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MAGAZINE Chaotic chemistry experiment 6 No. 4 Fishing for hope 18 2010 The Circle Southern discomfort 22

Ocean Acidification Threatening Our

PUBLISHED BY THE WWF Global ARCTIC PROGRAMME The Circle 4.2010

Contents

Alanna Mitchell: EDITORIAL: acidification is invisible 3 In briefs 4 Richard Feely: and the Arctic Ocean, our chaotic chemistry experiment 6 Steve Sumida and Bruce Wright: Alaskan waters become the battle­ground – again 10 Ulf Riebesell; Big questions, big test tubes 12 Helen Findlay: On thinning ice 15 Laura Edwards: At the Ice – the research begins 17 Alan Parks: Fishing for hope in Alaska 18 Rob Nicoll: Southern discomfort – Antarctic waters fast changing 22 The picture 24

Ocean Acidification A ntarctic Survey (B S).ˆ Photo: British

The Circle is published quarterly by the Publisher: Editor in Chief: Clive Tesar, [email protected] COVER: WWF Global Arctic Programme. Re- WWF Global Arctic Programme, Editor: Becky Rynor, [email protected] Arctic pteropods commonly production and quotation with appropri- PO Box 6784 St Olavs plass known as butterflies. ate credit are encouraged. Articles by N-0130 Oslo, Norway Design and production: “Pteropods are a particularly non-affiliated sources do not necessarily Ph: +47 22 03 65 00 Film & Form/Ketill Berger, important food source for reflect the views or policies of WWF. Fax: +47 22 20 06 66 [email protected] juvenile fish such as salmon Send change of address and subscrip- Internet: www.panda.org/arctic Printed at Merkur-Trykk AS and pollock.” tion queries to the address on the right. Dr. Richard Feely, page 9. We reserve the right to edit letters for Date of publication: December, 2010. Photo from:Dr. Russell R. Hopcroft Professor, Institute publication, and assume no responsibility ISSN 2074-076X = The Circle (Oslo) of Marine , University of Alaska Fairbanks for unsolicited material.

2 The Circle 4.2010 Editorial Ocean acidification is invisible To the eye, first of all. Just looking at it, you can’t tell able calcium. That means creatures that need calcium that the water’s fundamental chemical composition – the to make shells, bones and bony structures are having dance of its ions – has changed. trouble. It’s invisible on the political front, too. Off the radar. Scientists are finding that are scrambling to make Excluded from international discussions, includ- their reefs, oyster shells are thinner, some are us- ing the most recent round in Mexico. ing more energy making shells than doing other functions That’s despite the fact that scientists are now worried critical to the basic workings of the ocean. that the growing acidity of the ocean is at least as big a Along with that, the vulnerable larvae of threat to life on the planet as global change. oysters, snails and lobsters are struggling How? When we burn fossilized plants and animals – to mature. Fish become stupid, swimming we call them fuels – we are putting the carbon from an toward predators instead of away because ancient age into the . So far, we’ve increased of an acid-made shift in their ability to the concentration of carbon smell. And these dioxide in the atmosphere from n Readers of The Circle are accustomed to are just a few of less than 0.03 per cent to nearly editorials that frame the issue we’re examining the effects scien- Alanna Mitchell is 0.04 per cent. That’s higher than in each edition, along with information about tists have taken a a journalist and author it’s been in millions of years. WWF solutions and initiatives. We pride our- look at. whose latest book, Sea- In the atmosphere, that car- selves on being a solutions-oriented organiza- The colder the sick: The global ocean bon dioxide acts like a blanket, tion. However, ocean acidification is too new water, the more in crisis, has become an keeping heat near the planet’s and the research too incomplete for us to fully quickly it ab- international bestseller. It surface, inert and powerful understand how to tackle this growing threat to sorbs carbon di- won the Grantham Prize enough to shift climate. our oceans. We are working with organizations oxide gas, and so for excellence in environ- But about a third of that an- such as the Catlin Arctic Survey, which you can the more acidic. mental reporting. cient carbon has been absorbed read about in this edition that spent weeks on That means www.alannamitchell.com by the ocean’s surface, the sea ice to conduct research into the effects the Arctic and by molecule, in an inexorable of ocean acidification.A nother article features Southern Oceans exchange between the air and the team of Dr. Ulf Riebesell, which lugged are becoming sea. In the ocean, two tonnes of equipment to Svalbard, then acidic about is not inert. It reacts chemically posted 24-hour watches over their experiments twice as fast as the average. A with water to produce carbonic aimed at analyzing the impact of acidification recent study calculated that the acid. on plankton communities. This sort of cutting northern ocean will be the first Now, a couple of centuries edge research will help inform further actions, in the world to hit the point into the fossil-fuel-burning although it already seems clear that there will of no return with dangerous, industrial revolution, we’ve put be changes to the ecology of the Arctic Ocean, systemic acidification. By the so much ancient carbon into the and that the root cause of these changes is end of this decade, 10 per cent of atmosphere that the ocean has the amount of carbon dioxide that people are the Arctic will be so acidic it will become about 30 per cent more pumping into the atmosphere. This is our first damage, rather than foster, life. acidic than before we began. concerted effort to tackle ocean acidification Unless we do something. The That’s more acidic than the at a circumpolar level, and to bring together key is to sharply reduce carbon ocean has been for about 55 mil- some of the experts urging and taking action. emissions into the atmosphere lion years. As Alanna Mitchell writes, “we need to make and the ocean. Halting ocean The implications? They ocean acidification visible.” The WWF Global acidification has to be a priority cascade through the oceanic Arctic Programme believes that by increasing at every round of global climate chemical soup that is the basic its visibility here through The Circle, that we are change discussions. And we medium of life on the planet. contributing to a solution. need to make ocean acidification More acidity means less avail- Clive Tesar, editor-in-chief visible.

