Salinity Tolerance and Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Quinoa For
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SALINITY TOLERANCE AND NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY OF QUINOA FOR EXPANDED PRODUCTION IN TEMPERATE NORTH AMERICA By ADAM JOSHUA PETERSON A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CROP SCIENCE WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY Department of Crop and Soil Science MAY 2013 To the Faculty of Washington State University: The members of the Committee appointed to examine the thesis of ADAM JOSHUA PETERSON find it satisfactory and recommend that it be accepted. ___________________________________ Kevin M. Murphy, Ph.D., Chair ___________________________________ Joan R. Davenport, Ph.D. ___________________________________ Kimberly A. Campbell, Ph.D. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I’d like to acknowledge those whose support and encouragement has sustained me throughout my time as a graduate student. I owe so much to my parents, Gary and Lisa, who helped cultivate a sense of curiosity in me from a young age. Whether it was allotting me a section of our pasture to grow wheat, or connecting my grain mill to a bicycle, they always found ways to support me, no matter how large or small. I’d also like to thank my sister, Allicia, and my grandmother, Arlene, for their support. I would like to acknowledge my undergraduate mentors: Martha Rosemeyer, Donald Morisato, Stephen Bramwell, and Melissa Barker, for guiding an undecided science major into the field of sustainable agriculture. Special thanks to Stephen Bramwell and Melissa Barker for keeping me in mind for a job managing a quinoa trial at the Evergreen Organic Farm three years ago. I would like to thank the members of my committee. I owe a huge debt of gratitude to Kevin Murphy, my advisor and mentor. His advice, encouragement, and calm reassurance helped ground me as a graduate student, and he’s truly been a role model for me as a budding plant breeder. He began me on an adventure with this crop that’s taken me from the rolling hills of the Palouse across the planet to the Rift Valley of Africa. I can’t thank him enough. I would like to thank Joan Davenport and Kim Campbell for their support and expert advice. Joan Davenport helped ignite my interest in soil science and provided me with quick and knowledgeable advice through the challenges I faced in my research. I’m iii very grateful to Kim Campbell for her assistance in statistical analysis, which was helpful for a complex data set that proved quite the challenge to analyze. I would like to recognize the help and encouragement I received from teachers, faculty, staff, technicians, and fellow students. Sam Turner, Raymond Kinney, Hannah Walters, Karen Welch, Kelsey Highet, Dustin Tombleson, Joseph Astorino, Brook Brouwer, and Edward Olson for their encouragement and help with field and greenhouse work. Thanks to Marc Evans, for his invaluable help with SAS code. Many thanks to Janet Matanguihan, Max Wood, Brad Jaeckel, and Jacqueline Cruver, for their generous and crucial support. I’d like to acknowledge and thank Tobin Peever for lending me use of the microscopes in his lab, which I used to photograph quinoa crossing techniques. I’d like to acknowledge WSU BIOAg and the Organic Farming Research Foundation (OFRF) for their financial support, which made this research possible. Above all, I’d like to thank and express my deep admiration for the many indigenous peoples of South America who developed and continue to grow quinoa in some of the harshest agricultural environments on the planet. Their perseverance throughout the centuries is reflected in the resilience of this remarkable crop. I’d like to express my sincere hope that the development of quinoa as a crop outside of South America leads only to their benefit and wellbeing. iv SALINITY TOLERANCE AND NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY OF QUINOA FOR EXPANDED PRODUCTION IN TEMPERATE NORTH AMERICA Abstract by Adam Joshua Peterson, M.S. Washington State University May 2013 Chair: Kevin M. Murphy Quinoa has attracted increasing attention worldwide and in North America due to its high level of mineral nutrition and superior tolerance to marginal agriculture conditions and abiotic stresses. A wide range of challenges and opportunities currently face expanded quinoa production in North America. Heat susceptibility, pre-harvest sprouting, and downy mildew are among the most important of these challenges. In spite of these challenges, varieties with tolerance to high temperatures and resistance to pre- harvest sprouting and downy mildew have been identified. Quinoa’s high level of salinity tolerance will also allow the crop to take advantage of marginal agriculture conditions that limit productivity of other crops. Two experiments were conducted to explore quinoa’s potential for expanded production in North America. The first experiment examined the relative salinity tolerance of four Chilean lowland varieties to determine