budapest to Berlin (more than 1000 km) on a motorcycle with a sealed gear shift. General Motors bought his patent.

55 JÁNOS CSONKA (1852–1939) Invention: CARBURETOR, GAS ENGINE

János Csonka was born in Szeged and died in Budapest. From 1875 he was working at the Technical University in Budapest.

In 1879 he constructed a four-cycle gas engine according to his own ideas, which was the first Hungarian combustion engine. During 1892 and 1893 János Csonka and Donát Bánki invented the carburetor for the Bánki-Csonka engine. Csonka's main expertise was engine manufacturing.

Among many things, he invented the regulating mechanism for the inner combustion engines, a mechanism for forced automatic settings of the ignition for combustion engines.

LORÁND EÖTVÖS (1848–1919) Invention: GRAVITATIONAL TORSION BALANCE, EÖTVÖS UNIT OF GRAVITATION

The University of Science in Budapest was named after Lóránd Eötvös. Dr. Loránd Eötvös, physicist, professor, minister of education, was born in Buda and died in Budapest. He completed his education in Heidelberg, Germany.

The Torsion or Eötvös balance, designed by Baron Eötvös, is a sensitive instrument for measuring the density of underlying rock strata. The device measures not only the direction of force of gravity, but the change in the force of gravity's extent in horizontal plane. It determines the distribution of masses in the earth's crust.

The Eötvös torsion balance is an important instrument of geodesy and geophysics throughout the world.

JÓZSEF GALAMB (1881–1955) Invention: DESIGNER OF THE FORD T-MODEL

József Galamb was born in Makó Hungary and died in Detroit. He graduated in Budapest in mechanical engineering.

József Galamb as the employee of the Ford Company designed the famous Model-T car. At the same time, he designed the mass production of cars. The small Ford Company became a huge factory. In 19 years, they made 15 ½ million Model-T cars. József Galamb also designed the elegant Model-A car.

56 JÁNOS IRINYI (1817–1895) Invention: MATCHES

János Irinyi, a chemist, was born in Nagyléta and died in Vértes. He completed his education in Vienna and in Hohenheim, Germany.

In 1836, Irinyi invented a safe match which was not dangerous for health. He dissolved phosphorus in water and shook it in a glass foil, until it became granulated. He mixed the phosphorus with lead and gumiarabicum, poured the paste-like mass into a jar and dipped the pine sticks into the mixture and let them dry.

A rich Hungarian pharmacist bought his invention and production rights from Irinyi the poor student for 60 Forint. The production of matches began. Irinyi himself died poor and abandoned.

ÁNYOS JEDLIK (1800–1895) Invention: ELECTROMOTOR, DYNAMO

Dr. Ányos Jedlik, a Benedictine monk, scientist and inventor, was born in Szimö and died in Győr. He completed his education in Győr and Pest.

Ányos Jedlik constructed the first electromotor in 1828 and invented the dynamo in 1861. He did not patent or sell his inventions just taught his theories and inventions at the university. Several years later Siemens invented both of above machines.

KÁLMÁN KANDÓ (1869–1931) Invention: PHASE-CHANGING, ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE, ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAYS

Kálmán Kandó was born in Buda and died in Budapest. He studied mechanical engineering in Budapest. He was the pioneer of railway-electrification. 4

Kandó's main invention is that three-phase alternating current can be used for the hauling of large trains.

His most marvelous invention is the phase-changing electric locomotive, which was named after him. The Kandó-locomotives are used in many countries of the world. The electric railways in Northern Italy and the section of the Hungarian State Railways between Budapest- Vienna (1929) were built on the basis of Kandó's invention.

TÓDOR KÁRMÁN (1881–1963) Invention: FATHER OF SUPERSONIC FLIGHT, ARCHITECT OF THE SPACE AGE

Tódor von Kármán a leading theoretician in aerodynamics was born in Budapest and died in Aachen Germany. After graduating in mechanical engineering in Budapest he went to study in Göttingen and became a professor.

During World War I. he was chief of research in the aviation corps of the Austro- Hungarian army. He developed the world's first military vehicle with rotating blades

57 the PKZ-type helicopter. After the war he was one of the founders of the German Luftwaffe and advisor to the Junkers airplane company. In 1929 he was invited to the United States and became director of the Guggenheim Aeronautics Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology. After World War II he was one of the founders of JET Propulsion Laboratory for space research.

Kármán had a leading role in the development of the B-36, B-47 and B-52 aircrafts, the Atlas, Titan and Minuteman rockets.

TIVADAR PUSKÁS (1844–1893) Invention: TELEPHONE EXCHANGE, “Speaking Newspaper”

Tivadar Puskás was born in Pest and died in Budapest. He studied in Vienna. According to Edison "Tivadar Puskás was the first man in the world who thought about a telephone exchange".

In 1878 he built the first telephone exchange in Boston then he built one in Paris and Budapest. Tivadar Puskás invented the multiple switch box which made it possible to interconnect any number of subscribers.

The “telephone newspaper” broadcasted news and music programs to subscribers via telephone network. From 1893 20 years before the invention of the radio people could listen to news and music daily.

KÁROLY ZIPERNOWSKY (1853–1942) Invention: MULTI PHASE CURRENT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Károly Zipernowsky was born in Vienna and died in Budapest. He started as a pharmacist. Later he graduated as a mechanical engineer in Budapest.

He invented the transformer together with Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri. They also developed the alternating current distribution system based on transformers connected in parallel.

At age 25 he was invited by the CEO of the Ganz factory to organize the electrical department. Under his leadership Ganz Works became Europe's first large-scale electrical factory and a globally recognized company. He wrote a book about his inventions.

58 Hungarian Noble Prize winners

Task 1.

After reading the introductory text you can understand that the Noble prize is awarded in only certain fields and you understand the concept of Nobel in relation to the prize itself. List the fields and summarize the concept mentioned.

Reading

Alfred Nobel, who gave his name to the highest scientific-cultural honour was born in Stockholm on 21st October 1833. A chemist of considerable renown, Nobel used the fortune he gained from the development of explosives and the industrial application of science to launch a foundation with a noble purpose. His last will and testament of 27th November 1895 raised a monument to his own memory, while also rendering a service to mankind. His intention was to reward the most prominent figures in the most diverse of fields, irrespective of nationality and taking only performance into consideration, including basic research in natural sciences and the creation of a peaceful society. Nobel died in San Remo on 10th December 1896. Thus, his last will entered into force and the first steps towards the establishment of the Nobel Foundation were made. The Swedish Royal Council in its decree of 29th June 1900 confirmed the statutes of this Foundation. The first Nobel Prizes were awarded in the first year of the 20th century, on 10th December 1901 the anniversary of Nobel's death.

Nobel founded five prizes, to be awarded in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and peace. These categories were complemented by a prize awarded for work in economic sciences, founded in memory of Alfred Nobel by the Bank of Sweden on the occasion of the 300th anniversary of its existence in 1968.. On receiving the prize, the recipients make a short speech of acknowledgement and, as part of the ceremony, they give a Nobel lecture on how they achieved their result. The Nobel Prize does not serve to honour an outstanding scientific career and the lifework of a scientist. According to Nobel’s, will that the prize is to be awarded for specific performances and results. The reasoning behind the awarding of the Nobel Prize always includes a sentence that accurately defines the specific performance that is recognised. (compiled on the basis of “Fact sheets on Hungary”, www.kum.hu)

Nobel Laureates of Hungarian Origin

Albert von Szent-Györgyi was the first scientist who travelled from Hungary to Stockholm to receive the highest-ranking scientific prize. 12 individuals of Hungarian origin were awarded this high- ranking distinction in the first century of the Nobel Prize. In 1995 the Hungarian Post issued a stamp on the centenary of the Nobel testament, and in 2001, the centenary of the presentation of the first Nobel Prize, a permanent exhibition in their honour opened in the Hungarian National Museum. The Nobel Prize was awarded to: Philipp E. A. von Lenard in physics in 1905, Robert Bárány in medicine in 1914, Richard A. Zsigmondy in chemistry in 1925, Albert von Szent-Györgyi in medicine in 1937, George de Hevesy in chemistry in 1943, Georg von ékésy in medicine in 1961, Eugene P. Wigner in physics in 1963, Dennis Gabor in physics in 1971, John C. Polanyi in chemistry in 1986, Elie Wiesel for peace in 1986, George A. Olah in chemistry in 1994 and John C. Harsanyi in economics in 1994.

As is apparent, scientists working in the natural sciences are dominant: three prizes in physics and physiology medicine each and four prizes in chemistry, one prize for peace and one prize for economics. Hungarian scientists are characterised by their interdisciplinarity. For example, Albert von Szent-Györgyi started in medicine and, through biochemistry, arrived at physics. Georg von Békésy did this the other way round: he was educated in physics and lectured as a professor of physics, worked as a telecommunications research engineer and, finally, he was granted the Nobel Prize for Physiology-Medicine. (see also: www.mta.hu/articles/hungary-nobel-prize-winners).

59 Task 2

In the Grand Hall of the University (building K) there is the memorial table dedicated to Noble Prize winners / students of our university. Relying on the text below find the description of their professional merits

Dennis Gabor (1900–1979) was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1971 “for his invention and development of the holographic method”. As a 10-year-old student, he applied for his first patent for a new type of merry-go-round. By perfecting millions of street lamps, he improved public lighting. He constructed a Wilson fog chamber to measure the speed of particles, he designed a holographic microscope, built an analogue calculator, and carried out pioneering work in the development of flat, colour TV picture tubes. His entire career is paved with a whole string of inventions.

