ResearchOnline@JCU This file is part of the following reference: Rampengan, Mercy Maggy Franky (2015) Impacts of multiple hazards on small island communities: perspectives from North Sulawesi, Indonesia. PhD thesis, James Cook University. Access to this file is available from: http://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/41153/ The author has certified to JCU that they have made a reasonable effort to gain permission and acknowledge the owner of any third party copyright material included in this document. If you believe that this is not the case, please contact [email protected] and quote http://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/41153/ Impacts of multiple hazards on small island communities: Perspectives from North Sulawesi, Indonesia Thesis submitted by Mercy Maggy Franky Rampengan MAppSc. James Cook University May 2015 For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the College of Marine and Environmental Sciences Faculty of Science and Engineering James Cook University PROLOGUE Siau Island, together with other islands off the northern tip of North Sulawesi has distinct features as part of the Wallacea region. I first visited Siau Island in late 2000 in transit on my way to Sangihe Island to supervise a CBDP (Community-Based Disaster Preparedness) program led by the Indonesian Red Cross (PMI-Palang Merah Indonesia). I saw the magnificent active volcano, Mount Karangetang, for the first time and felt amazed and wondered why people who live on that island can survive with the continuous risk of eruptions and earthquakes. When I was awarded the Australian Award Scholarship (AAS) in 2010, I decided to study small islands and the capacity of their inhabitants to deal with these multiple hazards. I decided to focus on Siau and other islands in North Sulawesi Province. As a Manadonese who grew and lived on the mainland of Sulawesi and having an academic background in marine studies and being an active member of the Indonesian Red Cross since 1988 the study of disasters on small islands had become a passion. In December 2011, I finally visited Siau Island as a researcher. I also visited several other islands, including Ruang Island and Lembeh Island. The sea was often rough and sometimes dangerous for travelling in December and January. I became stranded for several days by bad weather on Tagulandang Island whilst trying to get a boat to Ruang Island. That experience motivated me to explore the lives and livelihoods of the people who live in that hazardous location. What are the resources the people use to face all the hazards that impact upon small island environments? This research is an attempt to answer that question. i STATEMENT OF THE CONTRIBUTION BY OTHERS Publications Chapter Details of publication(s) on which chapter Nature and extent of the intellectual # is based input of each author 3 Engaging communities in managing Rampengan, Law, Gaillard, multiple hazards: Reflections from small Boedihartono and Sayer islands in North Sulawesi, Indonesia I designed the study, collected and Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography analysed the data, developed the argument and wrote the Accepted article. Dr Lisa Law, A/Prof J. C. Gaillard, Dr A. K. Boedhihartono and An earlier version of this paper was Prof Jeffrey Sayer variously assisted presented at the Institute of Australian with the argument, design of the study, Geographers & The New Zealand developing the approach and assisted Geographical Society (IAG/NZGS) with the article writing and editing. Conference 2014, University of Melbourne and was awarded an ―Outstanding Presentation by a Postgraduate Student‖ 4 Rampengan, M. M. F., Boedhihartono, A., Rampengan, Boedhihartono, Law, Law, L., Gaillard, J. C., & Sayer, J. 2014. Gaillard and Sayer Capacities in Facing Natural Hazards: A Small Island Perspective. International I designed the study, collected and Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 5(4), analysed the data, developed the 247-264. DOI: 10.1007/s13753-014-0031- argument and wrote the article. Dr A. K. 4 Boedhihartono, Dr Lisa Law, A/Prof J. C. Gaillard and Prof Jeffrey Sayer An earlier version of this paper was variously assisted with the argument presented at the Institute of Australian and design of the study and assisted Geographers (IAG) Conference 2013 , with the article writing and editing. University of Western Australia, Perth. 