Iraq and the West The politics of confrontation

Understanding Global Issues

THE FACTS BEHIND THE NEWS Introduction and the West: The politics of confrontation

Introduction

hen Iraq invaded Kuwait in the suffering that US policy has unde- Western involvement in a central WAugust 1990, an intense struggle niably caused in Iraq, as a consequence position. With the second largest began between Iraq and the United of on-going US bombing in the ‘no-fly proven oil reserves in the world, Iraq States that continues to this day. The zones’ and of , in has engaged the intense interest of US President at the time, George Bush, order to rally its people around their Western policy-makers. The borders denounced the Iraqi leader, Saddam leader in the face of external enemies. that Britain drew for the new nation Hussein, as a second Hitler, and urged placed ethnic minorities within Iraq, The effects of US policy on Iraqi civil- primarily the , who did not accept Iraq’ s military and people to rise up ians since 1991 have also been a factor rule from Baghdad, and were accus- against him. Yet even though the US- in dissolving the coalition that the US tomed to living as an autonomous led force had managed to drive Iraq’s had built up for the . Thirty- community. Britain recruited the first army out of Kuwait by February 1991, four different countries from all parts of rulers of the new nation from the surprised the world the world had contributed military minority of the population who were by holding onto power. personnel and facilities to the defence Arab by ethnicity and were from the Since then, the US has applied a policy of Kuwait. Many of those countries, Sunni sect of Islam. To maintain including all Iraq’s fellow Arab states, of ‘containment’ to Iraq, officially on control over the diverse population, a have now voiced opposition to the the grounds that it suspects Iraq of majority of whom are from the Shi’a continuation of sanctions and the no-fly developing non-conventional weapons. sect of Islam, an extensive military was zones, and counsel strongly against Iraq made substantial use of chemical built up using the revenues from oil further attacks on Iraq. The UK is the weapons in its war against (1980- sales. Rebellions against the central only country likely to commit a sizeable 88), and United Nations efforts to authorities have always been put down force to aid US efforts to oust the Iraqi destroy its chemical and biological ruthlessly. Saddam Hussein took levels regime. Despite widespread acknow- weapons production facilities have had of cruelty to new extremes with his ledgement of the brutality of Iraq’s mixed results. Since 1991, the US has crushing of dissident populations in the leaders, a more substantial coalition conducted repeated military raids late 1980s and in the aftermath of the has now gathered to oppose military against Iraq, and has declared that Gulf War, but massacres of insurgent action rather than to participate in it. Iraqi planes will be shot down if they minorities have occurred since the enter the ‘no-fly zones’ that cover about To understand how a relationship of creation of modern Iraq. 60% of the country. It has upheld confrontation has developed between Britain, and later the USA, retained economic sanctions*, which have been a Iraq and the West, and why democracy considerable control over Iraq until the major factor in bringing poverty and has not developed in the country, both popular nationalist revolution of 1958, international isolation to a once the long and the short histories of Iraq and have tried either to displace or to prosperous and cosmopolitan people. need to be appreciated. The long history win over Iraqi governments since that President George W. Bush, following in is that of one of the oldest urban civili- date. Throughout the 1980s, Iraq was his father’s footsteps, has announced sations, which developed many of the thought of as a bulwark against the that Saddam Hussein must be forced ideas and techniques that have since radical Islamic doctrine preached by from power, and has indicated that he become central to modern life across the new Iranian government, and is willing to use military means to the world. Many of the greatest received large-scale support from the achieve this objective. historical empires have been based in US, UK and USSR, and pro-Western , Babylon, , Akkadia and Despite all these measures, the Iraqi states in the for its war Baghdad, all within the borders of leader’ s grip on power has rarely against Iran. Whilst Saddam Hussein modern Iraq. The deep roots of Iraq’s looked stronger. After years of syste- remains in power in Baghdad, it is people, and their awareness of their matic repression, there remain few clear that the West will not provide own historical role, have been used to people inside Iraq willing to challenge such support again. What is much less engender national pride and a sense of him openly. The Iraqi people are clear, however, is how a stable new the illegitimacy of Western attempts to without the freedom to choose their government could be created in Iraq transform their communal life. own leaders through the ballot box, and that does not come into confrontation have no legitimate channels to express Iraq’ s short history – from the creation with the West. their political opinions. In addition, the of the modern state under British rule Iraqi regime has been able to point to after the First World War – has * See notes on page 16

Understanding Global Issues Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation The Cradle of Civilisation Cradle of Civilisation

Iraq has an immensely rich history: many of the essential features of civilisation – agriculture, walled cities and writing – first emerged in .

The beginnings of empire n Sumer, on the banks of the al-Khattab, the second caliph, Ilower , the first city- captured most of Mesopotamia by Two major rivers, the and states were built some 5000 years 638 AD, and the region became a the Euphrates, flow through Iraq ago. Eridu is thought to have been major centre of the new Islamic and irrigate its central plain. In the oldest, but two other Sumerian empire. The early caliphs founded ancient times the fertile region cities have become more famous. the cities of and Kufa as which lies along and between Uruk is the site of the oldest writing garrison towns. When Ali, the them was called Mesopotamia, ever found, and the home of the Prophet’s son-in-law, became the “the land between the rivers”. legendary king Gilgamesh. Ur was fourth caliph, he made his capital at Here archaeology has uncovered the original home of the great Bib- Kufa. Another branch of the the evidence of seasonal crop lical figure Abraham, whose journey Prophet’s family based in Iraq went growing, animal rearing and to the Holy Land is the beginning of on to establish the Abbasid empire, fortified settlements dating back the historical narrative of Judaism, which at its height in the 9th to between 3500 and 3000 BC. Islam and Christianity. century stretched from Libya deep The Sumerians provided many of the into central Asia. A new city of religious, art and architectural forms Baghdad was created as its capital found in two later empires. For more in 762 AD. Baghdad stood at the than 400 years from the 16th heart of a network of overland century BC, Mesopotamia was ruled routes, and became not only an by a dynasty based at Babylon, economic but also an intellectual south of modern Baghdad. Then the centre of the Muslim world. rulers of Assyria, on the Tigris river In 1258 Baghdad was sacked by the in , came to Mongols. Al-Musta’sim, the last Under Assyrian rule, the massive city dominate the region. Later Meso- caliph to be recognised throughout walls and celebrated “hanging gardens” potamia came under a succession of were created at Babylon, and the first the Islamic world, was killed, Persian and Macedonian rulers until organised library was constructed at together with an estimated 800,000 Nineveh. The period from 612 BC to the advent of Islam in the 7th inhabitants. Following prolonged 538 BC, after Babylonian rule was re- century. established, saw many of the finest wars throughout the region, in 1534 developments of the ancient world, After the Prophet Muhammad’s Baghdad fell to Turkish Ottoman* from astronomy and mathematics to death, the Muslim community was rule and into obscurity. It was far architecture and irrigation. led by a series of caliphs: Umar ibn from the centre of political power, and was replaced on the trade routes to the East by the newly explored sea passages. In the early 20th cen- tury, as opposition to Ottoman rule spread throughout the Arab world, many prominent joined in the ‘Arab revolt’. This was the product of an alliance with Britain, which had promised that the Arab lands would be liberated from the Ottoman Empire if its leaders supported the Allied cause in the First World War. The Arab participants in the revolt had not imagined that Britain had

Courtesy of IraqCD.com other plans for the region.

Understanding Global Issues 1 IThe Making of Iraq raq and the West: The politics of confrontation The Making of Iraq

Britain invaded Mesopotamia early in World War I in order to secure its route through the Middle East to India. Later, oil changed Middle East politics for ever.

British rule efore World War I, ancient mandate in form only, and that the B Mesopotamia was divided into rights it accorded to Britain were In 1920, the San Remo Conference the provinces of Basra, Baghdad and humiliating for their country. In of Allied Powers granted Britain Mosul. Though part of the Ottoman particular, an influential group of a mandate* over Iraq, on the Empire, in practice they were leading military officers – referred understanding that independence governed by local tribal leaders and to at the time as ‘The Seven’ – set would be given in time. Despite semi-independent dynasties. In themselves up as an alternative Iraq’s independence in 1932, November 1914, British forces centre of power in Iraq, independent Britain, and later the US, landed at Basra on the of British patronage. From 1936, retained considerable control coast to forestall a potential threat they began to take a significant role until the revolution of 1958. to British commercial and strategic in Iraqi politics, and took part in a routes to India from the Ottoman series of coups, the first of their kind Empire (which was now allied with in the Middle East. At first, these Germany). As the Ottoman Empire coups did not directly threaten the collapsed and eventually surren- monarchy, but installed nationalist Emir Faisal, later King Faisal I, at the dered, British troops came to occupy and socialist governments to direct Paris Peace Conference in 1919. To his the three provinces and by 1918 had social reforms. However, when right is Colonel T. E. Lawrence, better consolidated them into a single representatives of the government known as Lawrence of Arabia. country, Iraq. led by Rashid Ali al-Gailani began Faisal’s father, Sharif Hussein, was the to hold meetings with Italian and leading figure in the Arab revolt from Britain’s pledge to grant indepen- German officials in 1940, Britain 1916. Faisal took control of after dence to Iraq was widely distrusted World War I, but was ousted by the took decisive measures. The king by many Iraqis. Within two months French in 1920. With strong protests forced Rashid Ali from power and, throughout the region and fears for of the declaration of the mandate, when the military intervened to regional stability, Britain installed an armed revolt broke out. Hoping restore the nationalist government Faisal as king of Iraq, and his brother to pacify the rebels. Britain installed in 1941, Britain launched a large- Abdullah as emir of Transjordan, in Faisal ibn Hussein as king. Faisal 1921. Faisal died in 1933, and was scale invasion. ‘The Seven’ were was a member of the Hashemite succeeded by his son Ghazi (d.1939). captured and executed, and Nuri al- followed by his grandson, Faisal II, family, the historic guardians of the Said was re-installed as Prime (executed in a coup, 1958). Islamic shrines at Mecca and Minister. Medina, and descendants from the Over the following years, the Iraqi Prophet Muhammad. Faisal turned government remained firmly pro- to strongman Nuri al-Said to imple- Western, suppressing all dissent. It ment unpopular British policies. became deeply unpopular in an era Nuri served as prime minister of of , whose cham- Iraq several times between 1929 pion was Egyptian President Gamal and 1958. Under his guidance a Abdel Nasser. ‘The Seven’ came to treaty was signed in 1930 granting be seen as martyrs and role models formal independence, which was for subsequent generations. In 1955, officially declared on 3 October Iraq joined with Turkey and the UK 1932. However, the treaty also in the Baghdad Pact, a military allowed Britain to keep substantial cooperation arrangement which tied holdings and airforce bases in Iraq, these countries to and to retain an ‘advisory’ role to policy in the region. Despite this, the Iraqi government. Iraq tacitly supported the invasion Many people in Iraq considered that of Egypt by British, French and