Among them, it is holography that brought him the Nobel Prize and world reputation. He had been interested in the problem of the electron microscope right from his youth. In 1947, he linked two apparently far-removed fields; namely, the study of electron rays aimed at improving the electron microscope, and the study of information theory. He recognised that for perfect mapping, all the information present in the waves reflected from the object should be used - not just the intensity of waves, as the traditional devices did, but also the phase and amplitude of the wave. With this, a complete (holo) and stereoscopic (graph) picture can be obtained from the object. Dennis Gabor developed this and published his invention in 1948.

However, the widespread propagation of holography required the development of a coherent light source. This occurred in 1962 with the invention of the laser. Then, by combining laser technology and holography, laser holograms could be produced. Dennis Gabor also participated in this activity and, by means of his research work, he contributed to the opening of new perspectives in the field of text storage, letter and pattern recognition, as well as in associated information storage. At the exhibition arranged on the occasion of the awarding of the Nobel Prize, Dennis Gabor was able to present a three-dimensional self-portrait using laser technology. From the beginning, his interests also covered the theory of hearing and the problems of acoustic holography, which finally led him to the field of medicine.

In parallel with this, the interests and activities of this scientist with qualifications in physics and engineering became increasingly focused on the problems of industrial civilisation and the future of mankind as a whole.

George A. Olah (1927– ) was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1994, “for his contribution to carbocation chemistry”. In the field of modern organic chemistry, his activity disproved the dogma of the quatrovalency of carbon and opened up new ways of producing hydrocarbons. The production of lead-free petrol is of outstanding importance. George A. Olah completed his university studies at the Budapest Technical University, Faculty of Chemical Engineering. His examinations carried out here under the leadership of Professor Géza Zemplén (1883 - 1956) opened up a new Chapter in the chemistry of compounds that contain carbon atoms with a positive charge. He applied the theoretical knowledge gained during the examination of carbocations in industrial syntheses as well: he produced high-octane

60 hydrocarbons with branching chains from hydrocarbons with straight chains (poor quality and low- octane petroleum fractions). On his proposal, the ions containing positive carbon atoms are called collectively carbocations.

In recognition of his successful 12-year research activity, D.P. Locker and his wife as well as other sponsors founded a hydrocarbons chemical research institute for George A. Olah and his colleagues at the South California University in Los Angeles in 1976. Since then, the Locker Hydrocarbon Research Institute has been developing and growing under the leadership of professor Olah. He is a chemist who has connected basic research with industrial applications; who is at home in the complete innovation chain between universities and industrial companies; whose research activity has become an economic resource while preserving the environment and nature.

Nevertheless - together with the other Nobel Prize Laureates - he warns that our most important natural values are intellectual values, the most important value is human value, the civilised individual and a good education system. “I hope very much to be understood at home” - said Nobel Prize Laureate professor Olah speaking in America - “that in the approaching 21st century, which is not far now, the most important thing for every nation will be the knowledge of its youth. Therefore, training, teaching and education are of fundamental importance. In both the 19th and 20th centuries economic resources were the greatest influences on which nations were able to progress. I believe this will be replaced to a large extent in the 21st century by what a country can offer in the education and professional qualification of its young people.” “Investment needs to be made in the future, and the best investment a country can make is in the education of its young people.” (see also: elsevierconnect.com/nobel-laureate-george-olah)

Eugene P. Wigner (1902–1995) was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1963, shared with Maria Goeppert-Mayer (1906 - 1972) and Hans Daniel Jensen (1907 - 1973) “for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles”. Eugene P. Wigner pursued his grammar school studies in the famous Fasor evangelic grammar school in Budapest, and gained admission to the University of Berlin to become a chemical engineer according to the wishes of his father. In the twenties, Berlin was the centre of modern physics. Wigner also attended the classes and seminars of Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955), Max Planck (1858 - 1947) and Max von Laue (1879 - 1960). In Berlin, he prepared his doctoral thesis - a pioneering work in quantum-chemistry - under the guidance of Michael Polanyi (1891 - 1976). Having completed his university studies in Berlin, he returned home to utilise his qualification in his father’s tanning factory. When he learned that Werner Heisenberg (1901 - 1976) and Max Born (1882 - 1970) had developed the science of quantum mechanics, he returned to Berlin. With the help of his old teacher, Michael Polanyi, he joined the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute where he examined the problem: why do atoms “prefer” to sit in the symmetry planes and at symmetry points of crystals?

Starting from this, he was the first to realise that space-time symmetries play a central role in quantum mechanics. In his book entitled Group Theory and Its Application to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra he showed that all the significant precise results of quantum mechanics could be achieved through symmetry groups. This is also emphasised in the reasoning of the Nobel Prize awarded in 1963. In the thirties, Wigner travelled to the United States where he worked at Princeton University for the ext six decades. During the Second World War, he played an outstanding part in launching the atomic age and, after the war, in the peaceful and safe utilization of nuclear energy. It can be said that he was the first reactor engineer in the world. When he died, the New York Times, in a five-column article, commemorated “the man who introduced mankind to the atomic age and had the courage to re-tailor the science of sub-atomic particles”.

61 “He was one of those scientists endowed with remarkable imagination and foresight who were born and who studied in Budapest and came to the West to alter the modern world.”

Task 3

There is almost no Hungarian dish without paprika seasoning. How are paprika and the Nobel Prize related?

Albert Szent-Györgyi (1893–1986) was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1937 “for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid.” Szent-Györgyi’s discovery of vitamin C had a part to play in winning the prize; in fact, vitamin C in the quantity necessary for his research was obtained from Hungarian paprika. However, this represented only a sideline of his scientific activity.

Throughout his long career, Szent-Györgyi focussed his research on life and the essence of life. Energy is required for the functioning of a living organism. This energy is derived from the combustion of nutrients. At that time there were two schools of thought to explain the method of combustion. In the Warburg school, oxygen is activated while, according to the Wieland school, it is the hydrogen in the nutrient that is activated. Szent- Györgyi combined these two schools of thought and showed that the active oxygen oxidises the active hydrogen. This process consists of a long string of complicated reactions in which the energy of hydrogen atoms is progressively released during the sequence of step-by-step conversions. Szent- Györgyi devoted more than ten years to the examination of oxidoreduction processes. The discovery of a significant part of the oxidation chain-links was the basis on which he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

Following the presentation of the Nobel Prize in 1937, Szent-Györgyi did not rest on his laurels: in 1939, new research and discoveries were started. There is no doubt that the blossoming of muscular research in both Hungary and at the international level is linked with the results achieved by Szent- Györgyi and his school in Szeged. “The years 1940 to 1942 were a great success not only for Szent- Györgyi but also for us in what we were able to achieve with respect to the contraction of muscles. In my opinion, in the life of Szent-Györgyi, this success surpassed that rewarded by the Nobel Prize,” said Bruno Straub (1914 - 1996), a senior research worker in the former team of Szent-Györgyi and an internationally reputed scientist, who continued research in this field, while evaluating the results obtained half a century ago.

Their discovery achieved at that time is considered the beginning of modern muscular biology. After that, Szent-Györgyi rushed off to his laboratory every morning for a further 40 years, even after his emigration to the United States in 1947. The third field of his research became the illness that carried away his wife, his daughter and John von Neumann, his friend. He was still engaged in researching the secret of cancer at the age of 90. For Hungarians, he became the symbol - even during his lifetime - of a free spirited, humanist scientist.

Today Szeged university is named after him.

62 Task 4

Did you know that in 1955 Leó Szilárd (Hu) and Enrico Fermi (It) patented their nuclear reactor in the USA? The texts below explain why Hungarian scientists were nicknamed aliens and why Hungarian scientists involved in the Manhattan project were called the “Martians”.

Voice of Martians “Budapest, in the period of the two decades around World War I, proved to be an exceptionally fertile breeding ground for scientific talent. It is left for historians of science to discover and explain the conditions that catalyzed the emergence of so many brilliant individuals" – Stanislav Ulam has written, himself a member of the Manhattan Project to make the atomic bomb. Fritz Houtermans, who first recognized the nuclear origin of stellar power, has offered an "explanation": – " The galaxy of scientific minds, that worked on the liberation of nuclear power, were really visitors from Mars. They found it difficult to speak English without an alien accent, which would give them away, and therefore they chose to pretend to be Hungarian, whose inability to speak any language but Hungarian without a foreign accent is well known. It would be hard to check the above statement, because Hungary is so far away." In the 1990s the world commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the first man-made nuclear chain reaction in Chicago, the fiftieth anniversary of the explosion in Hiroshima, and the fiftieth anniversary of the electronic computer. The "story of the atomic bomb" was told repeatedly by citizens of various nations. Leo Szilard, author of The Voice of Dolphins once said: – "I am going to write down all that is going on in the Uranium Project, not for anyone to read, just for God." – Hans Bethe then asked: – "Don’t you think God knows the facts?" – whereupon Szilard replied, – "Maybe he does, but he does not know my version of the facts." Well, this is a Hungarian version of the human quest of nuclear power, for fast information processing, for a scientific understanding of life, based mostly on interviews with the participants involved. The author knew most of these men and interviewed them personally; he journeyed to Chicago and Alamogordo, to Los Alamos and Livermore, to Hiroshima and Nagasaki, to Chelyabinsk and Chernobyl. It will be left for historians in the 21st century to judge the facts and myths, intentions and consequences.”