The Circle 4.2010 3 In brief

people.” Sommerkorn says he the two, smaller isolated of 2010 saw the best survival WWF at Japan was particularly encouraged areas for this species will rate in 35 years. In total, 24 by the support for RACER broaden and grow into one pairs raised pups, largely due conference expressed by scientists, large habitat between Norway to a combination of active technical consultants and and Sweden that would allow management and relatively Director of the WWF other experts who attended fox populations to breed with high rodent population. By Global Arctic Programme, the week of workshops in Ot- each other, strengthening the late autumn, numerous lem- Alexander Shestakov, hosted tawa, Canada. “There is solid gene pool. ” ming tracks were observed a side event at the 10th meet- recognition that an assess- Arnbom says the number in arctic fox territory. “If this ing of the Conference of the ment embracing the changes of arctic foxes in Sweden is trend continues, there could Parties to the Convention on to come is critically needed a fraction of what it was 150 be an incredible increase of Biological Diversity (COP- and that assessing resilience years ago – just 130 foxes lemmings by next summer, 10) in Nagoya, Japan in is the right way to move according to numbers from which would result in a boom October. “When Parks are not forward,” he said. RACER is summer, 2010 – due to in the arctic fox population Enough,” delivered a strong designed to provide guidance increased hunting in the 19th throughout Scandinavia,” warning about to government, industry and and 20th century. But he says Arnbom says. resilience and change in the other stakeholders to ensure a recent shortage of small ro- Arctic. functional arctic . dents – the fox’s main source “Warming in the Arctic is of food – is also a factor. Economic forum proceeding at twice the global “The Scandinavian lem- rate,” Shestakov says. “This Arctic fox ming has been particularly champions WWF challenges the resilience of scarce,” Arnbom says. “To arctic ecosystems and calls WWF-Sweden is involved in a help the arctic fox in Scandi- for a major re-think of arctic new program aimed at boost- navia, supplementary feeding management plan conservation.” ing and protecting the arctic with dog pellets and removal fox population in Scandina- of predatory red foxes close for Barents Sea via. to arctic fox dens has made a RACER moves “The Felles Fjellrev pro- difference in survival rates.” WWF-Russia’s initiative for gram is attempting to repop- Arctic fox populations a Complex Management forward ulate areas where no arctic suffered severe declines in Plan for the Barents Sea was foxes are currently breeding,” 2008-2009 when only a highlighted at the Second A slate of experts met says WWF spokesman Tom few pups out of each Arctic Economic Forum in in Ottawa to help WWF’s Arnbom. “If successful, then survived. But the summer Murmansk in October. The Global Arctic Programme fine-tune a project designed to identify, map and raise meet in Torshavn, awareness about circumarc- Faeroe Islands. Council flies search tic regions that are resilient to change. RACER – Rapid & rescue pilot Assessment of Circumarctic Global Arctic Programme communica- Ecosystem Resilience – “is tions director Clive Tesar represented designed to quickly provide WWF at the October Arctic Council guidance on conservation meeting in Torshavn, Faeroe Islands. options in the Arctic in the The meeting heard a progress report on a face of rapid change,” says search and rescue agreement being negoti- Martin Sommerkorn, WWF’s ated between the arctic states. “While senior advi- search and rescue is not our core business, sor. “RACER will identify the fact that it is intended to be a legally those areas that are under- binding agreement negotiated under the pinning future viability of auspices of the Arctic Council is momen- Arctic ecosystems, including tous,” says Tesar. “If successful, this would be the first agreement of its kind leading to a significant strengthening of the council 4 The Circle 4.2010 as a multilateral instrument.” Photo: Clive Tesar Photo: Clive In brief

Polar Bear Recovery Plan Hudson Bay and James Bay, 30 years, the break-up of Bear necessities Workshop in northern climate change is causing sea ice has occurred about Ontario, Canada. “Ontario is sea ice to thaw earlier and 9.5 days earlier per decade In October Arctic NI polar home to the southern-most freeze up later. It’s believed in northern James Bay and bear specialist Geoff York population of polar bears in this reduces the amount of between five and eight days gave a presentation on the world and climate change time polar bears can spend earlier per decade along the WWF’s efforts in bear/hu- is considered the great- on the ice feeding on seals southern Hudson Bay man conflict reduction at est threat to the survival of to put on fat to support their of Ontario. the Southern Hudson Bay these bears,” York says. “In seasonal fast.” Over the last

experts were able to do live deal. It was extremely survey of its kind conducted Where the broadcasts to audiences gratifying to be able to speak at this time of year. “This around the world via the with concerned citizens will be a useful baseline,” bears are: Polar Bears International around the globe about the says York. “In future years York also scored some “Tundra Buggy 1” mobile decline of this iconic spe- we can look at this survey ice time with the bears on studio. “While we were with cies.” York also completed of the distribution of bears the shores of Hudson Bay the bears waiting for the sea a fall coastal survey of the and their numbers along the in November along with ice to form, world leaders entire coast of the province coast to get a better idea of some of the world’s lead- were gathering to meet in with Manitoba Conservation how they’re reacting to the ing polar bear and climate Cancun, Mexico, to discuss and Polar Bears Internation- longer ice-free periods.” researchers. York and other progress on a global climate al. This was the first such

chairman of the Murmansk on Svalbard directly contra- SNSK’s application to regional Duma (legislature), Norway backing dicts Norway’s ambitious extend coal on the ar- Evgeny Nikora, said there C02 reduction goals and its chipelago is currently under- is “growing conflict in the down on CO2 promised climate change going environmental impact numerous approaches in commitments,” says WWF- assessments. If approved, the monitoring sea activity and reduction Norway’s head of climate construction of infrastructure degradation of sea ecosys- change and energy, Arild for the new mine could begin tems in areas of intense promises Skedsmo. “Even considering as early as this summer. economic development.” this application flies in the “The government of WWF Russia wants to see WWF is pressuring the Norwe- face of what the Norwegian Norway is guilty of speaking principles such as an ecosys- gian government to reject government has promised to rhetoric on climate change,” tem approach to manage- an application by The Store do to reduce says Skedsmo. “If Norway ment, adaptive management Norske Kullkompani (SNSK) emissions.” isn’t prepared to make even and preservation of species to extend opera- The coal is largely used for miniscule concessions on fixed in international law tions on the arctic archipela- energy production. Its main economic activities such as and national legislation as in go of Svalbard. markets are Germany and the coal mining, how can we other leading sea countries. “Extended coal mining Netherlands. expect anyone else to?”

