Geology and Mineral Resources of India MINERAL RESOURCES OF INDIA Geology and Mineral Resources of India MINERAL RESOURCES OF INDIA INTRODUCTION concentration ofClarke varies from element to element depending on the economic utilisation. The genesis of India has a rich tradition of mineral exploration. Innumerable old workings, mine dumps economic deposits is therefore essentially a question of slag heaps, etc. are the tell tale signs of this glorious tradition. The flourishing diamond enrichment. The crustal processes associated with crustal trade in the Deccan peninsula, mainly in the Golconda kingdom, had attracted world’s growth and recycling leading to metal concentration and attention during historical time. Copper and gold were also used locally since the days of formation of deposits is referred by the term ‘metallogeny’. Indus Valley civilizations. East India Company started exploration for coal in the Eighteenth century with setting up ofGeological Survey of India , the premier Earth science In the Indian context major metallogenic episodes have taken organisation and the second oldest survey of the country, in 1851 for the systematic place during Archaean, Archaean-Proterozoic Transition and geological survey and prospecting for coal. India was a notable producer of gold in the Proterozoic proper. Thus large deposits of base metal and early part of twentieth century and major exporter of mica, sillimanite, kyanite, magnetite basemetal-noble metals, iron, manganese and chromium, etc were and chromite. Metallurgical industry started with the setting up of steel plants at Burnpur, formed in distinct episodes mostly from Archaean to Jamshedpur and copper smelter at Ghatsila. Second World War created great demand for Mesoproterozoic. various minerals and metals including those of strategic importance e.g., tungsten. Crustal evolution during Archaean: The Archaean forms the formative Industrial policy, formulated after Independence, brought about a radical change in the stages of the Earth’s history, core segregation, major outgassing, meteoritic mining and metallurgical industry. During the post-Independence period, GSI has bombardment and formation of primeval crust (Piranjo 1992). Archaean heat embarked upon the exploration for minerals, particularly in favourable geological milieu flow between 3.8 and 2.5 Ga is estimated to have been 2.5 to 4 times its present spread over Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum and Aravalli cratons. The investigations carried value. As a result lithosphere was presumably thin and somewhat buoyant. out since 1960s provide us firsthand information of different mineral occurrences as well Subduction, if any, was probably little developed and mantle convection gave rise as their potential. Keeping in tune with the modern trends of mineral exploration, the GSI to a series of small jostling lithospheric plates. Initially these were made-up of mafic oriented its programmes through multidisciplinary surveys. From time to time it equipped and ultramafic rocks. Later perhaps in response to partial melting of this lithosphere itself with state-of-the-art laboratories to back up its various exploration programmes. The and the products of erosion of the early consolidated magmas, felsic rocks were efforts have led to discovery of several mineral deposits in virgin areas in different parts of formed and accreted leading to the formation of first sialic microplates. The the country. A few other central and state government organisations were also involved in aggregation of these micropltaes could have given rise to Protocontinents, and mineral exploration now and then, mostly in collaboration with foreign organisations. The eventually together near continental size cratonic areas. These cratons were composed liberalisation of India’s National Mineral Policy in 1993 paved the way for the entry of of granitic rocks and greenstone belts. private entrepreneurs, including those from overseas for carrying out mineral exploration. The database developed by GSI has been found very useful for taking investment decisions The Proterozoic Eon was the most significant one when intraplate tectonics played a by the Multi-National Companies. major role in Earth’s evolution of magmatism, metamorphism and ore genesis. The Archaean-Proterozoic boundary was a major turning point in crustal evolution and An ore or mineral deposit represents a geochemically anomalous concentration of represents a diachronous and transitional period ranging from 3 Ga to 2.5 Ga. elements in a very limited sector of the crust. The crustal elements have to undergo Massive crustal growth, lithospheric thickening, decrease in heat flow and a enrichment upto several orders to attain the status of an economic deposit. The 35 