63 Mathematicians

Task 1

As we have learned there is no Nobel prize for Mathematics, nevertheless the Hungarian achievements in this field are well known, for example those of the Abel prize winning prof. Szemeredi or Wolf prize winning prof Lovasz. The following text outlines some other achievements of Hungarians in this field.

Reading

On 1st July 2013 more than 400 mathematicians from all over the world arrived to Budapest to commemorate the 100th birthday of Paul Erdos, citizen of the world.

The Man Who Loved Only Numbers - The Story of Paul Erdős and the Search for Mathematical Truth

“Finally I am becoming stupider no more” - the epitaph Paul Erdős wrote for himself.

“Paul Erdős was one of those very special geniuses, the kind who comes along only once in a very long while yet he chose, quite consciously I am sure, to share mathematics with mere mortals--like me. And for this, I will always be grateful to him. I will miss the times he prowled my hallways at 4:00 a.m. and came to my bed to ask whether my "brain is open." I will miss the problems and conjectures and the stimulating conversations about anything and everything. But most of all, I will just miss Paul, the human. I loved him dearly. “–Tom Trotter.

Mathematicians, unlike other scientists, require no laboratory equipment - a practice that reportedly began with Archimedes, who, after emerging from his bath and rubbing himself with olive oil, discovered the principles of geometry by using his fingernails to trace figures on his oily skin. A Japanese restaurant, apparently, is as good a place as any to do mathematics. Mathematicians need only peace of mind and, occasionally, paper and pencil. "That's the beauty of it," Graham said. "You can lie back, close your eyes, and work. Who knows what problem Paul's thinking about now?"

"There was a time at Trinity College, in the 1930s I believe, when Erdős and my husband, Harold, sat thinking in a public place for more than an hour without uttering a single word," recalled Anne Davenport, the widow of one of Erdős's English collaborators. "Then Harold broke the long silence, by saying, `It is not nought. It is one.' Then all was relief and joy. Everyone around them thought they were mad. Of course, they were."

Before Erdős died, on September 20, 1996, at the age of eighty-three, he had managed to think about more problems than any other mathematician in history. He wrote or co-authored 1,475 academic papers, many of them monumental, and all of them substantial. It wasn't just the quantity of work that was impressive but the quality: "There is an old saying," said Erdős. "Non numerantur, sed ponclerantur (They are not counted but weighed). In the old [Hungarian] parliament of noblemen, they didn't count the votes: they weighed them. And this is true of papers. You know, Riemann had a very short list of papers, Godel had a short list. Gauss was very prolific, as was Euler, of course." Even in his seventies there were years when Erdős published fifty papers, which is more than most good mathematicians write in a lifetime. He proved that mathematics isn't just a young man's game.

Erdős structured his life to maximize the amount of time he had for mathematics. He had no wife or children, no job, no hobbies, not even a home, to tie him down. He lived out of a shabby suitcase and a

64 drab orange plastic bag from Centrum Aruhaz ("Central Warehouse"), a large department store in Budapest. In a never-ending search for good mathematical problems and fresh mathematical talent, Erdős crisscrossed four continents at a frenzied pace, moving from one university or research center to the next. His modus operandi was to show up on the doorstep of a fellow mathematician, declare, "My brain is open," work with his host for a day or two, until he was bored or his host was run down, and then move on to another home.

Erdős's motto was not "Other cities, other maidens" but "Another roof, another proof." He did mathematics in more than twenty-five different countries, completing important proofs in remote places and sometimes publishing them in equally obscure journals.

Erdős would let nothing stand in the way of mathematical progress. When the name of a colleague in California came up at breakfast in New Jersey, Erdős remembered a mathematical result he wanted to share with him. He headed toward the phone and started to dial. His host interrupted him, pointing out that it was 5:00 A.M. on the West Coast. "Good," Erdős said, " that means he'll be home."

The only possessions that mattered to him were his mathematical notebooks. He filled ten of them by the time he died.

But outside mathematics, Erdős's inquisitiveness was limited to necessities like eating and driving; he had no time for frivolities like sex, art, fiction, or movies. Erdős last read a novel in the 1940s, and it was in the 1950s that he apparently saw his last movie. Once in a while the mathematicians he stayed with forced him to join their families on nonmathematical outings, but he accompanied them only in body. "I took him to the Johnson Space Center to see rockets," one of his colleagues recalled, "but he didn't even look up." Another mathematician took him to see a mime troupe, but he fell asleep before the performance started. Melvyn Nathanson, whose wife was a curator at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, dragged Erdős there. "We showed him Matisse," said Nathanson, "but he would have nothing to do with it. After a few minutes we ended up sitting in the Sculpture Garden doing mathematics." – Paragraphs from The Man Who Loved Only Numbers, 1998, The New York Times, Paul Hoffman. ISBN: 0-7868-6362-5

65 Something on inventiveness

Task 1

Find examples of inventiveness in everyday life around you. The Rubik’s cube might serve as an example.

Reading

The Rubik’s Cube

Rubik's Cube is a 3-D combination puzzle invented in 1974 by Hungarian designer and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik. Originally called the "Magic Cube" the puzzle was licensed by Rubik to be sold by Ideal Toy Corp. In 1980 the cube won the German Game of the Year special award for Best Puzzle that year.

As of January 2009, 350 million cubes had been sold worldwide making it the world's top-selling puzzle game. It is widely considered to be the world's best-selling toy. The classic Rubik's Cube, each of the six faces is covered by nine stickers, each of one of six solid colours (traditionally white, red, blue, orange, green, and yellow, where white is opposite yellow, blue is opposite green, and orange is opposite red, and the red, white and blue are arranged in that order in a clockwise arrangement). An internal pivot mechanism enables each face to turn independently, thus mixing up the colours. For the puzzle to be solved, each face must be returned to consisting of one colour. Similar puzzles have now been produced with various numbers of sides, dimensions, and stickers, not all of them by Rubik.

Although the Rubik's Cube reached its height of mainstream popularity in the 1980s, it is still widely known and used. Many speedcubers continue to practice it and other twisty puzzles and compete for the fastest times in various categories. Since 2003, The World Cube Association, the Rubik's Cube's international governing body, has organized competitions and kept the official world records. (www.allinfoplace.com/infinite-combination-to-solve-ru)

A giant Rubik's Cube floats in the Hudson River to celebrate the 70th birthday of Ernő Rubik and the 40th anniversary of the invention of the famous cube

66 Further ideas for discussion:

• Did you know that it was in 1897 that the first Hungarian woman earned her medical degree? Is science andtechnology still a man’s world even though that more than 50 % of applicants to higher education are girls? What is the situation in your country? • Did you know that “GÖMBÖC” and “MASAT” were invented at BME? Find out what they are. • Why is it especially difficult for a Hungarian writer to become internationally known? (see Nobel prize laureate Imre Kertész’s novel Fatelessness)

Portfolio Development for Chapter 6

Options • From the random list of inventors and scientists in Chapter 6 choose some (or one in detail) and prove how their inventions have had an impact on today’s everyday practice in Hungary and/or worldwide (example: the “biro”/ball point pen). Make a list of inventions together with their field of application. Illustrate your observations. • Scientists and researchers of international renown have very high reputations in their homecountries. Find evidence for this statement on the basis of your everyday experiences (monuments, street names, books, exhibitions etc.) • Find out about recent developments at our university in Hungary with regard to best practices (example: visit departments, interview developers, search for references, personal evaluation.) • Many lecture halls at the BME bear the names of famous professors. Tour the campus and do research on the contribution of these people to the fame of the BME and Hungarian science. (example: the Simonyi Hall) • Budapest has about 120 museums, many of which are specialized in particular fields of science and technology .Thematic visits are recommended To gain insights into specific topics. Recommended places to visit: • Hungarian Transport Museum • Museum of the first Underground in Europe • Óbuda Textile Museum • Dreher Beer Museum • Museum of Electrotechnology • Semmelweis Museum of Medical History • Miksa Róth Memorial Museum (stained glass) • Foundry Museum • Zwack Unicum Heritage and Visitor Center • University departments • Different technological“sights”: e.g. railway stations, cogwheel train (rack railway)

• A tour of of old structures converted for new uses: the A38 boat, “Trafo” the old transformer house, the Millennium Exhibition Center • The impact of different technological innovations on the face of the city e.g.stained glass windows glazed ceramics, Zsolnay tile of churches and public institutions, steel structures of Nyugati railway station and central market-hall. Report on your observations. • Search for literature dedicated to the anniversary of the Rubik’s cube and comment on your experience.

67 Chapter 7 - Hungarian Sport and Sportsmen

Task 1 (group discussion) • What sports have Hungarians been successful in? (see: Fact Sheets on Hungary) • In which year could Hungary not participate in the Olympics? • Why is the Olympic idea so important for Hungarians?

Use the texts below and other sources to help you.

Reading 1

At the main entrance of the swimming stadium of Margaret Island there is the marble table of the first Hungarian Olympic champion among many others who won in swimming or water polo. Hajós was an architect and graduated at our university. After his victory Hungarian swimmers won 23 gold, 23 silver and 17 bronze medals making Hungary the third most successful nation in swimming. The best Hungarian swimmers were Krisztina Egerszegi, Tamás Darnyi and Zoltán Halmay who produced all together as many as 20 medals at Olympics.

Hajós was born in Budapest, Hungary. He was 13 years old when he felt compelled to become a good swimmer after his father drowned in the Danube River.