Courtesy of IraqCD.com the 1930 treaty had replaced the Israeli forces in 1956.

2 Understanding Global Issues Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation The Making of Iraq

The republican revolution On 14 July 1958, al-Zuhoor royal over at first included leaders of the palace was stormed by troops loyal Ba’ath party, providing them with Arab nationalism, a movement to Brigadier Abdel Karim Qassem. experience of government, but later that believed that the different The 23-year old king and the crown excluded them and engaged in wide- Arab states should unify, was at prince were murdered, together spread persecution. Among those its height in 1958. In a sudden with two of their senior ministers. working in secret to develop the move, Egypt and Syria merged Qassem declared Iraq a republic and Ba’ath organisation was Saddam into a single state, the United took the post of prime minister. At Hussein, who in 1966 was promoted Arab Republic. Five months later, first, there was extensive support onto the party’s ‘regional command’, there were simultaneous for Qassem, particularly among its executive body in Iraq. There, he nationalist insurrections in Iraq, Arab nationalists, communists and formed an alliance with Ahmad Lebanon and , but only many of Iraq’s ethnic minorities. Hasan al-Bakr, who had been the Iraqi coup attempt succeeded Qassem withdrew Iraq from the involved in planning the 1963 coup immediately. Baghdad Pact, and was the first and who had served as prime leader to support the establishment minister in its immediate aftermath. of an army to liberate Palestine. On 17 July 1968, an alliance of However, Qassem’s main priority military groups took control of was Iraq’s social and economic Baghdad. Bakr, leading one of the development, not its international army units, installed himself as role. He did protest strongly when President, and excluded all other Kuwait, a British protectorate since groups except the Ba’ath from 1899, declared its independence in participation in the 15-member 1961: Qassem threatened military ruling Revolutionary Command action “to return Kuwait to the Iraqi Council (RCC). By the end of the homeland”, even though there is no year, Saddam Hussein was vice- TURKEY history of Iraqi rule over Kuwait. In Ceyhan president of the RCC, and in charge general, though, he opposed moves of internal security. From this Arbil for the unification of the Arab position, he strengthened the police Hims IRAN states. As a result, he came into force and ensured that they LEBANON SYRIA conflict with supporters of Nasser maintained public loyalty towards ISRAEL Baghdad and members of the Ba’ath party, the new government. He also took JORDAN who launched armed rebellions and SAUDI Basra on a primary role in organising the ARABIA coup attempts against him. Mina al-Bakr Ba’ath party. By the mid-1970s, he KUWAIT Major oil fields or refineries Qassem was overthrown in 1963 in was in effective control of Iraq, and Oil Field Gas Field a military coup and executed by finally forced Bakr’s resignation in Major pipelines firing squad. The regime that took July 1979.

Oil Iraq has the second largest income – up to 95% of its Iraq’s means of exporting oil prohibited (except for a semi- proven oil reserves in the export revenue was derived have never been secure. legal barter arrangement world. When British from oil in the 1980s – it has The pipelines built in the with Jordan), leaving Iraq in prospectors struck oil in the also left the regime in a 1930s, to Haifa (now in a perilous financial situation, Kirkuk region in 1927, it was position of vulnerability. Israel) and to Tripoli in particularly until limited oil the largest find yet made. Some 60% of Iraq’s oil Lebanon, were both severed exports were permitted once Other major oil fields have exports come from regions in the 1950s, in the latter again in 1996. At present, been developed at Jambur that are inhabited largely by case due to Iraq’s support for the major routes for export and Bay Hasan in northern Iraq’s Kurdish population, the invasion of Egypt in are the pipelines from Kirkuk Iraq and Basra in the south. who since 1919 have been 1956. In the Iran-, oil to the Turkish port of Dörtyol By 1975, all foreign-owned engaged in persistent facilities were attacked by at Ceyhan and through the oil companies had been attempts to secure self-rule. both sides, and Iraq’s major rebuilt Mina al-Bakr terminal. nationalised. The negotiations for Kurdish pipeline to its offshore There is extensive oil When Saddam Hussein autonomy from the central terminal at Mina al-Bakr was smuggling by trucks overland became president, Iraq was government broke down in destroyed. to Jordan, Turkey and Syria, the world’s second largest oil 1974 due to disputes over With the imposition of through the pipeline to Syria exporter. However, whilst oil the status of the oil-rich economic sanctions in 1990, and by barges and small has provided Iraq’s main areas. all exports of oil were tankers in the Gulf.

Understanding Global Issues 3 A Divided Nation IIraq and the West: The politics of confrontation A Disunited Nation

The frontiers of Iraq were decided by the victors of World War I with little regard for geographic or ethnic realities, causing problems which persist to this day.

Shi’a and Sunni bout 80% of the population of including the Islamic Da’wa who, in AIraq is Arab, and of these 75% 1977, had a leading role in mass Since 1918, a consistent thread are Shi’a Muslims (Shi’ites). They demonstrations against Ba’athist through Iraq’s politics has been form the overwhelming majority of rule. In 1980, its members tried to the attempts by groups that had the population in southern Iraq, but assassinate the deputy prime previously been autonomous, but live throughout the country. The minister, Tariq Aziz. After the Gulf now were contained within the Shi’a community has evolved its own War, Shi’ites rose up against the boundaries set by the colonial distinct traditions and institutions. Iraqi government: they were brutally power, to grapple with the The Shi’a mujtahids (jurists), in crushed, but the Supreme Council institutions of the new state. As particular, remained independent of for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq the revenue available to those the state, and an alternative source (SCIRI), a Shi’a group supported by institutions increased with the of authority. Under the Ottoman Iran, remains the largest armed influx of oil wealth, the problem empire, they created their own opposition group in Iraq today. of fitting the model of a single system of law, which the Ottomans Christians are the largest religious state to disparate groups, each did not recognise. One result was minority in Iraq. They are mostly with its own identity and that the Ottoman administration in descended from those who did not interests, was exacerbated. Baghdad and Basra was recruited largely from Sunni Arabs, often convert to Islam after the 7th century, and are subdivided between The brought in from outside the region. Chaldeans (linked to Catholicism), The Ma’dan are descended from the These were the people used by ancient Sumerian people, and live in the Britain to prepare the foundations Nestorians (also called Assyrians), marshland areas of southern Iraq (hence for an independent Iraq. They Jacobites and Eastern Orthodox. they are often called ‘Marsh Arabs’). dominated both the civil service and They are allowed to practise their They are nomadic, following buffalo the military, diminishing the religion freely: Tariq Aziz, still herds and relying on canoes for trans- deputy prime minister, is himself a port. They also work as cultivators and authority of the Shi’a mujtahids. The reed collectors. Sunni minority, while less than 20% Chaldean Christian. There are also of the population, has managed to some 100,000 , based around retain its powerful position to the Mosul, who incorporate peacock- present day, although the Ba’ath worship into a highly heterodox government since 1968 has sought to religion. downplay religious differences. Iraq’s Jews trace their history back In general, Shi’ites have remained to the Babylonian exile of 586 BC. In loyal to the Iraqi state. They did not 1940, they numbered 150,000, about respond to the call from their co- 2% of Iraq’s population. But the Brit- religionists who form the majority in ish invasion force of 1941 included a Iran to rebel during the 1980-88 war. prominent non-Iraqi Jewish regi- However, there have been persistent ment, and many Iraqis suspected conflicts with the government. Many Jews of being disloyal to the nation- high-ranking Shi’a clergymen have alist cause. The Jewish population of been killed by the Iraqi government, Baghdad was subjected to a pogrom particularly since 1968. There have in which at least 129 were killed and been mass expulsions of Shi’a hundreds more injured. After further populations to Iran beginning in the persecution, in 1951-52, when travel mid-1970s, and severe restrictions restrictions were eased, 120,000 have been placed on the conduct of Jews emigrated to Israel and 30,000 Shi’a religious events. In response, more to the US and Europe. Barely

Courtesy of IraqCD.com Shi’a opposition groups have formed, 100 remain in Baghdad today.

