EXORDIUM ISSUE Non-profit Higher Education & The Social Good

ISSN 2706-669X

VOLUME 1

Volume 1 Exordium (2020) ISSN 2706-669X DOI: 10.36826/2706-669X/ex

Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-ND 4.0) The authors and publisher have made every effort to obtain permission for and acknowledge the use of copyrighted material. Refer all enquiries to the managing editor. African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education (Official Journal of Cornerstone Institute)

ISSN 2706-669X

Inaugural Editorial Team Editor-in-Chief: Rev Dr Rudi Buys Managing Editor: Emily Vosloo Institutional Advisor: Stephen Langtry (Research Repository) Institutional Advisor: Jabulani Chitanga (Research & Ethics Committee) Language Editor: Bianca Agenbag CONTENTS

Introduction of Exordium Issue, Vol. 1 1 Rudi Buys

Suspect or Prophet? Private Higher Education, Hope and the Social Good 3 Rudi Buys

Exploring an inclusive educational system to enhance positive identity formation and agency 10 Elmarie Costandius & Freeborn Odiboh

The influence of information sources on learner’s higher education destination A survey of Grade 12 learners in the Tshwane Metropolitan 27 Duncan Olivier

From Disempowerment to Self-belief: A Center of Hope for Vulnerable Youth in Cape Town 37 Sharon Johnson

Telling the story of Africa’s present and future 49 Lorenzo Davids

Contributors 51

vi African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium Introduction Exordium Issue, Volume 1

South Africa’s private, non-profit educational caused their place in the higher education institutions made three major contributions landscape to not be regarded for its scholarly to societal change and higher education contribution. Local definitions of knowledge during the last century and before. production in recent times increasingly prioritised scholarly research as the defining As a first contribution they served as the feature of universities, specifically as part original format and architecture for the of the transformation of higher education majority of the public universities – in most during the first two decades of democracy. cases taking the form of theological colleges The comparative lack of an established body before growing into the multi-disciplinary of research by academics at private and non- institutions of today. Non-profit institutions profit institutions in the process caused secondly offered an alternative space for these institutions not to be recognised as critical debates on justice and societal fully-fledged higher education institutions. transformation when the organisation and The fact that the well-established non-profit structure of higher education followed the colleges as a unique cohort of institutions in politics of racial segregation that dominated the restructuring of higher educating were all parts of society. These histories are not distinguished from commercial private prominent in and as the origin narratives institutions compounded the situation. public institutions continue to articulate, and rightly so. This holds true also for Distrust of commercial interests of private Cornerstone Institute that commemorates its institutions lead to higher education policy 50th year since its establishment in 1970 as a approaches that prohibit the recognition of Bible School on the Cape Flats that accepted private institutions as universities. Higher and taught black and white students together. education policy also did not provide a mechanism for private institutions to gain A third contribution, and one that in such recognition. The situation has had a scholarly literature seems to be the most major impact on the functioning of non- neglected of themes, is its dedicated focus profit institutions. on the practice, rather than the scholarship of learning and teaching. Read from a praxis However, the situation is slowly changing perspective one may argue that the latter as policy frameworks are shifting towards contribution have been the most critical greater recognition of the sector, which contribution of non-profit higher education, demands key shifts in how private, and since this focus on teaching and learning for specifically non-profit institutions conduct change also encouraged students to become and curate their scholarly contribution. activists. It is especially in literature on the It is the history of private, non-profit higher history of the broader and student political education and societal contributions, and movements of the previous century that a the more recent and relative disregard of its picture of this contribution of private, non- contribution, as much as the unresponsiveness profit institutions emerges. of the scholarly communities of and at non- However, it oddly seems precisely the profit higher education institutions, which latter focus of these institutions that has lead to the founding of this journal.

Introduction to the journal 1 The journal therefore wants to, in particular, As we take our first steps with the journal but not exclusively, explore the intersecting we’ve opted to publish the first issue in two themes of non-profit higher education, social parts, namely a brief issue to launch the justice and societal transformation – the journal – the Exordium Issue, and a second themes that we in our deliberations for the part to complete the publication of its first journal considered the key aspects of the volume and issue – Volume 1, Issue 1. history and mission of non-profit higher To set the scene for the contribution the education, not only in South Africa, but journal wants to make to higher education continentally for African institutions broadly. studies, and to align its first volume and issue Therein the journal will contribute to the with the core themes as emerged from the shortage of scholarly journals dedicated history and current realities of non-profit to non-profit higher education in global higher education institutions, we focus the and African contexts – a review of higher calls for papers on the theme of ‘non-profit education journals named and focused in higher education and the social good’. scope on non-profit institutions revealed very few such publications. We accepted papers for the Exordium issue that align with this theme, and which at the With this journal we therefore aim to advance same demonstrate the types of contributions an African voice in global scholarly discourses the journal aims to publish. This issue therefore on educational theory and practice unique includes an inaugural lecture, two original to the sector. Its mission is to strengthen research papers, a republished contribution non-profit higher education as a distinctive of a Cornerstone scholar and a republished scholarly field in higher education studies. public opinion piece by a non-profit sector We have accordingly named the journal leader – these contributions represent the as the African Journal of Non-profit Higher intent to contribute to original research, build Education (AJNPHE). a repository of non-profit scholarship and integrate reflection and action aligned with the The AJNPHE will focus on cross- and praxis approach that underlie the history and interdisciplinary research relating to the not- context of non-profit higher education. for-profit sector of African higher education in particular, and of higher education in We depend and will call on the support of general. We are committed to publishing scholars, higher education leaders and the high quality, (blind) peer reviewed research, academic publishing community to realise using the open access model to increase the the contribution to knowledge creation and exchange of knowledge among and encourage sharing we wish to make. collaboration between local South African, As inaugural editor, on behalf of the editorial continental African, and international team, I thank you for joining our effort by scholars elsewhere. reading and commenting on this introductory With the journal we also aim to establish part of our first issue, and I kindly request a new and unique record of scholarly activity your guidance as we proceed. of the non-profit sector on higher education. Please feel free to engage our team with all and Therefore the categories of content to be any comment that may strengthen the journal. published include research reports, articles, book reviews, interviews, editorials and Rev Dr Rudi Buys conference proceedings, as well as opinion Inaugural Editor pieces from the broader non-profit sector. Executive Dean and Dean of Humanities, Cornerstone Institute

2 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium Suspect or Prophet? Private Higher Education, Hope and the Social Good

AUTHOR DOI BR Rudi Buys 10.36826/2706-669X/ex/01

AFFILIATION Public inaugural lecture as Cornerstone Cornerstone Institute, South Africa Institute Executive Dean on 3 September 2019 at the Centre for the Book, Cape Town, [email protected] South Africa

What makes hope? When debates on the each hold together with those who on the face ghosts of our fraught past revisits us in of it are most different from us – hope as a new debates on apartheid symbols; when ‘relational reality’. commissions of inquiry into state capture Hope, I submit, is a ‘Who’ and a ‘Who with’. abound with ever-increasing revelations of decay; when the economy grounds to a halt; If we accept that it is the actual relationships when a women student is murdered and of different people from diverse lives – lives raped at a post office; when mayhem seems lived amidst the complexities of a society ever the only headline; what hope do we speak of? in transition – that determine hope, what then is the social good? How do we reconstruct hope when our aspirations fade to recapture the half forgotten Is the social good a realised sense of national dream of a restored nation? Is hope not more cohesion; a collective sense of resilience that than a ‘thing’; more than a private or public citizens draw on to overcome seemingly good to work for; more than projects of similar struggles in very different lived economic growth; more than the outcome realities? Is the social good not more than the of a set of circumstances; more than a belief best interest of society at large; more than the or an attitude – more than its reduction by private good of each of its citizens; more than symbolic representation, social imaginary or the public good of the collective; even more political rhetoric? than a resilient democracy that ensures basic rights and freedoms are realised? Is the social Is hope not rather a face; a voice; a body; and good not rather ‘not a good at all’? a togetherness? Hope as an embodiment of our being human; an embodiment of lived Is it not rather a deeply rooted sense that experience that takes shape when people we are capable to reflect and act? A human from vastly different realities are near each agency as the social good; as an appreciation other, see and hear each other, reach out of self, others and the world that persuades to and embrace the other. Hope as the us of our inherent authority to triumph over proximities and connectedness, the shared our failures; an agency to re-imagine and vulnerabilities and new solidarities that we enact hope; agency as a togetherness that

Buys • Suspect or Prophet? Private Higher Education, Hope and the Social Good 3 draws us nearer to one another when our break new ground, to build a new imaginary fears would drive us apart. Human agency that sets citizen agency as its goal. That is the as a way of being, knowing and doing – or space of the ‘prophet’ – in-between, with new in meta-theoretical terms, as an ontology, knowledge, new identities and new courage epistemology and methodology of the social and energy to enact hope and the social good good (Morrow & Torres, 2002). (Popkewitz, 2010). Agency, I submit, is the socially good and the Do private higher education as an arena of social good we yearn for. knowledge intersect with a nation’s hope to achieve what is socially good, and if so, how? If we accept that hope and the social good is In what ways do higher education respond to relational, embodied, and best represented a relational view of hope and agency as the in the lived realities of citizen agency, then social good? What place does agency have it follows that our daily lives must be the in the social and corporate architectures theatre where the struggle to prosper plays of private higher education? Does higher out. Our lives, which are scarred with how education conform to the established disconnected we are; scarred by the social hierarchies of society, and of knowledge distances we all live with, enact and, yes, production, of the powerful and powerless – importantly, also protest; scarred by the to be the suspect – or are there instances of societal hierarchies that permeate all aspects a prophet; of the renegade driving at a new of South African life. imaginary? A FIRST FRAME: This is the question I raise: is private higher SOCIAL HIERARCHY education the suspect or a prophet? This is the first interpretive frame I propose Two considerations make the question of we use to consider the possibility of hope, the private higher education and the public social good and higher education: the lived (social) good an urgent one. reality of social hierarchies (Bourdieu, 1973; Firstly: a persistent ambivalence regarding Mamdani, 2001; Spivak, 1988). private higher education in higher education Social hierarchies determine some to be the policy, in a protectionist engagement with powerful and others the powerless, some the sector by public authorities, and in to have voice and others not. It sets and declarations by political actors of private determines a daily struggle to shift positions education as a haven for class and racial on that continuum – a continuum that places biases (Council of Higher Education, 2016). you closer or further from the center of power Secondly: what is considered an explosive and voice. Such a hierarchy promises mobility, growth of higher education mainly for private but it only offers suspicion. Suspicion of benefit as a sector of the economy (Council of the other when the powerful must protect Higher Education, 2007). its power and the powerless must gain or disrupt it – binaries that leave everyone a Political and governmental regard of private ‘perpetual suspect’. higher education in South Africa during the first decade of democracy were initially very That is where we find ourselves, having to positive. The sector was considered a partner negotiate our positions and positionalities of for the expansion and massification of higher power and voice. education, such as with an initial phase of However, in-between the places we are each partnerships between public and private bound to negotiate, there is a positionality institutions to offer combined qualifications, that seeks to disrupt the established order; to among others. However in the latter part of

4 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium the decade the emphasis shifted to suspicion especially non-profit private higher education for several reasons. In the main this was due to institutions. concerns for the quality of education offered However, in recent years several develop­ by the sector, concerns for the impact of a ments improved the relationship of the growing private sector on the sustainability of private higher education sector and public public institutions, and concerns for private authorities. These include firstly an increased institutions’ commitment to and contribution efficiency of quality control systems and to the public good. oversight of the South African Qualifications Compare the assessment of the Council of Authority and the Department and Council Higher Education in this regard in its review of Higher Education. of the first decade: Secondly, a greater responsiveness to over­ “The second major change in the higher sight by private higher education institutions, education system was the spectacular and thirdly greater participation of private growth in private higher education, which institutions on their own initiative in national has challenged, if not undermined, the policy discourses. public higher education system just as it As a result a second major shift in higher was emerging from its apartheid legacy. education is emerging that promises a return This unforeseen expansion of private higher to the initial appreciation of private higher education has created political, policy, education as a partner in the transformation and legal dilemmas about the appropriate of society in general and higher education in nature and degree of governmental action 1 particular . The shift arguably results from in response to what has become a powerful, two factors, namely the difficulties public transnational phenomenon in the post-Cold higher education faces to respond to societal war period.” (Council of Higher Education, demands, as well as progress of private higher 2007: 163). education in becoming a (academically) well The subsequent second decade focused on governed and managed sector. increasing regulation of private provisioning. Higher education in general and public Increased regulation limited the freedom institutions in particular face an increasing of private institutions to claim an equal and realisation that we’ve achieved insufficient comparative status to public institutions – progress in transforming the sector. The they were not to be registered as universities, funding crises of public higher education, but only as “private higher education and the slow pace of institutional transforma­ institutions”. They were not to name senior tion in the main represent this assessment academic positions as per higher education (Breetzke & Hedding, 2018; Luckett & Naicker, practice, e.g. not vice-chancellors, but only 2019; Luvalo, 2019; and Mbembe, 2016). chief executive officers. They were not to award professorships; and all public funds In addition to increasing student numbers in, for scholarly research and student fees were and the diverse corporate models of private directed to public institutions. institutions, the sector struggles to position itself in relation to public institutions in terms The resulting environment entrenched of scholarship and institutional identities. So the divide between public and private for instance, the fact that private institutions higher education and limited the ability of private providers to contribute to national 1 policy discourses and, more critically, to The Higher Education Amendment Act, Act 9 of 2016, which allows for additional registration categories for pri- knowledge production through research, vate institutions, such as to be registered as fully-fledged if not undermining the sustainability of universities, illustrates this shift.

Buys • Suspect or Prophet? Private Higher Education, Hope and the Social Good 5 may not as yet be registered or are recognised rather than curriculum in service of social as fully-fledged universities does not in any transformation3. way diminish their efforts to increasingly Using the notion of ‘social hierarchy’ to make specialise in teaching and learning, sense of the place and future of private higher research and community engagement – the education, I conclude that the sector finds requirements for university status, and as a itself at the margins of higher education – the result increasingly identify as universities. place of the ‘suspect other’. Still, due to the current limits, private higher education institutions struggle to attract This is so not only because public policy and research funding and senior academics. the need for expansion and massification foregrounded public education. It seems An established hierarchy of higher education private providers have played to the seems to unintentionally limit the private suspicions held by the broader higher sector’s contribution to the public good, if not education community that it engages only the social. for private interest – a role as the suspect that Whereas the argument for higher education private higher education in general adopted, as a public good is uncontested, as is the continuous to enact and struggle to break right to private education, how the private free from. sector engages the tension between public and To be fair, deeply entrenched and dominant private goods remains in flux (Marginson, social and knowledge hierarchies disallow 2018; and Tilak, 2008). Different institutions those at the center and those at the margins to in mission and programme offering locate construct other roles than what the hierarchy themselves on a continuum of priority determines. At the center one must struggle commitment to the public good on the one to retain your powerful position, and at the hand, and priority commitments to share margins you have little option but to conform price on the other – as represented on the to the landscape to survive. The #MustFall- face of it in non-profits on the one and more movements arguably represent the mirror corporate models of mergers and acquisition that reveals this dynamic in South African on the other (Marginson, 2011)2. higher education. The sector must also deal with a second Irrespective of your position at the center tension of a closer or more distant engagement or the margin, what defines your thinking of higher education policy and curriculum and doing is what the hierarchy decides discourses, such as on decolonisation, among – a directive from outside of yourself to others. The private sector, for instance, determine who you think you are, what you only has limited representative bodies that think you know and what you think you are mediate its contributions to national policy – capable of, or not. it is a sparsely organised sector; and in reality the sector at best has a lacklustre uptake of A SECOND FRAME: the project to decolonise curriculum – its TRANSITIONALITY perceived emphasis seemingly remains on curriculum in service of market demands, However, hierarchies enacted in the lived experiences of our people and institutions 2 It is important to note that the view that profit-driven make for only half the story. If our daily educational enterprises and institutions are unwilling or able to contribute to the public good is a contested lives create the theatre where the struggle one, which I do not explore in this paper, but consider a for hope and the social good plays out, then critical investigation for further inquiry. The view reveals to what extent the dynamic of suspicion, as an expression its backdrop is painted by the transitions of of social and knowledge hierarchies, has taken hold of the higher education landscape. 3 See note 2.