In 1896, Hajós was an architecture student in Hungary when the Athens Games took place. He was allowed to compete, but permission from the university to miss class was difficult to obtain. When he returned to the Dean of the University, the dean did not congratulate Hajós on his Olympic success, but instead said: "Your medals are of no interest to me, but I am eager to hear you at your exams." (see also: www.in.com/alfred-hajos/profile)

At the 1896 Games, the swimming events were held in the Mediterranean Sea battling the elements. The 18-year old Hajós won his two gold medals in extremely cold weather (the water temperature was 13 degrees Celsius) with 12-foot (4 m) waves crashing down on him. He won the 100 meter freestyle with a time of 1:22.2, and the 1,200 meter freestyle in 18:22.1. Hajós wanted to win all three distances, but the 500 metre freestyle was immediately after the 100 and immediately before the 1,200. Before the 1,200 meter race, he smeared his body with a half-inch (one centimeter) thick layer of grease, but it proved to be of little protection against the cold. He confessed after winning the race that, "My will to live completely overcame my desire to win." While at a dinner honoring Olympic winners, the Crown Prince of Greece asked Hajós where he had learned to swim so well. Hajós replied, "In the water." The next morning, the Athenian journal Acropolis depicted Alfréd with the subtitle: "Hungarian Dolphin". He was the youngest winner in Athens.

Prior to the Athens Olympics, Hajós was the 100 meter freestyle European swimming champion in 1895 and 1896.

A versatile athlete, he won Hungary's 100 meter sprint championship in 1898, as well as the National 400 meter hurdles and discus titles. He also played forward on Hungary's national soccer championship teams of 1901, 1902, 1903 - and played in the first international match of Hungarian national team, against Austria in Vienna on 12 October 1902. Between 1897 and 1904 he was also a football referee, and during 1906 he was the coach of Hungary's national football team.

In 1924, Hajós, an architect specializing in sport facilities, entered the art

68 competitions at the Paris Olympic Games. His plan for a stadium, devised together with Dezső Lauber (who played tennis in the 1908 Summer Olympics), was awarded the silver medal; the jury did not award a gold medal in the competition. Thus making him one of only two Olympians ever to have won medals in both sport and art Olympic competitions.

The best known sports facility designed by Hajós is the swimming stadium built on Margitsziget (Margaret Island) in the Danube in Budapest, which was built in 1930, and used for the 1958, 2006 and 2010 European Aquatics Championships, 2006 FINA Men's Water Polo World Cup, 2014 LEN Water Polo European Championship.

In 1953, the International Olympic Committee awarded Alfred Hajós the Olympic diploma of merit. He is a member of the International Swimming Hall of Fame in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

His brother, Henrik Hajós, won gold medal in 4x250 m freestyle swimming at 1906 Olympic Games in Athens.

Reading 2

The beginnings of the Olympic movement in Hungary go back further than the 1896 Games in Athens. Hungarian Ferenc Kemény, a pacifist and member of the International Peace Bureau, was one of Pierre de Coubertin's first kindred spirits with whom he struck up a close friendship in the 1880's. An influential educator and modern, innovative reformer who strongly believed in the “pedagogical value of physical education, pacifism and the universality of human relationships,” he became one of the founding members of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), serving as its first secretary.

In 1896 Hungary would celebrate the 1000th anniversary of the founding of the Hungarian nation. The preparation for the huge series of celebrations had started years earlier. Budapest had been modernized into a “metropolis”; the road system was modernized, new public and residence buildings were built, new public transportation was introduced, the urban electricity and sewer system were built, and by 1896, the first underground railway of the continent (that is only the second after London) was built. During his first year at the Ministry of Culture Kemény already mentioned that joining the Olympic movement was a good opportunity for propaganda concerning the thousand-year-old Hungarian nation and the idea of having the Olympic Games in Hungary was also suggested. Since there were problems

69 in Athens concerning organization, Coubertin agreed to the idea of having the Olympic Games in Budapest in his letter written to Kemény in November, 1894.

Kemény had to turn to the new Minister of Culture, the famous physician, Loránd Eötvös in December 1894 who, following his advisors’ view, turned down the proposal. The argument was that if the Greek nation, with its tradition in sports, hesitated in the matter, the Hungarians should not take part in such a risky business, which, by the way, was a costly one.

Finally the games were organized in Athens as a result of active lobbying of Coubertin. Unluckily since that time Hungary have not got the chance to host the Olympic Games.

Kemény’s bust is found in the yard of TF (University of Physical Education) next to that of Coubertin.

70 Olympic medals won by Hungary

167 144 165

(www.sporttudomány.hu/kiadványok) With 486 medals (including winter games and art competition) Hungary is the 8th most successful nation at Olymic Games and the most successful which never hosted the Olympics. The below table illustrates the number of olympic medals won by Hungarians at Summer Games. Hungary – for political reasons - did not take part in the Games in 1920 and 1984. Game Gold Silver Bronze 1896, Athens 2 1 3 1900, Paris 1 2 2 1904, St. Louis 2 1 1 1908, London 3 4 2 1912, Stockholm 3 2 3 1920, Antwerp - - - 1924, Paris 2 3 4 1928, Amsterdam 4 5 0 1932, Los Angeles 6 4 5 1936, Berlin 10 1 5 1948, London 10 5 12 1952, Helsinki 16 10 16 1956, Melbourne 9 10 7 1960, Rome 6 8 7 1964, Tokyo 10 7 5 1968, Mexico City 10 10 12 1972, Munich 6 13 16 1976, Montreal 4 5 13 1980, Moscow 7 10 15 1984, Los Angeles - - - 1988, Seoul 11 6 6 1992, Barcelona 11 12 7 1996, Atlanta 7 4 10 2000, Sydney 8 6 3 2004, Athens 8 6 3 2008, Beijing 3 5 2 2012, London 8 4 6 Total 167 144 165 Average 7 6 7

Going for Gold - Hungary at the Olympics visitbudapest-travel)

71 Reading 3

Hungarian water polo team is one of the best in the world collecting a total of 15 medals (9-3-3) It is one of toughest team sports that require strength, stamina and quick thinking. Hungary won the world championship in Barcelona 2013.

Canoe-kayak is the third olympic sport Hungarians are great in since 1936 Hungarians won 19 gold, 27 silver and 25 bronze medals, makinh Hungary the third in the line of Olympic kayaking nations.

Krisztina Egerszegi (born 16 August 1974 in Budapest) is a former world recorder swimmer and one of the greatest Hungarian Olympic champions. She is a three-time Olympian (1988, 1992 and 1996) and five time Olympic champion as well as one of three individuals (Dawn Fraser and Michael Phelps being other two) to have ever won the same swimming event at three Summer Olympics. Her 1988 winning in Seoul became one of the greatest TV-moments in Hungary. The famous phrase "Come on Little Mouse! Come on little girl!" ("Gyerünk Egérke! Gyerünk kicsi lány!") of the speaker is part of the popular culture. Egerszegi is still regarded as the role model of the "champion" in the country. The above picture illustrates Krisztina Egerszegi in Seoul as a 15 year old winner among the East-German swimmers.

Task 2 (group discussion on the topic of “Magnificent Magyars”) (www.britannica.com/Magnificent Magyars) Reading 4

The Golden Team (Hungarian: Aranycsapat; also known as the Magical Magyars, the Marvelous Magyars, the Magnificent Magyars, or the Mighty Magyars) refers to the Hungary’s national football team of the 1950s. It is associated with several notable matches, including the "Match of the Century" against England in 1953, and the quarter-final ("Battle of Berne") against Brazil, semi-final (against Uruguay) and final ("Miracle of Berne") of the 1954 FIFA World Cup. The team inflicted notable defeats on then footballing world powers England, Uruguay and the Soviet Union, before the 1956 Hungarian Revolution caused the breakup of the side.

Between 1950 and 1956, the team recorded 42 victories, 7 draws and just one defeat, in the 1954 World Cup final against West Germany.

The team is generally credited for successfully implementing an early form of "Total Football", later used by the Dutch in the 1970s. The team is also generally recognized for introducing new coaching and tactical innovations, which were subsequently adopted throughout the game. It was also considered emblematic of socialist principles and ideals by communist authorities in the propaganda war with the West.

72 Read the story of two famous matches of the team below:

A friendly match was arranged for 25 November 1953 against England. England had never been defeated on home soil by a team from outside the British Isles, and the FA were complacent - as the inventors of the game - they were assured that their players were technically and tactically superior to any other countries. At the time, England were ranked as the 3rd best team in the world; Hungary were ranked as the best team in the world. The game was eagerly anticipated; the British Press reported it as "the Match of the Century".

The game was played in front of 105,000 in Wembley Stadium. Hungary simply demolished England; they scored in the first minute, and after 27 minutes they were 4-1 up. The final score was 6-3, with a hat-trick from Hidegkuti, two goals from Puskás and one from Bozsik. It was a footballing lesson that sent shockwaves through English football, and which ultimately caused English clubs to adopt continental coaching and tactics.

1954 World Cup Quarter Final: "Battle of Berne" (Brazil vs. Hungary 1954) (see also: www.fifa.com/classicfootball/matches)

Hungary met Brazil in an eagerly anticipated quarter final; both sides had a reputation for open, attacking football. The Brazilians had lost the 1950 World Cup final to Uruguay, and were anxious to reach the final again.

Unfortunately, the game was notable for the number of cynical fouls performed by both sides rather than as an exhibition of footballing technique; Hungary took a 2-0 lead after 7 minutes, and after that the game descended into a series of fouls, free kicks and fights on the pitch resulting in three dismissals. The game ended 4-2 to Hungary. Fighting continued off the pitch in the tunnels and in the players dressing rooms.