their suitability for cultivation on saline soils in North America. All quinoa varieties were grown at 8, 16, and 32 dS m-1 NaCl and Na2SO4 and at a no-salt control. Quinoa demonstrated high levels of salinity tolerance, far exceeding that of barley, a crop generally considered saline tolerant. v Additionally, variation for salinity tolerance was found among the four quinoa varieties. On the basis of yield, quinoa was found to better tolerate Na2SO4 than NaCl at equal EC levels. Previous studies on quinoa and other crops indicate that salinity can significantly impact mineral nutrition of seeds. Our results indicate complex but significant effects from salinity, fertilization level, and variety, and the interaction of these factors, on Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, P, and Zn concentrations in quinoa seed. The second experiment investigated the response of a wide range of varieties to four levels of a nitrogen-rich organic fertilizer. However, large declines in yield due to high temperatures limited the recovery of useful data on nitrogen use efficiency from the study. Valuable data was gathered on the relative levels of heat tolerance present among the Chilean lowland cultivars currently part of the WSU quinoa program. Field observations indicate that natural selection in 2011 may have increased heat tolerance in the same varieties grown the following year. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..…………………………………………………………...iii-iv ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………v-vi LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………..xii-xii LIST OF FIGURES.……………………………………………………………………..xv GLOBAL INTRODUCTION...…………………………………………………………...1 CHAPTER 1: QUINOA CULTIVATION FOR TEMPERATE NORTH AMERICA: CONSIDERATIONS AND AREAS FOR INVESTIGATION…………………………..5 1. INTRODUCTION.……………………………………………………………..6 2. HEAT TOLERANCE…………………………………………………………..9 3. VARIETY SELECTION……………………………………………………...10 4. DROUGHT TOLERANCE…………………………………………………...12 5. WATERLOGGING AND SPROUTING……………………………………..13 6. COLD TOLERANCE…………………………………………………………14 7. SALINITY TOLERANCE……………………………………………………15 8. DISEASE……………………………………………………………………...19 9. INSECTS AND PESTS………………………..……………………………...21 10. WEED CONTROL…………………………………………………………..24 11. FORAGE…………………………………………………………………….25 12. FERTILIZATION……………………………………………………………26 13. PLANTING/SPACING……………………………………………………...29 14. MATURITY AND HARVESTING…………………………………………32 vii 15. SAPONINS…………………………………………………………………..33 16. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………35 CHAPTER 2: TOLERANCE OF LOWLAND QUINOA CULTIVARS TO SODIUM CHLORIDE AND SODIUM SULFATE SALINITY I: EFFECTS ON YIELD, HEIGHT, AND LEAF GREENNESS…………………...………………………………………….47 1. INTRODUCTION.………. …………………………………………………..48 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS……………………………………………...50 2.1 Experimental design………………………………………………….50 2.2 Statistical analysis …………………………………………………...52 3. RESULTS……………………………………………………………………..53 3.1 Yield………………………………………………………………….53 3.2 Leaf greenness………...……………………………………………..55 3.3 Plant height…………………………………………………………..56 3.4 Correlations…………………………………………………………..56 4. DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………57 4.1 Yield………………………………………………………………….57 4.2 Leaf greenness………………………………………...……………..58 4.3 Plant height…………………………………………………………..61 4.4 Correlations…………………………………………………………..62 5. CONCLUSION.……………………………………………………………….63 CHAPTER 3: TOLERANCE OF LOWLAND QUINOA CULTIVARS TO SODIUM CHLORIDE AND SODIUM SULFATE SALINITY II: EFFECTS OF SALINITY ON MINERAL NUTRITION OF SEEDS…………………………………………………...85 1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………….86 viii 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS……………………………………………...87 2.1 Experimental design………………………………………………….87 2.2 Statistical analysis……………………………………………………88 3. RESULTS……………………………………………………………..………89 3.1 Ca……………………………………………………………….……89 3.2 Cu……………………………………………………………...……..92 3.3 Fe……………………………………………………………...….......95 3.4 Mg…………………………………………………………………....99 3.5 Mn………………………………………………………...………...102 3.6 P…………………………………………………………………….106 3.7 Zn……………………………………………………………….......110 4. DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………..113 4.1 Ca……………………………………………………………….…..113 4.2 Cu……………………………………………………………...……115 4.3 Fe…………………………………………………………...…….....116 4.4 Mg………………………………………………………….……….117 4.5 Mn………………………………………………………….……….119 4.6 P…………………………………………………………………….120 4.7 Zn…………………………………………………………………...121 5. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………112 CHAPTER 4: NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY OF QUINOA UNDER ORGANIC CONDITIONS IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON……………………………...145 ix 1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………...146 2a. MATERIALS AND METHODS – 2011 QUINOA NUE EXPERIMENT...148 2a.1 Quinoa varieties…………………………………………………...148 2a.2 Experimental design……………………………………………….148 2a.3 Statistical analysis………………………………………………....151 2b. MATERIALS AND METHODS – 2012 MODIFIED QUINOA NUE EXPERIMENT………………………………………………………………....151