The Circle 4.2010 5 How the oceans are changing

Acid and the Arctic Ocean, our chaotic chemistry experiment Spanning an area of slightly over 14 million square kilometres, the Arctic Ocean is one of the most pristine and productive regions on , supporting surpris- ing numbers of birds, fish, and marine mammals. Concern over the rapid loss of ice cover over the past several decades from the substantial climate change oc- curring in the region has led many scientists to speculate about the future health and well-being of its marine ecosystems. Oceanographer Dr. Richard Feely ex- plains how the Arctic Ocean now faces another threat – the same carbon dioxide surplus that is largely responsible for climate change is also altering the basic chemistry of the ocean. ➽

Pacific walrus males at “haul-out” Round Island,A laska,

6 The Circle 4.2010 How the oceans are changing

The Circle 4.2010 7 Photo: Kevin Schafer / WWF-Canon Over the past 200 years the release of “…ocean acidification mizing some of the impacts of global carbon dioxide (CO2) from our collective warming. industrial and agricultural activities has could affect some of However, the ocean’s uptake of 22 resulted in atmospheric CO2 concentra- million tons of carbon dioxide per day tions that have increased significantly. the most fundamen- is starting to have an impact on the The atmospheric concentration of CO2 is chemistry of . The pH of our now higher than ex- tal biological and ocean surface waters has already fallen perienced on Earth by about 0.1 units from an average of for at least the last chemical processes of about 8.2 to 8.1 since the beginning of 800,000 years, the sea in coming de- the industrial revolution (on the pH and is expected to scale, 7.0 is neutral, with points higher Dr. Richard A. Feely continue to rise. cades.” on the scale being “basic” and points is a Senior Scientist When carbon diox- lower being “acidic”). Estimates of at the NOAA Pacific ide is absorbed by future atmospheric and oceanic carbon Marine Environmental the oceans it reacts dioxide concentrations indicate that by Laboratory in Seattle with seawater to atmosphere, or about one quarter of the end of this century the surface ocean and is a professor form . the human-introduced carbon dioxide pH decrease would result in a pH that is at the University of The oceans have emissions released over the last two and lower than it has been for more than 20 Washington School absorbed approxi- a half centuries. This natural process of million years. of . His mately 525 billion absorption has benefited humankind by When CO2 reacts with seawater, fun- major research areas tons of carbon significantly reducing the greenhouse damental chemical changes occur that are carbon cycling in dioxide from the gas levels in the atmosphere and mini- cause a reduction in seawater pH. The the oceans and ocean acidification proc- Weisweiler power in North-Rhine Westphalia. esses. He co-chairs the U.S. CLIVAR/CO2 Repeat Hydrography Program and is a member of the Steer- ing Committee for the U.S. Carbon and Biochemistry Program. He was awarded the Department of Com- merce Gold Award in 2006 for research on ocean acidification. A ndrew Kerr/WWF-Canon Photo:

8 The Circle 4.2010 Atmosphere emissions

Fossil fuel and cement production

30%

Coal deposits

Oil and gas Ocean deposits

The oceans are acidifying fast

Every day, more than 20 mil- oceans. They are acidifying. And they and the very that lion tons of carbon dioxide are Over the past several are doing so at an alarming sustains Alaska’s . released into the atmosphere decades, we have pumped rate. Higher acidity levels hamper from the burning of fossil so much carbon dioxide- into The increasing acidification the shell-building processes fuels. Nearly one-third of this the oceans that their chemi- of our oceans is already of species such as crabs, is absorbed by our cal composition is changing. beginning to alter ecosystems clams and corals.

Graphic: Alaska Council and WWF-Alaska interaction between CO2 and seawater Effects on fish and oyster decline with increasing CO2 levels. depletes the availability of Squid are especially sensitive to ocean ion, critical to shell formation for marine Research is showing that ocean acidifica- acidification because it directly affects animals such as corals, plankton, and tion may have negative effects on com- their blood oxygen and respira- shellfish. This phenomenon, commonly mercially important fish and shellfish tion. Sea urchins raised in lower-pH wa- called “ocean acidification,” could affect larvae. Exposure of fish to lower pH lev- ters show evidence for inhibited growth some of the most fundamental biologi- els can cause decreased respiration rates, due to their inability to maintain internal cal and chemical processes of the sea in changes in blood chemistry and changes acid-base balance. Scientists have also coming decades. The Arctic Ocean’s cold in enzymatic activity. The seen a reduced ability of marine algae waters tend to absorb carbon dioxide rates of the edible mussel and Pacific and free-floating plants and animals more rapidly than is absorbed by the to produce protective carbonate shells. warmer seawater to the south, mak- “…we can expect to These organisms are important food ing it more vulnerable to acidification. sources for other marine species. One Over the last three decades, retreat of see significant im- type of free-swimming mollusk called summertime sea ice cover has exposed a pteropod is eaten by animals ranging shelf waters to the atmosphere and has pacts that are of im- from tiny krill to whales. Pteropods are allowed additional absorption of carbon mense importance to a particularly important food source for dioxide. The combination of these pro- juvenile fish such as salmon and pollock. cesses accelerates the rate at which pH mankind” Ocean acidification research is still decreases in the region. in its infancy, so it is impossible to

