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Cultures of Border Control: Schengen and the Evolution of Europe‘s Frontiers by Ruben Zaiotti A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto © Copyright by Ruben Zaiotti 2008 Cultures of Border Control: Schengen and the Evolution of Europe‘s Frontiers Ruben Zaiotti Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science, University of Toronto 2008 Abstract The dissertation examines one of the most remarkable and controversial developments in the recent history of European integration, namely the institutionalization of a regional policy regime to manage the continent‘s frontiers. By adopting this regime (known in policy circles as ‗Schengen‘), European governments have in fact relinquished part of their sovereign authority over the politically sensitive issue of border control, thereby challenging what for a long time was the dominant national approach to policy-making in this domain. In order to account for the regime‘s emergence and success, a constructivist analytical framework centred on the notion of ‗cultures of border control‘ is advanced. From this perspective, the adoption of a regional approach to govern Europe‘s frontiers is the result of the evolution of a nationalist (‗Westphalian‘) culture—or set of background assumptions and related practices about borders shared by a given policy community—into a post-nationalist one (‗Schengen‘). The cultural evolutionary argument elaborated in the dissertation captures the unique political dynamics that have characterized border control in Europe in the last two decades and offers a more nuanced account of recent developments than those available in the existing European Studies literature. It can also shed light on current trends defining European politics beyond border control (e.g., Europe‘s policy towards its neighbours) and on other attempts to regionalize border control outside Europe (e.g., the proposal for a North American security perimeter). ii To Nancy and my family iii Table of Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction ..................................................................................................................1 Europe, border control and the emergence of a new commonsense ...........................................2 Explaining Schengen: from ‗logical response‘ to ‗normative shift‘ .........................................10 Cultures of border control and their evolution: an analytical framework .................................20 Accounting for Schengen: methodological issues ....................................................................23 Why retelling the story of Schengen matters: border control, Europe and beyond .................26 Plan of the dissertation .............................................................................................................28 Chapter 2 - Accounting for Schengen: cultures of border control and their evolution ................30 Defining cultures of border control ...........................................................................................31 Cultures of border control in Europe: a typology .....................................................................36 Cultures of border control and their evolution ..........................................................................39 Methodological issues: operationalizing culture and its evolution ...........................................52 Chapter 3 - Westphalian culture of border control: from maturity to contestation .....................59 Europe, borders and the origins of Westphalia .........................................................................60 European borders in the postwar era: Westphalia reaches maturity .........................................64 The gathering storm: challenges to Westphalia in the 1970s and 1980s ..................................81 Chapter 4 - The pursuit of new cultures of border control: Schengen and Brussels.....................89 Beyond Westphalia: debating the future of Europe and its borders ..........................................90 The birth of Schengen ...............................................................................................................93 ‗Schengen‘ as emerging culture of border control ....................................................................95 Schengen as laboratory: on the pursuit of a new culture of border control ..............................99 Towards a ‗Europe without frontiers‘: the Brussels initiative ................................................104 ‗Brussels‘ as emerging culture of border control ...................................................................107 ―Effective external borders first‖: on the pursuit of Brussels ................................................113 On the relations between the Schengen and Brussels initiatives ............................................118 iv Chapter 5 - Selecting a new culture of border control: Schengen ..............................................121 Testing Schengen and Brussels ...............................................................................................122 Schengen‘s internal squabbles: the debate over the regime‘s ‗preliminary conditions‘ .........124 Enlarging Schengen .................................................................................................................134 Schengen‘s external relations in transition ..............................................................................150 ‗Home affairs‘: the evolution of Schengen‘s border control community ..............................155 Chapter 6 - Selecting a new culture of border control: Brussels ...............................................160 Negotiating Brussels: the Borders Convention and the troubles with ‗Europe without frontiers‘ ..................................................................................................................................................161 Maastricht and justice and home Affairs: great expectations and unfulfilled promises .........169 The EU, border control and external relations: exploring uncharted territory .......................180 Still a work in progress: the evolution of the EU‘s border control policy community ...........191 Chapter 7 - From selection to retention: Schengen‘s incorporation into the EU ......................196 On the dynamics of cultural selection in Schengen and Brussels ...........................................197 Schengen in the EU: the road to Amsterdam ..........................................................................202 Sorting out Amsterdam: Schengen‘s ‗ventilation‘ ..................................................................210 Chapter 8 - Consolidating the new culture of border control: Schengen in the EU ..................218 The meaning of Schengen‘s consolidation ..............................................................................219 Implementing the area of freedom, security and justice: the case of the European Border Agency ....................................................................................................................................223 Projecting Schengen in the near abroad: from enlargement to the European Neighbourhood Policy .......................................................................................................................................233 Europe‘s far abroad and the expansion of ‗remote control‘ policies ......................................245 ‗Schengen is not dead‘: the dynamics of Europe‘s border control community after Amsterdam ..................................................................................................................................................255 Assessing border control after Amsterdam: Schengen still going strong ...............................260 v Chapter 9 - Conclusion: Schengen and beyond ..........................................................................263 The tale of a success story .......................................................................................................264 Schengen beyond Schengen: the promise of a cultural evolutionary analytical framework ...267 Schengen redux: from new ‗EU laboratories‘ to the EU Constitution and its reformulations 271 Schengen beyond border control: the debate over the future of Europe ................................281 Into the future: from border fixation to pragmatism? .............................................................289 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................294 vi Index of Tables, Maps, Graphs and Charts Tables Culture of Border Control in Europe – Key Tenets ...................................................................38 The Expansion of the Schengen Regime‘ - Key Dates .............................................................136 Representation in Schengen Groups in the 1990s by Country and Ministerial Affiliation ......156 Representation in EU-Level Groups Dealing with Border Control in the 1990s by Country and Ministerial Affiliation ........................................................................................................194 Types of flexibility in the EU ....................................................................................................207 The Schengen acquis ................................................................................................................215
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