International Migration, Internal Migration, Mobility and Urbanization: Towards More Integrated Approaches

MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES

N° 53

International migration, internal migration, mobility and urbanization: Towards more integrated approaches

Ronald Skeldon Maastricht University The opinions expressed in the report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the report do not imply expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.

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Required citation: Skeldon R., 2018. International migration, internal migration, mobility and urbanization: Towards more integrated approaches. Migration Research Series N° 53. International Organization for Migration (IOM). Geneva.

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77_18 International migration, internal migration, mobility and urbanization: Towards more integrated approaches

Ronald Skeldon Maastricht University

International Migration, Internal Migration, Mobility 1 and Urbanization: Towards More Integrated Approaches

www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/events/pdf/expert/27/papers/II/paper- 1 . It is reproduced here with their kind permission. here . It is reproduced Skeldon-final.pdf This is a slightly modified and updated version of a paper first given at the Expert Group Meeting on Sustainable Cities, Human Cities, Sustainable on Meeting Group Expert New York, the at given first paper a of version Nations, updated and United modified slightly a is Affairs, This Social and Economic of Department Division, Population Migration, International and Mobility 7–8 September 2017, available at: at migration is the most problematic of the population variables is taken as given. Unlike the of the variables population is theat migration Unlike most taken is as problematic given. 1 short-term movements compared with the latter, which should only include longer-term which should only include longer-term with the latter, compared short-term movements residences. in the collection inherent of migration data, hasDespite all the been problems significant progress origin-destinationof a world compilation database, The years. recent developed over achieved much extended originallytheat University Sussex andof and now maintainedthe United by precise a more for Bank, the framework has provided Division and the World Nations Population al.,et DESA,UN 2007; (Parsons globalof international movement population measurement Statea in or lived population that aboutthe of cent per 3 world’s data showed These 2015). territory not of their birth and that that proportion had not changed significantly since the 1990s. example, the number of international migrantsIn 2017, for was 258 million estimated at around paper will caution. This with this great number has to be treated (UN DESA, 2017: 1). However, raisesome of these issues and thengo on to examine will internalarguing migration, thatit is the city that articulates As integrated patterns the systems of population movement. of internal and Background Th migration can of birth be a multiple unique events lifetime, and death that define individual’s an space. How it is defined in time and across upon how Its depends entirely measurement event. defined to be destination at a as a migrant? How in order to reside have long does a person often The first is normative, to be so defined? in order to travel that does have person far or “less than with “12 months or more”, multilateral United Nations recommendations following norm. the “accepted” thanlonger months” 12 for months12 and with the remain to intention the into States, existing of the divisions world by in the case second is a given of internationalThe migration, and the division of those States into political and political administrative divisions, in the caseof internal Examples migration. states, of such divisions are districts, provinces, parishes, short relatively distances,and so on. As over most the smaller migrants the unit used to move by the data-gathering of migrantsthe number the greater captured event”, “a migration define instrument.example, 2001 andin in India theusing data For last on of permanentplace residence, a state across (Government boundary classified moved as having some 42.2 million people were India,of theWhen 2001). smaller theof unit district find had people million 76.8 that takenis we one district from some 181.8 million to another within their statemoved of enumeration. Finally, within their districtpeople had changed residence of enumeration. All these national estimates number of internal not just a different valid with each providing internal migration in India are for generated for the flows The composition perspective on migration. migrants but also a different education and occupation characteristics, in terms of gender, using the smallest units is different the larger units. global estimates to those for available