The Circle 4.2010 9 predict exactly how the individual spe- Shipping cies responses will cascade throughout the marine and impact the overall structure of marine ecosystems. It is clear, however, from the existing data and from the geologic record that Alaskan waters become some plankton and fish species will be reduced in a high-CO2 ocean. Ocean acidification may be one of the most significant and far-reaching con- the battle­ground – again sequences of the buildup of human-in- duced carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. While general fossil fuel emissions are the greatest con- Results from laboratory, field and tributor to ocean acidification, new research suggests modeling studies, as well as evidence from the geological record, clearly indi- there are other factors that can locally exacerbate acidi- cate that marine ecosystems are highly fication, and introduce other chemical threats. As climate susceptible to the increases in oceanic change reduces arctic ice, Aleut and Pribilof people will CO2 and the corresponding decreases in pH. Clams, oysters and other calcifying find themselves living at the crossroads of two shipping organisms will experience increasing lanes – the Great Circle route to Asia and the fabled North- difficulty producing their shells. Other west Passage. Steve Sumida and Bruce Wright say people like species of fish and shellfish will also be negatively affected in their physiologi- them who live in the Bering Sea region will be increasingly cal responses due to a decrease in pH exposed to unprecedented levels of virtually unregulated levels of their cellular fluids. Because of emissions from high-sulphur shipping fuels. the very clear potential for ocean-wide impacts of ocean acidification at all levels of the , from the tiniest to to Alaskan waters are once again the The pollution caused by burning high- fish and shellfish, we can expect to see battleground for resolving hydrocarbon sulphur fuels can have the same toxic significant impacts that are of immense pollution. In 1989 the Exxon Valdez effects. Ships in this region are allowed importance to mankind. spilled crude oil that spread for hun- to use high-sulphur fuels with 45,000 Ocean acidification is an emerg- dreds of miles in the pristine waters parts per million sulphur – a much ing scientific issue and much research along Alaska’s coast. Our understanding higher level than those set in most US is needed before all of the ecosystem at the time discounted oil as little more waters of 10,000 ppm sulphur content responses are well understood. How- than a semi-noxious and a for the majority of bulk fuel blends. ever, to the limit that the scientific killer of birds. But oil toxicity research community understands this issue right funded by the multi-million dollar set- Aleutians, Pribilof Islands, now, the potential for environmental, tlement from the Exxon Valdez Western Alaska remain economic and societal risk is quite high. Trustee Council changed that almost unprotected It demands serious and immediate at- benevolent view of oil pollution. We Large container ships, tankers, bulk car- tention. Over the next century, if CO2 now know it is thousands of times more riers, cruise ships and Lakers are signifi- emissions are allowed to increase as toxic than realized. cant contributors predicted, mankind may be responsible Marine species have “…shipping activity to in for increasing oceanic CO2 and making continued to be af- many of our na- the oceans more corrosive to calcifying fected long after that and lack of emission tion’s cities and organisms than at any time since the catastrophic spill, ports. last major , over 65 million evidenced mostly by controls over sulphur Studies by the years ago. Thus, the decisions we make salmon not return- US Environmen- about our use of fossil-fuels for energy ing to spawning will contribute to the tal Protection over the next several decades will prob- streams. Many other serious problem of Agency (EPA) ably have a profound influence on the birds and mammals show that emis- makeup of future marine ecosystems for were also harmed or ocean acidification.” sions from large centuries or even millennia. killed. marine vessels

10 The Circle 4.2010 The culprit: carbon dioxide released from burning fossil fuels expected to account for 10 to more than 25 per cent of total annual sulphur Historical and projected pH and dissolved CO 2 deposition along the entire Atlantic, Gulf 8.25 -22 of Mexico, and Pacific coastal areas of 8.20 pH -21 the U.S. The impact of these deposits -20 will extend inland 8.15 -19 for hundreds of kilo- metres. This means 8.10 -18 International ship- 8.05 -17 pH ping will contribute -16 8.00 to total annual sul- Steve Sumida is the -15 phur deposition not

7.95 (Micromoles/kg) Program Manager/ -14 only along all U.S. Grant Director, Tanad- 7.90 -13 Dissolved carbon dioxide coastal areas, but gusix Corporation, an Carbon dioxide -12 throughout the en- 7.85 Alaska Native village -11 tire U.S. land mass, 7.80 corporation created -10 impacting sensi- under the Alaska Na- 7.75 tive terrestrial and -9 tive Claims Settlement aquatic ecosystems 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2002 2050 2075 2100 Act. Year in the vast inte- rior and heartland As the ocean concentration of carbon dioxide increases, so does acidity (causing pH to decline). Source: Feely, Richard A., et al. (2006) Carbon Dioxide and Our Ocean Legacy regions. Researchers with a U.S. Forest Serv- Ocean acidification is hap- Ocean acidity has of fossil fuels releases ice study conducted pening now, at a rate and increased 30% since the carbon dioxide, which gets in Southeast Alaska to a level not experienced Industrial Revolution and absorbed by the oceans found evidence of by marine organisms the rate of change has and changes their chemi- sulphur emissions for more than 20 million increased over the last cal composition, making affecting lichen Bruce Wright is years. 20 years. The burning them more acidic. communities. The an ecologist and authors concluded senior scientist with Graphic: Alaska Marine Conservation Council and WWF-Alaska that the main the Aleutian Pribilof source of sulphur Island Association. He and nitrogen found led the effort to study burning bunker fuel within 200 miles of when the EPA requires all fuel for small in lichens is likely energy issues in the the U.S. west coast shore can result in marine vessels, highway, and non-road the burning of fos- Aleut region including serious impacts to human and envi- diesel engines including locomotives to sil fuels by cruise the development of a ronmental health as well as permanent be limited to 15 ppm sulphur content. ships. Lichen are marine transportation environmental degradation as far inland The EPA does not have any emissions an important food plan. as the Grand Canyon, a distance of monitoring stations in the Aleutian source for cari- roughly 800 kilometres. As a result, the region. But the number of vessels mov- bou and there is a United States negotiated an interna- ing through Unimak Pass is large and probability that large vessel emissions tional law preventing emissions from increasing, so we can’t begin to know are damaging lichens and affecting the this fuel anywhere within 200 miles of the exposure level for people living and southern Alaska Peninsula caribou herd the U.S. coast – except for the regions working in the Bering Sea region. which is an important food source for from the Alaska Peninsula, through the We do know increased shipping activ- local subsistence-based cultures. This Aleutians and Pribilof Islands, western ity and lack of emission controls over herd has been decreasing in size, has Alaska and along the Arctic coast. These sulphur will contribute to the serious poor calf survival and low pregnancy regions remain exposed and unprotect- problem of ocean acidification and rates resulting in a ban on caribou hunt- ed to bunker fuel burning up to 45,000 nutrient enrichment in the North Pacific ing in this region. One can only imagine parts per million sulphur content Ocean through significant increases of the effects these emissions are having and unprecedented levels of virtually nitrogen and sulphur deposits. on the dwindling Bering Sea fishing unregulated emissions. This at a time By 2020, international shipping is stocks.