6 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium an emerging society – ‘transitionality’ as a our nation. It is in the transitional spaces second interpretative frame I propose we use that citizens discover their agency. This is to explore who we are, suspects and prophets so because transitional spaces lead people to alike (Buys, 2017). particular ways of being, knowing and doing. As a rule, theories of change locate societies Inbetweenness defines who we are. in transition on a pathway from a past to Inbetweenness is a sense of self that yearns a future. These approaches position the to meet the stranger, to discover new worlds present as a temporary location troubled by and to embrace the unfamiliar. It makes for a our struggles to break free from the past and community of strangers and bridge-builders realise an imagined future. that represent a new togetherness (Buys, 2017 In the same way as the landing in-between and 2018). the two staircases that lead from one floor Inbetweenness represents a new way of to the next in a high-rise building is only a knowing that counters hierarchy; seeks temporary stay, societies in transition are new designs and translates meaning for a considered in a temporary moment en route society facing the residues of past injustice; to elsewhere (Bhabha, 1994). a continuous struggle with ambiguities, This understanding causes what we think contradictions and complexity; a fluidity of and do at that landing to be determined by meaning that requires a society to reinvent the floors you come from and head to – we itself without pause. It is a new way of doing consider the landing to have less meaning in change that invites difference and reaches itself. In such a space and at such a time the across divides to build solidarities; that social imaginary holds sway over both the uncovers what lies hidden; that struggles not floor I came from and the floor I go to – from to avoid the past, but to drive through our and to what you perceive those places to be. imaginaries of its legacy to reconstruct hope Since you are present not at one or the other and the social good. of the two floors any longer, what is, was and The struggle of transitionality for me remains will be is a matter of memory and imagination best illustrated in the ‘Talking Heads’, by – the social imaginary. Storm Thorgerson, used as the cover of the This reality makes the in-between space a Pink Floyd album, Division Bell (Thorgerson, transitional landscape of society with its own 2015). structure, demands and hopes (De Zepetnek, The single eyes of the two faces looking at 1999; and Kalua, 2017). each other become the two eyes of a single Such is our society – a transitional space face looking at you – an optical illusion that where our shared imaginary for our future reveals an underlying in-between reality of is largely based on a contested imaginary of being, knowing and doing; of transitionality. where we come from and where we’re at, and The ‘third face’ of transitionality is at once on its underlying social architecture. there and not there… every day offers new What a transitional, third space offers us is the perspectives on the three faces of the Talking never-ending option to re-imagine (Bhabha, Heads even as all three are always there, 2009) – the understanding that we are not our without pause present in the field. past, but that much of our past remains our Similarly, seen and not seen, definitive and present; that we are not our future, but that not, the different ways of the being, knowing much of what we imagined for our future is and doing of inbetweenness are clearly already present; and that we are the authors visible when you look at its performances, of the twists and turns of that storyline of

Buys • Suspect or Prophet? Private Higher Education, Hope and the Social Good 7 the margins, but to become a driver of change – the prophet status of inbetweenness. In order to do so the sector must lead its own way to build a new scholarship. A scholarship that is responsive to a continent’s need to recast itself; responsive to a nation’s need to hear new voices and see different faces; and responsive to a sector’s need to find its agency in a landscape burdened with remnants of (colonial) power hierarchies and vast social distances. Agency enacted through combined voices and focused reflective practice – agency as it emerges from an intentional enactment of hope as a social good of a The Division Bell, Pink Floyd album artwork transitional society. (Thorgerson, 2015) For our part, as Cornerstone, we hope to but only intuitively present when you focus build a third positionality and voice by on the more familiar performances of social strengthening scholarship on and for the opposites in the lived realities of our social sector. We’ll do so firstly with an inaugural (and knowledge) hierarchies. scholarly journal to publish its first edition by June 2020 – the ‘African Journal of Non-profit A NEW DIRECTION Higher Education’. This is precisely what a transitional Secondly, we call on our sector to build a society makes possible – an underlying policy voice through a representative forum new knowledge that struggles to emerge for non-profit institutions – that part of the against a rampant hierarchy, and thereby sector that as yet has no dedicated platform offers direction to higher education as a for engagement – a call to establish a forum performance of hope and for the social good. we propose to be named, ‘Non-Profit Higher Its positionality in-between the opposites Education South Africa’ or NOPHESA. of the established hierarchies of higher However, most important of all, we will education offers private higher education the engage the struggle for human becoming opportunity to uncover and embolden new (Freire, 1996); to teach our nation to embrace communities of togetherness and design. the stranger; to build (global) citizens that Its shape allows for integration of citizen reach across divides, uncover hidden worlds agency as a practice of knowledge and, most and together design and construct futures critically, a theme of curriculum. beyond social hierarchies; we aim to embrace Its nearness to established academic our inbetweenness and become prophets hierarchies and the corresponding identities of agency; of hope and of social good and commitments to academic (senate) that matters. governance and deep learning enables private BIBLIOGRAPHY higher education to reshape the landscape by redefining its sense of self and place. Bourdieu, P. (1973). Cultural reproduction and social reproduction. The sector will run free when it takes hold London: Tavistock. of its underlying third positionality – not to yearn for the center or live with the winds at

8 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium Breetzke, G.D. & Hedding, D.W. (2018). The changing demography of academic Mamdani, M. (2001). Beyond settler and staff at higher education institutions native as political identities: Overcoming (HEIs) in South Africa, Higher Education, the political legacy of colonialism, 76: 145‑161. doi: 10.1007/s10734-017- Comparative Studies in Society and 0203-4 History, 43(4), 651-664. Buys, B.R. (2017). An epistemological study Marginson, S. (2011). Higher Education and of the racial knowledge and identity of Public Good, Higher Education Quarterly, student leaders engaged in reconciliation. 65(4), 411-433. doi: 10.1111/j.1468- Doctoral dissertation. Bloemfontein: 2273.2011.00496.x University of the Free State. Marginson, S. (2018). Public/private in Buys, B.R. (2019). Brugbouers. Cape Town: higher education: a synthesis of economic Penguin Random House. and political approaches, Studies in Council of Higher Education. (2007). Review Higher Education, 43(2), 322-337. of Higher Education in South Africa, Mbembe, A. (2016). Decolonizing the Selected Themes. Pretoria: Council of university: New directions, Arts and Higher Education. Humanities in Higher Education, 15(1): Council of Higher Education. (2016). South 29-45. doi: 10.1177/1474022215618513 African higher education reviewed: Two Morrow, R.A. & Torres, C.A. (2002). Reading decades of democracy. Pretoria: Council Freire and Habermas, critical pedagogy of Higher Education. and transformative social change. De Zepetnek, S. T. (1999). Configurations New York: Teachers College Press. of Postcoloniality and National Identity: Popkewitz, T.S. (2010). The University Inbetween Peripherality and Narratives as Prophet, Science as Its Messenger, of Change, The Comparatist 23, 89-110. and Democracy as Its Revelation: doi: 10.1353/com.1999.0012 John Dewey, University of Chicago Freire, P. (1996 [1970]). Pedagogy of the President William Rainey Harper, and oppressed (revised edition). London: Colonel Francis Parker, in Tröhler, Penguin Books. D., Schlag, T. & Osterwalder, F. Kalua, F. (2017). Intermediality: (eds) Pragmatism and Modernities. A Paradigm for African Identity in Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. doi: the Twenty-First Century, Journal 10.1163/9789460913457_008 of Literary Studies, 33(1) 24-41. doi: Spivak, G.C. (1988). ‘Can the subaltern 10.1080/02564718.2017.1290377 speak?’, in Nelson, C. & Grossberg, L. Leibowitz, B. (2012). Higher Education (eds.), Marxism and the interpretation for the Public Good: Views from the of culture. Chicago: University of South. Stelenbosch: African Sun Media. Illinois Press. doi: 10.18820/9781928357056 Thorgerson, S. (2015). Mind over Matter: Luvalo, L.M. (2019). The relationship The Images of Pink Floyd by Storm between transformation and institutional Thorgerson. London: Omnibus press. culture, South African Journal of Tilak, J.B.G. (2008). Higher education: a Higher Education, 33(1), 184-199. public good or a commodity for trade? doi: 10.20853/33-1-2934 Prospects, 38, 449-466. doi: 10.1007/ s11125-009-9093-2

Buys • Suspect or Prophet? Private Higher Education, Hope and the Social Good 9 Exploring an inclusive educational system to enhance positive identity formation and agency

AUTHORS DOI 1 Elmarie Costandius 10.36826/2706-669X/ex/02 Freeborn Odiboh2 KEYWORDS AFFILIATIONS critical citizenship, decolonisation, art 1 Stellenbosch University, South Africa, education, traditional African education, [email protected] ubuntu, Africa 2 University of Benin, Nigeria, This paper has undergone a double-blind [email protected] peer review process

ABSTRACT 1. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this investigation was to The African Union’s Agenda 2063 (2013) is explore students’ views and attitudes towards a blueprint and master plan for transforming critical citizenship when incorporated Africa for attaining inclusive and sustainable into curricula at three art departments economic growth and development. Agenda at universities in South Africa, Nigeria 2063 includes goals such as an Africa of good and Tanzania. Data were collected from governance, democracy, respect for human postgraduate students through group rights and justice and an Africa with a strong interviews. This revealed some initial cultural identity, common heritage, values resistance from students and indicated that and ethics. The United Nations’ Sustainable values underlying critical citizenship existed Development Goals have similar aspirations, within students’ indige­nous knowledge which focus on establishing a development- bases. The experiences of students from oriented international partnership aimed the various art departments differed, but towards addressing issues of education, highlighted problematic issues in terms of critical citizenship and helped to make environmental sustainability, poverty, sick­ suggestions on how critical citizenship ness and health and encouraging educational could be incorporated into curricula in institutions to promote socially sustainable future. The data also highlight the critical ways of living (United Nations, 2015). issue of identity and agency in a teaching Critical citizenship education can be used and learning environment. This research is to this end, as it promotes democracy, social meant to stimulate further exploration of how reconstruction and social justice (Johnson educational curricula could negotiate their and Morris, 2010). The condition of critical past in the present and define the indigenous citizenship education and democracy is, in a global postcolonial context. however, a concern in Africa.

10 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium In 2011, an extensive study on perceptions 2. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES of democratic citizenship was conducted 2.1 Contexts in Africa at Nairobi, Cape Town and Dar es Salaam universities by the Centre The contexts of South Africa, Nigeria and for Higher Education Transformation Tanzania differ, but they are all influenced by colonisation, past knowledge hierarchies and the Higher Education Research and and political conditions. Said (1994) argues Advocacy Network in Africa. The study was that colonialism did not only affect people specifically concerned with the role of higher geographically but also impacted them by education institutions in critical citizenship means of what he refers to as ‘positioned development and democratisation (Luescher- superiority’, by which knowledge and culture Mamashela, 2011). There was no significant were also displaced by colonial expansion. difference in the disdainful attitudes of Deliberate hierarchies were formed between students in Tanzania and Kenya compared the coloniser and the colonised, which deemed to the public regarding non-democratic and citizens in society worthy or unworthy. This authoritarian forms of rule. However, there led to the notion of differentiation between was a significant difference in the attitudes coloniser and colonised. The voice of the of South Africans. Approximately 50% of colonised was excluded in the recording of 20- to 23-year-old South Africans rejected the history of the colonised. non-democratic forms of rule, while 90% of The idea of European universities as sources university students of the same age rejected a of knowledge and supreme power was non-democratic rule (Luescher-Mamashela, instrumental during the establishment 2011). This is an indication that higher of universities in many parts of Africa education could play a major role in educating (Department of Science and Technology, democratic and critical citizenship, but that 2014). This led to the formation of a fixed, more work needs to be done to understand universal ideology of what was accepted as and promote critical citizenship education legitimate knowledge. Unfortunately, scholars in Africa. have not broadly inquired into the legitimacy of the normalised Western knowledge system Our research explored the perceptions and (Department of Science and Technology, attitudes regarding critical citizenship of a 2014). African knowledge systems experience small group of postgraduate art students continuous pressure to ‘prove’ themselves at three institutions in Africa, namely against the Western knowledge system. Stellenbosch University in South Africa, However, in reality, it is not only the efforts the University of Benin in Nigeria and the of one group that aids in the establishment of University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. The a knowledge system. Such a system is formed research originated following a conference on over many years through the accumulation of critical citizenship at Stellenbosch University many ideas. after which lecturers from the three Political conditions affect South Africa, universities located in three different regions Nigeria and Tanzania. South Africa is facing of Africa, namely South, East and West post-apartheid problematic realities of land Africa, involved in this research returned issues, unemployment, corruption, wasting to their respective universities to interview of resources, persistent elitist arrogance, students concerning their views and opinions cheap populism, and so forth. Stellenbosch on the inclusion of critical citizenship in University used to be the cradle of apartheid, their curricula. and as a result, social transformation issues

Costandius & Odiboh • Exploring an inclusive educational system ... 11 remain sensitive. In Nigeria, civil unrest and marginalisation, stigmatising, exclusion hostility have resulted from issues such as and ‘othering’ of societal members played a land disputes between settlers and original significant role. These problematic factors owners, corruption, ethnic conflict and a were some of the leading causes of the rise culture of impunity as well as an absence of citizenship education. Often, solutions to of religious freedom. Nigeria is also one of the myriads of problems in Africa have been the most ethnically diverse and politically sought through examining the causes and divided countries in Africa, with over 260 consequences of the colonial and postcolonial languages and ethnic groups. Tanzania had periods in Africa, but this seems not to have been bedevilled by a high level of bribery yielded positive outcomes. and corruption, and there is often debate Citizenship education is based on the over the extent to which elections are free and fair in the country (Heilman, 2010). The promotion of a “common set of shared governments and economic leaders of these values (e.g. tolerance, human rights, and three countries are often not examples of democracy), which prepare young people responsible and critical citizens. to live together in diverse societies and which reject the divisive nature of national The private sector or the market cannot identities” (Johnson and Morris 2010:77- be solely responsible for the creation of a 78). Citizenship education “contributes democratic society. Reddy (2004:35) suggests to the promotion of social justice, social two opposing views: On the one hand, reconstruction, and democracy” (Johnson financial resources for higher education can and Morris 2010:77-78). However, what is be reduced according to economic demands lacking in these definitions is the critical and requirements, while the contrasting view perspective. By adding the word ‘critical’ to proposes that there could be a “humanist ‘citizenship education’, the term is redefined emphasis expecting universities to empower to include critical thinking as well as critical individuals to assume the identities of active pedagogy (Johnson and Morris, 2010). Critical agents of a democratic society”. Groener thinking is often referred to as a higher- (2006) advocates that economic development order thought process, which is utilised to and social transformation can be stimulated willingly formulate multiple perspectives and by education. With these problematic issues to place assumptions under scrutiny. Critical facing South Africa, Nigeria and Tanzania, it pedagogy in its practical form originates from has become necessary to seriously consider the Frankfurt School. It is linked closely to including moral or citizenship education in Freire’s (1975) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, in the curricula. which educators are encouraged to employ 2.2. Critical citizenship dialogue to expand the critical consciousness of lecturers and students by developing Critical citizenship is an existing concept context-specific educational methods. related to critical thinking, which could assist with individual transformation as well as with Johnson and Morris (2010) developed a developing responsible individuals who are framework for critical citizenship education able to accommodate other members within that could be a guiding tool for the content multicultural communities. Similar to the of critical citizenship modules. They suggest majority of sociological and philosophical addressing issues of political (ideology), theories of which we are aware, critical social (collective), self (subjectivity) and citizenship originated in the USA and Europe. praxis (engagement). The political category The colonial years in Africa, and other includes history, social systems, injustice parts of the world, were periods in which and dominating power structures. Under

12 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium the social category, the non-dominant, non- (2011) suggests that it is better to include a mainstream and indigenous knowledge would variety of different perspectives or theories, be brought in, and the interconnectedness of as one theory could emphasise certain culture and power should be emphasised. aspects, while others are neglected. A variety Under the self category, the own local context, is needed to unmask the hidden workings culture, position and own sense of self should and effects of colonial domination and be taken into consideration. Under praxis exploitation in our current contexts. Luckett are included skills in acting collectively, (2016) calls for a critical deconstruction of challenging the status quo and the ability to the colonial archives and canons, because, imagine a better world. Strategies for teaching as Chirikure (2016) argues, Africa requires this knowledge include critical analysis of its own knowledge that addresses its needs historical, political and social issues. It also and challenges. However, Chirikure (2016) involves skills to listen and converse and the also says that African knowledge systems ability to compromise and engage logical and cannot exist in isolation from global systems. holistic thinking (Johnson and Morris, 2010). Dei (2000, cited in Le Grange 2016:6) points One of the needed skills in this regard is deep out that various knowledges constantly self-reflection and the ability to speak with impact one another and that depicting one one’s own voice. as ‘good’ and the other as ‘bad’ creates a false dichotomy. Decolonised curricula could, A critical citizenship curriculum could however, give indigenous African knowledge be a veritable catalyst for shaping student systems a valid status among the knowledge develop­ment. However, the challenge systems in the world (Higgs, 2016). of forming a bridging device between educators and students within an academic 2.3. African philosophy of learning setting lies not only in policy and curricula Indigenous knowledge historically and writing, but also in aiming to confront currently plays an important role in occurrences resulting from conventional the thinking, behaviour and welfare of socio-cultural exchanges. Barnett and Coate communities in Africa (Modi, 2009). Several (2008) mention the ‘hidden curriculum’, researchers, including Hoberg (2004), which refers to a curriculum embedded in Kamwangamalu (1999), Le Roux (2000), a curriculum. This concept suggests that Nakusera (2004), Van Wyk and Higgs (2004), what is stated in print or within educational Venter (2004) and Waghid (2004), argue for policies does not always correspond with the use of an African philosophy of learning actual educational interactions. According to for enhancement of multicultural educational Barnett (2004), curricula should engage with curricula. However, Mapesela (2004) is and react to the challenges of a complex and doubtful whether the understanding of postmodern world. indigenous knowledge is sufficient enough Critical citizenship education should also for it to be incorporated into the curriculum include other theoretical perspectives, such and emphasises the changing nature of as decolonisation. Tuck and Yang (2012) indigenous knowledge over time. maintain that the decolonial project is Indigenous knowledge is often associated different from the Freirean project, because with ubuntu, translated as ‘humanness’. it does not focus on the liberation of the Ubuntu originates from the phrase “Umuntu oppressed, but the dismantling of oppressive ngumuntu ngabantu”, meaning a person is a colonial structures. Zembylas (2018) argues person because of other people (Mbiti 1970, for the inclusion of both perspectives, as they cited in Van der Walt 1997:33). Archbishop can contribute in different ways. Andreotti Desmond Tutu (1999:31) says that ubuntu