example, compared One of the few for was 2009:1) year (UNDP, 2009 the of 740 million around figure a of internalgave migration an aggregate of the the data largestcompiled generally from each for country units for and can but a partialthus provide of internal picture migration. or the dissolution of old, units at of new, the creation analyses can be complicatedLongitudinal by as asboth international changes and well local in the boundaries levels of these spatial units, which can time, comparingin particularly similar units across causeproblems local at Further levels. complications whether on a strict they live: the system where populations de facto arise of registering through on census or survey at basis, night, found usually they live on a de jure or basis, are they where where range of a much greater captures, or should capture, former The the time of the census or survey. 2 MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES | NO. 53 educational institutions of a country are to be found. Thus, rather than a series of state-to-state are tobefound. aseries ofstate-to-state than Thus, ofacountry rather institutions educational willhave skilled” intuitive beenprepared “the that itisthere areas inurban main as the that akey emergedas flows,itseems component ininternational migrationhas skilled era inwhich theywere whether and However, ornot. from city ofbirth largest the bymigrants country inan Perhaps toany islimited. the destination couldbepossiblewould that all states betoidentify even where given origins, sheernumberofpotential incases the numberoforigin the surveys, through censusand origindata their sub-national feasibly collect cannot countries Destination knowledge on wheredepending upon local people are known to be leaving numbers. in large information to come from has on origins essentially Collecting themselves origin countries respectively. Sylhet inMirpurand regionsin quiteisolatedagricultural districts countries, inthese butfrom comenotfrom cities UnitedKingdommainly tothe Bangladesh towns largest small the For concerned. migration from or example, areas country Pakistan urban ofthe largest the areas inoriginsare ofconcentration areas these neednotbe convincing, tosupport data is more migrants origins of international specific problematic.The While evidence to support movements the own notjust their and within borders. developed inthe urbanization world now have migration intoconsiderationinternational totake well providing as key force labour inthe Thus, discussionsof elements economies. urban ofthese the developingcities in the populationsoflarge as component inmaintaining world significant country. ineach are cities migrants largest a International onthe areas usually on urban and befound can spread migrants theydotendtofocusinternational across countries, destination of21percent(Worldproportion CitiesCulture 2015).Although Forum, IOM, 2014;also Toronto Montreal and in2011were 33.2percentrespectively 49and compared anational with 35.6percentforeign-born36.8 and respectively. offoreign-born proportions the in InCanada, 12.7per cent foreign was United States populationsof New York but the Los and Angeleswere For a whole. as population of the in 2010, the example, country in the than cities largest the of foreign-born higherproportion amuch with and/or patterns find similar foreigncitizens in around countries world, destination the main inthe cities we large populationsofother the number of foreign-born 2017). Comparing (McNeill, total 37 per cent of the country in the London, populationofcentral accountedfor which increases total to41percentofthe foreign-born. populationwas total some 13.5percentofthe However, proportion that The evidence for United Kingdomin2015, for isstrongerInthe than destinations origins. A. ofcountry Bfromparts specific ofcountry very theymove because not, parts specific tovery theymovethey dobecause from oneadministrative unittoanother, butinreality, theydo which B, move Migrants Atocountry from State. the country data: generatesthe unit that by itisconstrained the isthat majorlimitation its migration,perhaps ofinternational patterns does provide information database basic global on destination the origin and global While the Thesekept relate inmindany to: interpretation data. ofthe needtobe that migrationexist oninternational world, three data weaknesses inthe systemic from ofmigration-related across issuessurrounding data quality the variable the Quite apart migrationsystems International emerge from cultures urban essentially economies. and arewhich explored paper. inthis Finally, that forms other raises paper the mobility ofshort-term migrationevolveinternational them, nature sotoo,doesthe between change, and linkages ofthe 3. 2. 1. the developmental context in which the migration takes place. place. migrationtakes the inwhich developmental context the underestimating volume the migration;and ofinternational the migration; and originsof destinations specific the