The Circle 4.2010 11 European Project on Ocean Acidification

Big questions, big test tubes

12 The Circle 4.2010 By the end of this century, European Project on Ocean Acidification the projected changes caused by ocean acidifica- tion will go beyond anything organisms have experienced in the last 20 million years of their evolutionary his- tory. Arctic waters are home to a wide range of creatures that build shells, both free- swimming and on the ocean floor, including shell fish, sea urchins, coralline al- gae, and calcareous plank- ton. Many of these species provide crucial links in the arctic food web, such as the sea butterflies (pteropods), which serve as food for fishes, seabirds and whales. Dr. Ulf Riebesell reports on research studying the im- pacts of ocean acidification on plankton communities.

From May to July 2010, a group of 35 researchers of the EU-funded Euro- pean Project on Ocean Acidification

(EPOCA) conducted the first major CO2 perturbation experiment in the Arctic Ocean. Led by the Leibniz Institute of Marine Sciences (IFM-GEOMAR) nine mesocosms – giant, 17 metre “test tubes” – were placed in the Kongsfjord off the north-western coast of Svalbard, an archipelago in the Arctic constituting the northernmost part of Norway. Each mesocosm was filled with about 50 cubic metres of seawater. The enclosed plankton community was then

Huge “test tubes” inside eight and a half exposed to a range of different CO2 metre-high floating frames, are used to in- levels as projected to develop between vestigate the effects of ocean acidification now and the middle of the next century on the marine ecosystem in Kongsfjord, and was closely monitored over a period Svalbard, Norway. of six weeks. The EPOCA scientists, who stayed at the Ny Ålesund research

The Circle 4.2010 13 35 scientists took part in the research in Kongsfjord. Ulf Riebesell has studied the impacts station, sampled the various levels of the pelagic ecosystem? from the Greenpeace vessel Esperanza, of ocean acidification mesocosms daily Will there be winners and losers of which transported the mesocosms and on marine organisms with plankton nets, ocean acidification? other heavy equipment from Kiel to Ny and ecosystems for water samplers Another set of questions concerns the Ålesund and back as part of its 2010 the past 15 years. He and pumps, and possible consequences for the cycling of Arctic Campaign. Another challenge was is on the executive conducted measure- key elements. Will ocean acidification the risk of damage to the mesocosms board of the European ments. affect the store of carbon in the Arctic by drifting sea ice and icebergs calving Project on Ocean EPOCA’s 2010 Ocean? Will it change the turn-over and off the three extending into the Acidification (EPOCA) mesocosm cam- balance between the primary building Kongsfjord. This could only be avoided and coordinates the paign involved blocks of life such as carbon, nitrogen by posting 24-hour ice watches and German national molecular and cell and phosphorus? A third set of ques- pushing icebergs off-track with small programme on ocean biologists, marine tions concerns the exchange of climate- boats to keep them from colliding with acidification (BIOAC- ecologists and relevant gases between ocean and the moored mesocosms. Consider- ID). He is a professor bio-geochemists atmosphere. Will ocean acidification ing the many unknowns involved in at the Leibniz Institute as well as ocean affect the production of these gases and this endeavour, the experiment went of Marine Sciences and atmospheric if so, will it amplify or dampen global surprisingly well and according to plan. (IFM-GEOMAR) in chemists. The team climate change? The scientists collected nearly 15000 Kiel, Germany. set out to address The scientists participating in this samples and acquired data for over 45 a range of urgent unique campaign, the first of its kind parameters characterizing the responses questions concern- in polar waters, had to face a range of of the arctic ecosystem to ocean acidi- ing the impacts of ocean acidification on technical and logistical challenges. In fication. The results of this study will arctic ecosystems. How will ocean acidi- addition to the nine mesocosms, each be presented at various international fication affect the production of food at weighing nearly 2 tonnes, the team conferences in early 2011 and are ex- the base of the arctic food web and its had to transport more than 150 boxes pected to provide the first comprehen- transfer to consumers at higher levels? of scientific equipment to the high sive insight into the sensitivities of the How will ocean acidification influence Arctic. IFM-GEOMAR, as the coor- arctic ecosystem to a rapidly acidifying competition and trophic interactions at dinating institute, received support ocean.

14 The Circle 4.2010 Catlin Arctic Survey 2010 On thinning ice The summer sea-ice melt season of 2010 saw the third lowest ice extent in the record and continues the trend of a declining summer sea-ice extent seen over the last three decades. Both the Northwest Passage (above Canada and Alaska) and Northern Sea Route (above Russia) were both open in September. The disappearance of the ice has implications for acidification in the Arctic Ocean. ScientistH elen Findlay recently accom- panied the Catlin Arctic Survey to Nunavut to conduct ocean acidification research. It was the first expedition to take water samples from the sea ice in winter. Previous Arctic measurements have been taken from ships in open water during the summer. Here she comments on the current status of ocean acidification research.