4 Understanding Global Issues Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation A Divided Nation

The Kurds Under the Ottoman empire the Jalal Talibani led a faction out of the Kurds had enjoyed a considerable KDP, which became the Patriotic The Kurdish community is split degree of independence, and they Union of Kurdistan (PUK). In the between Turkey, Syria, Iran and resisted strongly their incorporation Iran-Iraq war, the Iranians equipped Iraq. They number 20 million into the new state of Iraq. Sheikh and trained the Kurdish guerrillas to worldwide. In Iraq, they comprise Mahmud Berzendji, the Kurdish fight on their behalf. In reprisal, the approximately 15% of the total leader of Sulaymaniyya, proclaimed Iraqi government began a massive population, and live largely in the an independent Kurdistan in 1919, campaign to destroy the Kurdish northern highlands of the and began an insurrection against infrastructure. The repression country. Kurds have their own the British. The Treaty of Sèvres in peaked in the 1988 Anfal campaign, distinctive culture, speak a 1920 formally dissolved the Ottoman in which government troops language related to Farsi empire and proposed the creation of destroyed over 1,200 villages and (Persian), and have a strong clan an autonomous Kurdish region, but, killed somewhere between 50,000 structure to their society. They are after Turkish complaints, the pros- and 186,000 Kurds; 300,000 Kurds mostly Sunni Muslims. pect for autonomy was abandoned in were also deported during the war. the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. More Many human rights organisations unrest was caused in 1925 when, consider these actions constituted against the acknowledged preference . The most notorious episode of its inhabitants, the League of was the bombardment of the town of Nations decreed that the Kurdish- Halabja with a range of chemical dominated Mosul region should be weapons in March 1988, killing 5000 Draining the marshes part of Iraq, not Turkey, to keep the people, and causing severe and long- oil resources in territories mandated term health difficulties for the The Marsh Arabs are Shi’ites and have largely aligned themselves with to the British. survivors and their descendants. opposition movements. Since the A much larger Kurdish revolt, led by In 1991, when it became clear that 1980s the government of Iraq has begun an extensive project to drain the powerful Barzani clan, was Iraq was losing the Gulf War, many the marshes, supposedly for launched for independence in 1931. Kurds seized the opportunity to agricultural purposes, but with the It was crushed four years later, but attempt the overthrow of Saddam effect of destroying the Ma’dan Mustafa Barzani later established Hussein’s government. The rebellion communities. As a result, over a fifth the Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP, failed, and over 1.5 million Kurds of the Ma’dan now live in refugee camps in Iran and many more are renamed the Kurdistan Democratic fled in fear, crossing into either Iran displaced within Iraq. Party) in exile. After intermittent or Turkey in order to escape the negotiations from 1958, punctuated military bombardment. In response

Open Water by fierce fighting, an agreement on to international concern, a ceasefire Permanent Marsh

Dead dessicated marsh Kurdish autonomy was eventually agreement was worked out under Former marshlands reached in 1970. However, the agree- which Iraqi troops would leave the T igris Haur Al Hawizeh ment did not define the borders of areas decreed as autonomous in Marsh IRAQ IRAN the Kurdish region, and it was on 1974, and the United Nations would

Al Amarah this point that negotiations even- administer a humanitarian Central Marsh tually broke down. The Iraqi govern- programme there. In a separate

Euphrates ment was determined to ensure that move some months later, the United Shah al-Arab

Haur Al Hammar Marsh oil-rich areas remained within its States, France and control, and established a Kurdistan declared a ‘no-fly zone’ for Iraqi Autonomous Region in 1974 over aircraft in the north of the country, 050kilometres only half the territory claimed by the in a move they claimed would Kurds. Kurdish villages along the protect the Kurdish population. Total Wetlands x 000 border with Iran were forcibly 12 Free but inconclusive elections were Lakes Marshes cleared and Arab Iraqis were settled 10 held in the Kurdish region in May 1,340

1 in the northern oil towns in order to 8 1992, but internecine fighting broke dilute their Kurdish population. 6 out in 1994. In 1996, the two main The ensuing Kurdish rebellion Kurdish groups agreed a ceasefire 4 collapsed in 1975 when Iran and set up a joint executive author- 1,881 2 4,569 3,812 3,437

410 abruptly ended its support for the ity. Separate administrations were 0 1985 1992 2000 1985 1992 2000 KDP after Iraq conceded a boundary established for the reconstruction dispute between the two countries. and development of the area.

Understanding Global Issues 5 Saddam Hussein Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation Saddam Hussein

Since he became President in 1979, Saddam has revived old regional quarrels as a pretext for launching costly wars on two neighbouring states.

Stirring up trouble raq invaded Iran on 22 September themselves back to their original I1980. Internal conflict had persis- borders, and a ceasefire was finally Iran and Iraq have been rivals in ted in Iran after the revolution, and agreed. Estimates of the death toll their competition to control the many people believed that the Iraqi vary from one to two million. Gulf ever since they became forces would rapidly unseat the new During the war, Iraq received independent nations. The Iranian Islamic regime. Instead, this was the financial support from all Arab Gulf revolution of 1979 was led by start of the longest international States, and a combination of Shi’a clerics, and brought to war of the 20th century. When Iran military, political and financial power an Islamic regime deeply started to counter-attack, after 1983, critical of the secular Iraqi Iraq used chemical weapons on support from Russia, France, the government. Each country tried Iranian troops and civilians and United Kingdom and the United to foment rebellion within the launched indiscriminate rocket States. Although it was spending up other. Finally, Saddam Hussein attacks on Iranian cities. It offered a to 57% of its GDP on its military revived a boundary dispute* as a ceasefire, but Iran made its accep- campaign, the loans Iraq was pretext for a full-scale invasion tance conditional on Iraq’s payment receiving, together with its high oil of Iran. of reparations for the damage revenues, enabled it to sustain an caused, and Iraq refused this. By extensive level of social spending Saddam Hussein records his date of 1988, the two sides had fought that brought an impressive health birth in April 1937, but this is disputed. He is a Sunni Muslim from Tikrit. With his father dying when he was young, he The Ba’ath party was raised by an uncle. He joined the Ba’ath party in 1957, and was part of a In 1943, and Salah al-Din al-Bitar, two schoolteachers in French-ruled Syria, team that launched a failed assassin- turned a cultural grouping named al-Ba’th al-Arabi (the Arab Renaissance) into a political ation attempt on Qassem in 1959. He party. Holding their first conference in 1947, they adopted a constitution that proclaimed their managed to escape, and returned in 1963 aim: to “struggle to gather all the Arabs in a single independent state”. The Ba’ath are highly to engage in clandestine party organis- critical of communism and Western imperialism, instead portraying the development of the ation until the 1968 coup which brought Arab world as dependent on the reinvigoration of Arab culture and Arab unity. After merging the Ba’ath, and himself, to power. with a Syrian socialist party in 1952, they took on their current party name – the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party – and began to promote the nationalisation of resources and equalisation of wealth. Aflaq’s many books on these themes have been influential throughout the Arab world since the 1950s.

The Ba’ath party has always had a highly centralised structure, with all major decisions taken by the ‘regional command’, a small group of leaders, in each country. Bitar led his followers into Syrian governments from 1955, and they have been dominant there since 1963. The Ba’ath party spread to Iraq in 1951, and took part in the 1958 and 1963 revolutions, but was quickly removed from the government on both occasions. They have held onto power since the 1968 coup. The ruling Ba’ath parties in Syria and Iraq have been intensely hostile to one another, with Syria even supporting Iran in the 1980-88 war. The Ba’ath party has been in decline elsewhere since the 1967 war against Israel.

Ba’athism is a non-religious movement, but does draw some of its ideas and language from Islam. Aflaq, himself a Christian, wrote of how Islam was the highest expression of Arab culture. These aspects have been drawn upon by Saddam Hussein since the 1980s, as he has largely abandoned the socialist elements of Ba’athism (for example, by selling off or leasing out the state farms that were created from 1968), and invoked Islamic history and symbols to legitimise his rule. In January 1991, on the eve of the Gulf War, Saddam altered the Iraqi flag to include the inscription, “God is great”. From 1991, social conduct has been heavily regulated to be in accordance with recognised Islamic practices. This has particular consequences for Iraqi women, who had been encouraged to take up employment in the 1980s, but who are now facing new restrictions in their public lives. Courtesy of IraqCD.com