International Migration, Internal Migration, Mobility 3 and Urbanization: Towards More Integrated Approaches

Internal migration systems issue of the global databaseThe the number of on international migration underestimating pales into insignificance that underestimate if international migrants However, was raised above. try we examineto all or bothmigration internal and internationalMostmigration. migrants move countrywithin the boundaries of their own as internal migrants. how questions are the Thus, key internal migrants many exist As internal migration and how to measure in the world. mentioned (UNDP) came Programme the United Nations Development in the introduction to this paper, up with the global estimate of 740 million internal migrants, an estimate admitted they was the number of the greater the populous country, themore 2009). Clearly, (UNDP, “conservative” internal migrants, and in the large, populous countries, UNDP took the largest of administrative units, in China, example, states to define internal migration. However, for in India or provinces to districts to go down as the migration- or townships as seen in the introduction to this paper, the number of migrants increase would markedly so defined. Hence, the defining spatial unit a meaningful and consistent for for definition of a globalthe number of internal estimatesearch migrants is largely illusory. but the questions It is not only the spatial problematic units used to define migration that are length countries at the to derive destinationasked raise Few other of residence problems. and changes in usual place of residence systems registration that record have the world around flows, the reality is likely to be primarily one of movement among urbanThe of cities. origins reality primarily to be of movement one flows, the likely is to be truly mapped. yet international have migration notes of caution on data of the second three on international that migration is the The “missed” somehow migrants not so much is an258 million because underestimate, many were systemsout of enumeration but because of the importance migration as an integral of return part in their country of international migration systems. clearly migrants registered of are Return birth and hence as non-migrants. question is, important The of course, how simple The is return? but that almost do not know is that certainly we answer with the to flow it will vary flow from migration or statesrural poor areas conflict-induced for where being lower incidenceof return rates of that evidence return generated convincing Economic historians prevalent. have is more to Europe the from Atlantic Migration across common during the Great were 30 to 40 per cent the With 2012). the Americas in the nineteenth century (Baines, 1991; Nugent, 1992; Hoerder, in the technologies of transportationdevelopments since that to time, it might be reasonable such statement although any only a hypothesis has to remain rates to be greater, expect return in the of mobility context of other forms to be considered thatat this have stage and will have It is also that the known skilled migration and will be discussed below. years emerged in recent short within relatively time or turnover of “churn” a high degree characterizedsystems by are theThus, total spans, migration will be an part unknown in which return 2018a). (Skeldon, internationally to be significantlyis going larger than the moved have who people of number Pertinent in globalthe database given 258 million 2017. of for stocksimple to earlierthe figure and rural areas originated in small towns migrants who might have discussion is whether return regional or nationalurban centres. to their specific origins or to return cautionary into global “north” to the common division of the third and world The point relates the like with the data the importance“south” showing of so-called south-south However, flows. of the countries in time. Many of countries changes over of development the level migration itself, particularlythe so-called among those in eastern Asia, as emerged “Global South”, dynamic have global Simple come to challenge those in the “Global North”. advanced that economies have in order binarydivisions distort required nuanced divisions are andmore therealities underlying sense of the linksto make between migration and development. 4 MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES | NO. 53 been aredistribution ofpopulationfrom This areas. tourban rural “urban become transition” has avoid and overall the adjustments trend drawing Nevertheless, misleadingresults. has necessary knowledge iskey local Again, inorder tomake basis. any tobe addressed has onacase-by-case have themselves, units spatial basic proved extremely tobean difficult that with problem todeal ofthe butalso sectoral notjust changes, make problematic. comparison longitudinal Boundary often provide to countries all change sectors the between boundaries the origins byand sector by Not rural. and urban pattern sectoral migrationisthe considerationofinternal tothe Central migration international and internal between linkages and transitions Urbanization, agreater and dominance. migrants male educated are which dominatedby still more state ofthe migration generatedfrom units spatial large the compared different with for avery with characteristics marriage, and educational genderbalance isdominatedby migrationusingsmall-area data movements India, as such inacountry example, For units. data-gathering ofthe scale dependinguponthe ofmigrationcaptured vary also types 2018).However,Bell etal., the challenge: ofthe search the for numbers isbutpart comparable 2015b;Rees in overall an 2017and etal., 2015a, (Belletal., applied summary ofquestion type the and beidentifiedirrespectivethe data can of the scale trends of