Newly-open ocean waters and reduction in sea-ice Research shows polar waters are less able to are examples of how the Earth’s climate systems are buffer effects of acidity. changing. These changes have serious consequences for the uptake of carbon dioxide into the ocean and the subsequent change in which results in oceans becoming more acidic. Colder waters have a higher capacity to hold more dissolved

gases, such as CO2. That means the Arctic Ocean, for example, can

absorb more CO2 from the atmos- phere than tropical oceans. The Helen Findlay was Arctic Ocean also has naturally an ice base scientist lower levels of important ions, such on the Catlin Arctic as carbonate ions, making it less Survey in 2010. She able to buffer changes in acidity. has a PhD in biological So the Arctic Ocean is particularly oceanography and vulnerable to ocean acidification. is currently the Lord Model projections suggest the Kingsland Research Arctic could become corrosive to Fellow at Plymouth minerals (arago- Marine Laboratory, nite and ) in the next 20 UK. She also took to 50 years. The small amount of part in the European carbon data that has been collected Project on Ocean from the Arctic Ocean shows that Acidification. Her cur- undersaturation is al- rent research projects ready occurring seasonally in some include the impact of areas. However, there are complex ocean acidification and poorly understood interactions and global warming on between the sea ice and the flow of marine organisms and A rctic Survey ecosystem function. CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean. Additionally, the organ-

Copyright Catlin isms that live in and under the sea

The Circle 4.2010 15 ice play an important role in transport- of the Arctic Ocean is changing, there and pteropods but also on small organ- ing carbon between the atmosphere is much more uncertainty about how isms, phytoplankton and zooplankton. and the ocean. These organisms could those chemical changes will disrupt the These all play key roles in the function- themselves be at risk from the impacts functioning of these marine organisms. ing of the marine ecosystem either as of ocean acidification. The consequences could be severe, not part of the food web, in structuring the For many years it was thought that only for the individual species, but also habitat or in cycling of nutrients. Any sea ice acts as a barrier or “lid” to the for large-scale processes, such as carbon disruption to the food web will have ocean, essentially preventing any flow cycling, the food web and even how our implications further along the chain. of CO2, so that when the sea ice melts climate is regulated. Pteropods, commonly known as sea but- and exposes seawater to the atmosphere Two recent projects, the European terflies, are free-swimming snails with there is a flow of CO2 into the ocean. Project on Ocean Acidification (EPOCA) a calcified shell. They are important This would suggest that as areas of the and the Catlin Arctic Survey (CAS2010) prey for many larger Arctic predators, Arctic Ocean become free of ice in sum- are attempting to address some of the such as Arctic Cod. Experiments to date mer there could be an increased uptake key questions about how carbon cycles have shown that these delicate creatures of CO2 into the ocean which will further between the atmosphere and the ocean could be at risk from ocean acidification. exacerbate ocean acidification. through the sea ice. Clams and cockles are also important However, recent studies suggest that shellfish in the Arctic and are the main the interaction is not quite so straight- food source for walruses and many Arc- forward. As sea-ice forms, the salts in “There is growing tic sea birds. Although there have only the water are extruded out into small been a few studies on Arctic shellfish, channels (brine channels) that flow concern that marine studies from more temperate regions through the ice. These brine waters organisms could be suggest that ocean acidification could have highly concentrated levels of CO2 cause changes in the energetic balance and buffering compounds (), stressed by ocean of these organisms. If they have to allo- which can flow into the surface ocean cate more energy to growth and calcify- and could change the dynamics of how acidification.” ing their shell, that means less energy is CO2 transfers between the ocean and available for reproduction. Even subtle the atmosphere. To further complicate changes in an organism’s physiology can the system, plants and animals that live The primary aim of the CAS 2010 was have severe impacts on the population in and under the sea-ice contribute to to gather a baseline dataset that will structure which in turn will affect the transporting carbon by inform scientists how carbon naturally ecosystem community and the flow of and respiration, as well as forming cal- cycles through the sea-ice during the energy through the food web. cium carbonate shells and skeletons. important transition from the cold, dark winter period to the warmer, light Industry already looking Consequences could be spring period. This information will north severe help to confirm the current status of With the Arctic potentially ice-free in There is growing concern that marine the Arctic Ocean in terms of its current summer in just a few decades, indus- organisms could be stressed by ocean pH level and its ability to cope with try and commercial organisations are acidification. Many oceanic organisms increases in CO2. The data will also in- already looking north. The oil and use carbonate minerals to make shells form scientists about the role of sea-ice gas industries will seek to exploit new and skeletons, but these structures in CO2 uptake into the ocean and how reserves, fisheries industries will look will dissolve as the seawater becomes biological processes contribute to ocean to exploit new fish stocks and shipping more acidic. Perhaps more impor- acidification or its amelioration. Other industries will look to exploit shorter tantly, nearly all physiological processes experiments assessed how important shipping routes. These additional are sensitive to changes in pH. Each – such as and stresses on this environment will add organism only has a certain amount of pteropods – are affected by changes in to the difficulties faced by organisms energy to make structures, develop and pH. living in a warming, acidifying ocean. It reproduce. This energy balance could be EPOCA carried out larger- and is therefore imperative that there is con- affected by changes in pH. If calcifying longer-term experiments on the impact tinued research into what role the Arctic organisms have to produce more cal- of ocean acidification on both benthic plays in absorbing carbon dioxide from cium carbonate structures to replace the (bottom-dwelling) and pelagic (water the atmosphere, how ocean acidifica- structure that is dissolving, this could column) organisms. tion might develop in the Arctic Ocean affect their energy balance. The studies were carried out on large and how this in turn will affect the key While scientists know the chemistry organisms such as sea urchins, cockles organisms that live there.

