The Institutional Origin of Multiethnic Politics in India, Indonesia, and South Africa
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University of Denver Digital Commons @ DU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies 1-1-2013 Parties and Peacebuilding: The Institutional Origin of Multiethnic Politics in India, Indonesia, and South Africa Geoffrey P. Macdonald University of Denver Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd Part of the Political Science Commons Recommended Citation Macdonald, Geoffrey P., "Parties and Peacebuilding: The Institutional Origin of Multiethnic Politics in India, Indonesia, and South Africa" (2013). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 865. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/865 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies at Digital Commons @ DU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ DU. For more information, please contact [email protected],[email protected]. PARTIES AND PEACEBUILDING: THE INSTITUTIONAL ORIGIN OF MULTIETHNIC POLITICS IN INDIA, INDONESIA, AND SOUTH AFRICA __________ A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Josef Korbel School of International Studies University of Denver __________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy __________ by Geoffrey P. Macdonald November 2013 Advisor: Dr. Timothy Sisk ©Copyright by Geoffrey P. Macdonald 2013 All Rights Reserved Author: Geoffrey P. Macdonald Title: Parties and Peacebuilding: The Institutional Origin of Multiethnic Politics in India, Indonesia, and South Africa Advisor: Dr. Timothy Sisk Degree Date: November 2013 ABSTRACT Under what conditions to multiethnic parties win elections in deeply divided societies? To investigate this question, this dissertation examines the historical and institutional conditions that explain the formation and success of multiethnic parties in three ethnically divided, conflict-prone democracies: India, Indonesia, and South Africa. The character of liberation movements can influence the formation of multiethnic political parties. Ethnically inclusive liberation movements create conditions conducive to the formation of inclusive parties. After regime collapse, the liberation movement transitions into politics, using its extant organizational structure and mass appeal to dominate the newly democratic political system. South Africa, India, and Indonesia each experienced a unifying liberation movement against an oppressive ruling authority. Nelson Mandela, Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, and Sukarno were charismatic figures that promoted multiethnic nationalism. These independence movements sought to create an inclusive and unified political system, which created the foundation for multiethnic political parties to form and thrive in the short term. Yet after this juncture point of party formation, multiethnic politics have dominated India and Indonesia while South Africa has experienced a slow degeneration into ethnic politics. Using a five-part theoretical framework to measure ethnic and multiethnic politics, this dissertation examines manifesto content, campaign rhetoric, voter contents, parliamentary composition, and voting behavior. This framework was ii supplemented with elite interviews of members of parliament and party officials in each country. The investigation shows that South Africa’s African National Congress uses higher levels of ethnic appeals than the Indian National Congress in India or the main political parties (PD, PDIP, and Golkar) in Indonesia. This divergence is explained by examining the interaction of election rules and ethnic cleavage structure. India and Indonesia reinforce broadly crosscutting cleavages with multiple-district and candidate-centered elections. This forces parties to contest elections in ethnically diverse districts with local candidates, which encourages broad- based, inclusive political appeals. South Africa’s electoral system does the opposite. Its functionally single-district proportional representation system incentivizes identity politics by translating control of the racial majority into control of parliamentary power. This has resulted in the slow degeneration of Nelson Mandela’s multiethnic liberation movement into an ethnically exclusive political party. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A dissertation is never completed without extensive support from advisors, colleagues, friends, and family. I am particularly indebted to my committee—Tim Sisk, Martin Rhodes, Ben Reilly, and Aaron Schneider—who provided guidance and encouragement throughout this project. I am also grateful to the faculty, staff, and students at the University of Denver’s Josef Korbel School of International Studies, who created an excellent learning and research environment to complete my graduate studies. This dissertation involved twelve months of fieldwork in three distant and disparate countries to which I had never traveled and in which I knew no one. I therefore built a network of local friends, colleagues, and research assistants who provided invaluable support. In South Africa, I am grateful to my colleagues at the University of Cape Town’s Democracy in Africa Research Unit, including Professor Bob Mattes, Moletsane Monyake, Carlos Shenga, and Nasiphi Moya, who was my research assistant. In Indonesia, I am indebted to my colleagues at the Centre for Strategic and International Studies in Jakarta, including Matt Bock, Sunny Tanuwidjaja, and Philips Vermonte. In India, I am thankful to my colleagues at the Institute of Social Sciences in Delhi, including Balveer Arora, Ash Roy, George Mathew, Bobby Moussavi, Kelsey Utne, and Johny Varghese, who was my research assistant. These individuals were not only colleagues but also friends, who provided both academic and personal support as I endeavored to write a dissertation far from home. To them I am forever grateful. Finally, I must thank my family, who has endured my absence from parties, weddings, and holidays for far too long. Thank you for your continuous love and support. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 Puzzle and Research Question................................................................................ 1 Main Argument....................................................................................................... 3 Theoretical Framework........................................................................................... 5 Research Design ..................................................................................................... 7 Methodology......................................................................................................... 10 Historical Analysis.................................................................................... 10 Empirical Analysis.................................................................................... 11 Theoretical analysis .................................................................................. 14 Limitations............................................................................................................ 14 Chapter Outline..................................................................................................... 16 Chapter Two: Ethnic Politics, Peacebuilding, and Political Parties ................................. 17 Introduction........................................................................................................... 17 Literature Review: Ethnic Conflict, Peacebuilding, and Political Parties ............ 18 Political Parties and Party Systems: Formation and Typologies .............. 19 Ethnic Conflict, Peacebuilding, and Institutional Design......................... 28 Peacebuilding, Institutional Design, and Political Parties ........................ 34 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 46 Chapter Three: Liberation Movements, Path Dependence, and Party Politics in India, Indonesia, and South Africa.............................................................................................. 47 Introduction........................................................................................................... 47 Colonialism, Rebellion, and the Development of Multiethnic Politics in India... 49 Moderation and Early Multiethnic Resistance: 1857-1905 ...................... 49 Division and Extremism: 1905-1919........................................................ 52 The INC and Multiethnic Resistance in the Gandian Era: 1919-1939 ..... 53 Communalization and The Two-State Solution: 1939-1946 .................... 59 From Liberation Movement to Party Politics ........................................... 61 Colonialism, Resistance, and Multiethnic Politics in Indonesia........................... 61 Islam, Colonialism, and Early Multiethnic Nationalism .......................... 62 World War Two and Independence .......................................................... 64 Indonesia’s First Democratic Period and Collapse................................... 67 Guided Democracy to the New Order: Multiethnic Identity by Force ..... 69 Suharto and the New Order Regime ......................................................... 71 The Sudden Fall of the New Order........................................................... 72 From Liberation Movement to Party Politics ........................................... 74 Apartheid, Resistance, and Multiethnic