6 Understanding Global Issues Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation Saddam Hussein

and educational system to the Iraqi cancellation of its international debt. The people. It also tried to link occupation of Kuwait to the situation in the Kuwait became independent in 1961. It The Iraqi government came out of Occupied Palestinian Territories. had been a British protectorate since the war with Iran claiming victory. 1899. Britain had been responsible for Although these diplomatic efforts It had the fourth or fifth largest its external affairs, including its relations won Saddam Hussein some public army in the world, and was the with Iraq, and it kept up close links with support in the Arab world, the predominant military force in the the new state. Kuwait’s relations with a United Nations deemed them Western power, coupled with its Arab world. It believed it had fought insufficient. On 29 November, the strategic stranglehold over Iraq’s access this ruinously expensive war on Security Council authorised the use to the Gulf, and over the shared behalf of all Arabs. But from early of force to oust the from Rumailah oilfield, had made it a thorn in 1990, Kuwait and the United Arab Kuwait. The air campaign – the side of Iraqi governments long Emirates – perhaps fearful of Iraq’s before Saddam Hussein. Using the ‘Operation Desert Storm’ – began on continued power – stepped up their spurious claim that Kuwait had once 17 January 1991. Saddam Hussein oil production, thus depressing the been part of Mesopotamia, on 2 August had promised the “mother of all oil price, and lowering Iraq’s vital 1990 Iraqi forces marched in, and six battles”, but his forces suffered days later Saddam announced the revenues. Kuwait also requested heavy losses from the start. Iraq merger of the two countries. Iraq to repay loans it had provided fired missiles at Israel and at US during the war. Iraq alleged that Around 1,000 civilians were killed during military bases in Saudi Arabia. Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. The number of Kuwait was pumping oil out from Iraqi deaths in the Desert Storm the large Rumailah field that When the ground offensive began on operation is unclear. The most infamous straddled their mutual frontier. 24 February, Iraq ordered its forces incident was the bombing of the to withdraw, and Kuwait was fully Few people foresaw that the Iraqi Amiriyya air raid shelter in Baghdad, retaken within 100 hours. The war government would try to resolve its which killed at least 300 civilians inside. ended with a ceasefire agreement. predicament by invading Kuwait. Estimates of total Iraqi civilian fatalities Iraq agreed to pay reparations, Just before the invasion, Saddam range from 2,200 to 15,000. Estimates eliminate its non-conventional of Iraqi military deaths range even more, Hussein had been encouraged by a weapons and accept a border with from 10,000 to 100,000. In one widely comment by the US ambassador in Kuwait to be demarcated by the UN. reported episode a retreating convoy of Baghdad that: “We have no opinion 1000 Iraqi vehicles was bombarded on on your Arab - Arab conflicts, such With the Iraqi army in disarray, and the road to Basra, killing almost all their as your dispute with Kuwait. 15% of Iraq under coalition control, occupants. Secretary Baker has directed me to the coalition could have moved its The coalition targeted Iraqi electricity emphasize the instruction, first troops to Baghdad and overthrown supplies, bridges and roads. These air given to Iraq in the 1960s, that the the Ba’athist government. However, strikes caused knock-on deaths as Kuwait issue is not associated with a tactical – and controversial – people were unable to access or operate medical facilities. The coalition America.” The Iraqi government, too, decision was taken to not press the also used missiles tipped with depleted seems not to have predicted the war into Iraq. President Bush urged uranium (DU). Since the war, many international outrage that the the Iraqi military and people to scientists have claimed that DU has invasion would cause. The Security overthrow Saddam Hussein. Wide- long-term toxic effects and can be Council promptly condemned the spread revolts broke out, and the carcinogenic. The high incidence of invasion and called for Iraq’s imme- Iraqi government was left with leukaemia and birth defects in southern diate withdrawal. On 6 August, it control over only three of its 18 Iraq since 1991 may be a result of the governorates. However, the revolt use of DU. However, not all scientists imposed comprehensive economic accept that DU has harmful conse- sanctions. Claiming that there was collapsed as Iraq’s forces regrouped, quences, and the US and UK armed an imminent danger from Iraq to and it became clear that the coalition forces continue to use it in warfare. Saudi Arabia, the United States forces were not to going to help. began to assemble a military force to Iraq dumped large amounts of Kuwaiti The US did keep troops in northern surround Iraq. This was ‘Operation oil into the Gulf, creating an oil slick Iraq, and, together with the Euro- Desert Shield’. An international covering 240 square miles. It also set on pean Union, declared the region a fire oil fields, wells and storage facilities coalition was created, with troops ‘safe haven’ to protect the Kurdish as its forces retreated from Kuwait. A from other Arab and Muslim states, population. The US, UK and France total of 240 personnel from the coalition as well as European countries. armed forces were killed during established ‘no-fly zones’ in the north Operation Desert Storm, a third of whom In negotiations, Iraq made various of Iraq, and later in the south. But died when hit by their own side’s fire. offers to withdraw from Kuwait, but the Ba’athist government survived tied these offers to demands for sole the war, and Saddam Hussein control of the Rumailah oil field and remained in power.

Understanding Global Issues 7 Defying the West Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation Defying the West

Since 1991, the US has portrayed Iraq as a threat to global security, and has sought variously to disarm it, to ‘contain’ it, and to overthrow its government.

Weapons of mass addam Hussein has defied all have unfettered access to all its sites destruction Sexpectations by managing to and facilities in order to check that stay in power since 1991, despite a Iraq was destroying these weapons. In the ceasefire arrangement number of attempted coups, and the Their inspectors set about making with the UN in April 1991, Iraq defection of some of his top officials. unannounced visits to buildings and agreed to destroy all its nuclear, Successive US administrations have installations throughout Iraq, chemical and biological stocks, labelled Iraq a “rogue state”, and, asking to see documents and and missiles with a range longer backed by the UK, have spoken of checking the contents of military than 150 km. It also agreed to the need for Saddam to be over- facilities. In 1993, Iraq agreed to the allow a new body, the United thrown before Iraq can be reinteg- long-term monitoring of its facilities, Nations Special Commission rated into the community of nations. and video cameras, and chemical (Unscom), to oversee the destruc- This approach was endorsed by the and temperature sensors were tion of these weapons, and to US Congress in 1998 when it installed at 250 sensitive sites. approved the ‘Iraq Liberation Act’, monitor its facilities to check they Yet from only their second visit, the which provided $97 million in mili- were not being re-developed. inspectors faced obstructions from tary assistance and facilities to Iraqi Iraqi officials. They were either opposition groups. delayed before being given access to The headline controversy between premises (allowing relevant items to Iraq and the West has been over be removed), or they were prevented Iraq’s non-conventional weapons. from taking documents away for Iraq agreed that inspectors from analysis. Even so, the inspectors Unscom and the IAEA (the Inter- reported that they had received national Atomic Energy Agency, compliance in the majority of their UN inspectors examining weapons which is responsible for disarming inspections and were able to destroyed by Iraq. Iraq’s nuclear capabilities) would complete a number of their tasks successfully. However, relations between Iraq and Unscom deter- iorated from 1996 when it became clear that a number of Unscom’s staff were passing information onto the US government, and that this information was being used in plans to topple Saddam Hussein from power. In December 1998 the Unscom inspectors were withdrawn from Iraq, on the advice of the US, so that the US and UK could start bombing. They have not been allowed to return since. In the meantime the US and UK allege that Iraq has been rebuilding its non-conventional weapons, though they have not so far provided any evidence for this. Unscom has been disbanded and replaced with the UN Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commis- Courtesy of UN/DPI Photo

10 Understanding Global Issues Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation Defying the West

Iraqi casualties sion (Unmovic), which has a similar The most persistent confrontation brief, but is intended to be more rig- has arisen not from the obligations The US and UK have launched orously independent of the member of the ceasefire agreement, but from substantial attacks on Iraq a states. However, Unmovic inspectors the measures that are supposed to number of times since 1991, and have not yet been allowed into Iraq. prevent Iraq from violating the civilian casualties have resulted Furthermore, it is unclear if it has human rights of its citizens. The from many of these. There have the political support of the Bush Iraqi government routinely resorts also been frequent attacks within administration, which has disputed to the murder of its political the ‘no-fly zones’. The Iraqi its likely effectiveness. US officials opponents, and the persecution of government claims that in the two have pointed out that its leader, their relatives. A large number of years after December 1998, 323 Hans Blix, was head of the IAEA in crimes are punished by execution or civilians were killed and 960 the 1980s, while Iraq was building bodily mutilation, and torture and injured in these attacks, but these its nuclear capability under its intimidation are widely practised by figures cannot be independently inspectors’ noses. the police. There is no independent confirmed. judiciary, and basic freedoms – such The dispute over weapons inspec- as freedom of speech or association – tions has been one part of a wider are not respected. The Shi’a clergy conflict between Iraq and the US-led Weapons of mass destruction and the Kurdish and Turkoman - what Iraq is obliged to coalition. In 1991, Iraq accepted a minorities face regular persecution. destroy number of other obligations, and the In 1993, the United Nations Special US has claimed that it has violated Nuclear: Iraq tried and failed to develop Rapporteur on Human Rights said many of them. It agreed to respect a nuclear bomb before 1990. The IAEA that the scale of human rights recorded in 1998 that there was no Kuwait’s sovereignty, to accept a violations in Iraq was “so grave that indication that Iraq had attempted to re- boundary demarcated by a UN team it has few parallels in the years start a nuclear weapons programme. between itself and Kuwait, and not Chemical weapons: Iraq destroyed large that have passed since the Second to move any weapons within ten quantities of nerve gas, mustard gas and World War”. sarin under international supervision, but miles of the border. Although it Unscom recorded that it was unable to formally recognised Kuwait’s In response to the repression of the account for large quantities of chemical independence in 1994, Iraqi leaders Kurdish population at the end of the agents that Iraq is known to have still occasionally make statements Gulf War, in June 1991 the US, UK produced. Some inspectors believe that that cast doubt on their commitment and France declared a ‘no-fly zone’ Iraq used these weapons against Iran to refrain from any future military (NFZ) for Iraqi aircraft in Northern before 1988, and has destroyed records Iraq, designed to prevent aerial of this use. action against Iraq’s neighbours. bombardment of the Kurds. A Biological weapons: Iraq denied Iraq agreed to repatriate Kuwaitis producing biological weapons until southern NFZ was added in August Hussein Kamil, Saddam Hussein’s son- taken to Iraq at the end of the Gulf 1992, and extended as far north as in-law, defected in 1995. Kamil explained War. However, it claims that it has the southern suburbs of Baghdad in how he had commanded an extensive no record of the whereabouts of 605 September 1996. biological programme, but he was individuals, who are presumed to subsequently killed when he returned to have died during the chaotic retreat France has since rejected the policy, Iraq. One major production facility was from Kuwait. This issue continues to but US and UK planes continue to destroyed by Unscom in 1996, but the patrol the NFZs, and have attacked further extent of the programme remains have a strong resonance in Kuwait, ground targets. The US and UK unknown. which alleges that Iraq is still insist that the targets are military Missiles: Unscom inspectors oversaw holding them as potential ‘human installations, but it is clear that the destruction of 817 out of Iraq’s known shields’ to use if Iraq is subjected to 819 long and medium range missiles. civilians have often died in the another major attack. The US has claimed that since 1998 Iraq bombing raids. The NFZs were not has converted some of its short range Iraq agreed to cease its support for authorised by the UN, and Iraq missiles to give them a longer range. . However, the US alleged claims they are an act of aggression that there was an assassination Unscom and IAEA inspections yielded against it. It is also unclear how the inconclusive results in some respects, attempt on former US President NFZs can serve to prevent human owing to Iraq’s obstruction of the George H. Bush when he visited rights violations on the ground. inspectors. However inspectors did Kuwait in April 1993, and that Iraq They do not cover much of the manage to destroy a substantial number was behind this attempt, and fired autonomous Kurdish region. At of weapons, and to produce an overall picture of the state of Iraq’s weapons 23 missiles at Baghdad. Iraq’s best, they are an expression of the programmes. involvement in this episode is still US and UK commitment to the disputed. protection of the Kurds.