16 The Circle 4.2010 Catlin Arctic Survey 2010 blog At the Ice Base – the research begins

Researcher Laura Edwards was co-funded by WWF and the Royal Geographic Society to take part in the Catlin Arctic Survey. This is one of her blog postings from their base camp at Ellef Rignes Island, in Nunavut, Canada

Based on first year sea ice ing up to 60 mph, approximately 1.5 m thick and that night reached below -60 °C about 10 km from the rugged with wind chill. coastline of Isachsen on Ellef Our husky cross, Brownie, came Rignes Island the location of to the rescue for future trips to the Catlin Arctic Survey 2010 the sample site. As we no longer Ice Base site is stunning. It’s had the skidoo, man and dog quite surreal here, like being on worked together to haul the sci- a different planet and it’s not ence equipment to the sample as flat as you might think. The site. Brownie really enjoyed ice we’re camped on is flat but herself and pulled hard and to the north and south of camp now gets upset if we don’t take there are regions of multi year her with us on sampling days. ice which have ridged up over We’ve had some very success- time and created a bizarre but ful sampling days so far and beautiful rubbled ice landscape. the Catlin Arctic Survey 2010 Our sample site is approxi- project still has nearly a month mately 2 km west of camp and to run so hopefully we should initially we used a skidoo to collect a really good set of data get all the equipment out there for the period. Ceri has been to take the samples of water delighted to find a wide vari- chemistry, biology and under- ety of plankton in the waters lying physical measurements (copepods, pteropods) and the (currents and electronic equipment seems to profiles). As well as the water all be working well. Our initial studies, we are also taking ice ice base team have now headed core samples for analysis and back home and been replaced atmospheric studies to help with the with Paul Ramsden (Ice base manager), determination of CO2 flux through the Alastair Humphreys (Communications sea ice. The skidoo like many mechani- manager), John Huston (Polar guide), cal and digital systems did not like the Malin Hoiseth (Ice base chef) and Rus- extreme cold and broke down and it sell (Inuit guide). They’re all settling in chose to do so on the day a storm devel- Laura Edwards is a researcher at Ban- well and getting use to camp life. We oped whilst we were at the sample site. gor University studying the flux of car- made some good friends within the We ended up having to return to camp bon dioxide through sea ice and gaps original ice base staff and miss them during the storm on foot. The tempera- in the sea ice, known as polynyas. Her but I’m sure they’ll be some new good ture at the ice base had been around -25 research background is in oceanogra- friendships that develop with the new to -40 °C for our first week in camp but phy, glaciology and remote sensing. group. the night of the storm, with winds gust-

The Circle 4.2010 17 Communities

The Alysa June bringing in a net full of salmon caught 18 The Circle 4.2010 in Aniakchak Bay, Alaska. Communities Fishing for hope in Alaska The impact of ocean acidification has the potential to destroy livelihoods and traditions in commu- nities across the Arctic. Alaskan fishermanAl an Parks sees early warming signs along his coast. ➽

The Circle 4.2010 19 Photo: Buzz Hoffman/Creative Commons Photo: Buzz Hoffman/Creative A steady rain falling from a cloudy The north is particularly vulnerable Small changes, big consequences June sky limited my vision as I steered out of the Naknek River and into the steel-gray waters of Bristol Bay. Alaska’s Cold water can hold more gas than The shells of the tiny ptero- 2010 salmon season was underway warmer water. As a result, ocean waters pod, also known as the sea and prospects were good for a profit- around Alaska and throughout the Arctic butterfly or swimming sea

able harvest. But lurking just beneath are absorbing more CO2 – and therefore snail, may be dissolved by a the surface of that optimism, there is a acidifying – faster than the global aver- more acidic ocean. The impact shadow of uncertainty. age. The shallow waters of Alaska’s of that could be devastating, The seemingly pristine waters off compound the problem given that the pteropod is at Alaska conceal a troublesome secret. because there is less mixing of seawa- the base of the food chain and Like oceans everywhere, they’re growing ter from deeper ocean waters. makes up nearly half of the acidic, a condition that directly threat- The pH scale pink salmon’s diet. ens my livelihood, that of my friends 0 and neighbors, indeed our very way of life. What’s more unsettling is the fact 1 Battery acid this impending calamity is man-made. 2 Lemon juice

More 3 Vinegar Disruption of food chain acidic Ocean acidification results from human 4 activities that release millions of tons 5 of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere 6 Milk each day. A third Neutral 7 of it ends up in the Human blood (7.35–7.45) world’s oceans in- 8 Seawater (8.–8.2) creasing their acid- 9 Alan Parks has been ity. Normally mildly 10 alkaline, scientists More consequences for the salmon food in Alaska waters for alkaline Milk of magnesia warn that without 11 chain. Similar impacts could affect other over 30 years. He is dramatic reductions elements of the food chain, and thus a strong advocate for 12 Ammonia in carbon emis- other commercial species. The effects on sustainable manage- sions, ocean acidity 13 Lye Alaska’s economy would be profound. ment that promotes could increase 150 community-based 14 per cent by cen- Jobs, communities, fisheries and working tury’s end. traditions at risk waterfronts. He lives If conditions More than half the seafood harvested in in Homer, Alaska with become acidic the United States comes from Alaska, his two children Ella & enough, the shells pteropod production can lead to a 20 making it the third most important Hoxie. on corals, mollusks per cent drop in mature salmon body economic engine in the state behind and weight. North Slope oil and gas and federal will dissolve. Sea If current trends continue, pteropod spending. Preliminary figures show the life conditioned to the current alkalin- populations could collapse, with grave 2010 Alaska salmon harvest will take ity probably won’t have time to adapt to in over 164 million fish. State data indi- rapid increases in acidic conditions. cates some 90,000 jobs are directly or Why is that important to fishermen? “If fisheries decline, indirectly sustained by Alaska’s robust The food chain supporting salmon and fishing industry. Those jobs are all at other species in Alaska waters could be so will the economies risk should ocean acidification continue disrupted. Here’s an example of how: unchecked. vulnerable species include planktonic of many if not all of If fisheries decline, so will the econo- mollusks known as pteropods, an im- Alaska’s coastal com- mies of many if not all of Alaska’s coast- portant part of the food chain feeding al communities. Imagine whole villages certain species of salmon. Scientists tell munities.” and cities left without their primary us that a decrease of just 10 percent in sources of income. Residents would