The game's English referee Arthur Ellis commented: "I thought it was going to be the greatest game I'd ever see. I was on top of the world. Whether politics and religion had something to do with it I don't know, but they behaved like animals. It was a disgrace. It was a horrible match. In today's climate so many players would have been sent off the game would have been abandoned. My only thought was that I was determined to finish it."

From the Magnificent Magyars only the keeper Gyula Grosics and the full back Jenő Buzánszky live today.

Task 3 (group discussion)

Discuss the role of Ferenc “Pancho” Puskás in creating the dream of the Magnificent Magyars. How did history affect the life of this sporting genius? What is the message of his activity for today’s generation?

Reading

"Look at that little fat chap. We'll murder this lot." In the long and inglorious annals of great British sporting disasters, few judgments have been wider of the mark. "Fat and little" were as close as those remarks, from an England player, got to anything resembling the truth as he sized up the opposition. (www.dailymail.co.uk)

73 Ninety minutes later Hungary had slaughtered England 6-3. They were the first foreign team to inflict defeat on England at Wembley. And what a defeat. It wasn't just the score. The style of football played by the Magnificent Magyars might as well have come from another planet. England, self-styled masters of the game, were humiliated.

The "little fat chap" was Ferenc Puskas, the Hungarian captain. Indeed, he was an odd looking footballer. He was short, stocky, barrel-chested, overweight, couldn't head and only used one foot. Yet no one in Britain had seen ball skills like his as he inspired a performance that completely demolished England's reputation as a world football power.

Puskas was known as the Galloping Major, a reference to the fact that he was an army officer playing for an army team. Later, when he was exiled in Spain, he became known as the little canon. For that one foot, his left, packed such a thunderbolt shot that he scored 83 goals in 84 internationals and he remains the only player to have scored four goals in a European Cup Final.

Puskas was born in Budapest in April 1927 and had been something of a boy wonder, making his debut for his father's old team Kispest at the age of 16. At 18 he was an international, appearing for Hungary against Austria in 1945.

Kispest Honved became the most successful club in Europe in the days before the European Cup and that club side was to form the basis of the national team. That first season, Puskas scored 50 goals as he won the first of his four Hungarian Championships with Honved.

Puskas was captain of his country when they took the soccer gold medal by defeating Yugoslavia in the final at Helsinki in 1952.

By 1954, Hungary were the hot favorites to win the World Cup in Switzerland. They hadn't lost for four years and scored 17 goals in their first two games when the finals began. First they beat South Korea 9-0, then handed out an 8-3 hammering to West Germany - one of the more fancied teams in the competition. However, Puskas was injured by the West German center-half Werner Liebrich and missed the quarter-final against Brazil, a match that became known as the Battle of Berne.

Puskas's damaged ankle kept him from the semi-final against Uruguay, which Hungary won 4-2 in extra time. And so to the final - against West Germany, the team they had annihilated in the early rounds.

Nonetheless, Hungary led 2-0 after just eight minutes, the second goal coming from Puskas. But their game began to go awry. Germany pulled back to 2-2, then took the lead through Rahn. The turning point came when Puskas found a gap and slid the ball past the German keeper Turek. Welsh linesman Mervyn Griffiths had his flag up. The goal was disallowed for offside. West Germany had won 3-2 and caused one of the football upsets of the century. Hungary, having conquered all before them, had lost the one that really mattered - the World Cup Final.

Back at Honved, Puskas became even better known in Western Europe as his club travelled abroad playing exhibition matches.

In 1956 Puskas was with the rest of his Honved team-mates in Spain when the revolution took place. They had been playing a European Cup tie against Bilbao and Puskas, along with Kocsis and Czibor, left for the West. He was rescued by Real Madrid. The famous "royals" in their all-white strip had been turned into a club that dominated Europe by the vision of their president, Santiago Bernabeu.

74 They had won the first European Cup in 1956 and had retained it the following year. Among their star players were centre-forward Alfredo Di Stefano, a naturalized Argentinian, and Francisco Gento, the flying winger. In 1958, 31-year-old Puskas joined them, receiving a Ł10,000 signing-on fee. Overweight? Maybe. A has-been? Hardly.

The player rejected by the Italians struck up a sensational partnership with Di Stefano and was four times the leading scorer in the Spanish Championship. The climax of this outstanding Real side was the 1960 European Cup Final played before 135,000 at Hampden Park.

In one of the truly memorable matches, Real beat Eintracht Frankfurt 7-3. Di Stefano scored a hat-trick. Puskas went one better, getting four goals. Real had won the European Cup five times in a row.

Puskas was to play in one more European Cup Final, for Real Madrid against Benfica in 1962. Benfica won 5-3 . Puskas, aged 35, scored all three goals for Real! In 39 European matches for Real, he scored an amazing 35 goals.

The same year he was picked to play for Spain in the World Cup Finals in Chile. Puskas continued to play for Real until 1966 when he retired to concentrate on coaching. He had only mediocre success until 1971 when he took the Greek Champions Panathinaikos to the European Cup Final where they lost 2-0 to Ajax at Wembley. - (Source: Hall of Fame)

Puskás returned at first to Hungary in 1981 and finally settled down in his home land in early 1990s. For some matches he was the coach of Hungarian national team. He died in Budapest in 2006.

The national stadium – former name People’s Stadium – where Puskas played many memorable matches and scored important goals was also named after him.

His sculpture illustrates the moment as he played with little boys in Madrid in 1960s.

75 Task 4 (group discussion)

Is a genius born or trained? (The Polgár girls in chess.)

Reading

(from self-portrait of Judit Polgár, greatest woman chess player of all time)

“Practically from the moment of my birth, on July 23, 1976, I became involved in an educational research project. Even before I came into the world, my parents had already decided: I would be a chess champion. My sister Susan had been a successful player for years, winning one tournament after another. Based on educational studies, our parents decided that their children’s lives and careers would be a living example, that would prove that any healthy child – if taught early and intensively - can be brought up to be exceptionally successful in any field. In our case, this meant having a chess career.

Thus, my biography essentially consists of achievements as a chess player. I was nine when I first won an international chess tournament, and at the age 12 and 14, I won the boys’ World Chess Championship in my age groups. I was only 12 when – for the first time in the history of Hungarian chess – the national women’s team, including my two sisters Susan and Sofia, won the Olympic gold medal. Two years later, in 1990, we repeated this performance with the same teenage team.

Ever since that second Olympic gold medal, I have competed only against men. At the age of 15 I broke the record of Bobby Fischer, by becoming the youngest international chess Grandmaster ever. On six occasions, I represented the Hungarian "men’s" national team at chess Olympiads. In 2002 we won the silver medal in Slovenia. I have defeated world chess champions Spassky, Karpov, Kasparov, Topalov and Anand in international tournaments, matches and rapid competitions. In 2011, I became No. 1 on the women’s world ranking list for the 50th time. I have managed to keep this position as the best woman chess player since 1989. My highest rank on the World Men's Rating List was 8th in 2005. I was awarded the Chess Oscar seven times, and was elected Woman Chess Player of the Century. I won the individual bronze medal at the European Championship in 2011.

In the past few years, I have been able to add some “standard” items to my CV: In 2000, I married a wonderful man and veterinarian by profession. We now have two children, Oliver and Hanna. Thus, not only is my CV now more comprehensive, but my whole life has become richer.

In recent years as an ambassador of Chess in School project in the European Union I have made a lot of efforts to introduce chess as an educational tool. I authored two children's books on chess, Chess Playground 1-2 together with my sister, Sofia.

In 2012 I established the Judit Polgar Chess Foundation for Educational Benefits to bring chess as an educational tool to children in schools throughout the world by providing a unique and complex chess curriculum and enrichment programs focusing on the cross curricular links. I also designed the Chess Palace educational program that was integrated into the National Curriculum in Hungary, and made ”Skill-building Chess” subject available for elementary schools from September 2013. I have also developed an elementary student book and workbook series called “Chess Palace” for 1-4 grade students. In March 2013 I was awarded the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary Commander's Cross with Star.” (Source: www.polgarjudit.hu )

The three Polgár sisters Judit, Zsófia and Zsuzsa, champions of chess.

76 Attachment

Olympic champions of BME

Alfréd Hajós 1896 swimming Lajos Werkner 1908, 1912 fencing Sándor Pósta 1924 fencing Gyula Glykais 1928, 1932 fencing Barta István 1932 water polo Sándor Tarics 1936 water polo László Rajcsányi 1936, 1948, 1952 fencing Aladár Kovácsi 1952 modern pentathlon László Fábián 1956 kayak-canoe Attila Keresztes 1956 fencing Gábor Delneky 1960 fencing Imre Nagy 1960 modern pentathlon László Felkai 1964 water polo Zoltán Dömötör 1964 water polo Győző Kulcsár 1964,1968 2x,1972 fencing Tibor Cservenyák 1976 water polo Antal Kovács 1992 judo Zoltán Szécsi 2000, 2004, 2008 water polo Tamás Molnár 2004, 2008 water polo

See also: Műegyetemi Olimpikonok, BME Budapest 2000, muszakiegyetem.blog.hu/2010/08/08

77 Portfolio Development for Chapter 7.

As you could see in Chapter 7, sport has a special importance in Hungary and famous sportsmen/women are held in high esteem.