Understanding Global Issues 11 Economic Sanctions Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation Economic Sanctions

Four days after Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait, the UN Security Council imposed comprehensive and draconian economic sanctions on Iraq.

Conflict over sanctions rom August 1990 Iraq was food’ scheme: Iraq was permitted to Fpreventing from importing any sell $1 billion of oil every 90 days, of The US and UK remain strongly goods except medical supplies. It was which 66% would be used to pay for in favour of retaining sanctions* not allowed to export anything or to humanitarian imports. The rest on Iraq. Many other countries, conduct any international business. would be used to pay compensation particularly Russia, and many A Sanctions Committee, made up of to the victims of the invasion of international aid organisations, representatives of Security Council Kuwait, and for UN costs in Iraq. member countries, was formed to have long criticised them for their This scheme has been expanded over oversee implementation. humanitarian impact. A survey time, to raise, and then to remove, by Unicef in 1999 showed that After the Gulf War the sanctions the cap on oil exports, and increase sanctions have contributed to the regime was restructured. Sanctions the percentage spent on humani- deaths of 500,000 children under on Iraqi exports were now tied to its tarian supplies. The import process the age of five. Iraq’s neighbours, compliance in destroying its stock of has also been eased. Firstly, in 2000, including Kuwait, have formally weapons of mass destruction under a ‘green list’ was approved of goods supported the lifting of sanctions, international supervision. All Iraqi that could be imported without refer- and many tolerate the smuggling import contracts were submitted to ence to the Sanctions Committee; of oil from Iraq, thought to be the Sanctions Committee, which then, in May 2002, a new regime of worth up to $2 billion a year. would determine if the goods were ‘smart sanctions’ required only goods on a ‘dual use’ list to be approved by How the Oil-for-Food revenues are essential for civilian needs. Any spent (%) member of the Committee could put the Sanctions Committee. Other a “hold” on a contract. In practice, civilian goods are handled by nation- 3 25 the US blocked a wide range of al governments and UN technical 59 contracts, in sectors such as health, staff. Weapons remain prohibited. electricity, water, sewage, communi- 13 Iraq’s economy has improved since cations and transportation, on the the lifting of the oil cap in 1999, and grounds that such supplies could Humanitarian Humanitarian the new sanctions regime may help programmes in the programmes for have military applications. centre and south of the three northern this recovery but problems remain. Iraq Kurdish governorates Critics argue that the denial of such Foreign investment, vital for the Compensation for the invasion of UN administrative items, and the lack of revenue from reconstruction of Iraq’s infra- Kuwait costs exports, have been major factors in structure, remains prohibited. Oil is the severe decline in the humani- still the only permitted export, but The UN Security Council in session* tarian situation in Iraq. A UN without essential investment Iraq’s mission reported that sanctions had beleaguered industry operates far left the Iraqi people on the “brink of below its potential. As a result, it calamity”, and recommended that earned less revenue in six years of Iraq be allowed to raise $2.6 billion oil-for-food than it did in 1980 alone. through oil sales for an initial four And 25% of these revenues still go in months to pay for basic humani- compensation; the rest can only be tarian supplies. The Security used to pay for imports of humani- Council proposed instead that Iraq tarian goods. Some argue that allow- be allowed only $930 million over ing Iraq to import cash as well as six months, and that purchases be goods would ease wage payments to supervised by UN officials inside the the public sector (doctors, teachers, country. The Iraqi government etc.), improving the humanitarian rejected these limitations until 1996, situation. This is probably untrue, when both sides accepted a compro- as the Iraqi government can print mise package. This was the ‘oil-for- dinars to pay its employees. Courtesy of UN/DPI Photo

12 Understanding Global Issues Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation Economic Sanctions

Iraq since 1990 A number of assessments of the humanitarian situation in Iraq have been carried out since August 1990, providing a portrait of an impoverished society. Many observers and critics have highlighted the role of sanctions. The United Nations Humanitarian Coordinator in Iraq, , resigned from the organisation in 1998, protesting that “We are in the process of destroying an entire society. It is as simple and terrifying as that. It is illegal and immoral”. His successor, Hans von Sponeck, resigned in 2000, saying that he “cannot any longer be associated with a programme that prolongs the sufferings of the people and which has no chance to meet even the basic needs of the civilian population”. The main surveys on Iraq have been by carried out by the United Nations Children’s Fund (Unicef), in a 1999 study of infant mortality, and the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), in an assessment of food and nutrition carried out in May 2000. A general review was conducted in 1999 by a Humanitarian Panel established by the Security Council.

General review conditions, particularly in urban centers. The WFP estimates that “In marked contrast to the prevailing situation prior to the events of access to potable water is currently 50% of the 1990 level in urban 1990-91, the infant mortality rates in Iraq today are among the highest areas and only 33% in rural areas.” (Humanitarian Panel) in the world, low infant birth weight affects at least 23% of all births, Health facilities chronic malnutrition affects every fourth child under five years of age, “Since 1991, hospitals and health centers have remained without repair only 41% of the population have regular access to clean water, 83% of and maintenance. The functional capacity of the health care system has all schools need substantial repairs. The [International Committee of the degraded further by shortages of water and power supply, lack of Red Cross] states that the Iraqi health-care system is today in a transportation and the collapse of the telecommunications system. decrepit state. UNDP [United Nations Development Programme] Communicable diseases, such as water borne diseases and malaria, calculates that it would take 7 billion US dollars to rehabilitate the power which had been under control, came back as an epidemic in 1993 and sector country-wide to its 1990 capacity.” (Humanitarian Panel) have now become part of the endemic pattern of the precarious health Infant Health situation.” (Humanitarian Panel) “… in the heavily-populated southern and central parts of the country, Education children under five are dying at more than twice the rate they were ten “School enrollment for all ages (6-23) has declined to 53%. […] some years ago [..] from 56 deaths per 1000 live births (1984-1989) to 131 schools with a planned capacity of 700 pupils actually have 4500 deaths per 1000 live births (1994-1999). Likewise infant mortality – enrolled in them. Substantive progress in reducing adult and female defined as the death of children in their first year – increased from 47 illiteracy has ceased and regressed to mid-1980 levels, according to per 1000 live births to 108 per 1000 live births within the same time UNICEF. The rising number of street children and children who work frame […] if the substantial reduction in child mortality throughout Iraq can be explained, in part, as a result of increasing rates of school drop- during the 1980s had continued through the 1990s, there would have outs and repetition, as more families are forced to rely on children to been half a million fewer deaths of children under-five in the country as secure household incomes.” (Humanitarian Panel) a whole during the eight year period 1991 to 1998.” (Unicef) Society Malnutrition “… the following aspects were frequently mentioned: increase in “The level of malnutrition among young children remains unacceptably juvenile delinquency, begging and prostitution, anxiety about the future high. […] Results showed 21.3% of children under five years of age and lack of motivation, a rising sense of isolation bred by absence of were underweight, 20.4% were stunted (chronic malnutrition) and 9.3% contact with the outside world, the development of a parallel economy were wasted (acute malnutrition). […] since the six-monthly surveys replete with profiteering and criminality, cultural and scientific began in 1997 it appears that there has been little further improvement impoverishment, disruption of family life. [...] UNICEF spoke of a whole except for chronic malnutrition which decreased from 27% to 21%. Still, generation of Iraqis who are growing up disconnected from the rest of at least about 800,000 children under the age of five are chronically the world.” (Humanitarian Panel) malnourished.” (FAO) Mental health “The prevalence of malnutrition in Iraqi “… the number of mental health patients children under five almost doubled from 1991 attending health facilities rose by 157% to 1996 (from 12% to 23%). Acute from 1990 to 1998 (from 197,000 to malnutrition in Center/South rose from 3% to 507,000 persons).” (Humanitarian Panel) 11% for the same age bracket. Results of a nutritional status survey conducted on 15,000 Economy children under 5 years of age in April 1997 “The data provided to the panel point to a indicated that almost the whole young child continuing degradation of the Iraqi economy population was affected by a shift in their with an acute deterioration in the living nutritional status towards malnutrition.” conditions of the Iraqi population and (Humanitarian Panel) severe strains on its social fabric. As summarized by the UNDP field office, ‘the Infrastructure country has experienced a shift from “In addition to the scarcity of resources, relative affluence to massive poverty’.” malnutrition problems also seem to stem from (Humanitarian Panel) the massive deterioration in basic infrastructure, in particular in the water-supply Prices and waste disposal systems. The most “… according to estimates for July 1995, vulnerable groups have been the hardest hit, average shop prices of essential especially children under five years of age commodities stood at 850 times the July

who are being exposed to unhygienic Courtesy of IraqCD.com 1990 level.” (Humanitarian Panel)

Understanding Global Issues 13 After September 11th Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation After September 11th

Following the attacks on the United States, President Bush has declared that the US will work for “regime change” in Iraq, using military force if necessary.