20 The Circle 4.2010 Small changes, big consequences

Graphic: Alaska Marine Conservation Council and WWF-Alaska

tion Research Centre at the University “While research takes of Alaska Fairbanks. “Members of the fish- money, policy takes But research alone cannot make ing industry … should change. Data needs to be translated into will. Is there enough effective government policy targeting become role models the sources of carbon dioxide that cause of either?” ocean acidification while promoting the who practice energy development of nonpolluting energy resources. While research takes money, efficiency.” likely be forced to move. Harbours policy takes will. Is there enough of would be largely empty of fishing boats. either? Recently, there have been some Traditions that have lasted thousands of promising signs in the United States. will continue to threaten our oceans and years could disappear. The 2009 Federal Ocean Acidification fisheries, especially here in the Arctic. These devastating impacts on fami- Research and Monitoring Act estab- Of course, we don’t have to wait for lies, lifestyles and cultures would not lished ocean acidification programs government action to change the way be confined to Alaska. Arctic regions as within the National Oceanographic we conduct our daily lives. Members of a whole are particularly vulnerable to and Atmospheric Administration, the the fishing industry, who are depend- ocean acidification. National Science Foundation and the ent on fossil fuels, should become role There is sufficient evidence proving National Aeronautics and Space Admin- models who practice energy efficiency ocean acidification threatens our futures istration. The National Science Founda- and conservation at all times. and cannot rationally be ignored. tion recently awarded research grants For me, salmon fishing proved lucra- Concerted, sustained and well-financed funding studies around the nation, tive this summer. The poundage was research is imperative if we are to learn including the research at UAF. Similar down, but the price was up. I just can’t how to reverse the trend toward acidity. programs are proceeding overseas. help but wonder how much longer Some of that research is underway at Until that research is turned into ef- ocean conditions will permit me to be the newly established Ocean Acidifica- fective law, however, ocean acidification optimistic and successful.

The Circle 4.2010 21 The Antartctic

Acidification of the ocean raises concerns for the health of deep sea corals and other bottom-dwelling invertebrates.

Southern discomfort – Antarctic waters changing fast A ntarctic Survey (B S).ˆ

22 The Circle 4.2010 Photo: British Initial evidence indicates acidification in the Southern dramatically. Notably, acidification of the ocean will lead to the be- Ocean with be felt sooner and more acutely than in more coming shallower, raising concerns for temperate regions if continue the health of deep sea corals and other on their projected trajectory. Ocean acidification has the bottom-dwelling invertebrates. In areas of high seasonality such potential to cause serious problems for a number of shell- as that in the high-latitude Southern building organisms including many newly discovered Ocean, aragonite saturation thresholds bottom-dwelling species. WWF-Australia’s Rob Nicoll says may be reached in the colder winter months by approximately 2040 and it is rising CO levels are already reducing the average shell 2 possible that the entire weights of a some tiny but important animals. surface will be under-saturated for ara- gonite by 2100. The Southern Ocean represents human-caused ocean acidification has around ten per cent of the world’s ocean contributed to reduced calcification in Action on surface and covers an area of almost 35 Southern Ocean planktonic Acidification million square kilometres. Isolated by (small free-swimming animals with The scientific com- ice, wind and wild , it is one of the shells). One species is already show- munity has intensi- world’s most unspoiled environments. ing a 30-35 per cent reduction in the fied its research This unexpected beauty of the South- material it can form into a shell. Some into this area, but ern Ocean also supports some of the of the minerals used for shellbuilding by knowledge is still Rob Nicoll is WWF- most biologically productive regions of tiny creatures have different properties. limited. Australia’s manager of the world’s oceans and is home to some Aragonite dissolves more easily than WWF contin- Antarctic and Southern of the most fascinating creatures on our calcite and therefore species that make ues to call upon Ocean Initiative. planet. use of aragonite shells or structures are countries to make This is also where waters from all the under greater threat than those that Antarctic research major ocean basins are linked and the form calcite shells or structures. programs a priority to fill in the gaps majority of the deep ocean waters that In addition to the overall acidity of surrounding what we know about the drive the global oceanic conveyor belt sea water the depth and therefore the impacts of Southern Ocean acidifica- are formed. It has a unique and vital pressure of water is also important tion. These gaps include; impacts of role in influencing the world’s oceans to calcifying organisms. Below cer- ocean acidification over the long term; and climate. tain depths the dissolution of calcium impacts on non-calcifying organisms; Both polar regions act as “heat sinks” carbonate increases dramatically. This impacts of acidification on other bio- that affect the entire world’s climate boundary is called the lysocline. Above logical processes besides calcification and they are warming faster than other the lysocline the water is supersaturated in invertebrates and vertebrates, and areas of the world. with calcite or aragonite and calcium effects of acidification on recovery rates The Southern Ocean is one of the ma- carbonate formation is encouraged. Be- for vulnerable marine ecosystems such jor sinks of atmospheric CO2 accounting low it, the formation of calcite decreases as cold water corals. for more that 40 per cent of the annual mean CO2 uptake according to the Sci- The bottom of the food chain entific Committee on Antarctic research (SCAR). This satellite image shows phytoplank- ton in the ocean around New Zealand. Acidification in the Phytoplankton is the bottom of the food Southern Ocean chain in the ocean, indirectly sup- The impacts of ocean acidification will porting the entire fish population. Its be particularly acute in the Southern photosynthesis also absorbs enormous

Ocean before any other region and are amounts of CO2. Understanding how predicted to affect bottom-dwelling spe- much phytoplankton there is and how cies in shelf areas within 20 years and it behaves is important for planning phytoplankton and invertebrates with sustainable fishing and also for predict-

aragonite and calcite shells in water Earth O bservatory ’s ing future levels of greenhouse gases columns soon after. in the atmosphere.

Research is also showing that Photo: N A S

The Circle 4.2010 23 B-economique Retur WWF Global Arctic Programme PO Box 6784 St Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway

The picture Great catch – a thing of the past?

While the extent of ocean acidification caused by carbon emissions is still being studied, scientists agree that it already threatens a broad range of marine species, from microscopic plankton communities to larger fish that feed upon them. A giant halibut caught near the Orkney Islands in 1919, while Black Hawk was supporting the sweeping of the North Sea mine barrage. This one fish was sufficient for a meal for the entire crew.Note that a smaller, darker colored, halibut is also at- tached to the line.

Photo: U.S. Naval Historical Center Photograph

Why we are here To stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with .

www.panda.org/arctic