Costandius & Odiboh • Exploring an inclusive educational system ... 13 is not “I think therefore I am”, but rather “I philosophy and argue that certain aspects am a human because I belong. I participate. of the philosophy might not be suitable. I share”. Vedan (2009:144-145) describes Adeyemi and Adeyinka (2003) argue that ubuntu principles as “[i]nculcating honesty, with the colonial Western school system, ethical behavior (integrity, compassion, the traditional African holistic, lifelong and generosity), respect for others, sharing of utilitarian type of education was fading. resources, showing compassion, promot[ing] They admit that some aspects of the African lawful living”. Venter (2004) advocates educational system are problematic, such that the ubuntu view and the teaching of as a discouragement of experimenting with humanity should be included in education, the unknown, and because of that, resulted and urges educators to teach humanity with in little innovative or critical thinking skills the emphasis on humanness instead of race. in young people. Adeyemi and Adeyinka Gade (2012) interviewed people in sub- (2003:439) argue for a balance between Saharan Africa on the concept of ubuntu and Western and African traditional education found a variety of meanings connected to the to produce “all-round citizens: people who concept; either as a moral quality of a person are able and willing to appreciate and utilize or as a philosophy or worldview. His study the values of both traditional and modern also shows that the meaning has changed educational systems”. over time. Similar terms to ubuntu are used Khosa (2011) also argues against some in other regions in Africa, such as Kenya, aspects of traditional African education Uganda, Rwanda, Mozambique, Egypt and the and says that abuse is predicted when Democratic Republic of Congo. In Tanzania, unconditional respect for the elderly and the word bumuntu is used (Kamwangamalu, people in positions of authority is expected 1999). In Nigeria, the word omoluabi among from those in subordinate positions. Respect the Yoruba is similar to ubuntu and means for those in higher positions might be so courage, hard work, humility and respect. ingrained in the African educational system Matolino and Kwindingwi (2013) believe that that people in positions of authority are able to the promotion of ubuntu after 1994 in South abuse the public (Khosa, 2011). He also points Africa is an elitist project so conceived by the out that the Western focus on individualism new black elite. They argue that it started with has advantages, such as contributing to the the aim to restore black identity and dignity, development of the individual and the welfare but warn that it only benefits the black elite. of society. However, that individualism They state that ubuntu “is only advanced to could also negatively embody “opposition to serve a certain Africanist agenda when it authority and to all sorts of controls over the best suites the elite. When used by ordinary individual, especially when they are exercised people, it amounts to nothing more than by the state” (Khosa, 2011:441). a catch phrase with soap opera soothing Adeyanju (n.d., para. 1) describes tribalism qualities” (Matolino and Kwindingwi, 2013: as a cultural term, a “way of thinking or 202). Modi (2009:5) remarks: “Ubuntu is behaving in which people are more loyal to not just an African concept; it is a reality that their tribes than to their friends, countries or modern people deny”. Modi (2009) believes social groups”. He argues that it is a natural that ubuntu and these values that we deny phenomenon because it is “founded upon should become part of the educational system intense feelings of common identity that and that it should be taught as a way of life. leads people to feel tribally connected” and Enslin and Horsthemke (2004) question adds that it is often “more about [a] ‘feeling’ the uniqueness of ubuntu as an educational of commonality than actual commonality”

14 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium (Adeyanju n.d., para. 2). He refers to Nigeria, come in – to talk openly about the different were presidential elections show that voters manifestations of skewed power relations vote mostly on the basis of their ethnic and discrimination, regardless of racial or identity because people often feel that one’s tribal affiliations. People who benefit from “destiny is intrinsically and exclusively linked an unethical or corrupt system based on with one’s ethnic, linguistic and religious racism or tribalism would not speak up as identities” (Adeyanju, n.d., para. 9). However, long as they are advantaged. In Tanzania, this loyalty to tribes affects the fight against Julius Nyerere introduced policies aimed corruption. It stalls exposure or prosecution at specifically downplaying tribalism and of fellow tribesmen for offences committed focusing on reducing ethnic differences. (Adeyanju, n.d.). Uzokwe (2009) argues Addressing tribalism (in the same way that different barometers for measuring as racism) in educational institutions in corruption are used, depending on where the the form of critical citizenship would fail perpetrators hail from. Adeyanju (n.d.) also if governmental institutions do not set argues that tribal rivalry hampers economic an example and address it in policies and and political imbalances and that it could be specific interventions. The challenges of the breeding place for ethnic militias such as incorporating aspects of critical citizenship Boko Haram. These often politically driven education into the Arts curriculum were tribal agendas create a “legacy of hate and explored further in this research study. suspicion which the successive generation 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY carries like a mantle” (Adeyanju, n.d., para. 11). The questions that guided the research were: What are the common perceptions In South Africa, tribalism also existed before and attitudes of students regarding critical colonialism and apartheid, but through the citizenship; and what revelations can be introduction of homelands during apartheid gleaned from their reactions regarding their and privileges given to certain ethnic groups, immediate and broader realities? Group hatred between groups escalated. Tribalism interviews were conducted with postgraduate is troubling South Africa despite the country art students: 25 from Stellenbosch, seven being more than two decades into democracy, from Benin and 12 from Dar es Salaam. The and it is visible in “almost all government students were between the ages of 21 and 25. departments, and especially in South African Art students were approached because police” (Dlanjwa, 2015:5). Baloyi (2018:2) the researchers are Art and Art Education argues that “[a]s part of the injustices of the lecturers. past, tribalism is playing a crucial role in delaying the reconciliation and unification The research took place within the qualitative and interpretive paradigms, making use of society, which has been fragmented for a of the case study method with group long time now” and continues that “tribalism interviews. The interpretative paradigm cannot be innocent if we want reconciliation is utilised to understand the context and in South Africa”. Dlanjwa (2015) argues that qualities of specific cases. The interpretive South Africa needs to talk openly of it, but approach requires reflection on how the few have the courage to challenge tribalism. data are socially constructed and sensitivity Tribalism is not unique to Africa. It exists in to contradictions, distortions and biases of all civilisations in the past and present. It is the data collected (Klein and Meyers, 1999). part of human existence, but this is exactly Qualitative research involves dynamic and where critical citizenship education should reflexive engagement (Seale, 2012).

Costandius & Odiboh • Exploring an inclusive educational system ... 15 Participation was on a voluntary basis, and all environment, critical citizenship encourages students who were approached participated. thinking and reflecting on the past critically, All participants had the option to withdraw in order to conceptualise a potential future from the interviews at any stage of the moulded by social justice. This acts as a research. All data collected from the group preparatory foundation to teach people to interviews were kept strictly confidential. The exist harmoniously within communities identities of all participants were shielded by of a diverse nature. Before engaging the the use of codes. The code 4S6, for instance, students involved in the research, they were would signify the following: 4 = the student’s familiarised with the definitions and with year of study (4 for honours students and critical citizenship education. 5 for master’s students), S = Stellenbosch Students from the different universities (with B for Benin and D for Dar es Salaam) responded differently to the concept of and 6 = the student’s number. Data were critical citizenship education. Excerpts from collected by means of handwritten notes and interviews with students from the three electronic voice recordings. The information universities are expanded on below. Some was transferred to a computer and also copied students from Stellenbosch felt that the terms onto an external hard drive as backup. used in the definition are too ambitious. Inductive qualitative content analysis Student 4S6 remarked as follows: (Creswell, 2005) was utilised to steer They are all very important things. But the analysis. By making use of inductive giving them [terms such as tolerance and content analysis, the researchers intends diversity] … It’s like putting them on a bit to scrutinise the data qualitatively, thereby of a pedestal and it is … sort of putting investigating how the participants view and them at a level where we can’t reach them understand issues with the aim of arriving by saying this is what we need to be one at clusters of meaning. During inductive day, but what are we now? Are we the qualitative content analysis, the text is read opposite of all these terms? first, after which segments are identified that correspond with the research objectives. Student 4S5 also responded to the ‘loaded This process leads to the creation of codes, terms’, stating: which are then reduced or combined to form I think then we can just really start relaxing themes. Inductive content analysis involves and just interacting in a way. There won’t investigating all data in detail. During this be all these ‘I need to be tolerant … I need analysis, researchers were aware of the to be democratic’. All of that just creates possibility of silencing certain participants’ a lot of tension. And you’re just stressed; opinions due to researcher bias (Ali and because you need to be so peacy [sic] and Kelly, 2012). everything [feels] so unattainable.

4. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY AND The students felt that including critical DISCUSSION citizenship in their curricula would be a way of targeting them rather than the public. They 4.1. Findings also felt that critical citizenship should start at A definition adapted from Johnson and the lower grades and high school levels and Morris (2010) was used in this study, not only at the university level. Student 4S1 which states that critical citizenship is commented as follows: the promotion of a common set of shared But are these things being taught in values such as tolerance, diversity, human previously disadvantaged communities rights and democracy. In a pedagogical and things? Because often they say we go

16 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium out with this set of skill, or critical thinking significant as their own, and look at other … but how are we going to survive in people’s religion as important as their a space where there are going to be own and look at other people’s life as also people without that? You know … we now as important as their own. are supposed to be more tolerant and The researcher asked the Benin students respectful of all those things. I think it is a whether they would still allow a foreigner project targeted at graduates, but I don’t to rule the country if and when they learn think we should be the focus groups at all, about tolerance, human rights, diversity and I think it needs to be much earlier. democracy. The conversation went as follows Furthermore, the students felt that critical (R = researcher): R: If another man or a European man thinking would be better than critical citizenship. Student 4S10 argued: “We comes to Nigeria with the kind of level should just strip down to just a simple thing. of education that you have … [and] he Instead of … going for tolerance, democracy wants to be a governor, are you likely to all that … you should just start with critical allow him? thinking.” One of the other students then Student 5B2: No. asked how they should learn critical thinking R: Why? or citizenship practically instead of only as a theory subject. Student 5B2: You’re talking about a white man, you said a white man. I’m not likely The students at Benin University felt that to allow him because I think … he has to critical citizenship and knowledge of other have resided in the country for a while, people’s culture are valuable. However, they were hesitant on how to resolve the issues of maybe a period of ten to fifteen years … tribalism with the incorporation of critical R: Okay, [if] he has lived [here] for fifteen citizenship into curricula. Student 5B5 years and has been part of Nigeria and remarked: he knows about Nigerian culture, are you So there you can now see the reason likely to say ‘Yes, he can be a governor?’ for citizenship education – that first the Student 5B2: Well, no, I’m still not likely to person being educated must understand say yes … where he stands in the world, where he stands within a multicultural society and Another student, 5B7, responded to the where he stands within the larger world – comment above and disagreed: because for you to be able to understand I would say yes for that because the your relationship with another person you citizenship education … teaches us that first have to understand yourself – now to we should think of every one of us as if what extent will the Ibo man accept the that’s one, we should maintain justice in Hausa man? To what extent will the Hausa the land and everything. So I believe, like man accept the Ibo man? … I don’t think in a place like America, we had someone that it is possible in the East … because of like Obama become the president, the issue of tribalism. he’s from Kenya but they accepted him because they believed that okay, this man Student 5B3 added: has been passed through our education If they had this kind of knowledge of system, he’s legally approved and he’s a other people’s [other tribes’] culture, they citizen, he’s one of us. So I believe since … probably will look at other people as he’s one of us, he can become a ruler.

Costandius & Odiboh • Exploring an inclusive educational system ... 17 The Benin students also commented on trust it is by watching others and by living in between white and black people because a family environment that you become of relationships that were damaged since this person who lives in an ubuntu type colonial times. Student 5B7 remarked: of lifestyle. … if you go back to the international art market, you see that those patrons Another student, 5D3, said: [Ubuntu is] blood to blood, somebody and mediators who were here came would grow it and become like an icon with the aim of developing the arts of to others, that is ubuntu. While critical Nigeria and Africa, [and] they ended up citizenship is something that people had commercialising it by taking them back to taught us, that is what I get, the difference. the West and auctioning them, most of our artworks, and in doing this, it’s affected Student 5D8 understands ubuntu as “a way the Nigerian, the African mentality that of life with acceptance to tolerance but with people had to reform their artworks in warmth to others”. Student 5D2, in reaction such a way that suited the ones that are to the inclusion of critical citizenship in sold in the West. curricula, responded as follows: The power structures that we live within At Dar es Salaam, some students responded are never going to really allow us to be to the definition by arguing that critical total and complete critical citizens … citizenship can be related to ubuntu and that if people really [adopt] this notion of those critical citizenship concepts already exist in the concept of ubuntu. Student critical citizenship and lived it totally and 5D7 said: completely there would be a revolution. … there are so many times that Africans Student 5D6 reacted to the above comment go out to prove themselves. That is the by saying: problem, we always have to prove and They [the power structures] are not going whenever you prove, there is a reason why to allow you but you still have to do it. You they do these things, to prove that you want to be in a world that, you know, has are worthy but think what is there, I think that respect for the environment and for maybe even in ubuntu, what is there? But everybody else, so you can’t, you shouldn’t you know when the Westerns come with stop yourself from doing that, because the critical citizenship; you think wait a that is like self-censorship. minute, we have that! Student 5D8 argued for the inclusion of Student 5D6 felt that much of the ubuntu ubuntu in the curricula and said: lifestyle has been lost lately and said: Another thing for example here in an But at the moment it seems this global African country, the role models are change for money, making money-money, politicians. The role models, the icons they liberalism, everything that [ubuntu] means are politicians who are 99.9% corrupt. … is just the social aspect and the respect, It comes to a point where corruption is so the humanity, it has been side-lined. It is institutional; it becomes part and parcel of just more business, business, business. life. Therefore, it seems to be something Student 5D5 tried to explain the difference that somebody would choose as wrong, it between critical citizenship and ubuntu: is just that that’s the way life is. So again, So it [ubuntu] is not something you sit in a if we don’t inculcate this ubuntu it will get class and learn how to be a good person, us to a point where … corruption won’t be

18 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium corruption and it will just be … a normal All existing social structures seem to have way of life. repugnant characteristics that often trigger resistance, and this probably informed 4.2 Discussion students’ thoughts when they remarked that All students who participated in the research terms such as ‘tolerance’, ‘difference’, ‘human felt that they understand what tolerance, rights’ and ‘democracy’ refer to unattainable diversity, human rights and democracy mean. states. For the students, there is the temptation However, some students were triggered to focus their energy on financial enrichment, by the term ‘tolerance’, believing that this which, they could argue, give the individual was nomenclature reminiscent of the past. more power. Student 5D6 commented on Tolerance is arguably something that is the loss of ‘humanity’ or ubuntu because practised by most people within an academic, of the social structures of capitalism, with home or work setting; however, seemingly its consumerism being overwhelming. link to the colonial and apartheid past incited According to Student 4S3, “critical thinking some resistance by the students in general. Some young Stellenbosch students do not is only a theory thing”, and she struggled to want to be reminded of the past because link theory to practice. The incorporation of of feelings of guilt or shame. One student critical thinking should, therefore, be done contended that university-level students in such a manner that it becomes relatable already possess tolerance skills. Another to the life of everyday people, helping student argued that the ability to be tolerant them to grasp how oppressive devices, should be taught to a wider range of people such as neocolonialism, socio-economic and that this should be implemented at the disequilibrium and political repressiveness, lower grades and school levels. impact negatively on people’s lives in the contemporary environment. Invariably, being Some students also felt that the terms unable to relate issues of everyday life poses involved in critical citizenship, or some of a challenge to transforming into a critical those terms, were too utopian to achieve. and reflective thinker who is able to convert In this situation, the students were not truly his/her thoughts into actions. In that case, at fault; tolerance and human rights are not critical thinking ought to become pedagogy necessarily encouraged by social structures for public deliberation and consumption such as capitalism, as such a system allows (Mendel-Reyes, 1998). the rich to continually increase their wealth, while the poor plunge further into The Benin student’s comment about tribalism poverty. The current global capitalist system is an issue that needs to be unpacked in the does not allow everybody to attain equal African context. In many places in Africa, opportunities; although the notion of all- the policies of the existing political class inclusive improvement exists inherently in in government often clash with the tenets, the system, the exploitation of others drives practices and cultural norms of the ethnic the labour system (Przeworski, 1985). During nationalities within society. It is easier for the interviews, some students felt shameful people to align with their tribal or ethnic or guilty. These feelings could have surfaced groups than it is for them to relate to the not only because of the critical citizenship government or the political class or elites discussions but also as a result of factors in government, due to mistrust. This is so intrinsic to broader neoliberal contexts in because the tribal or ethnic affiliations have which the students found themselves. been engrained in the minds of the people over a longer time through intrinsic culture and traditions. Such ethnic affinities often