A shift in US policy he Iraqi government alienated military means if necessary. He T many otherwise sympathetic invoked the possibility that Iraq In the aftermath of September 11, observers by initially praising the could supply non-conventional 2001, Iraq became a top priority perpetrators of the outrage. Its weapons to terrorists for use against for the US government. Usama mission at the UN in New York the US. refused to fly its flag at half-mast. bin Laden, held responsible for US opposition to the current Iraqi Rumours circulated of Iraq’s the World Trade Center and government goes beyond concern involvement in training and even Pentagon attacks, had repeatedly over its alleged development of non- financing the hijackers. The US justified his actions in terms of conventional weapons. Secretary of deputy defence secretary, Paul the sanctions on and bombing of State Colin Powell declared in May Wolfowitz, is reported to have urged Iraq, as well as the stationing of 2002 that, “regardless of what the immediate air strikes on Iraq, and US troops in Saudi Arabia which [weapons] inspectors do, the people spoke of “ending states who sponsor began with Operation Desert of Iraq and the people of the region terrorism”. Shield. would be better off with a different Over the subsequent months, as regime in Baghdad”. The US also attention focused on Afghanistan, insisted that any new inspection the Iraqi leadership took a more regime in Iraq would have to be In June 1996, a fuel tanker loaded with conciliatory stance. Allegations that even more intrusive than the earlier explosives destroyed these barracks at an Iraqi official had held meetings one, thus increasing Iraqi reluctance the US military base in Dhahran, Saudi with one of the hijackers in Prague to re-admit Unmovic personnel. Arabia. Nineteen American soldiers also seem tenuous. Nevertheless, were killed and scores of Saudi and If the West chooses to move beyond with the defeat of the Taliban, the Bangladeshi civilians were injured. ‘containment’ it has three major Usama bin Laden tapped a deep vein of issue of Iraq resurfaced. In January strategic options. Firstly, there is hostility to the US by declaring his oppo- 2002, President Bush famously what appears to be current US sition to US bases in Saudi Arabia. The accused Iraq of participating with Saudi government could not now risk its policy, which is to try to unseat Iran and North Korea in an “axis of own stability by endorsing a US attack Saddam Hussein. This could be done evil”, and stated that the policy of on Iraq, or by again permitting the use by providing military assistance, his administration was to remove of Saudi facilities or airspace for this technical expertise and aerial purpose. the Iraqi leadership from power, by support to Iraqi opposition groups*, who would take on the responsibility of combating the Iraqi army on the ground. They might incorporate any army units which defect. This was the strategy adopted by the US in Afghanistan, and resulted in few US casualties. Alternatively, the US and UK could launch a ground invasion themselves, accepting the potentially heavy risks to their service personnel. This is the more more likely choice, in that the armed Iraqi groups are weak and many of them do not support US strategy. SCIRI opposes President Bush’s characterisation of their ally, Iran, as part of the “axis of evil”, and the main Kurdish groups, the KDP and Courtesy of US Department Defense

14 Understanding Global Issues Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation After September 11th

A crumbling coalition PUK, fear that their current auto- A system of incentives could be nomous status will be eroded if a devised, e.g., by providing a clear- In 1990-91, as part of Operation regime more acceptable to the US cut timetable for the ending of Desert Storm, a coalition of 34 and its allies comes to power. sanctions if there is full cooperation with the weapons inspectors. countries was assembled which Both these strategies to overthrow included Arab and Islamic states the Iraqi government by force face But if Iraqi compliance did succeed such as Egypt, Syria, Saudi Ara- similar problems. Unless Iraq’s in lifting sanctions, support for on- bia and Turkey. All these coun- neighbours reverse their current going monitoring would very likely tries are now opposed to another opposition to military action, an decrease, making it easier for Iraq attack on Iraq. Among European attack will be difficult if not to re-start its weapons programmes. countries, France is opposed to the impossible, and regional hostility to It has demonstrated already its continuation of the ‘no-fly zones’ the US might escalate from a willingness to use chemical weapons and its planes fly to Iraq without popular to an official stance. Any in order to crush internal dissent, seeking permission from the military assault is also likely to and it will remain a major military sanctions committee. Germany produce many casualties, both direct power even without non-conven- has advised strongly against a as a consequence of war, and tional weapons. military invasion of Iraq. indirect, through the hardship that A third option, which could be will be created. Many Iraqis receive Many Arab leaders are aware coupled with the second, is to the majority of their food through how unpopular an attack on Iraq address wider regional problems. the government-run rations system would be among their own people, Iraq’s development of non-conven- developed under sanctions, and have particularly if Israel is not tional weapons has been spurred on no way of growing or purchasing compelled to make a meaningful by the general insecurity of the their own food. If the rations system compromise with the Palestinian Middle East. Israel possesses a sub- collapses, many Iraqi families will people. Even Kuwait put its name stantial arsenal of nuclear weapons, be left without significant sources of to a collective Arab declaration in and is extending its illegal occupa- nutrition. The Kurdish region will March 2002 emphasising its tion in the West Bank and Gaza face particular problems: the UN “categorical rejection of attacking Strip by a war that horrifies many staff who run the ration programme Iraq”. Any new military action is Arabs. Resolving these problems may well have to be evacuated, and likely to be carried out by the US might serve to curb Iraq’s aggressive supplies of essential goods, which and UK alone. stance towards the wider world, and are warehoused in territories under encourage it instead to participate the control of Baghdad, would in regional networks that aspire to almost certainly be terminated. “Iraq continues to flaunt its hostility resolve political differences through toward America and to support terror. A longer term problem concerns a non-violent means. The Iraqi regime has plotted to develop viable replacement for the current However, US politics at present anthrax and nerve gas and nuclear Iraqi regime. The individuals pro- weapons for over a decade... remain focussed on being ‘tough on moted by the US in recent months Saddam’, and on support for the “This is a regime that has already used as possible future leaders are often Israeli government. Many in the US poison gas to murder thousands of its Ba’athists who have defected from own citizens, leaving the bodies of feel that a pro-American govern- the Iraqi military, and themselves mothers huddled over their dead ment in Baghdad would help quell have a history of engaging in children... the violence of Palestinian protests, repression. There is a fear that non- “States like these, and their terrorist contain Iran better, and lessen US military leaders (if they were Shi’a allies, constitute an axis of evil, arming dependence on Saudi Arabia for Muslims) would ally themselves to threaten the peace of the world... maintaining regional order. After with Iran, and that they would not “By seeking weapons of mass des- September 11th, any moves to have the authority to lead the truction, these regimes pose a grave encourage Iraqi cooperation or diverse communities of Iraq. and growing danger. They could compel an equitable solution to the provide these arms to terrorists, giving A second option for the West would Arab-Israeli conflict are likely to be them the means to match their hatred. They could attack our allies or attempt be to concentrate on removing Iraq’s deeply unpopular with US to blackmail the United States. In any non-conventional weapons, rather politicians. Wider regional stability of these cases, the price of indifference than on changing its leadership. The may neither be possible in the near would be catastrophic.” Iraqi government has little incentive future, nor contribute much to George W. Bush, State of the Union to comply with new weapons inspec- lessening the repressive nature of message, January 2002 tions and disarmament if it believes the government currently in power that the US will invade anyway. in Baghdad.