systematic patterns and shows which certain that hiscolleagues, Belland particularly, See, space. work the ofMartin across allow modelsthat ofpatterns comparison the ofanalytical towards construction the sketched measurementthe migrationas above, ofinternal progress considerable beenmade has country. population in each of the is linked distribution difficulties with the the with Despite all linked tobeclosely appears levelwhich the with ofdevelopment country, ineach inturn, which, tomove somepeoplesappear more indifferentNevertheless, and others than ways from others, control mobility. that are orother policies that limitor populationsunlessspecific inplace ofall factors characteristic or are aninherent is fixed butitis appealing Mobility mightbe location ataspecific wrong. (Skeldon, 1990).The peopledonotmove most distances ideathat overof timeand quiteshort developingthe world numbersofpeoplemove showsignificant that periods very that for short across studiesofmigration large numberofmicro,the findingsofa confirm anthropological-type hadmoved populationthat ofthe These proportion the periodto22percent. the within data moved Applyingayet tofive-year period. inthat increased further finerone-month definition residenceof usual from tofive sixmonths gaveyears as having of14.6percent an estimate population having moved However, time period. that within toadestination place usingalast Using afixed pointoffive before years thecensus the gaveestimate of8percent anational available from of Thailand (Chamratrithirong Migration Survey 1992 National the 1995). et al., compromise best the isperhaps solution.Auseful is methods ofvarious calibration past in the onplaceofusual usingasinglequestion time residence ataspecific the middlequestion and field, by respondent beimpacted ismore can and inthe lapse error toask complicated memory and residences oneyear oflessthan by specify However, month. collected data the level this ofdetail provide can question years, the useful information movements, onshort-term even more soif by of residence. is collected year that If up to five length on the of information collected detail the dependsupon utility recentprovides its ofmost although flows, migrant estimates best the toprovide toask easiest areliablebut isthe answer. previous placeofusual The residence last lowest and estimates satisfactory migrationabove international the least generatesthe isbased, on which markedly varies beenasked. Birthplace, by has migration collected question which of timesincemoving previous placeofusual from residence. last that The volume ofinternal before onlength question comingtopresent another with asked generally inassociation place, oneyear generally orfive previous placeofusual past, time inthe and last ago; years residence information through placeofresidence oneormore atafixed ofthree birthplace; questions: are relevant migrationdata generatedthrough the the retrospective collect that instruments International Migration, Internal Migration, Mobility 5 and Urbanization: Towards More Integrated Approaches Evidence from the United States Evidence from 3 Sustained fertility decline ultimately impacts upon migration through 2 It is not simply the direct contribution of the number of migrantsto a population but, with higherpopulation fertility of than developedcountries, the their native contribution to the number of births is also For example, factor. a in England and Wales in 2017, where the foreign-born represented about one 2017). Statistics, National for Office Kingdom, of all births (United 28.4 per cent for eighth accounted of the population, births foreign-born to mothers of Korea. the Republic Japan and Offices of Statistical National of the Yearbooks the Annual Statistical from Figures is also clear, where the population is becoming “more rooted” (Cooke, 2018:116), and for the and2018:116), for (Cooke, rooted” the “more is becoming population where alsois clear, internal migration United Kingdom and other parts where exceptions, with a few of Europe, and Shuttleworth, Cooke has declined, albeit with variations (Champion, 2018, Champion and Shuttleworth, is not the sole deterministic 2013). Demographic shift 2016; Bell, 2015a; Skeldon, of declinethe et (Bell aboutal., fifth one 2018), factorthisin perhapsequation, for accounting thecontext in which other factors population, provides but the that supply of ultimate resource, technology one based upon information towards of the economy changing nature operate. The and changing personal of the tastes housing market been raised,has but the nature already that to be also likely are to be discussed below, of mobility, seen the emergence of other forms have important. In this enduring destinations. changing matrix of migration, the cities are Internal rural-to-urban from international migration, and probably and urban-to-urban augmented by migrations are among circulated have shortprimarily urban origins, of relatively Traders duration. with many centuries but also establishedcities for the collectiondepots for and distribution of goods around intermarrying often migrants with host evolved, populations. which communities of longer-term settlers, for of the gateways the centres populations, cities were foreign by colonized In areas that administration the and generation of capital roads and the the hub for railways that funded facilitated the penetration of the hinterland. International migration generated internal migration the Americas,across Australasia and large parts of other continents impacted colonialism. by after In origin countries, to citiesrural continue their areas migration overseas migrants from Or, once direct linkshave move. sufficient accumulate to capital for the residence of periods been established these specific origins migration from direct between a