Costandius & Odiboh • Exploring an inclusive educational system ... 19 predate colonial and even contemporary which often duly receive the critique of being political structures. ivory towers. There is, therefore, a need to share knowledge with the wider society in a A Benin student commented on a different way that would not cause a revolution, but aspect, namely how difficult it would be would educate society on critical citizenship to accept a white person as the ruler of his issues for the benefit of the wider society. country even if the person lived and had It is easier for politicians and governments been educated in Nigeria. It might be difficult to control or influence people who are not for that student to trust a white person after informed and do not possess the skills to the experiences of colonialism. How, then, think critically and practise their rights as should white lecturers work at decolonising critical citizens. Critical citizenship education the Arts curriculum? Leibowitz (2016) should involve the participation of everyone, notes that in some current debates, white not only students in higher education. Higher people are asked not to talk on behalf of education could reach a larger target market the colonised. Fredua-Kwarteng and Ofosu by incorporating critical citizenship into (2018) argue that indigenous Africans are not community interaction and engagement. the only people who are concerned with the development plight of the African continent. After independence in many African There may be a space for white people and countries, the focus of curricula has been on people from foreign countries to aid in the national development and modernisation curriculum decolonisation process. These are (Woolman, 2001). A reclaiming of African the pertinent issues that need to be addressed identity was also high on the agenda of the in a critical citizenship curriculum. colonised after independence. In colonial times, African culture was excluded from Another Benin student commented on what national curricula, also in South Africa, happens in the international art market and Nigeria and Tanzania. This caused an how Africans have been exploited at that alienation of the people from their own level. The same student also commented on culture, which could have led to people’s how Nigerian artists have adapted their art disrespect for their own culture: a negative to suit Western art markets in order to curry psychological disposition. In Africa, the sales. Although artists everywhere do adapt disadvantages of separate development for the to enable them to make a living, the sensitive different races meant that many people were issue that the student touched on here is denied access to a proper educational system, the fear of losing identity. There is a feeling and only minimal financial support towards from the students that African identity has African education was granted. African been hybridised by the colonialist experience people were taught in the language of the of the past, and it is still a complex and coloniser rather than in their mother tongue; unsettled issue. therefore, English was used in Nigeria and One of the Dar es Salaam students argued that Tanzania, and Afrikaans in South Africa. The if critical citizenship is taken to the public, Eurocentric focus of curricula content led to a there would be a revolution. The idea that generic belief that the culture of the colonised critical citizenship would cause a revolution was less valuable than that of the coloniser, indicates that critical citizenship education causing it to be undermined. The cumulative consists of knowledge (such as hidden power result of these factors was that African culture relations) that some people do not have and was relegated to an inferior position. The that they could revolt against it if they do harmful effects of these circumstances are still obtain such knowledge. Certain knowledge present in today’s societies and also emerged is kept in higher education institutions, in the data collected. Recently, a group of

20 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium indigenous African scholars have focused inclusive system where the educational on reforming higher education curricula to systems of African, Western and other be relevant to the lived experiences, realities cultural groups that exist in the country are and cultural identities of indigenous people included. (Fredua-Kwarteng and Ofosu, 2018). This The researchers emphasise the development type of reform is the aim of the curriculum of critical and reflective individuals that decolonisation project. would be able to critically assess people in Some of the Dar es Salaam students expressed authoritative positions, not only to enable that critical citizenship could be related to the a democratic society but also to work for concept of ubuntu and also commented that the common good of all in society. The the content of Western concepts oftentimes researchers, therefore, suggest a combined already exists in Africa, but that the strategy of ubuntu and critical citizenship. nomenclature often differs. This finding that This includes promoting concerted efforts to emerged from the data caused the researchers becoming a moral person, promoting lawful to reflect on the possibility of incorporating living, developing ethics of care, having or combining ubuntu and critical citizenship. respect and showing compassion and warmth The researchers recognised that there to others (Vedan, 2009). An inclusive strategy is a general connection between critical encourages the incorporation of communal citizenship and African educational values or perspectives as well as individualistic ubuntu in the way that they strive for similar approaches in education. aims of social responsibility and character- Braidotti (2016) advanced the apprenticeship forming education. Ubuntu existed long model for education. She opines that due to before the notion of critical citizenship was the influence of social media, universities are conceptualised. Critical citizenship, which no longer prime producers of knowledge. Her had its origins in Western philosophy, at apprenticeship approaches include practical present realises the shortcomings of an components, rather than relying mainly individualised society and therefore also on teaching and learning theoretically. For introduces aspects such as more respect and the purpose of this research, the focus on tolerance for fellow human beings. Ubuntu traditional African education is in the area education has a stronger focus on working for of field experiences and active discovery a common good and developing an ethic of where students would learn in the presence sharing, which the researchers embrace. of a mentor. Community interaction is, Matolino and Kwindingwi (2013) argue that therefore, crucial where practical experience ubuntu cannot exist in a modern society is essential. Critical citizenship needs to be and that it can only exist in closely-knit learned through practice, not only in theory. communal environments, but the argument Marks (1998, cited in Braidotti 2013:86) refers of the researchers of this study is that African to “the embodiment of the mind and the students would interact positively with this embrainment of the body”. This differs from concept introduced in their curricula. It the traditional approach used in Western is, therefore, the researchers’ opinion that education, which relies predominantly on aspects of ubuntu can be used in modern book and test/essay method. In educational society. Khoza (2012) argues that for ubuntu research, it is known that memorisation and education to be effective, African history, rote learning do not necessarily promote sociology, psychology, geography and culture critical thinking. However, a certain amount should be taught in informal and formal of information needs to be conveyed at school education. The researchers argue for a more and university level and field experience is

Costandius & Odiboh • Exploring an inclusive educational system ... 21 not always possible because it is a longer and argue that the inclusion of the ubuntu time-consuming process. A combination approach in combination with the ideals of of experiential and traditional methods is citizenship education in curricula is essential. suggested. This would equip individuals in Africa with the requisite critical mindset to assess and 5. CONCLUSIONS AND reflect on political and social issues. Using IMPLICATIONS an African educational framework such The study aimed at investigating the as ubuntu, to which more people in Africa perceptions and attitudes of art students at can relate, in combination with a Western three art departments in three countries in approach, is probably a more effective option Africa regarding the possible inclusion of in an African context. Western culture in critical citizenship in their Arts curricula. Africa has often been more connected to the Students from Stellenbosch felt that critical European environment than to Africa. It is citizenship is a loaded term that requires therefore essential that people in Africa learn too much of students. They asked how it to emotionally and psychologically accept can become more practical instead of just the reality of the local context in which we theoretical, and they emphasised that critical currently live, and begin to adapt teaching citizenship should be taught from primary methods and curricula for the advancement school age. Students at Benin University of society. agreed that critical citizenship could be Decolonised curricula can give indigenous valuable, but issues such as tribalism and African knowledge systems an equal and rejection of European and white rule emerged valid place among the array of knowledge in discussions. These students noted the systems in the world (Higgs, 2016). The interplay between acceptance and critical researchers argue that ubuntu education citizenship. Students from Dar es Salaam is not completely unique and shares many University noted similarities between critical aspects with critical citizenship education, citizenship and ubuntu. For them, ubuntu is but that ubuntu could be a concept with which more African, more experiential and more some students would rather associate. When of a lifestyle from a young age compared to implementing a mixed educational system critical citizenship taught in classrooms. They such as the one we are advocating, students emphasised neoliberalism, unequal power also learn from such combined educational structures and corruption in government as approaches, and this is beneficial to everyone threats to the notion of ubuntu. involved. All students and lecturers should Although the research included only a small feel like members who belong in their sample of students, a variety of perspectives teaching and learning spaces (Mbembe, emerged that give some indication of 2016). The psychological advantage that the various viewpoints of students at these three inclusion of ubuntu educational concepts, universities. The data collected revealed in combination with critical citizenship, scepticism of critical citizenship education by will have for many students should not be the Stellenbosch students and hesitation from underestimated. If the psychological damage the Benin students, while the Dar es Salaam that was caused by colonial domination in students suggested that ubuntu values, which many African countries is taken into account, are closer to an African value system, be the employment of an inclusive educational included instead of or in combination with system such as that suggested in this article critical citizenship. Although some students should enhance positive identity formation were sceptical or hesitant about critical and agency, thereby improving teaching citizenship implications, the researchers and learning.

22 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium REFERENCES Adeyanju, C.G. n.d. Politics of ethnicity in Chirikure, S. (2016). Transforming Nigeria: The way forward. Available from: universities – Knowledge, then https://www.foresightfordevelopment. curriculum. University World News org/featured/ethnicity-tribalism Africa 180. Available from: http:// [Accessed 10 May 2020]. www.universityworldnews.com/ Adeyemi, M.B. and Adeyinka, A.A. (2003). article.php?story=20160909080621441 The principles and content of African [Accessed 9 September 2019]. traditional education. Educational Creswell, J.W. (2005). Educational research: Philosophy and Theory, 35(4): 374-82. Planning, conducting, and evaluating doi: 10.1111/1469-5812.00039 quantitative and qualitative research. African Union. (2013). Agenda 2063: 4th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson Merrill Goals and priority areas of agenda Prentice Hall. 2063. Available from: https://au.int/ Department of Science and Technology. en/agenda2063/overview [Accessed (2014). Indigenous knowledge 14 May 2020]. systems. Available from: http:// Ali, S. and Kelly, M. (2012). Ethics and social ahero.uwc.ac.za/ index.php?module research. In: C. Seale (ed.). Researching =cshe&action=downloadfile Society and Culture (3rd edition): 59-73. &fileid=81806115511792347451177 London: Sage. [Accessed 25 February 2012]. Andreotti, V. (2011). (Towards) decoloniality Dlanjwa, S. (2015). South Africa’s demon and diversality in global citizenship of tribalism raises its head. Daily education. Globalisation, Societies Maverick: 5. and Education, 9(3-4): 381-397. doi: Enslin, P. and Horsthemke, K. (2004). Can 10.1080/14767724.2011.605323 ubuntu provide a model for citizenship Baloyi, E.M. (2018). Tribalism: Thorny issue education in African democracies? towards reconciliation in South Africa – Comparative Education, 40(4): 545-58. A practical theological appraisal. HTS doi: 10.1080/0305006042000284538 Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, Fredua-Kwarteng, E. and Ofosu, S. (2018). 74(2). doi: 10.4102/hts.v74i2.4772 A better model than the Africanised Barnett, R. (2004). Learning for an unknown university. University World News Global future. Higher Education Research Edition Issue 491. Available from: https:// & Development, 23(3): 247-60. doi: www.universityworldnews.com/post. 10.1080/0729436042000235382 php?story=20180131112623305& Barnett, R. and Coate, K. (2008). Engaging mode=print [Accessed 9 February 2018]. the curriculum in higher education. Freire, P. (1975). Pedagogy of the oppressed. British Journal of Educational Studies, In: M. Golby, J. Greenwald, and R. West 56(2): 234-5. doi: 10.1111/j.14678527.20 (eds.). Curriculum Design: 138-49. 08.00402_3.x London: Open University Press. Braidotti, R. (2013). The posthuman. Gade, C.B.N. (2012). What is Cambridge: Polity Press. ubuntu? Different interpretations Briadotti, R. (2016). Monism and Spinoza. among South Africans of African Available from: http://meeting.uct.ac.za/ descent. South African Journal of p5x1bnvntsa/ [Accessed 30 May 2016]. Philosophy, 31(3): 484-503. doi: 10.1080/02580136.2012.10751789

Costandius & Odiboh • Exploring an inclusive educational system ... 23 Groener, Z. (2006). Adult education and Leibowitz, B. (2016). Power, knowledge and social transformation. In: S.B. Merriam, learning: A humble contribution to the B.C. Courtenay, and R.M. Cervero (eds.). decolonisation debate. Keynote address Global Issues and Adult Education: 5-14. delivered at the 10th Annual Teaching San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. & Learning Conference, University of Heilman, B. (2010). Countries at KwaZulu-Natal, 16 August 2016. the crossroads 2010: Country Le Roux, J. (2000). The concept of “ubuntu”: report – Tanzania. Available Africa’s most important contribution to from: https://freedomhouse.org multicultural education? Multicultural [Accessed 5 January 2015]. Teaching, 18(2): 43-6. Higgs, P. (2016). The African renaissance Luckett, K. (2016). Curriculum contestation and the transformation of the higher in a post-colonial context: A view education curriculum in South Africa. from the South. Teaching in Higher Africa Education Review, 13(1): 87-101. Education, 21(4): 415-428. doi: doi: 10.1080/18146627.2016.1186370 10.1080/13562517.2016.1155547 Hoberg, S.M. (2004). School principalship Luescher, T.M. (2011). The University and the value of African indigenous in Africa and democratic citizenship: knowledge (AIK): Ships Passing in the Hothouse or training ground? night? South African Journal of Higher Wynberg: Centre for Higher Education Education, 18(3): 40-55. doi: 10.4314/ Transformation. sajhe.v18i3.25479 Mapesela, M.L.E. (2004). The Basotho Johnson, L. and Morris, P. (2010). indigenous knowledge (IK): Do we Towards a framework for critical understand it well enough to employ it citizenship education. The as a tool in higher education teaching? Curriculum Journal, 21(1): 77-96. South African Journal of Higher doi: 10.1080/09585170903560444 Education, 18(3): 316-26. doi: 10.4314/ Kamwangamalu, N.M. (1999). Ubuntu sajhe.v18i3.25500 in South Africa: A sociolinguistic Matolino, B. and Kwindingwi, W. (2013). perspective to a pan-African concept. The end of ubuntu. South African Journal Critical Arts: A South-North Journal of of Philosophy, 32(2): 197-205. doi: Cultural and Media Studies, 13(2): 24-41. 10.1080/02580136.2013.817637 doi: 10.1080/02560049985310111 Mbembe, A.J. (2016). Decolonizing the Khoza, R.J. (2012). Attuned leadership: university: New directions. Arts and African humanism as compass. Humanities in Higher Education, 15(1): Johannesburg: Penguin Group. 29-45. doi: 10.1177/1474022215618513 Klein, H.K. and Meyers, M.D. (1999). Mendel-Reyes, M. (1998). A pedagogy A set of principles for conducting and for citizenship: Service learning and evaluating interpretive field studies in democratic education. New Directions information systems. MIS Quarterly, for Teaching and Learning, 73: 31-8. 23(1): 67-93. doi: 10.2307/249410 doi: 10.1002/tl.7304 Le Grange, L. (2016). Decolonising the Modi, A.T. (2009). Foreword. In: Ubuntu university curriculum. South African conference: Humanity, development and Journal of Higher Education, 30(2): 1-12. prosperity, 5-6. Durban: Innovation doi: 10.20853/30-2-709 Centre, Howard College Campus, University of KwaZulu-Natal.