Understanding Global Issues 15 Additional notes Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation

Additional notes

Ottoman Empire In 1969, Iran renounced the 1937 Treaty from 1966 to 1979. Since 1990, economic A Muslim Empire created in the 14th cen- and claimed half the Shatt al-Arab. Both sanctions have been imposed on Iraq, tury, ruled from modern day Turkey, and sides sponsored opposing rebel groups. Libya, Serbia / Montenegro, Haiti, Angola, including at its height an area incorpor- With strong US support for Iran, Iraq finally Sierra Leone and Afghanistan. This ating South East Europe, North Africa and gave way in 1975: a new treaty, agreed expanded use of sanctions has led many most of the Arabian peninsula. Iraq was its under Algerian mediation, recognised the observers to label the 1990s ‘the easternmost territory, and served as the thalweg principle for the whole of the Shatt sanctions decade’. However, Iraq remains battleground for its wars with the Safavid al-Arab. In return, Iran stopped its support a special case: as a spokesman for the Empire (largely modern Iran). From the for the Iraqi Kurdish uprising. When Iraq US State Department put it, these were 17th century, it was highly devolved, with invaded Iran in 1980, the official aim was “the toughest, most comprehensive local rulers in charge of affairs in their to reclaim the whole of the Shatt al-Arab sanctions in history”. Since the late 1990s, regions. It collapsed in World War I, with for Iraqi sovereignty. Ten years later, 12 there has been disquiet at the severe its territories occupied by the Allies, and days after ordering the invasion of Kuwait, humanitarian difficulties that have was formally dissolved in 1920. Saddam Hussein wrote to the Iranian accompanied the imposition of many of President, accepting again the division of the sanctions regimes. The UN Secretary- British mandate the Shatt al-Arab in line with the 1975 General said that, “sanctions remain a When the League of Nations, the precur- Treaty. blunt instrument, which hurt large numbers sor to the UN, was established in 1919, of people who are not their primary The Iranian Revolution the victorious powers in World War I were targets”. John and Karl Mueller, two noted faced with the question of how to deal with In 1979, a popular revolution in Iran over- foreign affairs specialists, have argued the territories that had come under their threw the Shah, a pro-Western hereditary that these sanctions have killed more rule during the war. The League estab- ruler who had built up a strong military. In people than all the traditional weapons of lished a system of ‘mandates’, which pro- his place, Shi’ite clerics led by Ayatollah mass destruction throughout history. mised independence to the local people, Khomeini took charge, and installed a There has been a general acceptance that but only when they were judged to have government that they claimed was based sanctions should be better targeted at developed enough to rule over them- on Islamic principles. The long-standing specific individuals, such as by seizing selves. The 1920 San Remo Conference persecution of Shi’ites in Iraq quickly their overseas assets, rather than aimed of Allied Powers gave the British a man- became a major issue for the new Iranian at countries as a whole. More recent date to rule Palestine, Transjordan (later leaders, especially when a close friend of implementations of sanctions have taken Jordan) and Mesopotamia (renamed Iraq), Khomeini’s was executed. Khomeini called these factors into account. and gave France the mandate over Syria for the overthrow of the secular Iraqi and Lebanon. regime, and its replacement by an Islamic Iraqi opposition groups government. Iran also began to sponsor The US has provided military and financial The boundary dispute between Iraq and Shi’a and Kurdish opposition groups. The assistance to a London-based umbrella Iran Iraqi leadership was fearful of an Islamic organisation, the Iraqi National Congress The modern dispute over the border revolution in Iraq, and this was a major (INC). The INC was established in 1992, began in 1937 when the British, with oil factor in encouraging the invasion of Iran and is led by Ahmad Chalabi. It verbally interests in Iran, pressured Iraq into in 1980. supports democracy and human rights, accepting a frontier treaty that would but has been consistently tainted by protect British oil terminals in Iran and United Nations Security Council allegations of corruption and internal safeguard its navigational rights into the The Council comprises 15 represen- disorganisation. In 1995, the US pulled out Persian Gulf. Along the Shatt al-Arab, the tatives: those from Russia, China, France, of an INC-led coup attempt in Iraq at the waterway that runs between the two the UK and US, who are referred to as the last moment, leading to the capturing of countries, for the 4 miles from the terminal ‘permanent five’ or P5; plus those from ten INC agents. The Iraqi National Accord up to the mouth of the Gulf, the border other countries who are selected to sit on (INA or Wifaq) is led by dissident officials would be at the mid-point of the river (the the Council for a period of two years. A from the military and Ba’ath party, and thalweg), and ships from all countries Council resolution is passed if there are 9 seems to have more support in Iraq than could use these waters; apart from this, votes in favour of a motion, but only if no the INC. It is led by Iyad Alawi. The INA Iraq would retain full control over the rest member of P5 votes against it. Lifting or has good links with other independent ex- of the Shatt al-Arab. Before long, however, lightening sanctions would require a new military officials whom US spokespeople both sides were dissatisfied with these resolution: therefore, any member of the have mentioned as potential future Iraqi arrangements. Iran wanted the thalweg P5 could veto an attempt to do this. leaders, such as General Nizar Khazraji principle to apply for the whole 65 miles Council resolutions are legally binding on and Brigadier-General Najib Salihi. The for which the Shatt al-Arab forms the every member of the United Nations. major groups among Iraqi Kurds are the border. Iraq wanted full control of the river. Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Both countries were aware of the dangers Economic sanctions Patriotic Union of Kurdistan. Among to their shipping and oil terminals built Before 1990, the Security Council had Shi’ites, SCIRI, the Supreme Council for along the Shatt al-Arab, and sought great- only imposed economic sanctions in one the Islamic Revolution in Iraq is the largest er control over this strategic waterway. case, that of Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe) opposition group, and is funded by Iran.

16 Understanding Global Issues Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation Sources, bibliography and websites

Sources, bibliography and websites

Sources this book is a collection of articles by prominent effectively disarmed, but Iraqi trust in Unscom opposition Iraqis on different aspects of Iraq was destroyed in part by US interference with Amnesty International; BBC News Online; since the Gulf War. Articles include ‘Human its operations. Butler argues that Iraq continues Encyclopaedia Britannica; Encyclopedia of Rights, Sanctions and Sovereignty’ in which to develop non-conventional weapons. Trevan's Islam; al-Khoei Foundation; Middle East Laith Kubba argues that sanctions without other focus is on Iraq's attempts to obstruct Unscom's Economic Survey; Middle East International; measures to topple Saddam do more harm than work. Middle East Report; The New York Times; Save good; ‘Attitudes to the West, Arabs and Fellow the Children Fund UK; The Washington Post. Iraqis’ by Ayad Rahim which gives a valuable The Kurdish Predicament in Iraq: A Political though anecdotal insight into attitudes and Analysis, by Michael M. Gunter (Palgrave, Books and other publications aspirations of ordinary Iraqis; and an article by 1999) Abbas Alnasrawi on the Iraqi economy. Ancient Iraq, by Georges Roux (Penguin A full account of both the repression by the Iraqi government before 1991, and the difficulties Books, 1980) Three books by Dilip Hiro: that Kurdish groups have faced in establishing A thorough account from the prehistory of The Longest War: The Iran-Iraq military an autonomous governing authority under Mesopotamia up to the advent of Christianity. conflict (London: Grafton, 1989) Western protection since then. Although the text is not recent, there have been few archaeological finds since it was written to Desert Shield to Desert Storm: The Second The Generals' War: the inside story of the call its judgements into question. Gulf War (London: Paladin, 1992) conflict in the Gulf, by Michael R. Gordon and Bernard E. Trainor (Little Brown & co, 1996) A , by Charles Tripp (Cambridge Neighbours, Not Friends: Iraq and Iran after Written by a New York Times military University Press, 2000) the Gulf Wars (London: Routledge, 2001) correspondent and a general with academic A detailed account of the development of the Together, these books form an accessible and journalistic experience, this book provides Iraqi state, and an analysis of why its relations introduction to modern Iraqi history. In the most a detailed and readable guide to the US military with its Shi’a and Kurdish populations has been recent work, the conflict and mutual deception thinking and debates behind the Gulf War. so troubled. over the arms inspection teams are particularly well covered. A general overview of Iraqi history Some useful websites Sanctioning Saddam: The Politics of is provided at the start of each work. www.un.org/Depts/oip (The UN Office of the Intervention in Iraq, by Sarah Graham-Brown Iraq Programme) (London: I.B.Tauris, 1999) Needless Deaths in the Gulf War: Civilian www..org (The UN Children’s Fund) Casualties During the Air Campaign and A comprehensive account of the use of www.un.org/Depts/unmovic/index.htm (The UN Violations of the Laws of War, by Human Rights economic sanctions against Iraq, as well as Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Watch (Yale University Press, 1991) other forms of Western intervention in recent Commission) www.fco.gov.uk (The UK Foreign and years. The author was based with an aid http://www.hrw.org/reports/1991/gulfwar/ agency in Northern Iraq for much of the period Commonwealth Office) An account of the civilian impact of the 1990-91 under review. www.un.int/usa/asiairaq.htm (The Iraq page of Gulf War. the US mission to the UN) Out of the Ashes: The Resurrection of www.iraqi-mission.org (Iraq’s mission to the in Comparative Saddam Hussein, by Andrew Cockburn and UN) Perspective, by Margaret P. Doxey Patrick Cockburn (HarperCollins, 1999) www.uruklink.net/mofa (Iraq’s ministry of (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996) foreign affairs) Traces the rise and decline of Iraq from the Provides a valuable theoretical and compar- www.casi.org.uk (Campaign Against Sanctions colonial period to the modern day. It focuses on ative background to the Iraqi sanctions as well on Iraq, the most extensive collection of links how Saddam Hussein has stayed in power and as extensive treatment of the Iraqi case itself. and documents from the UN and other the mistakes made by Western governments in sources on modern Iraq) dealing with him. The book argues that sanc- Iraq - a Country Study (US Library of www.iraqwatch.org (Wisconsin Project on tions have only strengthened Saddam Hussein, Congress,1988) Nuclear Arms Control, monitoring Iraq’s and that Iraqi civilians have suffered terribly as http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/iqtoc.html progress in building weapons of mass a consequence of the West's mistakes. destruction) A thorough overview of all aspects of Iraq www.fas.org/man/dod-101/ops/iraq.htm (the Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq, before the Gulf War. Federation of American Scientists military by Kanan Makiya (University of California analysis of Iraq) Endgame: Solving the Iraq Problem – Once Press, 1998). www.iraqdaily.com (latest news on Iraq) and For All, by (Simon & Schuster, http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/law/iz00t___.html A detailed account of how the Iraqi government 1999) uses violence against its own citizens in a high- (the Iraqi Constitution) ly public way, in order to intimidate the popula- The Greatest Threat: Iraq, Weapons of Mass www.iraqiart.com (pages on Iraqi artists, folk tion into compliance. The book was first pub- Destruction and the Growing Crisis in Global song lyrics, calligraphy, poetry and more) lished in 1989, under the pseudonym of Samiha Security, by Richard Butler (PublicAffairs, 2000) www.IraqCD.com (Source of a very big al-Khalil, and the new edition contains an up- compilation of pictures on CD of many date on changes in Iraqi society since then. Saddam's Secrets: The Hunt for Iraq's Hidden aspects of Iraqi history and present-day life) Weapons, by Tim Trevan (HarperCollins, 1999) www.krg.org (the Kurdistan Regional Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Government, with information on Kurdish Books by former members of Unscom: the head democracy, edited by Fran Hazelton (London: culture and news, as well as an overview of of its concealment operations unit, its executive Zed Books, 1994) the region). director and a British expert on biological www.kurd.org (the Washington Kurdish Published for the Committee Against weapons.The books draw very different Institute). Repression and for Democratic Rights in Iraq, conclusions. Ritter argues that Iraq had been