5 Agroforestry on an active volcanic small Rampengan, Boedhihartono, Margules, island: Prospering with adversity Sayer, Law, Gaillard, Ong and Tran Geographical Research I designed the study, collected and analysed the data, developed the Accepted argument and wrote the chapter. Dr A. K. Boedhihartono, Prof C. Margules, An earlier version of this paper was Prof Jeffrey Sayer, Dr Lisa Law, presented at the 51st Annual Meeting of A/Prof J. C. Gaillard variosly assisted the Association for Tropical Biology & with the argument and design of the Conservation (ATBC) 2014, Cairns study and assisted with the article writing and editing. Ong Thi Ngan Tien and Tran Thi My Linh assisted with the initial draft of the article and supported with the transect walk data during the ii last field work. 6 Mobility and livelihoods: A small island Rampengan, Law, Gaillard, Margules, perspective Boedhihartono and Sayer Asia Pacific Viewpoint I designed the study, collected and In revision analysed the data, developed the argument and wrote the chapter. Dr Lisa Law, A/Prof J. C. Gaillard, Prof C. Margules, Dr A. K. Boedhihartono and Prof Jeffrey Sayer variously assisted with the argument and design of the study and assisted with the article writing and editing. Research funding No Agency/Institute $ (AUD) Period 1 Australia Award Scholarship (AAS) program 232,388.63 2011-2015 administered by the Department of Foreign (estimated value at the Affairs and Trade (DFAT) Australia: Living time of offer and allowance, tuition fees, travel (fieldwork and excluding the 3 months return home), Overseas Health Cover and extension) Study Enrichment Allowance 2 School of Earth and Environmental Sciences 3000 2012 Post Graduate Research Scheme 3000 2013 TOTAL 238,388.63 Editorial support Professor Jeffrey Sayer Dr Lisa Law Dr Elizabeth Tynan Ms Rae Wiseman Mr Peter Hitchcock iii Photographs Muh. Irfansyah Lubis (Chapter 4, Figure 4.2 and 4.4) PNPM Kecamatan Sibarut, Sitaro (Chapter 3, Figure 3.4) Ethics Approvals JCU Human Ethics Approval #H4672 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Praise to my God, Jesus Christ, only by His grace and kindness have I finally completed this PhD study and thesis writing. This dissertation has had the benefit of, and contributions from many great people and institutions. Firstly, heartfelt thanks to my supervisors at James Cook University (JCU), Australia: Dr Agni Klintuni Boedhihartono (Ibu Intu), Dr Lisa Law (Ibu Lisa), Professor J. A. Sayer (Pak Jeff) and my supervisor from Auckland University, New Zealand: Associate Professor Dr J. C. Gaillard (Pak JC) who were instrumental in the initial formulation of this study and for their invaluable support and guidance. Their constant positivity and enthusiasm for my study allowed me to take the research in creative and dynamic directions that I could only have hoped for when embarking on this PhD journey. Without their great dedication and limitless feedback, my PhD study and this thesis would have never been completed, and therefore again, there are not enough words to show my appreciation to all my supervisors. My appreciation is owed to the Manado State University (Universitas Negeri Manado-UNIMA) for allowing me to continue with further education. I owe a special debt of gratitude to the Rector of UNIMA, Professor Dr Ph. E. A. Tuerah, M.Si, DEA for both the encouragement and endorsement to pursue my higher degree overseas; he provided inspiration and a good example of it. I give thanks in abundance to the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) for providing me with the Australia Award Scholarship (AAS). I would also like to acknowledge the immeasurable assistance and support from the JCU AAS Liaison Office staff, Alex Salvador and Katherine Elliot. I wish to deliver my extreme thanks to the College of Marine & Environmental Sciences (formerly School of Earth & Environmental Sciences) Faculty of Science and Engineering JCU for financial support from the SEES Postgraduate Research Scheme and Graduate Research Scheme 2012 and 2013 which enabled me to undertake the fieldwork in Indonesia and attend and present a paper, part of this thesis, at the Institute of Australian Geographers/New Zealand Geographical Society Joint Conference in Melbourne (University of Melbourne) 2014. Special thanks to Ibu Intu and Pak Jeff for support during fieldwork in Indonesia and especially for the support to share my research proposal and get feedback from International and Indonesian researchers during the Preliminary Dialoque in Prana Dewi, Bali 2011. Special thanks to Dr Lisa Law for her funding support to attend and present a paper, which was part of this thesis at the Institute of Australian Geographers‘ Conference in Perth (University of Western Australia) 2013 and Professor Steve Turton for his funding support to attend and present a paper, also part of this thesis, at the 51st Annual Meeting for the Association of Tropical Biology and Conservation in Cairns 2014. I am extremely grateful to the Head of Delegation of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) Indonesia Delegation (Bob McKerrow), the Secretary General of the Indonesian Red Cross (PMI-Palang Merah Indonesia) (Iyang D Sukandar), the