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SAND DUNE ENVIRONMENTS IN FIRST NATIONS LIFEWAYS: HOLISTIC INTERPRETATION FOR THE MIDDLE AND LATE PRECONTACT PERIODS ON THE NORTHERN PLAINS A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the Interdisciplinary Studies Program By Timothy Robert Panas Copyright Timothy Robert Panas, November 2018. All rights reserved. Permission to Use In presenting this thesis/dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis/dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis/dissertation work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis/dissertation or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis/dissertation. Requests for permission to copy or to make other uses of materials in this thesis/dissertation in whole or part should be addressed to: Chair of the Interdisciplinary Studies Program 116 Thorvaldson Building, 110 Science Place University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5C9 Canada OR Dean College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies University of Saskatchewan 116 Thorvaldson Building, 110 Science Place Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5C9 Canada i Abstract Over the past forty years, archaeologists have identified hundreds of Middle and Late Precontact archaeological sites in sand dune areas across the Northern Plains. Varying from isolated finds to complex multi-component sites, they represent a set of complex and integrated behaviours that to date have not been examined in a holistic manner across both time and space. This work uses the concepts of Island Theory, Historical Ecology, and Possibilism to examine the environmental, social, and spiritual/cultural roles that sand dune locations played in the lifeways of Northern Plains groups during the Middle and Late Precontact periods. This theoretical basis allows for the development of a holistic interpretation of First Nations behaviour in relation to dune environments, creating an interpretive narrative that better accounts for social, economic, political, and environmental behaviour than do previous investigations. Further, the concept of human agency as a factor in influencing the environmental conditions and physical attributes to create anthropogenic landscapes is examined. This work presents a synthesis of past work completed within dune environments, including a reassessment of past radiocarbon dates obtained from Northern Plains dune sites, as well as the history of dune usage across the study area as both resource bases and as sacred landscapes. These data are analysed along with the results of field surveys and testing programs to determine if landscape usage observed at sand dunes varies from the surrounding grasslands, as well as with palaeoenvironmental and geoarchaeological data to determine what role environmental variation played in the usage of sand dune environments. What emerges from this analysis indicates that in the Precontact era Indigenous people viewed and exploited dune environments differently than the environments that surround them. Patterns of seasonal usage, and in some cases cultural contact, are present within the archaeological record. This pattern varies, based upon the cultural group in question, and is influenced by such factors as regional climate variation, dune stabilization and hydrology, the diverse resource base that is present within dune environments, traditional subsistence practices, and the spiritual beliefs associated with aeolian environments on the Northern Plains for specific groups. Further evidence indicates that these practices impacted dune environments, transforming them in part into anthropogenic landscapes. ii Acknowledgements This dissertation would not have been completed without the assistance and advice of many individuals and organizations. Given the history of the development of this work, there are simply not sufficient words to thank everyone who was there for me during this process! First among these are my advisors, Dr. Ernest Walker and Dr. Keith Carlson, who generously provided me with the opportunity to continue and complete this work in Interdisciplinary Studies at the University of Saskatchewan. Their advice, guidance, support, and friendship saw me through what at times was a difficult process. Also, deserving of thanks are my committee members and chair for their input and advice: Dr. Gerald Oetelaar, Dr. Alec Aitken, Dr. Geoff Cunfer, Dr. Glenn Stuart, and Dr. Margaret Kennedy. As well, Dr. David Meyer served as a wonderful source of information and direction with regards to the archaeology and ethnohistory of Northern Plains – it is always a treat to be able to delve into his amazing and diverse pool of knowledge! In addition, thanks should be given to Dr. Alwynne Beaudoin of the Royal Alberta Museum and Dr. Gerhard Ens for their input and support in this work at its inception. Numerous organizations were also instrumental in seeing this work, and my program, through to completion. A great deal of thanks is given to the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies in taking a bit of a chance and allowing me to complete this work. To obtain the data needed for this research, provincial regulatory agencies allowed me generous access to all of their resources; for this I thank the staffs of the Archaeological Survey of Alberta, the Heritage Conservation Branch for Saskatchewan, and the Historic Resources Branch for Manitoba. Equally supportive were the past and present staff members of the Saskatchewan Archaeological Society, who provided me with information, support, encouragement, and access to far too many books – thank you Tomasin, Talina, and Belinda! Finally, and most importantly, my thanks have to be given to those closest to me who supported me through what turned out to be a long and winding journey. To my parents and family, thank you for supporting and caring for me as I continued to be (and still are!) that strange kid who would dig up the garden looking for artifacts, and surprising everyone when I would walk into the house with a box of broken glass and literally what a dog chewed on and dragged into the yard. Lastly, but not least in any way, is Karin. You are my better half, my partner in crime, and iii constant person who without I would not be me. You have seen be at my best and my worst through this process, and have always been there - without you, I would not have been able to see this through. Words cannot express what you, and everyone else, mean to me for helping see me through to the end! This work is dedicated to the memory of my father, Michael, who taught me the importance of hard work and education, and who always enjoyed going to a museum with an overeager kid! iv Table of Contents Permission to Use ......................................................................................................................... i Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ v List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... x List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. xi List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1 – Introduction and Research Methods ...................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction and Focus of Study ................................................................................ 1 1.2 Proposed Study Area Boundaries .............................................................................. 3 1.3 Proposed Time Periods of Study and Definitions of Chronology ............................. 5 1.4 Methods ...................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2 – Theoretical Constructs of Landscape Usage and Alteration on the Northern Plains ............................................................................. 13 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 13 2.2 Structure of Island Theory ....................................................................................... 13 2.3 Previous Research Using Island Theory on the Northern Plains ............................. 15 2.4 Cultural Islands on the Plains .................................................................................

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