Understanding Global Issues 17 Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation Notes on the topic map (centre spread)

Notes on the topic map (centre pages)

Figure 1: Profile of Iraq mountains, the ancient land of the Assyrians Nevertheless, the official revenue Iraq has Over 70% of Iraq’s population live in its before the 20th century, but now predomi- derived in the six years of oil-for-food is cities. Baghdad has been the capital city nantly inhabited by Kurds. roughly the same as it earned in 1980 alone (adjusting for inflation). Iraq’s population is since the creation of Iraq, and has a Most of Iraq has little rainfall, with tempera- now double what it was in 1980, so the population of approximately 5.5 million. tures reaching 43°C in summer. Only in reduced revenue has to be spread around Although it has always been a north-east Iraq, in the area now largely all the more thinly. The lower revenue is due predominantly city, the cultural under Kurdish autonomous administration, in part to the low oil price. Iraq has also sold influence of Iraq’s neighbour, Iran can crops grow without artificial irrigation. (historically known as Persia), is shown in its Iraq relies on its two major rivers for its over $6 billion of oil on the black market name: Baghdad means ‘gift of God’ in water supplies, but their sources are located since 1997 according to US estimates, Persian. It was originally built in 762 AD as a in Turkey, with whom Iraq has tense reducing the amount sold through official walled circular city on the western bank of relations. Turkey has in the past blocked the channels. In addition, it has shut down its oil the River Tigris, with the caliph’s palace at Euphrates for short periods of time, both in industry for short periods to protest at the the centre. Over the intervening centuries, it order to fill its reservoirs and also to exert policies of the US. has expanded onto both banks, with eleven political pressure on Iraq and Syria. Such However, the reduced revenue is largely bridges connecting the two halves of the actions can severely disrupt life in Iraq. It is due to the condition of Iraq’s oil industry, city. not difficult to imagine how a dispute could described as in a “lamentable state” by UN escalate into full-scale military conflict. Basra, the historic second city, lies at the oil experts in 2000. The toll of war and the confluence of Iraq’s two major rivers, the Figure 2: Oil revenue lack of finance that the Iraqi government has access to in order to rebuild its oil facilities Euphrates and the Tigris. Basra is a historic Two extensive rises in world oil prices have has made that process all the more slow centre of learning, famous for its literature had a major impact on Iraq’s development. and difficult. Unless sanctions are relaxed and theological studies since the 8th Firstly, in 1973, the Organisation of further to allow foreign investment into Iraq’s century. Its 1.3 million people have borne Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – the brunt of the Iraqi civilian casualties in the which controls the majority of the world’s oil infrastructure, it is unlikely that Iraq will 1980-88 war with Iran, and its facilities were exports – made the collective decision to approach its former capacity to produce oil badly damaged in the 1991 Gulf War. The quadruple oil prices. This was in part an for a long time to come. 1991 uprising against the Ba’thist regime attempt to pressure Europe and the United Figure 3: Military balance began when army units retreating from States to urge Israel to withdraw its troops If the US were to launch a full invasion of Kuwait entered central Basra, and turned from the Arab lands they occupied in 1967. Iraq, the main resistance would come from their fire on the symbols of Saddam The second rise was over the period from the Iraqi army. This is the sole component of Hussein’s rule. From the late 1990s, the 1979-80, when the Iranian revolution and Iraq’s military that is comparable in size to Iraqi authorities have invested heavily in the the war between Iraq and Iran increased any US force. Iraq’s elite forces are the re-building and development of Baghdad, international fears over the threats to Gulf Republican Guard, which largely managed but Basra has been relatively neglected. oil. to avoid significant damage in 1991. A The effects of Iraq’s impoverishment under Iraq managed to take full advantage of its ‘Special Republican Guard’ of 50,000 to economic sanctions are visible most clearly increased revenue to build up not only its 60,000 men was established in 1991 to in Basra’s decline since 1990. military but also its civilian infrastructure and services, such as schools and hospitals. safeguard the President, and is thought to Mosul is the major city of northern Iraq. Its be deeply loyal to Saddam Hussein. population of 1.7 million now outstrips that of The Iraqi leadership could thus offset internal opposition to its human rights However, it is not clear if the same can be Basra. It is near the site of the ancient said for regular Iraqi troops, or if they would Nineveh, and has served as a major trading abuses and lack of democratisation by pointing to the high standard of living it had turn against their leader after protracted entrepôt between Europe and the East, on aerial bombardment. the route stretching to Aleppo in Syria. brought. Mosul, Baghdad and Basra host major Through the 1980s the oil price fell steeply The main US military centres that are likely universities that have acquired prestige and Iraq’s ability to produce and export oil to be used in a military assault are Kuwait’s throughout the Arab world. was hampered by Iran’s attacks on its Camp Doha where US troops are stationed; facilities and shipping. As a result, Iraq’s the Ahmad al-Jaber and Ali al-Salem Kirkuk, also in northern Iraq, is the centre of earnings were not sufficient to fund its war airbases in Kuwait; ’s al-Udeid base, Iraq’s oil industry. A historically Kurdish site, efforts. The extensive debts Iraq built up which hosts the US air force and ground Kirkuk has been subject to extensive over this period were a factor in encouraging troops; and Bahrain, which is the head- ‘Arabisation’ since the 1970s through the the invasion of Kuwait, in the misguided quarters of the US Navy’s Fifth Fleet and deporting of some of its Kurdish population belief that a withdrawal could be linked to a also hosts an air base. The US will also and the resettlement of Iraqi Arabs there. restructuring of the debt. hope to secure Saudi Arabia’s permission to South of Baghdad, Kerbala and al-Najaf are overfly its territory, and Turkey’s permission holy cities for Shi’ites. They have had strong Economic sanctions prevented exports of oil to use Incirlik air base but both countries are historic links with Iran due to the large (other than to Jordan) until 1996. Since stating at present that they will refuse numbers of Iranian pilgrims who visit. To the then, oil sales through the oil-for-food permission. east of al-Najaf lie 52,000 square kilometres programme have expanded. At first, these of marshes, the historic home of the Ma’dan. were capped at a value of $1 billion every The US also has facilities in Oman, the Western Iraq is an extension of the Syrian 90 days, but since December 1999 Iraq has United Arab Emirates, Jordan and on Diego desert and is sparsely populated. To the been allowed to export as much oil as it can Garcia, an Indian Ocean island leased from east and north of Baghdad are the Zagros produce. the UK to the US.

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Iraq and the West: The politics of confrontation

The United States is determined to unseat Saddam Hussein, whom it sees as the key player in an ‘axis of evil’ which sponsors terrorism and threatens the stability of the world. Amidst increasing disquiet in Europe and throughout the Arab region, the Americans appear to be working towards a full-scale ‘pre-emptive strike’. What will be the consequences for international order, and for the Iraqi people?

IN THIS ISSUE

Introduction Intervention and containment, repression and confrontation

Page 1 Cradle of Civilisation: The land between the rivers

Pages 2-3 The Making of Iraq: The legacy of imperialism

Pages 4-5 A Disunited Nation: Geography, religion, tradition

Page 6-7 Saddam Hussein: The Ba’ath party and the ruthless dictator

Pages 8-9 Topic Map: Profile of Iraq

Page 10-11 Defying the West: Inspections, bombs and no-fly zones

Page 12-13 Economic Sanctions: An impoverished people

Page 14-15 After September 11th: America prepares to invade

Page 16 Additional notes

Page 17 (inside back cover) Sources, bibliography and websites

Page 18 (fold-out) Notes on the topic map (centre pages)

Iraq and the West: The politics of Confrontation by Dr G Rangwala, Lecturer in Social and Political Sciences, Recommended retail price Newnham College, Cambridge #2.95/US$5.00/Can$6.95 Consultant for this issue: Dr Colin Rowat, Lecturer in Economics, ISSN 1355-2988 University of Birmingham Editor: Frank Preiss

Understanding Global Issues Series editor: Richard Buckley published by Understanding Global Issues Limited The Runnings, Cheltenham GL51 9PQ, England Text and design copyright © 2002 Understanding Global Issues Ltd Artwork: The Chapman Partnership Cover: IraqCD.com

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