Options: • Tours to places of interest “to prove the statement above” would include visits to stadiums, swimming pools, skating rinks, statues and memorials of famous sportsman/women. Illustrate your observations. • Visit the Table of Fame of Sportsmen/women in the K Building of the BME. Visit the BME Sport Centre and “Tüskecsarnok” and report on the importance of sport in university life. • Compare the importance of sport in your home country and in Hungary (facts, figures, observations).

Aerial view of “Tüskecsarnok” on campus

78 CHAPTER 8 - Hungarian Holidays, Celebrations, Festivals

Task 1

Scan the list of holidays below and highlight the holidays coming in the near future. Describe the holidays you have in your country at the same period of time. Read about the ways these holidays are celebrated, and highlight some features which are special for you about the celebrations in November / December.

Reading

January 1 – New Year's Eve (Szilveszter) and New Year's Day (Újév) Besides the standard merry-making, there is also a New Year's ball and concert at the Hungarian State Opera House in Budapest. Stalls on the streets of Budapest sell masks and noisy paper trumpets. (Details below)

Early January - Ash Wednesday The ball season starts – formal balls are held all over the country.

February – Farsang Costume parties and carnivals take place all month long to mark the end of winter, especially on the last Saturday in February. City festivities usually include carnival, parade and open-air music concert.

March 8 – Women's Day – Nőnap Men give flowers to women both at home and work.

March 15 – Anniversary of the 1848 Revolution – 1848-as Forradalom és Szabadságharc The revolution against Habsburg domination which later led to fight for freedom against Austria and its allies. After the defeat the Austrian retorsion included the execution of 13 generals of the Hungarian revolutionary army and of 5 civilian leaders. One of them was the first prime-minister, count Lajos Batthyany. Each year on March 15, the Hungarian tricolors of red, white, and green are prominently displayed all over the country. People gather at the Petöfi Statue and the National Museum to remember the revolt.

March or April Easter – Húsvét Easter is an important religious holiday in Hungary. The day before families with children paint easter-eggs of all styles and color. Children find small gifts Sunday morning. A traditional breakfast follows of eggs, ham, braided cake bread, horse-radish. Many families go to church this morning to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus Christ.

On Monday, many people carry on the tradition of "sprinkling". While once young men used to pour buckets of water over young women's heads, today they spray perfume or water and then ask for a kiss and a red egg. Painted eggs as well as chocolate-ones are exchanged.

April or May – Pentecost - Pünkösd Pentecost is the great festival that marks the birth of the Christian church by the power of the Holy Spirit. Pentecost means "fiftieth day" and is celebrated fifty days after Easter.

May 1 Labour Day Labor Day – A munka ünnepe May Day on May 1 is an ancient Northern Hemisphere spring festival and usually a public holiday;[1] it is also a traditional spring holiday in many cultures. May Day coincides

79 with International Workers' Day, and in many countries that celebrate the latter, it may be referred to as "May Day".

First Sunday in May Mother's Day – Anyák napja Mothers receive flowers, sometimes hand-picked and other presents, usually handmade from their children on this day.

Last Sunday in May Children's Day – Gyermeknap Parents take children on special outings to places such as the Zoo, fun fairs, or on hiking.

June 30 – Withdrawal of Soviet Troops – A szovjet csapatok kivonása This day marks the final withdrawal of Soviet troops from Hungary in 1991.

August 20 – St. Stephen's Day – Szent István napja In the year of 1000, Hungary’s first king, the Christian St Stephen, was crowned this day, and the Hungarian (Magyar) state was founded. A case containing the right hand of St. Stephen is carried in a procession from the St Stephens Cathedral through the streets of Budapest. Traditionally, the first bread from the new harvest is baked for this day. Celebrations include parades, music and other festivities. An impressive fireworks show is held over the Danube.

October 23 – 1956 Remembrance Day and Declaration of the Republic – Az 1956-os forradalom napja This national holiday commemorates the outbreak of the people's uprising against Soviet domination in 1956 which was led by students who wanted to change the political system. The new prime minister, Imre Nagy withdrew from the Warsaw Pact of “communist” countries. Soviet troops invaded. Hungary appealed for UN assistance against Soviet invasion, but only received verbal help. UN demanded USSR leave Hungary. In November, after lots of bloodshed, the Hungarian revolution was put down by the powerful Red Army of the Soviet Union. Imre Nagy and many other leaders and participants were executed by the soviet regime, hundreds of people died and thousands left the country. Soviet troops stayed in Hungary until 1991. When Hungary became an independent republic in 1989, October 23 was day on which independence was proclaimed.

November 1 – All Saints' Day – Mindenszentek napja People remember their deceased loved ones by lighting candles at their graves in cemeteries.

December 6 – Santa Claus (St. Nicholas') Day – Mikulás See details below.

December 24 to 26 Christmas Christmas – Karácsony The traditional family Christmas celebration with dinner and exchange of gifts takes place on the eve of December 24th. The 25th and 26th are public holidays when relatives visit each other.

80 Task 2 (group discussion)

Discuss your personal experiences in everyday life related to preparations for the holidays of the season (in the street, in shops, during social events,theatre and movie programs)

Task 3

Topics for discussion on the basis of the text “December holidays” and information you have already acquired.

1. Who is Mikulás? Is he the same figure as Santa Claus, St. Nikolaus or Father Christmas? When does he visit children in Hungary? How do children prepare for this visit?

2. What is the timing of Christmas celebrations? Is there a Boxing Day? When are presents due? Who brings the presents to the children? Are holidays very commercialized?

3. Outline some of the special meals of the season!

Reading

Holidays in December

Some of these traditions trace their origins to the pre-Christian era, that is, before 1000 A.D. But all these traditions usually have a religious base or a folk custom base, and are often related to events expected in the near future, or to the expected harvest of the following year. In the last several decades, most of these folk traditions have disappeared from every day life, although some traces may remain in the smaller villages. However, in the recent past, several artistic, cultural, and folk groups have revived interest in preserving these traditions, which they promulgate by means of performances, books, and videos.One typical feature is that although many customs are are closely linked to the Christen faith they still retain some pagan elements.

There are many traditions associated with Christmas and New Year among these typically Hungarian Nativity Custom (Betlehemezés). Hundreds of years ago mystery plays were enacted in Churches in order to retell and reveal the story of the birth of Christ, but later they were banned because of pagan associations. The special thing is this is an active tradition even today mostly in villages.It is a pastoral play.Players accompanied by a miniature Betlehem stable with model of baby Jesus, Mary, Joseph, three kings and animals knock ont he door of neighbours and act the story of the birth of Christ. The actors are rewarded with food and drinks, maybe some money.

Advent is the period when Christian peoples await Christmas. In Hungary people display Advent wreaths and they can be seen everywhere: stores, schools, offices, and in almost every home. People make their own wreaths or purchase them. They come with 4 candles, and every Sunday until Christmas people light one additional candle.

Children (like in German –speaking countries) often receive Advent calendars," too. Some calendars have a tiny window for each day of advent with a small gift behind every widow.

81 Mikulás

Mikulás has no duties on Christmas.(unlike Santa). The Mikulás is also the "name day" of "Miklós" or Nicholas in the Christian calendar and comes on 6th of December. Children get candy and chocolate in red wrappings. As you have read above it is a still prevailing tradition that the Mikulás is leaving candy or other small goodies in children's shoes or boots, which the children have set out overnight, usually by a window. If they have been "good," they might get candies, tangerines, or chocolates, and sometimes small presents, toys, or books. (This custom may sound similar, but children in Hungary do not hang stockings by the chimney for Santa to fill on Christmas Eve.) Santa Claus and X-mas are celebrated in schools from a very early age(even in nurseries) Here are two very simple nursery rhymes for Santa Claus and for X-mas (lyrics are to be listened)

Luca day

Another folk tradition is "Luca Nap" or "Luca (Lucia) Day." Many superstitions and customs are related to the 13th of December, for one, because of the number 13, and also according to some, it is the traditional night for evil spirits - since it is the longest night of the year. For girls, many customs related to Luca Nap can foretell something about their future husband. One such custom is still popular.

A girl takes 12 slips of paper. On 11 of the slips, she writes 11 different boys' names, one per slip, and one slip is left empty. The girl then rolls up all the slips and places them in a box. Then, every evening until the 24th, she will take out one slip of paper and burn it - but she must not unroll it and look at the name beforehand!

She may look only at the last one - they one she unrolled on the eve of the 24th - and it will contain the name of her future husband. If she ends up with the empty slip, this means she won't ever get married. Then there are some Luca Day customs forr everyone - and many involve weather, wealth and money.

Christmas

The Christmas tree is bought a day to a week (or two in some extreme cases) before Christmas Eve and stored outside in the cold - all wrapped up, so it will last longer. In Hungary on December 24th (Christmas Eve), everything closes around noon, or by 4 PM at the latest. All public transportation stops as well. People get home by that time, and start putting up the tree. (It's rarely done before the 24th - You will not see decorated Christmas trees in homes in Hungary before December 24. So, the afternoon and early evening of Christmas Eve is occupied by decorating the tree, together, with the family, or it is the father’s duty when kids are small. Traditional Hungarian tree lights have always included candles and sparklers.

According to Hungarian custom, Christmas tree decorations always include very special holiday candies, wrapped in bright gold, red, or other colored foil and tied with bows, called Szaloncukor. These are chocolate on the outside, with marzipan, raspberry, orange or other flavored jellies inside.

Some time before Christmas, Hungarian children have already written their letters to baby Jesus, or "Jézuska," much in the same way American children might write letters to Santa Claus. They tell baby Jesus what presents they want for Christmas.