Geological Survey of India possible change in mantle convection pattern occurred. The presence of an baryte deposits. The mineral-rich solutions migrating from magma source get precipatetd unconformity is typical separating highly deformed Archaean rocks from the little at different levels in the crust along structurally favourable traps depending on the ambient deformed Proterozoic cratonic sequences. A major intrusive event characterised by pressure-temperature conditions of precipitation atthese locales. The following table large-scale granitic magmatism is identified between 2.67 and 2.5 Ga. The summarises some empirical data on the igneous rock-ore linkage. aggregation of a supercontinental mass resulted in the accumulation of heat in the Rock Type Associated Ore mantle beneath. Kimberlite and Lamproite Diamond Genesis and localisation of economic deposits: The grouping of commercial types of Dunite-Peridotite, Pyroxenite Chromite, nickel, platinum group ore deposits is based on a single genetic classification i.e. endogenous, exogenous and metamorphogenic series. The endogenic series incorporates magmatic, Norite-Gabbro- Anorthosite PGE, Ti-and V-bearing magnetite, native copper, pegmatitic, metasomatic greisen type, etc., carbonatite, skarn, plutonogenic silver,cobalt, nickel hydrothermal, volcanogenic hydrothermal, massive sulfides and stratiform type Dolerite, diorite, monzonite Magnetite, copper,gold groups. The exogenic include weathering, placer, sedimentary, mineralised waters Granodiorite, quartz monzonite Porphyry copper,-gold-Mo-Ag- and brines. Syenite Magnetite, gold Endogenic cycle and endogenic deposits: Nephelene syenite Corundum Magmatic deposits: Granite and granite pegmatite Tin-Tungsten, uranium, radium, beryl, tourmaline Magmatic cycle (both extrusive and intrusives) is responsible for Exogenic cycle and exogenic deposits: concentration of many important metallic deposits. A genetic The mineral deposits formed at deeper zones of the crust under high temperature and connection between both is often difficult to establish because pressure conditions are unstable in the interface of atmosphere, hydrosphere and exhalation carrying ore minerals get intermixed with the hydrosphere biosphere which are characterised by low temperature, low pressure and abundant water. and atmosphere and are deposited as chemogenic sediments. To All these lead to geochemical fractionation of elements, which incidentally leads to this class belong the sedimentary exhalative deposits closely formation of a number of mineral deposits. Enrichment of iron, nickel, and aluminium takes related to time and space with volcanic episodes (e.g. BIF, place in the weathering cycle under warm tropical conditions in the form of laterite and deposits of stratiform zinc, volcanic hosted massive type bauxite cappings. This type of deposits is abundant in the Precambrian shield of Indian sulphide type Pb-Zn-Cu deposits). Peninsula. It represents insitu products of interaction of the stable crustal blocks with the Ores may be genetically related to specific intrusives as dynamic atmosphere. Mechanical concentration of resistant minerals results in the magmatic concentration and magmatic emanation exuded formation ofplacer deposits ofmonazite, ilmenite, garnet , gold, cassiterite, diamond, from magma during its consolidation. Some of them are platinum etc. The dynamic agencies of hydrologic cycle act upon crustal blocks and bring early magmatic and late magmatic with reference to the about concentration of heavy minerals. Examples of this type of deposits are the beach intrusion. The podiform chromite mineralsiation placers ofilmenite-magnetite- bearing sand placers of Kerala - Konkan Coast, diamond associated with ultramafic rocks are examples of deposits placers in Madhya Pradesh and Wairagarh,Tin placers of Bastar district, etc. of early magmatic concentration. Another important example of exogenous deposits iscoal . This is an important source of Hydrothermal origin is attributed to many of the energy in the country. Large deposits of coal are found associated with Gondwana metalliferous deposits of copper, gold, lead etc and fluorite, sediments. These are formed by large-scale deposition of vegetation materials entrapped 36 Geology and Mineral Resources of India in the alluvial sediments brought in by the rivers which during the course of geologic time kimberlite fields, viz. Wajrakarur Kimberlite Field (WKF), due to consolidation and lithification transformed into coal beds. Narayanpet Kimberlite Field (NKF),Tungabhadra Kimberlite Field (TKF) and Raichur Kimberlite Field (RKF).Three N-S As per the National Mineral Policy, 2008, which emphasized for non-fuel and non-coal zones, viz. (i) the eastern zone of alkaline syenites / alkali minerals, that