village or small town, destinations the largest can take place but it is generallyto overseas through cities, which are the links to transportation destinations. large systems of migrants numbers to overseas Where theinto on cities (Saunders, “arrival” or move some will only not 2010), “gateway” into enter migrantsprior thein city or native remain and “push” hinterlandothers,but perhaps the majority, 2 3 one of the key indicators of development, always accepting that rural-to-urban always indicators has migration of development, not one of the key country in theany dominant, internal flow at certain or even been the only, times during the Rural-to-rural,transition to an urban-to-urban urban society. and urban-to-rural also play flows although asa role, become concentrated populations in urban areas,and migration out of within the rural sector within the declines urban as sector movements come to dominate. Movement smaller to larger urban places has the from been significant through up the urbanhierarchy urban transition with the of the emergence megacity pattern. a common number of developed A also fluctuations seen occurring,“counterurbanization” with phases although economies have of of the central parts with the reinvention of been reversed appears itself to have this reversal industrial parts economies cities in many perhaps associated towards with the shift of Europe technologyof based the information on largest the increasingly centres and cities where are 2001). (Champion, innovation transition to urban societies and theThis associated patterns shifting of migration has also been associated mortality with the transition to low fertility and low to the extent that migration, both international, demographic internal support but increasingly accounts for parts in so many world. of the developed changing age profiles of populations, numbers in cohortsthe changing generating decreasing age profiles most likely clearly illustrate where this trend, of Korea both data Japan and theto migrate. Republic for The of internal in 1970 to 5.1 million in 2010 8.3 million migrantsthe annual flows declined from respectively. 9.5 million in 1990 to 8.2 million in 2010 and from 6 MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES | NO. 53 (14% in2015)whoentered overlap an for professional” and “business suggesting purposes, will beregisteredvisiting multiplecountries figures Also, the aproportion multipletimes. include several country. holidays destination anightin the taking Thus, asingleindividual ayearat least or (UNWTO, 2015,2017).These whospent butofarrivals are not measures tourists ofindividual increased 1,235million in2016 to1,186millionin2015and total annual in1990,the arrivals From 435milliontourist ofAfrica. parts and America Latin groupsnew middle-income inAsia, emerging the among butalso Australia and America developed inEurope,has notjust North it as appeal becomeamass has fromis that century, late20th the activity ofthe scale the inabroader community.their towns confinesof the and villagestoparticipate Whatisnew peopleoutof taken has world ofthe throughout and history majorpart of pilgrimageinevery tourism or travel that be argued It can for recreational purposes is not new. The importance population movement ofways. inavariety of types onother Theof people. key impacts form this pointisthat mobility ofshort-term increasing pricesfor may populationsthat emigration local the immigrationand the leadtoboth this and in results are underpressureservices whoneedspecialist from influxoftourists, the by 2014. 367,000 in1970to261,0002011,even under265,000 ifitexperiencedaslightincrease tojust of Veniceexample 30 per cent from of almost a population decline with case, the illustrates pressure putting prices and “push” onnon-tourism-related can industries peopletoleave. The recreational by Conversely, demanded visitors. the activities tourism,by mass increasing property area required into an and skilled the accompanying the all hotelsand the services tomanage have Itattracts outofareas. intoand few migrationboth with resources. other links has Italso otherwise which areas, for marginal and islands populationsofsmall the important particularly for (UNWTO, oneineleven jobsworldwide 7percentofworld and is 2015),and exports circular world, forms in the accounting industries of mobility. largest one of the emerged as It has into a greyholidaymakers area category this beginsto overlap that extended has other with Yet,days most. atthe orweeks “gap emergenceofthe the year” programmes and for working of population.They are movers short-term for recreational purposeswhogohomeafter afew Tourists are any theydonotbringabout considered redistribution notgenerally as tobemigrants be introduced movement discussion:the intothe oftourists. above. Yet,suggested form oneother ofmobility, needsto internal, butalso international mainly as inconcert act beseparated, they can that extent tothe atleast migrationsystems, “two” the realization inthe that rightdirection, especially equationgoesinthe migrationintothe internal wholeprocess. viewofthe The more recent deceptive,and distorted of arguably inclusion and whomove, produced ofthose focus partial has minority avery migrant, onthe international the mobility. development ofmigrationand discussionsofmigration,and Inthe inparticular, the we usetocapture wholeprocess movementofthe the of onlycapture ofpeoplecan apart paper, ofthis for fromas madeclear longer-term start was the instruments the As sojourns. simplemovement.a single, People move they move back; onand over well as short-term the placeofresidence usual inthe israrely that achange individual, ofan While migrationisseenas New mobilities 1999). Bean, and Skeldon, Roberts Skeldon, 2006;Kingand 2010;Lozano-Ascencio, movementhuman more and inAsia widely, (for