24 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium Nakusera, E.P. (2004). Rethinking higher Van der Walt, B.J. (1997). Afrocentric or education transformation in terms of Eurocentric? Our task in a multicultural an African(a) philosophy of education: South Africa. Potchefstroom: Perspectives on higher education. South Potchefstroom University for Christian African Journal of Higher Education, Higher Education. 18(3): 127-37. doi: 10.4314/sajhe. Van Wyk, B. and Higgs, P. (2004). Towards v18i3.25486 an African philosophy of higher Przeworski, A. (1985). Capitalism and social education. South African Journal of democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge Higher Education, 18(3): 196-210. University Press. doi: 10.1017/ doi: 10.4314/sajhe.v18i3.25491 CBO9781139171830 Vedan, J. (2009). Ubuntu and moral Reddy, T. (2004). Higher education and regeneration. In: Ubuntu conference: social transformation: South Africa Humanity, development and prosperity, case study. Available from: https:// 140-146. Durban: Innovation Centre, open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/22067 Howard College Campus, University of [Accessed 20 December 2011]. KwaZulu-Natal. Said, E.W. (1994). Culture and imperialism. Venter, E. (2004). The notion of ubuntu and London: Vintage. communalism in African educational Seale, C. (2012). Researching society and discourse. Studies in Philosophy and culture. 3rd edition. London: Sage. Education, 23(2-3): 149-60. doi: Tuck, E. and Yang, K.W. (2012). 10.1023/B:SPED.0000024428.29295.03 Decolonization is not a metaphor. Waghid, Y. (2004). African philosophy of Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education education: Implications for teaching and and Society, 1(1): 1-40. learning. South African Journal of Higher Tutu, Desmond. (1999). No future without Education, 18(3): 56-64. doi: 10.4314/ forgiveness. New York: Doubleday. doi: sajhe.v18i3.25480 10.1111/j.1540-5842.1999.tb00012.x Woolman, D.C. (2001). Educational United Nations. (2015). Sustainable reconstruction and post-colonial development goals. Available from: curriculum development: A comparative www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/ study of four African countries. sustainable-development-goals/ International Education Journal, [Accessed 4 April 2017]. 2(5): 27‑46. Uzokwe, A.O. (2009). Tribalism and Zembylas, M. (2018). Con-/Divergences ethnocentricity hampering prospects between postcolonial and critical of a more perfect nation (Part 2 of 2). peace education: Towards pedagogies Available from: https://nigeriaworld. of decolonization in peace education. com/columnist/uzokwe/022609.html Journal of Peace Education, 15(1): 1-23. [Accessed 14 May 2020]. doi: 10.1080/17400201.2017.1412299

Costandius & Odiboh • Exploring an inclusive educational system ... 25 African Sun Media presents the following new titles...

FAULT LINES: TRANSFORMING A primer on race, science PERSISTENCE TRANSFORMATION IN and society OF RACE RESEARCH AND TEACHING AT Nina G. Jablonski (ed.) Jonathan Jansen & Cyrill Walters (eds.) SOUTH AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES Rob Pattman & Ronelle Carolissen (eds.) https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480495 https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480457 https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480075

TEACHING FOR RE-IMAGINING CURRICULUM: CHANGE: Essays on Pedagogy, RACE IN EDUCATION Spaces for disruption Gender and Theology in Africa Gerhard Maré (ed.) Lynn Quinn (ed.) L. Juliana Claassens, Charlene van der Walt & Funlola O. Olojede (eds.) https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480396 https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480631 https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480150

Available on the following platforms:

www.africansunmedia.co.za | [email protected] The influence of information sources on African Sun Media learner’s higher education destination presents the following new titles... A survey of Grade 12 learners in the Tshwane Metropolitan

AUTHOR DOI Duncan Olivier 10.36826/2706-669X/ex/03

AFFILIATION KEYWORDS Tshwane University of Technology, higher education, marketing, South Africa, [email protected] information sources, learners, choice

This paper has undergone a double-blind peer review process. Permission letters are viewable FAULT LINES: TRANSFORMING upon request for evidence that required ethical clearance was obtained from the schools A primer on race, science PERSISTENCE TRANSFORMATION IN included in this research paper. and society OF RACE RESEARCH AND TEACHING AT Nina G. Jablonski (ed.) Jonathan Jansen & Cyrill Walters (eds.) SOUTH AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES Rob Pattman & Ronelle Carolissen (eds.) https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480495 https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480457 https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480075 ABSTRACT The higher education market is becoming of information are becoming increasingly increasingly complex, due to a lack of influential. Higher education marketers government funding and an increase in the should, therefore, incorporate technology to number of private higher education providers. pass information on to potential students. This study investigates the influence various information sources have on a learner’s 1. INTRODUCTION decision of where to study after completing Modern-day Grade 12 learners are in a fast- Grade 12. The results should be able to assist higher education institutes to ascertain which paced world with access to information at their information sources are the most influential fingertips. Access to so much information can and thus require more marketing attention. potentially lead to an information overload. This study was quantitative in approach. The This overload can be exasperated when they TEACHING FOR data was collected by means of a questionnaire are going through a major life change, such RE-IMAGINING CURRICULUM: CHANGE: Essays on Pedagogy, RACE IN EDUCATION which was distributed to Grade 12 learners as making decisions that will determine their Spaces for disruption Gender and Theology in Africa Gerhard Maré (ed.) from various high schools in the Tshwane futures. It is, therefore, important for higher Lynn Quinn (ed.) L. Juliana Claassens, Charlene van der Walt & Funlola O. Olojede (eds.) Metropolitan. The survey found that there was education institutes (hereafter referred to as https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480396 https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480631 https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928480150 significant differences amongst the various HEIs) to provide access to the relevant and sources of information. Results indicated that parents were rated as having the greatest correct information in a manner that best Available on the following platforms: level of influence, with the internet being the appeals to potential students. In doing so, second most influential. Social media sites HEIs will not only lessen the information such as Pinterest and LinkedIn were found to overload but also attract a higher calibre of be the least influential. Technological sources students to their institutes. www.africansunmedia.co.za | [email protected] Olivier • The influence of information sources on learner’s higher education destination 27 Several international and local studies have of the main tasks facing higher education been done on the influence various factors marketers is to present learners with this have on a potential student’s choice of HEI. information from a source which they find However, little research has been undertaken influential (Klasik, 2012:505-549; Lim, Jee that focus on potential students who are and De Run, 2018:229; Reddy, 2012). Based still in the decision-making process, such as on previous research (Kwang, 2019; Olivier, Grade 12 learners (Du Plessis and Rousseau, 2017; Reddy, 2014; De Jager and Du Plooy, 2005; Hemsley-Brown and Optlataka, 2006; 2010) information sources can be classified Mainardes, Alves, Raposo and Domingues, into four major categories, namely: Reference 2012; Reddy, 2014; Wiese, 2008). To further groups, Traditional sources, Activities our understanding of what influences arranged by HEIs and Technological sources. a student’s choice of where they study, Reference groups can include parents, we investigated the various information friends and teachers. Traditional sources sources, including the influence they have can include HEI representatives as well as on a potential student’s choice of HEI. The TV and magazine advertisements. Activities primary research objective was to determine arranged by the HEI can include open the level of influence that these information days and sporting events. Technological sources have on potential students. sources include social media, podcasts and email. HEIs need to explore these sources 2. LITERATURE REVIEW to determine which offer opportunities for In 2018, 800 800 learners were registered more effective marketing of their institution. to write their Grade 12 final exams (South HEIs must also be aware that their customers African Market Insights, 2019). In essence, (the students) require information about the these learners were potential students for all features of the service, how they can access post-secondary schooling institutes. Both it and the cost involved, in order to make an public and private HEIs are beginning to informed decision. If potential students are realise that the market is highly competitive able to obtain the required information in a due to the increasing number of private manner that suits them, they may feel that institutes opening as well as the lack of space they are buying quality products or services. available at public institutes (Bryde and If this is achieved, potential students will have Leighton, 2007:705; Dennis, Papagiannidis, confidence in their choice of higher education Alamanos and Bourlakis, 2016:3049). HEIs provider (Kwang, 2019:9; Omboi and Mutali, are becoming more responsive and proactive 2011:177). in identifying what potential students look for HEIs must understand that passing on in an HEI (Briggs and Wilson, 2007:58-59; relevant information is a difficult task due Lim, Jee and De Run, 2018:225). To continue to the amount of information that could doing this effectively, HEIs must have an potentially be either relevant or superfluous. understanding of what potential students Therefore, it is important that the correct base their decisions on and what factors information is passed on to the relevant, and sources of information influence them trusted sources, which will, in turn, pass it most. This will enable them to define their on to the potential students. In the case of marketing strategies more competitively, Grade 12 learners, who have to make career with greater segmentation orientated towards decisions, various types of personal sources the profile of each potential student, in might be consulted. These can include friends, their aim to attract the right students and family, career-counsellors, teachers, reference differentiate themselves from other institutes groups and opinion leaders. The higher (Amaro, Marques and Alves, 2019:213). One education sector also increasingly makes use

28 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium of advertisements in the media and on the were ranked the most useful and teachers internet, as well as promotional material and came in a close second, while the least other marketing elements such as open days useful was advertisements in newspapers (Brown, Varley and Pal, 2009:320; Kwang, and magazines. Bajsh and Hoyt (2001:3-8) 2019:13). Moogan (2011) and Paladan (2018), identified the main factors considered by in their respective studies, which used first- students in selecting an HEI as quality and year students, showed that the most popular responsiveness of personnel (helpfulness source of information was the prospectus. and accessibility), research activities, social Although the prospectus is not impartial, it is opportunities (sports programmes and frequently considered to be relatively ‘dated’ social life), economic considerations and by higher education institutes’ marketing the size of the institution. Traditionally, departments, which prefer to use technology higher education providers have been using a in promoting their services. The second most variety of marketing methods to disseminate popular source is the website, followed by information to potential students (Kieu, university publications and word of mouth Mogaji, Mwebesa, Sarofin, Soetan and from teachers, friends and family (Moogan, Vululle, 2020:24). Recruiting for higher 2011:577-588; Paladan, 2018:162-163). education has typically been executed by using the traditional variety of print and web In a South African study using first-year media to reach prospective students with a students (Wiese, Jordaan and Van Heerden, particular message or offer. Many of these 2010:122), it was found that the black and methods are still used at a large percentage white ethnic groups differ in their preferred of institutions, and over the past 40 years, information sources. Black students’ first their tactics have deviated little (Anctil, 2008; source of information was online sources Taecharungroj, 2017:112). such as social media and websites followed by marketing publications from the institutes, While higher education recruiting still uses attending open days and finally word of mouth print media, the use of the Web has also from friends, teachers or parents. Although become commonplace as an avenue to recruit white students’ first sources of information students (McDonald, 2008; Taecharungroj, were the same as that of the black students, 2017:113; Kieu et al., 2020:24). Technological it differed in the order in which they ranked sources include school websites, individual them. White students preferred open days websites for each college, emails sent to followed by online sources, word of mouth students, banner ads, and video content and finally, university publications. For both (McDonald, 2008; Taecharungroj, 2017:113; black and white students, the usefulness Kieu et al., 2020:24). Technology such as of word of mouth marketing ranked the the internet and social media platforms may same. The potential student’s relationships provide HEIs with a more effective strategy with friends, family and teachers have been for their recruitment efforts, especially given identified as important because these are the limited financial resources of many higher the people whom they turn to for a more education providers (Mahajan, 2017:9). The trusted source of information compared to growing popularity of social media sites, the information provided by the institution such as Facebook and Twitter, among young (Washburn, 2002; Holtzhausen, 2006:220; people have contributed to a growing interest Soetan, 2018:39). in their use by HEIs (Mahajan, 2017:9). In his study, Jain (2014:38) ranked the There is, however, a lack of research studies usefulness of information sources used when that have been conducted on this matter in selecting an HEI. University publications a South African context, particularly studies

Olivier • The influence of information sources on learner’s higher education destination 29 using Grade 12 learners. The majority of a minimum of R8 000 per annum. Finally, the the literature available on this subject comes learners to be interviewed were selected using from the United States of America (USA) and convenience sampling. They were asked to the United Kingdom (UK) or involves first- participate as they were in Grade 12, on the year students who have already made their verge of leaving school. The sample size used choice of HEI (Brown, Varley and Pal, 2009; in this study was based on similar studies Holtzhausen, 2006; Kwang, 2019; Soetan, done (Constantinides and Zinck, 2011:11; 2018; Washburn, 2002; Wiese, Jordaan and Reddy, 2014). Over 500 questionnaires were Van Heerden, 2010). Therefore, this study handed out to qualifying learners, with created an opportunity to gather information the final realised sample being 400 usable from South African Grade 12 learners who questionnaires. The respondents provided a are still in the process of selecting an HEI. reasonably representative profile of all South African learners. Replies were obtained from 3. METHODOLOGY all races, genders and recognised South For this study it was decided to use a African language groupings. The gender quantitative research approach – specifically breakdown of this study is aligned with the a descriptive research approach. This method gender breakdown in Gauteng schools, with was selected as it is the most effective way to the female ratio being 55.1% to the male determine the influence of reference groups ratio of 44.9% while the gender breakdown and information sources when selecting compromised of 53.5% female and 46.5% an HEI. male participants (SA. Department of basic education, 2014:22). 3.1 Sampling 3.2 Data collection The population of interest for this study was all Grade 12 learners in South Africa. For the The data collection method used was a self- sake of feasibility,, it was decided to focus administered questionnaire. The researcher specifically on individual Grade 12 learners and trained fieldworkers were stationed in the Tshwane Metropolitan, as a unit of outside of the selected schools from where analysis. The Tshwane Metropolitan was they were able to approach Grade 12 learners, selected due to it being the largest metropolitan inviting them to participate. Once the municipality in South Africa with a diverse learners completed the questionnaires, it was makeup of people who occupy the region collected for editing and analysis. This was (Statistics South Africa, 2015). A list of all done with permission from both the Gauteng the schools in the Tshwane Metropolitan was Department of Education as well as all the obtained, from which a number of schools schools involved. All participants were also were selected based on a combination of over the legal age of 18. quota and convenience sampling. Quota After the necessary permission and ethical sampling is where the researcher uses non- clearance were obtained, the piloting of the random sampling methods to gather data questionnaire was conducted. The initial from the stratum until the required quota is questionnaire was piloted on first-year met whereas convenience sampling involves students at a local higher education provider, gaining access to the most easily accessible with permission from their lecturer as well subjects (Aaker, Kumar, Leone and Day, as the institute. All the questionnaires were 2013:316-317; Grey, 2020:232). By means of completed, and two errors were identified. quota sampling, eight schools were selected. The first was a spelling mistake, and the The criteria for selection were based on second involved numbers missing from one school fees – all schools selected had to charge of the scaling questions. These errors were

30 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium fixed, and the questionnaire was tested once sources of information. The null and again. All the questionnaires were completed alternative hypothesis are stated below: with no errors or concerns raised. After Ho1: There is no significant difference in testing the questionnaire on a small scale, the level of influence between different the reliability could be scientifically tested by information sources. using the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. Ha1: There is a significant difference in the level of influence between different 3.3 Measures information sources. A multi-dimensional measure based on the To begin investigating if there was a scales used by De Jager and Du Plooy (2010) difference in the level of influence, the and Reddy (2014) was used to determine the descriptive data were analysed. The means extent to which respondents were influenced from question one were analysed using the by each of the four information source scale from the questionnaire (1 = not at groupings. This measure included 28 Likert all influential – 5 = extremely influential) scale statements of which the scale points were and are visually represented in Figure 1.1. labelled as follows: 1 = not at all influential, The figure illustrates that a large portion of 2 = slightly influential, 3 = moderately the learners found the various groupings influential, 4 = very influential, 5 = extremely (reference groups, traditional sources, etc.) influential. Table 1.1 indicates which item to be moderately influential. The initial measures each source of information. It analysis shows that reference groups have also identifies the Cronbach alpha reliability the highest level of influence with a mean of coefficient of each of the four groupings on 3.30 followed by activities arranged by the the scale. The Cronbach alpha is one of the HEI with a mean of 3.22, traditional sources most important and pervasive statistics used with a mean of 2.86 and finally technological to test reliability (Taber, 2017:1273) sources with a mean of 2.61. The results of the Since this measure of influence was developed descriptive tests revealed a need for further by combining the scales used by De Jager testing to determine if there were significant differences in the level of influence. and Du Plooy (2010) and Reddy (2014), the Cronbach alpha values obtained in this study Due to the data collected being ordinal in could not be compared to previous research. nature; a non-parametric Friedman test was used to investigate significance. The 4. RESULTS Friedman test is an analysis of variance by ranks, i.e., observed rank scores or 4.1 Results of hypothesis testing rank scores obtained by ordering ordinal The hypothesis focused on differences in or numerical outcomes (Eisinga, Heskes, the degree of influence between the various Pelzer and Grotenhuis, 2017:2). This test

Table 1.1 Items which measure sources of information Grouping Items Cronbach’s Alpha Reference groups (friends, family) 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 0.65 Traditional sources (prospectus, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11, 1,12 0.80 newspaper adverts) Activities arranged by the HEI (open 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 1.16 0.79 days, school visits) Technological sources (social media sites, 1.17, 1.18, 1.19, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 0.86 internet-based sources) 1.23, 1.24, 1.25, 1.26, 1.27, 1.28

Olivier • The influence of information sources on learner’s higher education destination 31 5 level of influence of traditional sources and reference groups (z=-8.66, p<0.5, r=0.43), 4 technological sources and reference groups 3.30 3.22 (z=-11.64,p<0.5, r=.58), activities arranged 3 2.86 2.61 by the HEI and traditional sources (z=-6,80,

2 p<0.5, r=0,34), technological sources and LEVEL OF AGREEMENT traditional sources (z=-5.651, p<0.5, r=0.28) 1 and technological sources and activities Reference groupsTraditional Activities Technological sources arranged by HEI sources arranged by the HEI (z=-10.36, p<0.5, INFORMATION SOURCES r=0.51). The test did not reveal a significant Figure 1.1 Level of influence of the difference in the influence of the activities various sources arranged by the HEI and reference groups (z=-0.22, p<0.5, r=0.011). was done to establish whether there were The results show significant differences any statistically significant differences in between all combinations, except between the data that was collected. The results the reference group and HEI activities. indicated that there were indeed statistically The null hypothesis is thus rejected in significant differences amongst the various favour of the alternative Ha1. Therefore, information sources, and thus further testing there is a significant difference between was required. A Wilcoxon signed-rank test the levels of influence between the various (with a Bonferroni adjustment of 0,5 /6=0,08) information sources. was done. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is These results suggest that HEI marketers a non-parametric statistical hypothesis used should focus more on traditional sources of to compare two related samples, matched information as well as the use of technology samples, or repeated measurements on to disseminate information. a single sample to assess whether their population mean ranks differ (Durango 5. DISCUSSION and Refugio, 2018:2). Wilcoxon tests are This study investigated the influence important for two-group comparisons and that various information sources have on paired comparisons (Jiang, He, Lee, Rosner a learner’s choice of which HEI. To the and Yan, 2017:1). This test was done to control researcher’s knowledge, it is the first South any possible type 1 errors. Table 1.2 depicts African study that uses Grade 12 learners the results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. when investigating how influential each The test revealed significant differences in the source is.

