The Russo-Chechen Conflict: Multilevel and Multimodal Transformation

By: Ali Askerov

Askerov, A. (2014). The Russo-Chechen conflict: Multilevel and multimodal transformation. Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis, 1(1), 66-82.

Made available courtesy of UNCG University Libraries: http://libjournal.uncg.edu/prp/article/view/918

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Abstract:

The Russo-Chechen conflict started in the early 1800s and continues today. It is one of the most intractable and long-lasting ethnopolitical conflicts in the world and is replete with violence and atrocities that have escalated and deescalated from time to time. In this paper several peace and conflict studies (PACS) theories are used to assess the conflict and link formal and informal peacemaking strategies to the Russo-Chechen conflict. It is argued that informal multilevel and multimodal diplomacy on different levels is necessary for transformation of this conflict.

Keywords: Conflict transformation | peace | Chechnya | Russia

Article:

***Note: Full text of article below Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis Volume 1, Number 1 (2014), 66-82

The Russo-Chechen Conflict: Multilevel and Multimodal Transformation Ali Askerov University of North Carolina Greensboro

Introduction and Ingush people were allowed to return to their homes in 1957. Upon the disintegration The eighteenth century Russian imperial of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Chechens policies of expansion towards the Caucasus declared their independence from the necessitated conquering the mountain people Russian Federation, thus renewing the of the Northern Caucasus including the Russian- Chechen conflict. Chechens. It appeared that Russia needed Johar Dudayev, the national leader of more than a century to take fragile control of Chechens, declared his nation’s the region. Initially, Russia faced strong independence from the Soviet Union in resistance and later a number of rebellions 1991. President Yeltsin of Russia hesitated of the mountain people, most of which it to take decisive measures against it. Instead, failed to subdue. It is hard to say that the he pursued a neglect policy in the region Russian Empire conquered Chechnya until 1994 when the first Chechen war entirely before Soviet rule, despite the started. This three-year period gave the popular belief that the people of the Chechen fighters an opportunity to stockpile Northern Caucasus were defeated by weaponry, most of which was purchased Russian troops in the mid nineteenth from the Russian military itself (Ganguly & century. The Chechen oblast was created in Taras, 1998). January 1922, and in 1936, the Chechen and The first Chechen war was between the Ingush regions were reunited in an well-organized Russian military institution autonomous oblast (Seely, 2001). On and the Chechen guerrillas. This fact February 23, 1944 the Chechen and Ingush brought about a situation in which making nations en masse were deported into exile on distinctions between combatants and non- the basis of a decree of the State Committee combatants has proved to be very difficult, for Defense of the Soviet Union. The pretext thus contributing to massive human rights was Chechens’ alleged collaboration with abuses (Cornell, 1999). The 1994-1996 war the Germans occupying the neighboring ended with the military victory of Chechnya regions (Lapidus, 1998). As part of the over the Russian Federation bringing about process the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous the Khasavyurt Peace Accord, which legally Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) ended the war. However, the peace appeared established in 1936 was abolished. After the to be very ephemeral and fragile, since war death of Josef Stalin in 1953, the Chechen restarted again in 1999.

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high-level negotiations. The top leadership Designing a Conflict Transformation engages in negotiations to bring a change to System: Prospects for Peace the problem. Since the activities on all three levels take place at the same time, a web of Conflict Resolution Levels and a interdependent activities and people is Peacemaking Model created that is systemic in orientation, holding people and processes together To create a sustainable peace, the conflict (Lederach, 1998). transformation process should commence on The model (Figure 1) below depicts three different levels- top, middle, and conflict resolution circular. Arguably, while grassroots- at the same time (Lederach, dealing with the protracted conflicts, the 1998). Those levels can be identified in conflict resolution process may take place terms of the participating leaders who are by using a combination of all or some of the grassroots, middle range, and top leaders. informal conflict resolution strategies shown Lederach (1998) argues that work on all in the radial on different levels to increase these three levels is necessary to move productivity. The model presents eight toward the construction of a broad-based different strategies- peace education, approach to peace building. interfaith dialogue, interactive problem The grassroots leaders include local solving, forgiveness and reconciliation, leaders, leaders of indigenous NGOs, negotiating for mutual gain, empowerment, community developers, local health storytelling, and nonviolence- which may officials, and refugee camp officials among have an impact on one another thus others. Peace efforts made at the local level increasing the contribution to the process would assist the parties to learn how to more positively. respect each other’s cultural differences (Byrne, 1995), reduce prejudice of the other as well as empower people to deal with war traumas (Lederach, 1998). Even though Peace Education grassroots leaders may not have direct Interfaith access to the negotiation process, they enjoy Nonviolence Dialogue an enormous power the source of which is the local people (Pearson, 2001). Conflict Interactive Problem- Storytelling Resolution The middle-range leaders are ethnic and Process solving religious leaders, intellectuals, and humanitarian leaders. The place of the Forgiveness middle-range leaders in that web is also and Empowerment Reconciliation essential since they are recognized and Negotiations for Mutual respected people in the communities. They Gain may deal with many important problemsolving activities such as creating peace Figure 1. Conflict Resolution Radial commissions, training people in peace education, and organizing problem-solving All of these methods of conflict resolution workshops. work for informal environments, while The top leadership involves military, negotiating for mutual gain is for both economic, cultural, political, and religious formal and informal settings. I will discuss leaders with high visibility that focuses on

Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis Vol. 1, No. 1 2014 THE RUSSO-CHECHEN CONFLICT 68 them individually on a theoretical basis, and peace education must include engagement at apply to a case to see its applicability. multiple levels of government, education ministry, political party systems, labor Peacemaking through Peace Education unions, commercial enterprise, school and university, and family and community. Peace education aims at creating a commitment to peace in the human Implications for Chechnya consciousness (Harris & Morrison, 2003) and is a key element of conflict Promoting peace education programs in both transformation at any level, including ethnic Russia and Chechnya would bring about conflicts (Bekerman & McGlynn, 2007). positive contribution to peace in the region. Sustained education is considered necessary To enhance the effect of these programs for building peace but is not sufficient by they should be permanent and not limited to itself since it depends on the political, children alone. Since Russia is a economic, and social structure of change. multinational country, the importance of The concepts of peace and peace education adult learning is vital for peaceful and have to come down to the local level to respectful co-existence. Therefore, adult embrace all people (Galtung, 1983). education programs should not be limited to Nowadays, growing number of states Chechnya rather they should be nationwide. turn from violence to political diplomacy in The positive effect of transformative order to remove the hostility that has divided education for both children and adults would them (Johnson, 2007). Yet, political contribute to prejudice reduction, victim diplomacy alone is not able to recover from empowerment, equality awareness, the ruins of conflict in divided societies, mediation skills, and listening skills. If used where groups hold on to their perception of decisively, peace education can contribute to the other as the enemy by revering their own the peace between Russians and Chechens, chosen traumas and chosen glories (Volkan, and help form an effective tool to oppose the 1997). This type of perception is ongoing rise in destructive nationalism. because an older person unconsciously externalizes his or her traumatized self to a Peacemaking through Interfaith Dialogue developing child’s personality (Volkan, 1997). When people continue to harbor If religion has the power of motivating feelings of injustice towards “the other” it is people to struggle for their rights, then the very difficult to negotiate a peaceful power of religion should be explored to coexistence (Zuzovski, 1997). Therefore, forge constructive politics (Amaladoss, education as a primary medium for the 2001). Efforts must be made to re-humanize transmission of knowledge, culture, and people through religious teachings values acquires extra importance. The (Francoeur, 2006). Different religions transmission of the historical memory of together can reach a strong human solidarity violent behavior shapes young minds to oppose violence and human suffering making adult education that reframes the (Arinze, 2002). telling of the history integral part of the The Orthodox Church and the Mosque conflict transformation processes in in Russia have not effectively cooperated in protracted conflict cases (Ury, 1999; any significant peace projects related to the Volkan, 2001). Johnson (2007) among Chechen tragedy. Interfaith dialogue others argues that systemic approaches to through religious institutions could bring

Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis Vol. 1, No. 1 2014 69 Askerov both the Muslims and Christians of Russia The Russo-Chechen conflict is not based on together on different social levels— cultural differences, neither is it a clash of grassroots activists, middle-range leaders, religions despite the fact that culture and and elites—for dialogue that can take an religion have a serious motivational effect in array of forms possessing a number of this conflict, especially for the Chechens. different goals. These conversations can Russia has had Muslim communities that address issues that matter to the participants. have co-existed in Russia with Christians for Interfaith dialogue is not a debate or a centuries (Shlapentokh, 2007) developing rivalry; rather, its aim is a conversation certain streams of positive relationships. addressing mutual problem solving. The fact Hence, in Russia, there is a fertile ground to that Russia is a home to about twenty three begin an interreligious dialogue between millions indigenous Muslims implies that Christian Russians and Muslim Chechens, Christianity and Islam have peacefully co- which could be expanded to include other existed for a long time, through peaceful religious groups such as the Muslim Tatars traditions that can be harnessed for interfaith and Russia’s Jews. Models exist for dialogue to reconcile, heal, and prevent addressing existing intergroup problems in violent conflicts. The interfaith dialogue Russia and Chechnya. Interreligious meetings could contribute to building trust dialogue among Russia’s Muslims and to decrease the anxiety and fear in the Christians could bring about significant region. The Russian Orthodox Church could positive change and help strengthen lead these dialogue meetings, which would solidarity in the peace process in Chechnya, increase trust among the Muslim and elsewhere in Russia. communities especially the Chechens. Interfaith dialogue holds the potential to Muslim and Christian communities may nurture the joint activities of religious then develop a common peace program to communities in Russia contributing to social facilitate commitments across lines of change affecting the Russo-Chechen peace religious division. process. Dialogue can explore the Many renowned scholars and peace commonalities of both communities while activists agree that Islam is a religion of addressing structural challenges. The peace forbidding terrorism and violence religious community members who learn (Hanley, 2007; Presbyterian-Record, 2004). about each other’s problems and The reintroduction of Islam into Russian shortcomings may develop mutual society would have at least a twofold effect. understanding (Francoeur, 2006). First, the Muslims of Russia, especially the Undoubtedly, direct communication is a Chechens, would be freed from the burden powerful tool for developing mutual respect of being perceived as potential terrorists. and tolerance as well as empathy (Abu- Second, the false fear of Muslims among Nimer, 2004). In this sense, interfaith Russia’s Christians, as reinforced by state dialogue may play an informative and policies and some media would be encouraging role in the Russo-Chechen challenged. Interfaith dialogue would also conflict. counter media misinterpretation of Islam (Saeed, 2007). Peacemaking through Interactive Conflict Resolution Implications for Chechnya Interactive Conflict Resolution (ICR) is a technique designed to respond to a conflict,

Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis Vol. 1, No. 1 2014 THE RUSSO-CHECHEN CONFLICT 70 the primary aim of which is to change the expanded conception of influence processes views of the middle tier elites involved in is based on the assumption that ethnic some conflict interaction. The utility of conflict has a dynamic nature, hence, efforts unofficial methods, including ICR, directed are mobilized to discover possibilities for more toward the subjective and relational change, to identify conditions for change, aspects of ethnic conflict is increasingly and to overcome resistance to change acknowledged (Fisher, 2007). Fisher (2005, (Kelman, 1997, 2000). 2008) and Mitchell (2003, 2008) stress the necessary interplay between official and Implications for Chechnya unofficial interventions in order to effectively address intractable ethnopolitical Since it is an unofficial and academically conflicts. based third-party approach, this intervention Herbart Kelman (1997, 2000) identified model would bring dynamic discussions to five assumptions identified about the nature all aspects of the conflict among Chechens of conflict and conflict resolution that are and Russians. The main purpose for derived from a social-psychological analysis designing workshops to enable the parties to that may assist third parties to formulate the explore each other’s perspective and to structure, content, and the process of generate a mutually acceptable solution to interactive problem solving workshops their conflict would not disturb either the (IPW) for the parties to a protracted conflict. Kremlin or the Chechen nationalists. First, for many aspects of international or Transferring the ideas acquired in the interethnic conflicts the individual may problem solving workshops to the political represent the most appropriate unit of debate in the conflicting communities must analysis because key conflict resolution be the ultimate goal of these workshops. processes such as empathy, learning, Interactive conflict resolution (ICR) creative problem solving, among others take may be a medium through which Chechens place on the individual level. Second, and Russians can understand the needs, international conflict must also be viewed as fears, and aspirations of each other that an intersocietal or interethnic phenomenon, might be useful in the peace process. Its which suggests a broader view of diplomacy unofficial nature would especially encourage as a complex mix of official and unofficial the parties and sub-parties to come together processes, thus displaying the important role to discuss their differences, since the of IPWs for any interethnic conflict. Third, Russians reject official meetings. Especially conflicts are dynamic, interactive and self- on the eve of the first Chechen war despite perpetuating processes; therefore, conflict the urgent necessity for negotiations to avoid resolution efforts require an interaction violent confrontations the Russian officials capable of reversing the escalatory and self- refused to meet with the Chechen perpetuating nature of conflict, which is not leadership. Any form of ICR would be possible by official diplomacy alone. largely remedial in that and similar Moreover, constructive conflict resolution situations. requires a change in influence strategies The history of problem solving based on threats and refinement of strategies processes displays considerable success. The fed by promises and positive incentives. informal format of problem solving creates Human-based approaches addressing the promising conditions for nurturing positive needs and rights of people are necessary to change in the process of Russo-Chechen bring about a positive change. Finally, the talks that should replace violent forms of

Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis Vol. 1, No. 1 2014 71 Askerov interaction. Bringing the advocates of the the situation and inform them about Chechen and Russian positions together opportunities to avoid imminent dangers for would also be of a great importance for the peace, encouraging them to block new future positive change through increasing oppressive policies (Senehi, 1996, 2000). awareness of the problems of the other side. Moreover, the shifts of the parties’ priorities Implications for Chechnya that may take place over time can best be learned in informal interactive problem One of the primary venues of transforming solving workshops. conflict between the Chechens and Russians might be through the storytelling process Peacemaking through Storytelling with the grassroots that may take place through workshops, theater performances, Storytelling is another informal means of and especially story collections and conflict resolution that stresses the storytelling festivals, which assist in importance of personal stories and their building relationships between people. The sharing among conflicting parties for effects of storytelling on peacemaking are conflict resolution (Bar-On, 2002). essential. It also might be seen as Storytelling may be both destructive and complementary to interfaith dialogue and constructive (Senehi, 2000). Narratives interactive problem solving workshops. It generate or reproduce prejudicial and really has to do with getting people to meet antagonistic images of other groups, mask in a non-threatening space to discuss their inequalities and justice, inflame negative concerns and problems. Sharing stories emotions, and misrepresent society (Senehi, about their experiences and culture is a 1996). However, narratives may also method of peacemaking, at least because it enhance peace when they involve a dialogue may remove one’s prejudice about the other. characterized by shared power, increased Storytelling seems to be one of the most mutual recognition, the promotion of promising innovative peacebuilding consciousness raising, and serve to resist practices to assist in addressing the Russo- domination, as well as teach conflict Chechen conflict. Its philosophy stems from resolution strategies (Senehi, 2009a, 2009b). the ability of people to share their personal Senehi (2000, 2009a) discusses how experience through telling their own stories storytelling can be used as a means to to find common ground, which helps them transform conflicts constructively. She to hear and understand, and overcome argues that story and social structure are mutual fear and prejudice. Personal stories interrelated. The production of meaning is may help to initiate reconciliation between an important process in social life, and the Chechen and Russian people through storytelling addresses it. Stories are the bringing them together to listen to each source of local knowledge that is necessary other, and possibly to develop respect, to be included in the application of conflict sympathy, and empathy toward the other, resolution projects so as not to reproduce which could contribute to the entire process colonial, oppressive, or coercive policies in of social change. Storytelling festivals may the interventions (Senehi & Byrne, 2006). inspire people in their struggle and search Moreover, storytelling is a type of process for truth and justice. Healing and that contributes to people empowerment. reconciliation, through storytelling, engage Storytelling as a source of knowledge and the conflict transformation process. information may also make people aware of

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Peacemaking through Reconciliation and understandings of it (Meierhenrich, 2008). Forgiveness In general, it is the process of repairing a broken or depreciated relationship. It helps Morton Deutsch defines forgiveness as to restore reengagement, trust, and “giving up rage, the desire for vengeance, cooperation after a transgression or violation and the grudge toward those who have (Hawk, 2007). Shriver sets forth four main inflicted grievous harm on you, your loved aspects of reconciliation: truth, forbearance, ones, or groups with whom you identify” empathy, and a commitment to remain in a (Hawk, 2007, p. 298). It also implies relationship due to the interdependence willingness “to accept the other into one’s (Shriver, 1995). The role of truth in the moral community so that he or she is process of reconciliation is essential entitled to care and justice” (Hawk, 2007, p. (Gibson, 2006a, 2006b; Lerner, 2007). If 298). Forgiveness has emotional, behavioral, truth and justice are denied, movement and cognitive dimensions that overlap. toward conflict resolution seems impossible Cognitive restructuring and reimagining the (Staub, 2006). Sometimes this may create an offender are crucial for initiating the obstacle for reconciliation because the forgiveness process, which is both spiritual parties believe in a different “truth”. and psychological (Cioni, 2007). Therefore, genuine truth should be Forgiveness does not dismiss an event acknowledged by the parties before moving and it is not indifferent about justice but it forward. The truth or its details may also means that carrying out justice as revenge is necessitate in-depth research in some not an appropriate behavior (Hawk, 2007). instances (Gibson, 2006b). Also, it is not about an obligation, rather it is about a choice, and human nature is the Implications for Chechnya major reason for forgiveness (Garrard, 2002). In practical terms, it may be Reconciliation as a process of conflict necessary for the offender to offer some transformation can be an important form of acknowledgment, apology, and/or intervention in improving Russo-Chechen restitution, or even just ask for forgiveness. relationships. Evidence shows that the Most world religions include teachings people of both Chechnya and Russia are about the nature of forgiveness (Athar, friendly to each other, as they feel a certain 2010; Lauritzen, 1987). Some religious degree of empathy toward each other. It is doctrines or philosophies place greater the Russian government that needs to emphasis on the need for humans to find demonstrate conciliatory gestures toward the some sort of divine forgiveness for their Chechen community. To avoid hatred and own shortcomings, others place greater future conflicts, Chechen society today emphasis on the need for humans to practice should be given all the necessary forgiveness of one another, yet others make opportunities so that people can live a little or no distinction between human and/or normal life. However, opportunities are not divine forgiveness. In fact, studies show that formed coincidentally, rather they should be forgiveness is positively correlated with created by the government through a number religious problemsolving styles and religious of socio-economic and political reforms to duty (Lauritzen, 1987; Webb, Chickering, affect people’s life deeply and directly. Colburn, Heisler, & Call, 2005). Currently, the Russian government does Reconciliation has a number of varying not seem supportive of reconciliatory efforts meanings, which sometimes lead to different due to its relatively stronger political and

Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis Vol. 1, No. 1 2014 73 Askerov strategic position in Chechnya. The injustices are omnipotent, that is why the imbalance of power between Russia and primary task of both Russians and Chechens Chechnya’s rebels makes the former apply must be the recognition of the truth. oppressive policies vis-à-vis the latter, rather than trying to formulate new methods to Peacemaking through Nonviolence handle the problem. Given some attention, reconciliation might be a potential tool for Decades of war and violence in Chechnya peacemaking in the region. Perhaps the most have failed to resolve problems in the region important point relating to reconciliation is but exacerbated relations inflicting heavy the recognition of the truth behind the losses on civilians as well as on their local Russo-Chechen war. Instead of using cultural heritage. A new approach is needed. propaganda war, recognizing the historical Nonviolent action has deep roots. The and structural backdrop to the Chechen central premise of nonviolence philosophy is crisis that would contribute to the process of that the use of violence is morally wrong reconciliation. Identifying the truth is not (Burrows, 1996). Nonviolence prohibits any always easy due to the possibility of kinds of physical and psychological harm to different perceptions. Acknowledging the human beings. Some expand the scope to truth of Chechen and Russian policy in include not only human beings, but all kinds respect to Chechnya would emotionally of living creatures, and even the whole empower people affected by the war, and global ecosystem (Lyons, 2007). Nonviolent assist them in healing from their action is an agent of social change and a psychological wounds. The recognition of way of life as people strive to achieve the truth and the promotion of justice would positive peace (Vellacott, 2000). Hence, also bring about institutional and relational strong and zealous leaders of nonviolence in changes in Chechnya and Russia. both Chechnya and other parts of Russia Acknowledging past injustices and historical would organize peaceful yet overwhelming events and attitudes that brought suffering to civil society movements to pressure the the Chechens would contribute to the governments in Moscow and Grozny to process of conflict transformation in change their oppressive and inhumane Chechnya. In the same way, acknowledging policies. the damages to Russian people because of People use nonviolent techniques in Chechen violence could shift the views of most modern social and political movements Russian people about the Chechens. related to women’s networks, trade unions, Since reconciliation is considered as the environmental groups, solidarity capacity of people to bring the experience of movements, and other segments of civil the past to bear constructively on the society (Johansen, 2007). Gandhi (1986) present, considering the simple and obvious argued in the early 1900s that it would be historical issues relating to the Russo- impossible for the British to rule India by Chechen conflict would bring about positive physical coercion alone. Instead, the British change. In fact, considering Chechnya’s ruled India because enough Indians history after 1991, few Russo-Chechen cooperated with them to make their rule interactions affected one group alone. The possible. He argued that if the Indian people degrees of separation or difficulty start to would withdraw their consent, British power diminish when mutual empathy is would disappear. It would happen established. The mutual empathy, however, nonviolently because British physical power cannot be established where lies and was based on obedience, which if withdrawn

Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis Vol. 1, No. 1 2014 THE RUSSO-CHECHEN CONFLICT 74 would cause Indian independence (Gandhi, Chechen government. A nonviolent 1986). In the same way, nonviolent approach by both governments to regional techniques can be used in a variety of issues would play a positive role in changing movements in Chechnya related to such local peoples’ views about the situation in realms as human rights, women rights, the republic thus weakening the position of freedom of speech, and the like. those who see the resolution of the problem Direct nonviolence refers to using largely through a violence prism. Losing any nonviolent techniques to influence conflicts degree of local people’s support would force peacefully (Burrows, 1996). The nonviolent Chechen fighters to search for nonviolent or methods and strategies used to directly at least less violent methods of struggle. confront decisions, laws, and systems that If employed by political leaders as a do not treat all human beings equally are conflict transformation method and used in integrated parts of direct nonviolence. conjunction with other peacemaking Structural nonviolence, on the other hand, methods, nonviolence could make a serious involves the structures in a society that contribution to constructive peace in the promote cooperation, recognition, region. People in solidarity in different reconciliation, openness, equality, and regions of Russia could support a nonviolent peaceful actions in conflict situations movement in the region. It is true that (Burrows, 1996). Civil society organizations application of nonviolent methods differs and other democratic institutions are across cultures and regions, and neither examples of such structures. Cultural Russia nor Chechnya is with rich traditions nonviolence, however, includes those parts of nonviolence. Nonetheless, starting strong of the culture that transmit traditions of nonviolence traditions in the region does not nonviolent behavior, and highlight seem perplexing due to the Russian pacifists nonviolent values and qualities (Burrows, such as late Viktor Popkov who sacrificed 1996). Nonviolent traditions can be found in his own life for nonviolence in Chechnya. all cultures, religions, and philosophies Soldiers’ Mothers, the Russian civil including those within Russia and society organization of women, has played a Chechnya. significant role in protesting Russia’s wars in Chechnya thus showing the possibility on Implications for Chechnya nonviolent action within the Russian context. However, stronger nationwide civil The use of nonviolence in Russia, including movements are needed to promote peace and Chechnya, is not a dream. As a strategy, it prosperity in Chechnya. Coordinating the successfully worked in different parts of the cooperation of Russian civil society world to transform a variety of conflicts, and organizations with those that function similarly it may work in Chechnya and other abroad would yield better results. Moreover, parts of Russia to transform conflicts. It can coordinating the work of Russian civil be used as a conflict resolution tool in society organizations would assist in conjunction with other strategies to bring resisting Moscow’s oppressive policies about positive change in the region. Nonviolence is not a means to be employed Peacemaking and Empowerment only by non-state actors. In fact, its contribution to regional peace may be Weak, intimidated, belittled, wounded, enhanced by the institutional reforms traumatized, sick, tired, hungry, homeless, introduced by both the Kremlin and local vulnerable, and desperate people cannot

Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis Vol. 1, No. 1 2014 75 Askerov make peace. Empowering people in during the wars. The Chechen case reflects Chechnya to secure their own basic human the bitter face of armed conflicts’ as they needs requires democratic governance that impact civilians, especially children and entails characteristics such as openness and women, because they are among the least responsibility. Empowerment requires powerful groups. representation for all people at every level, Women and children living in in the institutions of national as well as Chechnya are among the victimized global governance. Empowerment (Seierstad, 2008); they are not just incidental encompasses human rights, good casualties but are also targets of war. Today, governance, and access to education as well Chechen women are not safe even in the as health care. All of these elements have current relative stability in the region. been absent for many years in Chechnya. Hence, empowerment for women must be To reach a positive change in Chechnya perceived as a central issue in Chechnya. people need to be empowered with Much of the current literature on women and knowledge, self-esteem, skills, and peace focuses on empowerment through resources, as well as by directly engaging in women’s equal participation in the political peacebuilding efforts. Empowerment has a decision making (Snyder, 2009). In this direct relationship with human security, sense, one way of empowering Chechen which consists of physical safety, economic women would be including their well-being, social inclusion, and the full representatives in the decision-making exercise of human rights (Ogata, 2003). One apparatus of the republic, instead of of the best ways to protect human security is abducting and killing Chechen women peace by having a democratic state—open, activists such as Estemirova. responsible, and effective (Wilson, 2006). Empowerment has a number of Human security can be achieved in implications for the people of Chechnya. collaboration with government, civil society Above all, the NGO movements in Russia organizations, communities, and businesses and Chechnya should be given international in partnerships of common purpose. support to develop stronger roots. NGOs Empowering Chechen people may could support different layers of the assist in correcting their human security Chechen population especially children, deficits through enabling them to protect women, and people with disabilities to their own rights. Human security, in turn, protect their own rights and meet their own would empower people to pursue their own needs. democratic and sustainable development. Foreign assistance is needed for people Therefore, empowerment, human security, to achieve some success in civil society and democratic development are establishment, or NGO development in interlocked. This is why Chechen children Chechnya as well as in Russia in general should have access to education (Sundstrom, 2005). Advancing the power of opportunities, which necessitates federal women to end the injustices and government care and consideration in disadvantages they face in Chechnya addition to that of the Chechen government. requires the institutionalization of their power. It might be useful to channel national Implications for Chechnya and foreign aid to Chechen women to empower and unite them in political parties Grave crimes against humanity were and NGOs with a coordination center in committed against women in Chechnya Grozny or Moscow. Elite Chechen women

Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis Vol. 1, No. 1 2014 THE RUSSO-CHECHEN CONFLICT 76 united in a political party and/or NGOs Negotiating for Mutual Gains would significantly contribute to positive change in the republic. Creating a unified There have been a number of failed political party would increase Chechen negotiations between the Russians and women’s power to take active part in the Chechens that have not brought about a legislation and executive processes. These long-lasting peace mainly due to the parties’ women would be able to create their own perceptions of the conflict as zero-sum. All political tools to create their own security the negotiations that took place between the and prosperity, which would also sides were competitive with each party not significantly contribute to peacebuilding and caring much about each other’s goals. The to the overall well being of the Chechen parties need to employ collaborative people. Chechen women should also negotiation recognizing their actively participate in dealing with refugee interdependence if they are to reach peace issues at the displacement camps, as well as through a constructive process (Wilmot & rebuilding education systems, addressing Hocker, 2007). At the very beginning of the critical and sensitive issues, and supporting negotiations, both the Chechens and war widows, etc. Chechen women’s Russians should adopt a policy of finding participation in all post-conflict reintegration reciprocal creative grounds for negotiations processes would contribute to the positive for the sake of the both parties. social change in the country. Barsky (2008, 2000) discusses a Empowering the Chechen people capacity building approach to conflict requires the cooperation of international and resolution that entails pre-mediation, trust national, as well as governmental and non- building, and conflict assessment. It is governmental actors on a program of action designed to prepare parties for a dialogue or and policy to promote human security in negotiations by enhancing their motivation, Chechnya. Bringing together actors as skills, and resources. A capacity building diverse as the Federal Russian and local approach is especially needed in cases when Chechen governments, local and parties to a conflict do not want to meet for international NGOs, local communities, any reason (Barsky, 2000, 2008). global networks, business enterprises, labor Ross and Rothman (1999) discuss a unions, and scholars to consider human variety of ways to transform ethnic conflicts security issue in Chechnya may appear in constructive ways. They argue that it is difficult, but it is not impossible. As with possible to create special institutional any foreign involvement in Chechnya, structures valued by all sides to deal with the Russia’s consent and willingness to conflict, and are able to create contexts in cooperate is a key to success. which parties can explore options without Moreover, preventing a new wave of the risks of committing themselves to any war in Chechnya would be more effective outcomes (Ross & Rothman, 1999). The than trying to stop a war after it has started. non-binding contexts include informal Therefore, conflict prevention efforts in the discussions in interactive problem solving republic should be multi-modal and multi- workshops (as discussed above) at which level, and an integral part of the Kremlin’s parties learn about each other’s positions policy that would also entail a number of and priorities. immediate political, social, and economic Fisher and Ury (1991) use the term reforms. principled negotiation as an alternative to the hard and soft positional bargaining

Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis Vol. 1, No. 1 2014 77 Askerov strategies. In tough negotiations, the parties represented by a group of people from take hard positions in order not to lose. This different Chechen interest groups and may bring about some impasse to the formed after serious discussions on the negotiation process, thus delaying the principles and strategies that should be outcome, returning to earlier phases of followed up. At the current historical negotiations, or totally terminating the moment it may appear impossible to hold a process itself (Holmes, 1992). If the process new set of negotiations because the Russian- ends up with a product because of the backed Kadyrov government of Chechnya, concessions of one of the parties, it may not and Moscow’s short-term gains in the be a wise outcome. A choice of a new region. However, the foundation for strategy somewhere between hard and soft constructive negotiations should be laid out positional bargaining would change the now when the Chechens are more prone to game that necessitates focusing on inventing resolving the problem within the territorial options for mutual gains (Fisher & Ury, integrity of the Russian Federation. 1991). Parties, therefore, may become more Obviously, the Chechen resistance in the collaborative and inclined to problem region is still strong and organized as it tries solving tendencies. In fact, successful to develop its borders. Recent terrorist negotiation results in parties moving toward events in Moscow, Ossetia, and Dagestan a collaborative process (Holmes, 1992; indicate the strength of Chechen separatists Wilmot & Hocker, 2007). If collaborative (Hurriyet, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c). tactics cease to be used by the parties, the During the negotiation process, the role negotiation process may break down. of an effective mediator is essential. The Therefore, collaborative negotiation tactics history of the Russo-Chechen war and the might be helpful in leading the parties efforts of the OSCE to transform it toward integrative negotiations. demonstrate that its role as a mediator was not successful. Consequently, the format of Implications for Chechnya the mediation process as well as the mediator need to be changed. A new group The outcome of the negotiations that took of committed mediators including some place between the Russians and the Western and Islamic countries could Chechens in 1996 and 1997 resulting in the participate in preparing proposals for Khasavyurt Accord and Moscow Treaty discussion. were not healthy. The subsequent events that Giving up imperial ambitions would took place in 1999 that renewed the armed ensure that Russia was respected in the hostilities prove that point. The parties to the region. Russia’s policy of democratization Russo-Chechen war need to create and and liberalization would also facilitate the implement a new set of constructive talks. solution of many socioeconomic and Keeping the two aforementioned sociopolitical conflicts existing in the preconditions in mind—abandoning country, including Chechnya. However, demands for the full independence of nothing should be taken for granted; rather, Chechnya by the Chechens, and Russian’s whatever autonomy Russia gives to identifying Chechen rebels as terrorists- the Chechnya should be negotiated for the parties may develop a collaborative mutual benefits of both sides. Any outcome approach to negotiations. Unlike the 1996 reached through negotiations should be and 1997 negotiations, the negotiation sustainable and long lasting, satisfying not Chechen party can and should be

Global Journal of Peace Research and Praxis Vol. 1, No. 1 2014 THE RUSSO-CHECHEN CONFLICT 78 only both parties to the conflict, but also the may contribute to the success of the other in in-group Chechen opposition. the same context. Almost all of the aforementioned Conclusion methods, except for negotiations, are informal. The purpose of using those People from different layers of both methods is to transform the conflict societies should actively participate in elements; thereby creating a shift in the informal conflict resolution processes to conflict that might support an opportunity break the vicious cycle of violence. This for transformation. The argument is not to paper has examined a number of resolve the Russo-Chechen conflict entirely interdisciplinary empirical and normative and instantly; rather, it is necessary to PACS theories to explain the root causes of transform this conflict from an intractable the Russo-Chechen conflict and design a stage to a tractable one in which new dispute system. The analysis of the Russo- opportunities emerge to enable both parties Chechen conflict demonstrates that none of to move forward. the theories discussed in this paper is enough to explain the complex causes of this References conflict alone. Confining the Russo- Chechen conflict to a single cause would Abu-Nimer, M. (2004). Religion, Dialogue, block capturing its complexities. Taken and Non-Violent Actions in Palestinian- together the theories presented in this essay Israeli Conflict. International Journal of may be more productive and effective in Politics, Culture, and Society, 17(3), explaining the causes of the conflict and the 491-511. violence still a part of the Chechnya-Russian Amaladoss, M. (2001). Religions for Peace : predicament. Can the Ambiguous Phenomenon of It is proposed in this paper that a Religion be a Factor in community-based problem solving approach Peacemaking?(Analysis). America, that offers a multilevel and multimodal 185(19), 6. system to design a way to reach a lasting Arinze, F. A. (2002). Religions for peace : a peace by including the participation of top call for solidarity to the religions of the leadership, middle- range leadership, as well World / Francis Cardinal Arinze. New as grassroots leaders has the potential to be York: Doubleday. effective. The peacebuilding process is most Athar, S. (2010). Forgiveness in Islam. productive when it takes place on a variety Retrieved Sept. 05, 2010, from Islam of levels at the same time (Lederach, 1998). for Today: Employing a combination of conflict http://www.islamfortoday.com/athar12. resolution methods to the Russo-Chechen htm case depends on its particularities that may Bar-On, D. (2002). Conciliation Through yield a better product. An overview of a Storytelling: Beyond Victimhood. In G. number of transformational resolution Salomon & B. Nevo (Eds.), Peace methods that can be coordinated together in Education: The Concept, Principles, a multi-track peacebuilding system is and Practices Around the World (pp. presented. They all are tied to each other 109-117). Mahway, New Jersey: organically, since the successful application Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, of any of those methods mentioned above Publishers.

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