linkages ofthese more assessments see detailed migration islinked ever-changing migrationincomplex, tointernational of evolving and patterns country. ofthe migrationislinked international Hence, internal migrationand tointernal parts populations out towards periphery, the or to other in a process suburbanization, of extending 4 Data from national statistical sources, at:http://population.city/italy/venice/ 4 Venice extreme butmany an example isperhaps UNESCO ofthe World sites Heritage International Migration, Internal Migration, Mobility 7 and Urbanization: Towards More Integrated Approaches This paper has attempted theThis various instruments migration. used to measure to review that are the the data study of international thefor migration supplied through macro-level It reviewed Particular Division andit included what and excluded. attentionUnited Nations Population to urban destinationswas and given urban origins of international migration and the need for subnational data on to look at internal and again, migration, analyses. paper then went The assessing the various instruments, with attention to the importance being drawn of measuring short-distance tendencyconsider international The to migration and short-term circulation. of mobility other forms persistsseparately from and the argument was made that human mobility as is best a system conceived that integrates internal and international migration within attention to mass was mobility given of tourism, which a single framework. in the form Finally, hassignificant internal of forms linkages internationaland migration be to needs and other to of migration, and particularlybuilt into the global framework into the and debates on migration and on policies to manage migration. development Conclusion with the skilled migrant system raised earlier in the paper. The majority The of these short-term with the skilled migrant system raised earlier in the paper. training courses and so professional meetings, business conferences, been for have visitors will theseon. Despite with difficulties data, the the simple: touristsare basic pointsare an integral movement. of population to other forms linked and are part the world around of development fractionOne of the linkages only a tiny if of the number of arrivals is most ignored: commonly migrants,enter legally but stay on to become irregular involved. significant of people numbers are migration cannot be discounted. as irregular a channel for Tourism the last in global tourism from increases decade been of the 20th marked centuryThe have low- associated first, with two provided that main trends: the emergence of “budget airlines” and second,a change in tastes. transregionally, Migration and increasingly regionally cost travel has been associated historically of ideaswere with theconsume,about what to diffusion which a certain 2016). At tastes of development, level change,essentially about “things” (Trentmann, desirable and rather seen as than material things more se, per are to the extent that “events”, Thus,role. mobility this becomes a central partto fulfil tourism emerges culture of consumer which was originally “migration”, longer-term substituteto begins for andshort-termcirculation Zelinsky of the mobility (1971) some decades ago in his hypothesis by transition, even envisaged factora is in Whether this trend 2018b). (Skeldon, originallyenvisaged in the way entirely not if outlined earlier in this paper must world the await decline in internal migration in the developed but it further the emphasizes interlinkagestypes of mobilities. research between different future thus making it of human movement, matrix is embedded in a complex of other forms Tourism complicated enough as it for policyis, cannot be separated difficult policy, Migration makers. and the of human policies movement that contribute to the emergence of other forms from “manage to to be introduced are approaches if effective need to be appreciated interrelationships migration”. 8 MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES | NO. 53 Hoerder, D. ofHomeAffairs Government Ministry ofIndia, Cooke, T. PiriyathamwongN. P. and Vong-Ek Richter, Archavanitkul, K. K. P. A., Chamratrithirong, V. Guest, W. Thongthai, Boonchalaksi, T.,Champion T. (eds.) Shuttleworth Cooke I. and T.Champion, Shuttleworth I. and T.Champion, Bernard P. and A. Charles-Edwards, E. M., Bell, Ueffing Stillwell Kupiszewski, Y. and D. J. M. Charles-Edwards, Kupiszewska, E. M., Bell, Zhu P. Charles-Edwards, E. M., Bell, M. J.Stillwell, and Kupiszewski D. Ueffing, Kupiszewska D.Baines, Bibliography 2012 2001 2018 1995 2018 2016 2001 2018 2015b 2015a 1991

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Ronald Skeldon is an Emeritus Professor at the University of Sussex, Professor of Human Geography in the Graduate School of Governance, Maastricht University, and a member of the Migration Research Leaders’ Syndicate established by IOM to support the development of the Global Compact for Migration. From June 2009 to March 2011 he was seconded as a Senior Research Fellow to the Department for International Development (DFID) in London. Trained at the Universities of Glasgow (BSc Hons) and Toronto (MA; PhD), he worked in Papua New Guinea for the Australian National University and throughout the Asia and Pacific region for the United Nations. For 14 years, he was on the faculty of the University of Hong Kong and was, from 1996 to 2000, an independent consultant based in Bangkok working primarily for international organizations. He joined the University of Sussex in 2000 and was a core member of the DFID-funded Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty between 2003 and 2009. He has published widely on issues of migration and development.

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