Table 1.2 Results of Wilcoxon signed rank test Traditional Activities Tech sources Activities Tech sources Tech sources sources – arranged – Reference arranged – Traditional – Activities Reference by HEI – groups by HEI – sources arranged groups Reference Traditional by HEI groups sources Z -8.667b -.223b -11.646b -6.806c -5.653b -10.316b Asymp. Sig. 0.000 0.823 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 (2-tailed) Accept or Reject Accept Reject Reject Reject Reject reject null

32 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium 5.1 Summary of findings 5.3 Limitations The primary objective of this study is to This research study was conducted only identify the most important information on Grade 12 learners attending schools sources that are available to Grade 12 learners registered with the Department of Education. who are deciding upon which HEI to study Learners who are home-schooled or doing at. The higher education environment, Grade 12 part-time could have been included especially in South Africa, is characterised in the study for comparison purposes. The by fierce competition from both public as sample used for this study was learners from well as private education providers. Higher high schools in the Tshwane Metropolitan. education providers are seeking to recruit However, there are more high schools the best Grade 12 learners, and as such they across South Africa, and the study could should be ensuring that potential students have included high school learners from are receiving the correct information from other provinces. In addition, it could have sources that are the most influential to them. investigated how the different information The results of this study revealed that reference sources differ across the various provinces. groups are still the most influential sources This study was conducted on only South of information. This is in line with previous African high school learners; it could have studies which also found that reference included non-South African learners for the groups played a key role in a student’s choice purpose of comparison. A further limitation of HEI (Filter, 2010:145; Tran, 2010:58; Rika, was that the study only included public Roze and Sennikova, 2016). An interesting schools. result was that the use of technological-based sources was the second most influential 5.4 Recommendations for source of information. This could be due to future research the fact that learners are spending more and As this study’s focus was on urban schools, more time using technology such as social further research could include private and media platforms or the internet. Reddy (2014) possibly rural schools. More research should found that social media sites are increasingly be conducted on the various reference groups being used to search for information about that learners find influential. This may the HEIs and the various courses that they help HEIs to understand which marketing offer which also points to the increasing use activities will be the most successful for a of technology for higher education selection. particular reference group. Further research is also needed on the use of the internet 5.2 Managerial implications in a learner’s decision-making process. HEIs should be aware of the shift towards Taking the above into consideration, HEIs learners being influenced by technological should investigate how they could capitalise sources such as Facebook or even a simple on learners spending so much time on Google search. HEI marketers should also aim social media and how they can effectively messages at the reference groups that learners communicate with their target market gather information from. By giving these through the use of social media platforms. reference groups accurate information, they will, in turn, pass on accurate information to learners.

Olivier • The influence of information sources on learner’s higher education destination 33 REFERENCES De Jager, J.W. and Du Plooy, T.A. (2010). Aaker, D., Kumar, V., Leone, R. and Information sources used to select a Day, G. (2013). Marketing Research. higher education institution: Evidence Singapore: Wiley. from South Africa. Business Education Amaro, D., Marques, A. and Alves, H. and Accreditation, 2(1): 61-75. (2019). The impact of choice factors on Dennis, C., Papagiannidis, S., Alamanos, international students’ loyalty mediated E. and Bourlakis, M. (2016). The role by satisfaction. International Review on of brand attachment strength in higher Public and Nonprofit Marketing, 16(2‑4): education. Journal of Business Research, 211-233. doi: 10.1007/s12208-019- 69(8): 3049-3057. doi: 10.1016/j. 00228-0 jbusres.2016.01.020 Anctil, E.J. (2008). Selling higher education: Du Plessis, P.J. and Rousseau, G.G. Marketing and advertising America’s (2005). Buyer behaviour: A multi- colleges and universities. ASHE Higher cultural approach. Cape Town: Oxford Education Report, 34(2). doi: 10.1002/ University Press. aehe.v34:2 Durango, A. and Refugio, C. (2018). An Bajsh, A. and Hoyt, J.E. (2001). The effect empirical study on Wilcoxon signed rank of academic scholarship on college test. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13996.51840 attendance. College and University, Eisinga, R., Heskes, T., Pelzer, B. and Te 76(4): 3-8. Grotenhuis, M. (2017). Exact p-values Briggs, S. and Wilson, A. (2007). Which for pairwise comparison of Friedman university? A study of the influence of rank sums, with application to comparing cost and information factors on Scottish classifiers. BMC Bioinformatics, 18(1): undergraduate choice. Journal of Higher 68. doi: 10.1186/s12859-017-1486-2 Education Policy and Management, 29(1): PMid:28122501 PMCid:PMC5267387 57-72. doi: 10.1080/13600800601175789 Filter, S. (2010). The choice-of-college Brown, C., Varley, P. and Pal, J. (2009). decision of academically talented University course selection and services students (D.Ed. dissertation, The George marketing. Marketing Intelligence Washington University). Available from & Planning, 27(3): 31-325. doi: the ProQuest Dissertations and Theses 10.1108/02634500910955227 database: (UMI No.3397600). Bryde, D.J. and Leighton, D. (2007). Gray, D. (2020). Doing research in Improving HEI productivity and the business world. 2nd edition. performance through project London: Sage. management: Implications from a Hemsley-Brown, J.V. and Oplatka, I. (2006). benchmarking case study. Educational Universities in a competitive global Management Administration marketplace: A systematic review of and Leadership, 37(5): 705-721. the literature on higher education doi: 10.1177/1741143209339649 marketing. International Journal of Public Constantinides, E. and Zinck, M. Sector Management, 19(4): 316-338. (2011). Potential of the social media doi: 10.1108/09513550610669176 as instruments of higher education Holtzhausen, T. (2006). A consumer marketing: A segmentation study. Journal profile of first year marketing students of Marketing for Higher Education, 21(1): at the Pretoria campus of the Tshwane 2-24. doi: 10.1080/08841241.2011.573593 University of Technology (MCom dissertation). Pretoria: UNISA.

34 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium Jain, V. (2014). The impact of choice factors Mainardes, E.W., Alves, H., Raposo, M. and affecting students’ selection of higher Domingues, M.J. (2012). Marketing education institutions: An empirical in higher education: A comparative study. Commonwealth Journal of analysis of the Brazil and Portuguese Commerce & Management Research, cases. International Review on Public 1(1): 30-41. and Nonprofit Marketing, 9(1): 43-63. Jiang, Y., He, X., Lee, M.L.T., Rosner, B. and doi: 10.1007/s12208-011-0077-6 Yan, J. (2017). Wilcoxon rank-based tests McDonald, F. (2008). The five fundamental for clustered data with R package clusrank. steps for developing powerful social arXiv preprint arXiv:1706.03409. networking strategy for colleges and Kieu, T., Mogaji, E., Mwebesa, C., Sarofin, universities. University Buisness: S., Soetan, T. and Vululle, S. (2020). Solutions for Higher Education Marketing higher education in Africa: Management 12(5). Available from: Moving from research to practice. http://dev-new.universitybusiness. In E. Mogaji, F. Maringe and R.E. com:8080/article/five-steps-developing- Hinson (eds.). Strategic Marketing powerful-social-networking-strategy of Higher Education in Africa. [Accessed 6 November 2020]. Abingdon Oxfordshire: Routledge. Moogan, Y.J. (2011). Can a HEI’s marketing doi: 10.4324/9780429320934 strategy improve the student-institution Klasik, D. (2012). The college application match? International Journal of gauntlet: A systematic analysis of the Educational Management, 25(6): 570‑589. steps to four-year college enrolment. doi: 10.1108/09513541111159068 Research in Higher Education, Olivier, D. (2017). The influence of reference 53(5): 506‑549. doi: 10.1007/s11162-011- groups and information sources on 9242-3 prospective students’ choices of higher Kwang, M. (2019). The influence of education institutions (unpublished marketing mix, on the student’s choice dissertation). Pretoria: Tshwane of university – Two state universities in University of Technology. Sweden (MBA thesis). Gävle: University Omboi, B.M and Mutali, M.I.J. (2011). of Gävle. Effects of selected marketing Lim, W., Jee, T. and De Run, E. (2018). communication tools on student Strategic brand management for enrolment in private universities in higher education institutions Kenya. European Journal of Business with graduate degree programs: and Management, 3(3): 172-205. Empirical insights from the higher Paladan, N. (2018). Higher education education marketing mix. Journal of institutions embracing digital and Strategic Marketing, 28(3): 225-245. social media marketing: A case of top doi: 10.1080/0965254X.2018.1496131 25 universities in Asia and Africa. Mahajan, P. (2017). Appealing diversified Marketing and Branding Research, 5(3): enrollments: A holistic marketing and 159-167. doi: 10.33844/mbr.2018.60254 promotion mix for technical education. Reddy, P.V. (2014). The influence of social International Journal of Management media on international students’ choice and Humanities, 4(1): 6-15. of university and course (Masters by research thesis). Queensland: Queensland University of Technology.

Olivier • The influence of information sources on learner’s higher education destination 35 Rika, N., Roze, J. and Sennikova, I. (2016). Tran, H. (2012). Factors that influence Factors affecting the choice of higher college choice and pathways among education institutions by prospective Vietnamese American high school students in Latvia. CBU International students (Ed.D dissertation, Caltech). Conference Proceedings, 4: 422-430. Available from ProQuest database: doi: 10.12955/cbup.v4.790 (UMI no:3528260). Soetan, T. (2018). Trends in higher education Washburn, S.G. (2002). Factors influencing financing: Evidence of dwindling college choice for matriculates and non- government supports and a case for the matriculants into a college of agriculture. aggressive marketing of higher education (Unpublished MCom dissertation). programs using the 9 P’s of marketing. Missouri: University of Missouri. Journal of Marketing Management, Wiese, M. (2008). A higher education 6(2): 34-43. marketing perspective on choice factors South Africa. Department of Basic and information sources considered Education. (2014). Education by South African first year students. Statistics in South Africa. Pretoria: (Unpublished PhD thesis). Pretoria: Government printer. University of Pretoria. South African Market Insights. (2019). South Wiese, M., Jordaan, Y. and Van Heerden, Africa’s education statistics. Available C.H. (2010). Differences in the from: https://www.southafricanmi.com/ usefulness of communication channels, education-statistics.html [Accessed as experienced by gender and ethnic 18 January 2019]. groups during their university selection Taber, K. (2017). The use of Cronbach’s alpha process. Communicatio: South African when developing and reporting research Journal for Communication Theory instruments in science education. and Research, 36(1): 112-129. doi: Research in Science Education, 48(6): 10.1080/02500160903525064w 1273-1296. doi: 10.1007/s11165-016- 9602-2 Taecharungroj, V. (2017). Higher education social media marketing: 12 content types universities post on Facebook. International Journal of Management in Education, 11(2): 111. doi: 10.1504/ IJMIE.2017.083350

36 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium From Disempowerment to Self-belief A Center of Hope for Vulnerable Youth in Cape Town

AUTHOR DOI: 10.36826/2706-669X/ex/04 Sharon Johnson Previously published in Narrating Practice with Children and Adolescents edited by AFFILIATION M. Diaz and B. Shephard, Columbia University Press, 2019. Available at: http://cup.columbia. Cornerstone Institute, South Africa edu/book/narrating-practice-with-children-and- adolescents/9780231184793

In 2012, the courts sent two twelve-year-old expression of feelings, as well as strengthening boys, Bulelani and Liam, for protection to community social connections (International the last remaining education-managed youth Institute for Restorative Practices, 2016). The care and education center (YCEC) in Cape systemic use of informal restorative practices Town, South Africa (SA). This chapter shares creates a positive milieu, an environment their stories of five years at the residential described by Wachtel (2013) as fostering male state institution, where they both were responsibility, awareness, and empathy, rather enabled to heal dramatically from abusive than relying on punishment and sanctions. and neglectful backgrounds. At the YCEC Initially focused on delinquents and at-risk the boys developed self-belief – a trust in adolescents, this practice area has broadened their own abilities – thanks to restorative and developed scholarship, research, graduate care practices. One such practice is the “circle education programs, and professional of courage” (Brendtro, Brokenleg, and Van development courses for families and Brokern 2002), which provides a behavioural communities. Restorative justice, providing support pathway toward belonging, mastery, tertiary prevention after a harm has occurred, independence, and generosity. These is related to this emerging modality. qualities were fostered by the boys’ faith and The transition from adolescence to adulthood effort, culminating in positive outcomes is a key period for the nurturing of a sense (Pickhardt, 2013). of self and an identity (Erikson, 1980), and Restorative care practices are increasingly both Bulelani and Liam were at this sensitive recognised for their effectiveness in building developmental stage when they were helped strength and self-confidence in children and to overcome violent and addictive elements adolescents, encouraging them to become in their lives. Growing up in a rural village, motivated and to develop life goals. As an Bulelani described his new self-belief as emerging social science, these practices “wak[ing] up my mind.” Liam, who was focus on restoring and building relationships from the violent gangland of the Cape Flats, between individuals by encouraging the also found a belief in himself: “God helps me

Johnson • From Disempowerment to Self-belief 37 and you must also help yourself.” Along their 2010; Johnson and Naidoo, 2013 and 2017b) paths, both boys encountered difficulties, but and doctoral degrees (Johnson, 2013 and they experienced the benefits of care through 2015; Johnson and Naidoo, 2017a) measured personal connection, encouragement, love, the efficacy of interventions to prevent and respect not only from staff and teachers teacher stress and burnout. Educators were but also from their peers. This care helped struggling with violent, disruptive learner them overcome the distrust they had in behaviours and children suffering from HIV/ their own abilities, which was fostered by AIDS. During three years of participatory the disempowering core beliefs of their action research (PAR) with YCEC teachers traumatic childhoods. They learned to have and staff, a dated punitive discipline approach faith in themselves, to remain committed, was replaced by contextually appropriate to persevere and try hard, and to focus on restorative care practices (see figure 1.1; their futures. Johnson, 2019). Analysis of the narratives of adolescents is I was both a consultant and participant a process that not only reveals the past but researcher at the center. For the seventy to also considers the future (Cohler, 1982). eighty boys (aged eleven to eighteen) housed In examining adolescents’ life stories, in hostels there, I was a mother figure; for professionals are challenged in conducting the forty teachers and staff (aged twenty to social research to go beyond the typical seventy), I was a peer. The YCEC, formerly structure of a research paper: the problem classified as “colored,” is now multiracial: a statement, literature review, method, results, melting pot of cultures, traditions, religions, and discussion (Witkin, 2000). They are races, and ages. Conscious of power dy­ encouraged to explore social and cultural namics, I tried to model humility and contexts to describe the implications of compassion by recognizing the strengths meaningful life experiences and to present and abilities of others, while being acutely coherent outputs. And so I integrated aware that my whiteness reflected an abusive the powerful experience of working with racist history. vulnerable youths, while collaboratively I came to know Bulelani and Liam as they making sense of narratives within their turned eighteen and were about to leave specific contexts. In this collaborative their institutional home. Bulelani was a rural process of meaning-making, I was caught Xhosa from the Eastern Cape, a handsome, up in a hermeneutic circle.1 I listened to charismatic, well-built youth. Liam seemed Bulelani and Liam interpret their lives, more vulnerable; tall and slender, he was trying to make sense of their stories as a of Dutch and African descent, bilingual in researcher, transforming them into a study received, applied, and interpreted by you, the reader. At times I added the voices of others to provide new perspectives; the exploration of the transformation of the boys’ disempowering core beliefs, for example, was triangulated by interpretations of YCEC ’s educational psychologist.