Little Jesus and the angels bring not only the tree but also gifts for good children. Usually, on Christmas Eve children are banished for several hours from the room in which the tree will be put up, and the gifts put under it. Once the tree and gifts are ready, parents ring a little bell to announce that „Jézuska” has arrived! Children run in excitedly and receive their gifts.

82 Other adult family members have already placed their gifts for each other under the tree. So, after the tree is lit, and the presents are opened, families celebrate the rest of the evening together.mostly within the close family. Christmas is a 3 day holiday, and larger families and close friends visit each other. People usually spend the first of the two following days with their close families having a big festive meal. The next day (26) is the same, but people usually get together with extended family members.

Christmas cuisine in Hungary.

Traditional Christmas eve dinner usually called for some sort of fish, dating from the days when Christians abstained from eating meat on Fridays, as well as the eve of certain other holy days, Christmas included. A typical Christmas Eve menu might include the following: fish soup (halászlé), fried fish (rántott hal) , poppyseed or walnut biscuits (beigli).

Beigli (or sometimes spelled bejgli) is a real Hungarian Christmas treat. This pastry is obligatory around Christmas time, you can buy it in practically any shop or bakery. It is basically a rolled up crust with lots of filling. Walnut and poppy seed are traditional, but these days experimental folks are filling it with chestnut puree or even Nutella.

Szaloncukor (literally: "parlour candy") is a type of sweet traditionally associated with Christmas in Hungary. It is usually made of fondant, covered by chocolate and wrapped in shiny coloured foil, then hung on the Christmas tree as decoration.Every year, almost a kilo and a half of it are consumed per household during Christmas season. The tradition of hanging these candies on the Christmas tree started in the 19th century. It was named szaloncukor because the tree usually stood in the parlour (szalon in Hungarian) Cukor means "sugar" or "candy". The whole procedure was manual until the first fondant-machines have appeared. These were made by Stühmer chocolate factory for the famous sweet-shop, Gerbaud. The last part of the procedure to be mechanized was the thrumming of the end of the papercover. Considering that it has such a typical shape to keep - this part was not to be omitted.

Fondant candies originally came in a few flavours (vanilla and strawberry for example), but now there is a wide variety of different kinds of candies, including jelly, coconut, hazelnut and lots of other flavors.

New Year's Eve, December 31. In Hungary, this is celebrated in the company of family and good on the last night of the year. Groups of people gather in homes or go out for a night on the town to wait until midnight, when they sing the National Anthem and toast with champagne, they shout and use various noisemakers, in order to ring in the new year.The first kiss that one receives in the new year is also very important! Then, after midnight people are calling their far-away friends and relatives.

New Year – BOLDOG ÚJÉVET! Finally, there is New Year's Day, January 1st. People usually stay up until dawn from the night before, eating, drinking, dancing, playing board games or watching TV at home. New Year's Eve menu: Hungarians are careful what they eat on January 1st! One should not eat any fish or chicken, for fish will swim away with your luck, but chicken scratches it back. If you want to be rich, wealthy, and lucky during the coming year, you must eat some form of lentils (like in soup or salad) on New Year's

83 Day - along with some form of pork. If you can manage to get the tail as your portion of pork this means you will have a great deal of personal luck!

Task 4

Read the suggestions for the Christmas holidays in Budapest. The tips can give you ideas for your portfolio.

Reading

1. Visit the Christmas markets There are a number of Christmas markets set up around the city. The biggest one is at Vörösmarty Square in the centre of Budapest. The Christmas market is a mix of food and drinks, and arts and crafts. Handmade traditional gifts are for sale and you can taste delicious specialties of Hungarian cuisine. Another miracoulous Christmas market is set up outside St. Stephen’s Basilica. There is a small ice rink as well. At some of the larger metro stops there are mini markets set up filled with similar items that you would find at the Christmas markets.

2. Drink mulled wine Nothing will warm you up from the winter cold than a hot cup of mulled wine. You can pick up a mug at any of the Christmas markets, at stalls set up along the street or at a local bar or restaurant. The delicious mix of herbs and wine cannot be missed.

3. Watch the Nutcracker This holiday classic comes with a Hungarian twist at the Opera house. But watch out! Book your tickets early or the performances will be sold out. Thankfully, performances go well into the new year.

4. Enjoy a kürtős kalács Kürtős kalács are a Hungarian pastry also known as chimney cakes. You can find stalls of these at all the Christmas markets or hidden inside metro stops. These pastries are served piping hot and are a deliciously sweet way to warm up hands in the cold December air. They come in a variety of flavours from cinnamon (my fav) to coconut to chocolate.

5. Go to the thermal baths Every Saturday night in December, Szechényi Baths open its doors to partiers. Take some time to soak in the baths while enjoying some live music, drinks and atmosphere.

6. Ice skating in City Park Nothing says the holidays more than skating on the City Park lake. This ice rink is considered Europe’s largest and one of the oldest outdoor skating rinks. Head there at night to take in the holiday atmosphere complete with bright lights and views of the Vajdahunyad Castle.

84 7. Walk around the city at night The main streets of Budapest are all decorated and lit up in Christmas lights. Take a walk along the Körút or down Andrássy ut or perhaps stroll Vaci utca. The possibilities are endless.

8. Concerts in the Basilica (and other venues) Nothing puts you more in the holiday mood than basking in some holiday music. St. Stephen’s Basilica offers concerts of classical music and holiday classics alike. The acoustics of the basilica makes any concert on its premise a joy for the ears.

9. Shopping The holidays means discounts and shopping. It is no different here in Budapest. Stores offer bargains beginning December 27, and last until January.

10. Eat delicious holiday candy and sweets Purchase a bag of szaloncukor from your local market and enjoy all the flavours of this traditional Hungarian candy. Typically these candies are hung on Christmas trees as decoration due to their colourful foil. Or spend some time in the kitchen and bake up a storm. Nothing says Christmas like diós kifli (Hungarian Christmas crescent cookies)

Source: Top 10 Things to Do During Christmas in Budapest

Task 5

Some Hungarians also celebrate Name Days. Ask your Hungarian friends or consult literature on Name Day celebrations i.e. the most popular Name Days. How are they celebrated? Type of gifts, activities, etc.

85 Attachment Nursery school rhymes taught in kindergartens and preschools.

Télapó itt van Télapó itt van, hó a subája, Jég a cipõje, leng a szakálla. Zsák, zsák, teli zsák, piros alma, aranyág. Két szarvas húzta, szán repítette, Gömbölyû zsákját százfele vitte. Zsák, zsák, teli zsák, piros alma, aranyág. Két szarvas húzta, szán repítette, Gömbölyû zsákját százfele vitte. Zsák, zsák, teli zsák, piros alma, aranyág.

Kis karácsony Kis karácsony, nagy karácsony, Kisült-e már a kalácsom? Ha kisült már ide véle Hadd egyem meg melegében. Jaj, de szép a Karácsonyfa Ragyog rajta a sok gyertya. Itt egy szép könyv, ott egy labda. Jaj de szép a karácsonyfa

Basic sources: Fact Sheets on Hungary www.hun.hu Buapest Funtime 2012. wwww.funtime.hu

86 Portfolio Development for Chapter 8.

Optional tasks

In Chapter 8 you have learnt about holidays in Hungary. Make the introduction more personal: add your observations and enjoy and experience holidays in Hungary. • Make your list of suggestions for next year’s students for making the most of a holiday experience in Hungary (see: Christmas, Easter, birthday, Name Day, etc.) • Give a detailed comparison of the holidays and celebrations in your country and in Hungary (the differences between holidays, the importance of holidays and their characters, preparation, schedule and events, eating and drinking habits, presents etc.) Collect the information with your reflections for the handbook for incoming international students of the BME • Visit an end-of-the-year cultural event and report on it (Christmas concert, Opera performance, folk dance event etc.) with special emphasize on the cultural environment

87 APPENDIX to Chapter 3

Faculties of BME

At present the university has eight Faculties (founding date in parentheses): Faculty of Civil Engineering (1782) Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (1871) Faculty of Architecture (1873) Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology (1873) Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics (1949) Faculty of Transportation Engineering (1955) Faculty of Natural Sciences (1998) Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences (1998)

Faculty of Civil Engineering The Faculty of Civil Engineering is the oldest Faculty of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics and can trace its history back to the University's predecessor, the Institutum Geometricum, founded by Emperor Joseph II in 1782. In the past more than 200 years, thousands of engineers have graduated from this Faculty to work worldwide as educators, international researchers and engineering project managers. The most essential service of the faculty - education linked closely to research and engineering work - is reflected in the scientific activities of nearly 170 engineers in 10 departments. They have contributed significantly to the scientific solution of diverse engineering problems. Out of the approximately 2300 students, who study at this Faculty, about 90 students from abroad participate in the English language program. The engineering program in English leads to a B.Sc. degree in four years, in the Branch of Structural Engineering. The branch offers specific educational objectives: Graduates from the Branch of Structural Engineering create engineering structures by utilizing and designing structural materials. They are expected to design, construct and organize the investments of mechanically, structurally and technologically complex structures in cooperation with architects and transport and hydraulics specialists. Future structural engineers who graduate from this branch will be able to design and construct, among other things, flyovers and underground passages for traffic networks; power stations, cooling towers, craneways, transmission line structures and TV towers; halls, storehouses, industrial plants, and multi-storey buildings as well as hydraulic engineering and water supply structures.