MY RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

My research in high-risk schools in the Cape Figure 1.1 Prison-like security at a Cape Flats School, Flats as I pursued my master’s (Johnson, Cape Town

38 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium English and Afrikaans, and came from the 2017): their narratives helped contextualise urban Cape Flats. Narrative perspectives give their experiences and gave shared meaning an intimate view of the participant’s world, to the care practices that prepared them and perhaps the ideal setting for Bulelani’s for independent living after adverse child­ interview would have been sitting around hood experiences. a fire under the African stars, in the heart of a rural village. For Liam, it would have THE CONTEXT OF CHILDHOOD IN been the vibrant sprawling suburb of the SOUTH AFRICA District Six urban setting, where colored South Africa is burdened by increasing communities used to live in close proximity violence and abuse against children (Optimus to the city center before being removed by Study SA Technical, 2016). Every year harsh separate development legislation. This between 18,000 and 20,000 child sexual land is still largely unoccupied, a barren abuse cases are reported to the police; testament to inhumane past policies. Now, statistics from 2013/2014 reveal 18,524 cases: in post-apartheid SA, both had found a safe that is 51 incidents reported daily. One in space at YCEC. three children have had some experience of After obtaining multilevel ethical approvals, sexual abuse, per sis tent over the lifetime I proceeded to conduct individual interviews and present in their daily lives. Boys and girls with both young men. Each in turn settled are equally vulnerable to sexual abuse. By the confidently next to me on the lumpy, time they are fifteen years old, many children bizarrely bright orange and red couch in the have suffered sexual, physical, or emotional therapeutic center’s quiet counseling room. It abuse; neglect; and high levels of family and was a darkened intimate space; there was only community violence. one small window covered by a flimsy curtain The communities surrounding the YCEC flapping in the breeze. Both were willingly have suffered a long history of colonial engaged and reflective throughout, speaking and racist exploitation that culminated in fluently with little interruption. apartheid, a pernicious political system that The interview had three focus areas: The first entrenched white minority privilege. Sixty was: “What brought you to the center?”; The percent of all gang activity in the country second was: “ What care have you received?”; occurs in Cape Flats, with its community and the third was: “What are your future members turning to crime and drug goals?” Within these topics various questions trafficking in the face of high unemployment were asked to encourage further insights or and poverty (Plato 2012). An inhumane past clarify points. They first solemnly described and violent present provide a challenging their difficult experiences before coming to context for children, who continue to suffer YCEC, philosophically acknowledging their from the effects of intergenerational trauma remarkable achievements at the center and and suffering. reflecting on their mentors and surrogate In the 1970s, vulnerable children became parents, as well as difficult relationships and heroes by marching for their human rights, struggles. Finally, they contemplated life demanding an equitable education. The ahead as independent young adults. I met June 16, 1976, uprising in Soweto – when them several times, checking and rechecking students protested against the enforcement their narratives, trying to ensure that the of the Bantu Education Act, which mandated text accurately reflected their life stories. learning Afrikaans in schools – changed the Knowledge is greatly shaped by changing political landscape. The uprising’s terrible sociocultural and historical factors (Schiff, toll was 69 children killed and 186 wounded,

Johnson • From Disempowerment to Self-belief 39 marking a turning point in apartheid re­ INTERNATIONAL RIGHTS OF sistance. This event is commemorated THE CHILD each year as a public holiday, Youth Day. Since 1994, all SA laws addressing child Although SA has experienced more than care have been governed by local and two decades of democracy, racial tensions international conventions. Along with 196 still run high: the black majority still suffers other countries, but excluding the United from historical injustices, with children being States, SA ratified an international human especially vulnerable. rights treaty, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), that sets Child care for abused and neglected children out the economic, social, health, civil, pol iti is currently provided in community foster cal, and cultural rights of children (United homes, child and youth care centers, and Nations Children’s Fund, 1989). Providing temporary shelters; these children are global ethical guidelines for child care, also incarcerated in secure care centers this convention considers developmental alongside juvenile offenders (Bosman-Sadie issues, but has been criticised for not and Corrie, 2010). The phased-out YCEC including children’s voices: it gives adults the model of care and education had its origins responsibility to make child care decisions in colonial industrial schools and reform (McNamee 2016). schools for juvenile offenders. As late as the The South African Children’s Act (38 of mid-1990s, YCEC staff described discipline 2005) consolidates and reforms the law on at the center as coming from the “dark ages” matters related to children. Although a Bill and being enforced by corporal punishment, of Rights is enshrined in SA’s Constitution, with the children housed in detention cells its implementation at the community level and lockup facilities. The transformation is often inadequate. For example, children in SA have the right to be raised by their of the care system began post-apartheid own parents in their own culture and with around 1996, following the release from a relationship to both parents, but this right prison of more than one thousand children; was not available to Bulelani and Liam. In many were transferred to unprepared places addition, although the law states that no child with inadequate facilities, exacerbating should be deprived of liberty unlawfully or weaknesses in the residential care system arbitrarily, current lockup facilities in SA for and creating a national crisis. The system behaviourally challenged vulnerable children continued to improve, with the Children’s may be in violation. In gradually moving Act of 2005 being implemented in 2010, from punishment to care since democracy in when provision was made for alternate 1994, a new ethos of care began to emerge at forms of care. Youth care facilities were YCEC, which can suggest a way forward for transferred from the Western Cape Education youth care throughout the country. Department (WCED) to the Department of ETHOS OF CARE Social Development (DSD) (Johnson, in press The “circle of courage” ethos of care originated b), and the ser vice delivery model changed to from research with Native Americans conform more to international best practices (Brendtro et al., 2002). This theoretical circle and regulations. As YCEC’s educational has four quadrants – belonging, mastery, psychologist explained, “In 2009 staff were independence, and generosity – which are trained in the ‘circle of courage’ to shift the part of a pathway to healing. These universal mind, but I realised that we also needed to values are believed to develop resilience and shift the heart.” self-worth. The YCEC manages violent and

40 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium disruptive behaviour through a focus on city. Gangsterism soon took root in his life. children as symptom carriers of family and He shared: community intergenerational trauma. A I grew up in a gangster family. I traveled YCEC educational psychologist explained: from place to place as my parents did Our youth need to feel close to someone. not care about me. They let me sleep on They need to feel proud of something, the streets. My mother, Samantha, was like school achievement, athletic skill, two months pregnant with me [when] my peer acceptance, and good behaviour. father died – he was a “26” gang leader, They need adults to be present, shot in the back. … When I was about two attentive, attuned, and responsive in years old, I was in an accident. That guy their interactions. In short, youth at the did pay the money out [but] my mother extreme end of behavioural breakdown didn’t tell me about it. I found out … six have survived social ills and need a years afterwards how she was using my place to recover. Young people who find money for drugs – almost like a merchant themselves at the end of suspension and – to make her own money. When I was expulsion, despite intensive proactive three years old I stayed with my grand and preventative interventions, need mother, Charmaine. … She was going out specialised care to enable them to access with Matthew, a Rasta guy, and so I had a school curriculum responding to their to stay with him [with] my sister. But he needs. We propose a behaviour support didn’t treat us like he treated his own child. pathway of multiple practices. He was … a merchant selling marijuana. He forced us out at 12 at night, walking This pathway to healing includes elements 10–20 km to buy marijuana because he such as narrative meaning-making, outdoor wanted to sell it. We didn’t want to go activities, substance abuse education, animal because it was too dangerous – we could therapy, and goal setting. Within the PAR get killed. He hit us every time. … So I ran self-care research program, teachers were away. … I went to stay with Sandra, [who assisted to normalise the boys’ behaviours. was] like a grand mother to me. … One They came to understand that these youths day my mother came to me and tell me are survivors, which means that the boys, I must stay with Charmaine. And I said: in fact, were adapting to their traumatic contexts with appropriate responses: anxiety, “Why must I stay with them? They treat hyperalertness, emotional volatility, and me like a dog and never bring me food. If physical agitation (Courtois, 2009). Both you give me money they take it off to buy Bulelani and Liam benefited from this drugs, to smuggle it to other people. Look pathway of support, which helped them at me. I am thin. I have to go from door- recover from their traumatic childhoods. to-door to ask for food. Sometimes people say they don’t have and I accept it. BULELANI AND LIAM: While Liam’s life of neglect and poverty reveals EXPERIENCES OF ABUSE the breakdown of societal structures that AND NEGLECT should protect its most vulnerable members, Liam survived on the streets among drug Bulelani’s village life was initially peaceful. He merchants in a community that grew, as had a supportive mother, but was separated a result of apartheid-forced removals, on from her when she moved with his stepfather barren, sandy tracts of land far from the to Cape Town to seek employment. His grand

Johnson • From Disempowerment to Self-belief 41 mother then cared for him and his younger They were exposed to domestic and siblings. He had to travel long distances to community violence, crime, substance abuse, school, and this created the circumstances unemployment, little to no family support, that made it possible for tragedy to strike: poverty, homelessness, and illiteracy. My mother and stepfather looked after us until I was six, when they left to work in GROWING FAITH: “I BELIEVE Cape Town to support us better. … I went I CAN” to a Xhosa/English school with two friends A belief in one’s capacity is the foundation of of seven and nine. Transport fetched us self-confidence (Pickhardt, 2013). In African and brought us home. One day a guy psychology, faith in oneself is not only called us. I thought it was our transport. personal but also communal – ubuntu – and They had a gun and wanted to shoot us. spiritual, drawing on a relationship with God. They kidnapped and raped two of us and Ubuntu, an African Nguni word, focuses on afterwards we walked home. Every time the relational and inclusive nature of “being” they saw us they would threaten to shoot (Nwoye, 2006): “I am because we are” (Mbiti, us, threatening us all the time: “ Don’t 1970). It calls on us to mirror our humanity tell.” I felt scared and wee’d [sic] in my for each other and to base our individual bed, even during the day. I tried to protect self-belief on a sense of ubuntu. Although myself and fought with anyone who was originally cared for by neighbors, Liam a big person; I had anger. The … threats found it hard to develop faith, being largely happened for a year. My grand mother alienated from his family and surrounded by could see I was sick and asked why I was a violent community. Bulelani shared in the communal ubuntu spirit in the village, but getting home so late, but I said I was his experiences of sexual abuse and violence cleaning the class. She got diabetes, and shattered his faith in the community and became blind and after that my aunty in himself. looked after me in East London, while my brother and sister moved to Cape Town to Both Liam and Bulelani bonded with peers be with my mother. My aunty looked for and were cared for by teachers and staff a school for me. I was eight. The teacher in relational ubuntu at YCEC. Bulelani saw that I was not working, would do my explained, “ Here they don’t toyi-toyi [a own drawings and I liked to fight a lot – I traditional dance for group cohesion], but had quick anger. they don’t put you down. Also, Mr. M supports me. … I needed gym shoes – he bought them Bulelani’s aunt was a social worker and for me and supported me. I didn’t ask; he just sought help for him. After staying in various saw.” One-on-one relationships with adults institutions, including a lockup facility where allowed the boys to develop personal and his anger and violent behaviour increased, he community faith, supported by relational was sent to the YCEC. There he met Liam, bonds with peers. Ties with family members and together they found an environment were strengthened at gatherings like sports where they could begin to heal from abuse and family days, which kept boys connected and neglect by developing faith in themselves. to their community structures. Ultimately, Bulelani and Liam’s narratives reveal the personal and communal faith strengthened impact of abuse and neglect at interpersonal, their faith in God. Effort followed faith, as familial, and societal levels in a country torn the boys were encouraged to find interests apart by colonial and apartheid policies. and hobbies.

42 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium EFFORT: “I WILL KEEP TRYING” in. Sometimes they go into class, but they Adolescents need encouragement to keep don’t want to write and Sir says, “Do your trying, especially when their efforts do not work; t here is a benefit for you outside.” yield immediate results (Pickhardt, 2013). Like Nelson Mandela said, “Education is Encouragement, whose importance was first the most powerful weapon which you can recognised by the humanist psychologist use to change the world.” Alfred Adler (1956), is an act of interpersonal communication, a character strength, and Liam also felt love and care: The Sirs are like fathers and teachers like an ecological group norm (Wong, 2015). At YCEC, encouragement is reinforced both mothers. My mother has five children and formally and informally. It is integrated into lives with a Black man. He doesn’t know a variety of group activities, highlighted as a about me. She has gone to jail for trying to character strength in personal recognition sell drugs overseas. Sometimes the female and academic efforts, and is an integral part of teachers make you feel like they are your interpersonal communication between boys mother – it makes me tearful, but I don’t and adults. While a few staff who continued want to talk about it. They show they love with negative attitudes had an impact, you. … I never had a father before. If Bulelani and Liam were mostly encouraged people come into your life they will never to confront and overcome disempowering be a father, but Mr. B. [his counselor] is beliefs that caused them to lack confidence in like a real father. This is home. themselves. For example, Liam was told by a misguided teacher that he would amount to However, it took time for Liam to build these nothing; he would end up pushing a trolley relationships: in the garbage dump. He challenged this When I came to this school, I did not listen statement, questioning this belief and praying to the Sirs. They talked to me, talked to to God that this would not be the case. me: “You must change your life.” One At the center, Liam experienced the love and Sir cursed me: “You will become nothing, care of a family for the first time. Enjoying you will push a trolley and scratch in the simple pleasures gave him a feeling of bins, you will never succeed, you will never richness. He felt like he belonged, as he achieve these goals.” It hurt my heart. connected with the teachers, his counselor, Why do you say these things to me? You and peers. He also developed an interest in talk about my background; you say I will cooking. With support, adversity made him never succeed in life. Most of the people stronger. He gained a generosity of spirit, make me believe that you can become reaching out to others, and resisting drugs. He explained: something in life. Get on your knees and What I can tell you about this place is that pray that you will become something. it’s wonderful. It’s almost like, how can I Sometimes the people encourage me to say, you grow up in a rich family. You get do things in a positive way; then I do it. every thing you want. If you want to go to Others say: “No, don’t do it, don’t give the beach, they take you to the beach, and [your] full cooperation.” Some boys who on weekends you have a braai [barbeque], smoke marijuana don’t give their full and [on] Sunday you have a decent plate cooperation. They run away. [of food]. You go to school here. Sometimes The center also gave Bulelani a sense of worth, the boys don’t want to go into class, but and he felt loved and cared for. He developed the Sirs [teachers] encourage them to go a special bond with the manager, Mr. M., who

Johnson • From Disempowerment to Self-belief 43 offered support during difficult times. They By excelling in sports, Bulelani was able would sit for hours in comfortable chairs to develop a positive identity. Learning in his office, always with a bountiful bowl karate, after focusing on kickboxing, taught of fruit, seemingly limitless cups of fresh him respect: coffee, and a rescue cat curled up in the chair, If I started to fight, I ran to the gym. … giving a sense of safety and peace. Bulelani I punched and punched [the bags] and I developed mastery in sports and karate, and helped myself, with the anger leaving my woodworking gave him independent skills. mind. [Last year] I joined karate … which His new confidence helped him excel and has a lot of rules and respect and I started cope with challenges like controlling his anger to see the difference. … I am proud of outbursts. His generosity of spirit inspired myself. … Karate teaches you to be calm. newcomers as he became a role model: I am an open person and talk to the other While Bulelani benefited from his physical boys and I hear the teachers’ stories. strength and talent, learning important I start to help myself to listen and to qualities like respect, pride, and calmness, work on issues. The stories make me feel Liam found encouragement from the sense of proud of myself, not to feel down. I also family that he developed at the center. In the process, they were both able to develop skills have faith in God, who brought me here to enable them to achieve positive outcomes to the center to be right. First, I was the in the future. stupid boy. I brought myself down. Now I hear boys say if you say something, your OUTCOME: “I WILL AFFIRM tongue is powerful. I would tell myself I am MY APPROACH DEPENDING stupid, but now I believe in myself and can ON RESULTS” work and have a family and a big house. According to Pickhardt (2013), an adoles­ … I speak a lot to Mr. M. – I told him every cent’s ability to cope with disappointment thing; what I want to do. … He is like my and failure depends on how well he or she father. … I must take things in two [both] is able to apply faith and effort. Faith is the hands; other wise I am not right on top foundation for self-confidence; effort in turn [pointing to his head]. A lot of things I have powers self-belief. Outcomes, unlike faith learnt for outside [are] what I have learnt and effort, are not at a person’s command here. They are my family. They took me as and depend on trust (Pickhardt, 2013). At the a child. I did not know them, and they did center, the ability to see the positive outcomes not know me; they took me in, helping me. of negative experiences is a key factor in building self-belief. Liam, for example, Even negative experiences encouraged struggled with overcoming substance abuse Bulelani to try harder: and addiction in order to realise his dream of Not all teachers were positive; [some] put becoming a chef: me down. I went to Mr. M. [He said] you I want to do something with my life. … This need someone to push you down to learn. place is like the future. What you ask them Outside it will be difficult. Be glad when for, they give to you. It was very slow, very you are told you will not come right; it will hard for me to change my life. My friends make me stronger and stronger. … I got would come, and it was like the devil a lot of support; they started to believe in was playing with my mind. I am finished me, although I did not believe in myself. with drugs – tik [methamphetamine] and [It] started to wake up my mind. mandrax [methaqualone] for a year and a

44 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium half. [For] five months I have finished with restorative care model so effective. It takes dagga [marijuana], and two months ago I only one positive role model to turn the life stopped sniffing glue [Steelbon/Genkem]. of a child around (Goleman and Lantieri, The Sirs talk to me and encourage me 2008; Ray, 2007), and the teacher/carer is and say: “ Don’t do that, don’t do that.” well placed to be this change agent (Van der I see boys smoking and I want to join Heijden et al. 2015). Similarly, it takes only them, but something is pulling me back. one restorative care center to turn a youth’s Faith and effort can translate into many life around (Johnson, 2019). This study diff er ent beliefs, actions, and outcomes, suggests that institutional care – based on as demonstrated by Bulelani’s and Liam’s strengthening connections, encouragement, love, and respect along the behavioural responses to their experiences at the support pathway – can indeed transform the center. Both boys developed self-belief disempowering core beliefs of adolescents as they formed a positive identity and such as Bulelani and Liam. discovered their talents. Liam shared his thoughts: “God helps me and you must YCEC’s institutional pathway of behaviour also help yourself. … I don’t want to support relies on restorative care. Staff and become a drug addict. My dream is to be teachers enable this transformation in youths by forming caring attachments. This care a chef on a cruise ship.” Bulelani also had can take many forms. It can be a coffee break dreams: “I am leaving next month … to in the manager’s office when emotionally live with my family. I would love to open volatile boys are invited for a chat, or my own karate dojo gym – I am a yellow responding to a boy’s needs – like providing belt. Karate places are very far [from a pair of shoes – without him having to ask. community facilities]. [My family] told me With the development of self-belief through they will support me.” restorative care, adolescents become active agents in their own social worlds, confidently LEARNING FROM LIAM building on elements of faith, effort, and AND BULELANI positive outcomes and remaining flexible and These narratives give glimpses into the open in the face of unexpected opportunities multiple ways that a restorative care ethos (figure 1.2). in state care can positively affect vulnerable Despite threatened closure and change from youths. I was deeply touched by my en­ an education-managed WCED center to a counters with Liam and Bulelani. They DSD care facility, the YCEC remains a high- willingly shared the tragedies and triumphs of their lives, reflecting eloquently and insight­ fully on poignant experiences. We talked often about the meaning of their lives – the importance of God and the power of stories, sharing, connection, and freedom. Despite all their difficulties, they were aware of their triumphs and understood that they were not failures. With children worldwide so often failed by inadequate institutional parenting and then leaving care (McNamee, 2016), let us Figure 1.2 Youth with peace certificates, standing outside the consider what makes the YCEC’s powerful YCC’s therapeutic hostel

Johnson • From Disempowerment to Self-belief 45 level support institution for behaviourally REFERENCES challenged children, including those who Adler, A. (1956). The Individual Psychology have suffered abuse and neglect. Liam has of Alfred Adler. New York: Basic Books. returned to his community to seek work in Bosman-Sadie, H., and Larry, C. (2010). local restaurants; perhaps one day he will A Practical Approach to the Children’s realise his dream of becoming a chef on a Act. Cape Town: LexisNexis. cruise ship. Although Bulelani was offered Brendtro, L., Martin, B., and Van Brokern, S. a free facility to start a karate center, he is (2002). Reclaiming Youth at Risk: Our training to be a chef with an international Hope for the Future. Bloomington, hotel group. Mr. M., the mentor and manager, IN: Solution Tree Press. was hit by a car and has recuperated from Children’s Act, Act No. 38. 2005. (2005). serious injuries. Every one at the center http://www.centreforchildlaw.co.za/ prayed for his full recovery. images/files/childlaw/consolidated_ childrens_act.pdf NOTES Cohler, B. (1982). “Personal Narrative and 1. Brian Schiff (2017) suggests three the Life Course.” In Lifespan Development aspects to the interpretive action, with and Behaviour, vol. 4, ed. P. Baltes movement going back and forth between and O. Brim, 205-241. New York: who, where, and when in order to begin Academic Press. an argument for why. Text and context Courtois, C. (2009). Treating Complex mutually produce one another, with Traumatic Stress Disorders. New York: psychological phenomena understood as Guilford Press. personal and social processes. Erikson, E. (1980). Identity and the Life Cycle. New York: Norton. Goleman, D., and Linda L. (2008). Building Emotional Intelligence. Boulder, CO: SoundsTrue. International Institute for Restorative Practices. (2016). “Defining Restorative.” http://www.iirp.edu/imges/pdf/Defining- restorative_Nov-2016.pdf Johnson, S. (2010). “Transpersonal Practices as Prevention Intervention for Burnout Amongst HIV/Aids Coordinator Teachers.” Master’s thesis, Stellenbosch University. Johnson, S. (2013). “Impact of Stress and Burnout Interventions on Educators on High-Risk Secondary Schools.” PhD diss., Stellenbosch University. Johnson, S. (2015). “Reducing Teacher Stress and Burnout in High-Risk Secondary Schools with Transactional Analysis.” International Journal of Transactional Analysis Research 6, no. 1: 70-85.

46 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium Johnson, S. (2019). “Psychobiography as Optimus Study SA Technical Report. (2016). an Effective Research Methodology for Sexual Victimisation of Children in South the Advocacy of Abused and Neglected Africa. Zurich, Switzerland: Optimus Youth in South Africa.” In New Trends Foundation Study. in Psychobiography, ed. Claude-Helene Pickhardt, C. (2013). Surviving Your Child’s Mayer and Kovary Zoltan. Cham, Adolescence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Switzerland: Springer. Plato, D. (2012). Gangsterism in South Johnson, S. (2019). “Lessons in Care: African Schools. Public dialogue address Triumph over Trauma and Tribulation by Minister for Community Safety, at a State Centre for Vulnerable Youth in Western Cape. Cape Town: Centre for South Africa.” Cape Town: Amazon. Conflict Resolution. Johnson, S. (2019). “Finding Safety in Ray, D. (2007). “Two Counselling Trauma Recovery at a South African State Interventions to Reduce Teacher-Child Care Centre for Abused and Neglected Relationship Stress.” Professional School Youth.” In New Ideas for New Times: Counselling 10(4): 428-440. A Handbook of Innovative Community Schiff, B. (2017). A New Narrative and Clinical Psychologies, ed. Carl Walker, for Psychology. New York: Oxford Sally Zlotowitz, and Anna Zoli. London: University Press. Palgrave MacMillan. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Johnson, S., and Naidoo, A. (2013). 1989. Convention on the Rights of “Transpersonal Practices as Prevention the Child. http://www.unicef.org Intervention for Burnout Among HIV/ [Accessed July 15, 2017]. AIDS Coordinator Teachers.” South Van der Heijden, Monique, Jeannette African Journal of Psychology 43: 59-70. Geldens, Douwe Beijaard, and Herman Johnson, S., and Naidoo, A. (2017a). “Can Popeijus. 2015. “Characteristics of Evolutionary Insights into the Brain’s Teachers as Change Agents.” Teachers and Response to Threat Suggest Different Teaching 21(6): 681-699. Interventions for Perceived Stress and Wachtel, Ted. (2013). Dreaming of a New Burnout for Teachers in High-Risk Reality: How Restorative Practices Schools?” South African Journal of Reduce Crime and Violence, Improve Psychology 47: 401-415. Relationships and Strengthen Civil Society. Johnson, S., and Naidoo, A. (2017b). Bethlehem, PA: Piper’s Press. “A Psychoeducational Approach for Witkin, S. (2000). “Writing Social Work.” Prevention of Burnout Among Teachers Social Work 45(5): 389-393. Dealing with HIV/AIDS in South Africa.” Wong, Y.J. (2015). “The Psychology of AIDS Care 29: 173-178. Encouragement: Theory, Research and Mbiti, J. (1970). African Religions and Application.” The Counselling Psychologist Philosophy. New York: Doubleday. 43(2): 178-216. McNamee, S. (2016). The Social Study of Childhood. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Nwoye, A. (2006). “Remapping the Fabric of the African Self: A Synoptic Theory.” Dialectical Anthropology 30: 119-146.

Olivier • The influence of information sources on learner’s higher education destination 47 CRITICAL DIALOGUES

01 Talks 02 Panel discussions

03 Interactive workshops 04 Exhibitions

05 Book launches 06 Screenings

cornersone.insiue ornersone nsiue

ornersone nsiue @ornersone

ornersone ommuni

or more informaion emai info@cornersone.ac.za Telling the story of Africa’s present and future #changethestory

CRITICAL DIALOGUES AUTHOR DOI: 10.36826/2706-669X/ex/05 Lorenzo A Davids Previously published by The Cape Argus on 1 June 2020. Available at: https://www.iol. AFFILIATION co.za/capeargus/opinion/changethestory- telling-the-story-of-africas-present-and- CEO, Community Chest, South Africa future-48806406

01 Talks 02 Panel discussions This past week, on Monday, May 25, we That respect must, however, come from a celebrated Africa Day. We share a continent deep notion of self-respect that will not allow and country of great beauty with many ourselves – and others – to be subjected to others, and live side by side with diverse slavery and exploitation again. human beings. Interactive workshops Exhibitions That self-respect will become our power 03 04 Despite the growing leaning to the right in against the exploitative practice of subservient global politics, Africa is emerging as the place loyalty. It allows no one to own us – because of bright present and future hope for the respect disarms the enemy. Never give in world. I hope that the Afro-pessimists will to manipulation. Whether emotional or finally see that there are different pathways political. Only do what serves to advance 05 Book launches 06 Screenings to greatness, and that Africa’s slow but sure humanity and the goals of a better world. growth is in fact its strength instead of a sign Let us live free from greed and corruption. of its frailty. Material contentment insulates us against To Africa, in this time of global crisis, here are corruption. You will be surprised what you some reflective thoughts about us. can live without. Just give it enough time. It is more cleansing and more healing to be Let us always maintain internal peace within without the opulence that far exceeds basic our borders, cultures and continent as well as living needs than to be with it. cornersone.insiue ornersone nsiue with the agitators and exploiters who come from outside. Globally, in the emerging consciousness, An orientation towards peace is our greatest a minimalist orientation is the new way to weapon against the exploitative and divisive live. Become aware of your convictions. It ornersone nsiue @ornersone practices of both the West and the East. is the true you. You may say and do many Whether we are pitching for business with things, but your convictions are the truest each other or competing for resources, let us part of you. Have a business card that says: do so with a bias towards peace. My integrity and my continent, country and ornersone ommuni community are not for sale nor up for auction Let us focus on our continental well-being to the highest bidder. as the new global economic, educational and innovation leaders. Let us grow a respect for Always be kind. Kindness is underrated. whoever enters our space. Kindness is a legacy builder. It makes you nice

or more informaion emai info@cornersone.ac.za Davids • Telling the story of Africa’s present and future 49 to be around. Such kindness will live on in the One of my teachers once taught me: stories we tell about Africa to our children. assumption is the doctrine of fools. Deliberately develop a deep intelligence and Go out of your way to do good – especially to seek understanding. those who are without. Design your life to be arrogance-free. Don’t move, act or speak until you know and understand. At all cost, avoid assumption. Don’t seek to insert your name or your These values, when they are practised with achievements into everything. Stop being consistency, carry the seeds of a great country important. Work on being significant. Become and a great continent. Such are the ideas that an inspirational asset to your community and build countries and communities that are desist from being an irritation. worth believing in – and worth dying for. Lead with humility and accept leadership Ours will be a nation and continent of reluctantly. When you enter a leadership role, greatness, of freedom, of hope and of plan from day one on how you will return it to prosperity. We will no longer only tell stories others. Celebrate often. Avoid complaining. of our past, but we will relish in stories of our Many people will destroy things. Great people present, of today and of tomorrow. work on fixing what others have broken – in order to insert a brave and different narrative That will be Africa’s story. into the national discourse. Never use your title. Always use your name. Your ego is attached to the first. Your character is attached to the second. Give more than you receive. And give often.

50 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium CONTRIBUTIORS

Rudi Buys serves as the executive dean and Fellowship. She published her first book with dean of humanities at Cornerstone Institute. Professor Eli Bitzer, titled Engaging higher In earlier roles spokesman for the Western education curricula: A critical citizenship Cape Education Ministry, as Commissioner education perspective in 2015. In 2016 she tasked with Education and Arts and Culture edited the book The relevance of critical of the Provincial Youth Commission, and citizenship in Africa with Professor Freeborn as Dean of Student Affairs at the University Odiboh from the University of Benin, Nigeria, of the Free State, South Africa. His doctoral and in 2018 she edited the book Educating research, completed as visiting scholar at citizen designers in South Africa. Elmarie the Paulo Freire Institute at the University of has published in the field of art education, California, Los Angeles (UCLA), refined and critical citizenship, decolonisation and social combined the notions of ‘in-betweenness’ (as justice in various journals in South Africa an identity framework), of ‘transitionality’ and abroad. (as a type of knowledge), and of `building bridges’ (as a leadership practice) in a ‘theory Lorenzo Davids is the Chief Executive Officer of bridgebuilding’. Rudi recently published at Community Chest and has over 35 years his first book dealing with higher education experience in the Development space. He is change with Penguin Random House – a founding board member of The Big Issue ‘Brugbouers, Die Reitz-video en die pad na and Christel House South Africa, served on versoening’ [Bridgebuilders, The Reitz-video the Boards of Beth Uriel, Media Village, The and the road to reconciliation], which was City Mission World Association, The Viva short-listed for the Desmond Tutu-Gerrit Network, Beautiful Gate, Christel House, Brand Prize in 2019. The Big Issue, The Carpenter’s Shop, the Institute for Justice and Reconciliation and Elmarie Costandius is an associate professor Community Chest. He worked with Local in Visual Arts and coordinates the MA in and Provincial Government and NPOs on Visual Arts (Art Education) at Stellenbosch sector initiatives and funding models. He is University, South Africa. She studied an international speaker and thought leader. Information Design at the University of He delivered the keynote address at the 2016 Pretoria and continued her studies at the Rutgers University Postgraduate Graduation Gerrit Rietveld Academy, Amsterdam, and Ceremony in the USA and addressed the completed a master’s in Globalisation and launch of the Association for Research on Higher Education at the University of the Civil Society in Africa in Nigera. He served Western Cape. Her PhD in Curriculum on Development Agencies Boards in the UK, Studies (Stellenbosch University) focused on USA and Australia. social responsibility and critical citizenship in art education. Elmarie received a Freeborn Odiboh is a professor in the Teaching Fellowship from the South African Department of Fine and Applied Arts at Department of Education in 2011‑2013, in the University of Benin in Nigeria. He has 2013 the HELTASA CHE National Excellence received several international awards and in Teaching Award and in 2016 the fellowships, including the Leventis post- Teaching Advancement at University (TAU) doctoral fellowship, the University of London

Contributors 51 fellowship, 2006; the Getty Foundation Sharon Johnson, senior lecturer in the award; College Art Association and the Psychology Department of Cornerstone American Council of Learned Societies’ Institute, has spent 10 years researching the African Humanities post-doctoral fellowship, stress and burnout of teachers and the care of 2010‑2011. In 2019, he was appointed the vulnerable youth in state institutions in Cape Ailsa Mellon Bruce Visiting Senior Fellowship Town, South Africa. Her work for the Western at the Centre for Advanced Study of the Visual Cape Education Department (WCED) Arts, National Gallery of Art, Washington in 2019 involved running workshops for DC. He is currently working on the book, teachers in impoverished areas of the Cape The Mysterious Realist Paintings of Andrew Flats, dealing with trauma, stress, burnout Wyeth and Abayomi Barber: Cross Atlantic and well-being. She has taught skills in the Dialogue? Odiboh has published in such classroom to hundreds of educators to deal journals as African Arts, UCLA; GEFAME: with crisis and multiple traumas of peers and Journal of African Studies and University learners. Over the years Sharon has worked of Michigan, among others. He has been with many educational support teams, engaged with projects on critical citizenship including social workers and psychologists, education since 2016 with Professor Elmarie in the Central, South, East, West Coast and Costandius, Visual Arts Department, Overberg Metros. Sharon has had several Stellenbosch University, South Africa. papers published in international journals and has authored chapters in academic Duncan Olivier holds a MTech, BTech books. According to Researchgate (2020), and NDip in marketing from the Tshwane her work has been read by more than 2 000 University of Technology. He is currently busy researchers worldwide, and she has recently with his doctorate in marketing. His research been informed of 30 citations. interests include consumer behaviour and branding. He has extensive experience lecturing at both private and public institutes. He is currently a head of programme at the Independent institute of education.

52 African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education, Vol. 1 Exordium Learn to change the world

African Journal of Non-profit Higher Education ISSN 2706-669X cornerstone.ac.za/ajnphe [email protected] Journal Editor Rev Dr Rudi Buys Managing Editor Emily Vosloo

Cornerstone Institute 4th Floor, 2 Roggebaai Square, Foreshore, Cape Town PO Box 13434, Observatory, 8000 Phone: +27 (21) 448 0050 Email: [email protected] Website: cornerstone.ac.za