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

88 The Mechanical Engineering Program at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics began in 1863, and the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering was established soon afterward, beginning official operations in the 1871/72 academic year. The Faculty is justly proud of its continuous and progressive 150-year history and now offers undergraduate and graduate programs in both Hungarian and English. Since the 2006/07 academic year, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering has offered a 3.5- year undergraduate B.Sc. degree program in English. The new two-year graduate program in English, leading to an M.Sc. degree started in February 2009, students can start the study either in fall or in spring semester. Individual postgraduate academic and research programs, which are usually completed in two to three years, are available for those who already have an M.Sc. degree and wish to pursue a PhD degree. The undergraduate B.Sc. program of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering is designed to continue a tradition of excellence by: • providing a well-grounded and broad knowledge that graduates of this Faculty can apply immediately in their work and also use as the basis for further studies; and • graduating competent engineers who are not only masters of their profession, but also possess an ethical philosophy of engineering based on accuracy, punctuality and reliability as well as a respect for the human element. The goals of the Faculty's graduate M.Sc. and PhD programs are: • to train creative, inventive mechanical engineers who can apply the engineering skills and the knowledge they have gained from the natural sciences on a state-of-the-art level; and • to foster the development of leaders in engineering research and development.

Faculty of Architecture The Faculty of Architecture at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics focuses on training highly professional experts in architectural engineering who are aware of the social and cultural implications of their profession. Versatility is emphasised so that students will gain fundamental knowledge and abilities in every possible field of architecture and be able to find work in a highly competitive job market, and in any building- or design-related area of consulting, construction, and management. The 5-year program in English leads directly to an M.Sc. degree in Architecture and Architectural Engineering, but it is also possible to graduate as a Bachelor of Science in Architecture. Graduates of the Faculty of Architecture are qualified for a broad spectrum of architectural occupations: • Design, construction and maintenance of residential, public, industrial and agricultural buildings; • Reconstruction and the preservation of historical monuments; • Urban design and settlement planning; and

89 • Administration of all these activities. The curricula were organised on Swiss and German models. The Faculty has maintained these traditions for the last 40 years but provides additional European and international dimensions through guest lecturers from abroad, topical short courses, workshop seminars and exchange programs. The five year program of the Faculty of Architecture taught in English is in full conformity with the five year program provided in Hungarian, which after two years practice and experience is accepted for access to EUR-ING title.

Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology The education of chemical engineers and chemists has a long-standing tradition in Hungary. Hungary’s earliest chemistry department was established in 1763 at the Selmecbánya Mining School, the first school to offer practical instruction in the chemical laboratory. In 1769, a common department for chemistry and botany was founded at the University of Nagyszombat, which was resettled to Buda in 1777 and later to Pest. In 1846, the Department of General and Technical Chemistry was founded at Joseph II Industrial School, one of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics’s predecessor institutions. Education of chemical engineers, separate from that of mechanical and civil engineers, reaches back to the 1863/64 academic year. Royal Joseph Polytechnic became a technical university in 1871. The academic freedom introduced by this university-level status allowed students to freely select the subjects they wished to study. However, the need for an interrelated, logical sequence of subjects soon became evident, so in 1892 a compulsory curriculum and timetable was introduced. From the foundation of the Faculty until 1948, only a four-year term of studies, without specialisations, was offered. Following the educational reforms of 1948, the departments of Inorganic Chemical Technology, Organic Chemical Technology, and Agricultural and Food Chemistry were established. The Inorganic Chemical Technology Department is no longer a part of the Faculty because in 1952 its tasks were taken over by the University of Chemical Industry in Veszprém. Further reforms in the 1960s extended chemical engineering studies to the M.Sc. level and introduced the range of specialised studies. A PhD program has also been established. Studies in English at the Faculty of Chemical Engineering began in the 1985/86 academic year. Students in the BSc program receive a thorough introduction to areas basic to chemical engineering before they begin their specialisations in the fifth semester. Courses of the following branches are available to students both at the B.Sc. and M.Sc. levels: Analytical and Structural Chemistry, Chemical and Process Engineering, Industrial Pharmaceutics, Polymer Technology, Textile Technology.

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics The Faculty of Electrical Engineering founded in 1949 has been renowned for excellence in research and education throughout the years of changes in the scope of engineering. Over this period,

90 the faculty has earned a wide-spread international reputation for its high academic standards and scientific achievements. Spearheading the movement to establish a modern education system, it has offered a comprehensive English curriculum since 1992. Nearly the same time, the name of the faculty was changed to Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics in order to give recognition to the growing importance of computer science. The education programmes in English include a 3.5-year BSc, a 2-year MSc and a 3-year PhD. programme in the fields of electrical and software engineering. The undergraduate BSc programme aims at providing a comprehensive knowledge with sound theoretical foundations in two areas: (1) electrical engineering including more specific studies in electronics, computer engineering and power engineering; and (2) software engineering dedicated to the major domains of computer science. The MSc programme further advances the knowledge obtained in the undergraduate programmes in the same two fields: (1) electrical engineering, offering specializations in (i) embedded systems, (ii) info-communication systems, and (iii) electrical machines and drives; (2) software engineering, offering specializations in (i) applied computer science, and (ii) system development The post-graduate PhD programme is available in all domains offered in the MSc programme. Since research and development requires innovative engineering expertise, one of the major concerns of the faculty is to endow students with high level mathematical skills in modeling complex engineering systems. This objective implies the use of system and algorithmic theory in addition to a thorough knowledge in physics. The search for optimal solutions in the highly complex architectures of electrical and software engineering necessitates not only engineering but economical considerations as well. As a result, the scope of the programme must include design, research and management expertise at the same time.

Faculty of Transportation Engineering and Vehicle Engineering The Faculty of Transportation Engineering has been training engineers for the field of transportation and vehicle engineering at BME since 1955. Since that time the profile of engineering training has been widened several times. In academic year 2006/2007, as a first step of the new type of linear training the transportation engineering basic specialty (BSc) was introduced. In that framework knowledge related to transport, transportation, and mechanization can be attained including knowledge in connection with processes realized in the listed fields and also knowledge related to machines, equipment (vehicles and mobile machinery) realizing those processes. From the academic year 2010/2011 the Faculty launches vehicle and mobile machinery basic specialty (BSc), its task is to familiarize the students with the design, operation, and control systems of vehicles and mobile machinery. At the second stage of the new type of linear training there are three master training courses in the following fields: transportation engineering master specialty, logistics engineering master specialty

91 and vehicle engineering master specialty. With adequate BSc qualification certified engineering qualification can be obtained in 2 years at these master training specialties. All the fundamental and complementary educations continued at the Faculty are carried out in accordance with the rules of the ECTS (European Credit Transfer System). The quantity of students' labour necessary for attaining the knowledge material of an arbitrary subject is measured through credit-points. One credit-point means on average 30 hours of student's labour, one study semester contains a study material with the quantity of 30 credit-points.

The Faculty of Natural Sciences The Faculty of Natural Sciences, one of the newest faculties at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics, was established in 1998 and now employs 142 full and part time faculty members. The Faculty provides classes in Mathematics and Physics and is designed to meet the needs of its own and other faculties. Courses are offered on BSc and MSc degree levels. The Faculty offers post-graduate scientific training as well. Currently more than 60 PhD students are pursuing personal programs in different areas of sciences. The Faculty also offers short courses on specific topics of current interest. The Faculty of Natural Sciences administers its own BSc and MSc programs in Physics, Mathematics, and Applied Mathematics. A continuing educational program is also offered in Reactor Physics and Reactor Technology. For many years the "Eugene Wigner International Training Course for Reactor Physics Experiments" has also been organized on a yearly basis. The BSc in Physics Program, a traditional curriculum, leads to a BSc degree in 6 semesters (currently available only in Hungarian). The facilities and scientific-tutorial background of the Institute of Physics and the Institute of Nuclear Techniques offer unique opportunities in areas like low temperature physics, acousto-optics, holography or the nuclear training reactor. A further advantage of our Physics BSc program is the special practical, engineering background provided by the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Two specializations are offered: Physicist and Applied Physics.

Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences Based on the long tradition of providing education in the fields of economics, management and social sciences, in 1998 the Budapest University of Technology and Economics established a new faculty, the 'Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences' employing 320 instructors and researchers. Parallel to the traditional five-year university training, according to the Bologna model the two-cycle system (for BSc and MSc degrees) was introduced in 2006. The accredited full time degree programs in Economics, Engineering Management, Communication and Media Studies, Teachers Training in Vocational Fields are carried out according to the latest European standards. Besides its own training programs the Faculty co-operates closely

92 with all the engineering faculties of the University providing courses in management, economics, social sciences, languages and physical education. Additionally the Faculty offers different kinds of post-graduate programs and short-term courses of various types. Currently more than 200 PhD students are participating in different individual research programs in different areas of economic and social sciences. The Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences pays special attention to the integration of theoretical and practical knowledge in its curricula and Faculty has established strong professional relationships with the participants of various economic fields (profit and non profit oriented institutions, banks etc). Languages, language exams Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Spanish, Russian and Hungarian as a foreign language are taught at levels from A1 to C1 by the lecturers and language instructors at BME Centre of Modern Languages. Language instruction for Specific Purposes (LSP) as well as translator and interpreter training are also offered by the Centre. Students can sit for nationally and internationally accredited general and specific (LSP for Economics or Engineering) language exams at 3 different levels (B1, B2 and C1) at the BME Language Examination Centre.