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Epicurean Epistemology

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Epicurean Epistemology View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Repository of University of Zagreb, Centre for Croatian Studies UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB CENTRE FOR CROATIAN STUDIES Ana Gavran Miloš EPICUREAN EPISTEMOLOGY DOCTORAL THESIS Zagreb, 2010 SVEUČILIŠTE U ZAGREBU HRVATSKE STUDIJI Ana Gavran Miloš EPIKUROVSKA EPISTEMOLOGIJA DOKTORSKI RAD Zagreb, 2010 UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB CROATIAN STUDIES Ana Gavran Miloš EPICUREAN EPISTEMOLOGY DOCTORAL THESIS Mentor: dr. sc. Filip Grgić Zagreb, 2010 Sažetak U razdoblju helenističke filozofije razlikuju se tri osnovne discipline, etika, fizika i logika (epistemologija). Epikurove osnovne teze u sve tri discipline su u helenističkoj filozofiji okarakterizirane kao izrazito kontroverzne, povlačeći za sobom brojne polemike, a vrlo često i podsmijeh. U fizici tako Epikur tvrdi da se svijet sastoji od atoma i praznine, u etici da je najviše dobro za kojim težimo ugoda, no epistemološka teza čini se najproblematičnijom. Osnovu Epikurove epistemologije čini zamisao po kojoj su svi opažaji istiniti. Ovom tezom bavit ću se u disertaciji. Epikurova epistemologija, kao i epistemološka pitanja ostalih helenističkih škola, potaknuta su dvama važnim pitanjima: (i) je li znanje uopće moguće i (ii) ukoliko je moguće, na čemu počiva znanje? Epikurovi odgovori na ova pitanja baziraju se na prihvaćanju opažajnog iskustva kao temelja na kojem svo znanje počiva. Utoliko je jasno da se Epikura može svrstati na stranu empirističke tradicije znanja. No ono što razlikuje njegov empirizam od onih iz njegova vremena, ali i od kasnijeg empirizma u povijesti filozofije, jeste zamisao da se empirističko znanje može obraniti samo ukoliko se prihvati teza o nepogrešivosti opažaja, što ukazuje na radikalnost Epikurovog pothvata Međutim, ono što je osobito iznenađujuće u njegovoj empirističkoj epistemologiji je pokušaj obrane takvog znanja koja se zasniva na atomističkoj teoriji. Epikur tu slijedi donekle Demokrita, koji također polazi od empirističke pretpostavke da je osnova znanja moguća samo na temelju opažanja, no u trenutku kada nas opažanje odvede do atomističke teorije, opažajni svijet pokazuje se nespojivim s atomističkim i stoga ga Demokrit odbacuje. Drugim riječima, svijet boja, mirisa i ostalih fenomenoloških svojstava Demokrit proglašava konvencijom, dok je prava realnost ona atomistička, lišena svih navedenih svojstava. Epikurova epistemologija je upravo pokušaj spajanja svjetova koje je Demokrit razdvojio. Dakle, Epikur želi zadržati sliku svijeta onakvom kakvom je vidimo, to jest, neku vrstu naivnog realizma i pokazati da je ta slika svijeta spojiva s atomističkom. Način na koji to ostvaruje je već spomenuta ideja o nepogrešivosti svih opažaja. Predmet ovoga rada je interpretacija osnovne Epikurove teze, gdje ću pokušati ponuditi argumente u prilog Epikurovoj tezi i njegovoj epistemološkoj teoriji. Prije nego krenem na konkretniji prikaz onoga čime ću se baviti, potrebno je istaknuti da u radu govorim o 'epikurovskoj' filozofiji, te izvore Epikura i kasnijih epikurovaca tretiram kao jednako važne primarne izvore. Razlog za to leži u činjenici da je kasnija epikurovska škola ostala izrazito vjerna Epikurovim originalnim tekstovima, osobito u usporedbi s drugim školama, recimo stoičkom, koja bilježi izrazite promjene doktrina u okviru pojedinih disciplina. Kod epikurovaca, s druge strane, stabilnost unutar doktrinarnog sustava bazira se na izrazitom poštovanju Epikura, kojeg se gotovo uzdizalo na nivo božanstva. Njegov autoritet stoga ostaje neupitan i stoljećima nakon njegove smrti. Za takvo nešto pobrinuo se i sam Epikur budući da je sustav prenošenja znanja organizirao na način da su se osnovni postulati i filozofski kanoni učili napamet. Primjerice, sačuvano Pismo Herodotu je sažetak fizikalnih i epistemoloških doktrina koje su služile upravo tome da ih studenti doslovno memoriraju. Osim toga, u svojoj oporuci Epikur je zadao smjernice ponašanja nakon njegove smrti iz kojih je vidljiva želja za održavanjem zajednice na okupu i gotovo sektaškom jedinstvu. Naime, Epikur je utvrdio datume koji su se morali obilježavati, poput njegova rođendana i rođendana članova njegove obitelji, dok su neka okupljanja utvrđena na mjesečnoj razini, poput onog posvećenog Metrodoru. (DL X.18) U tako organiziranoj zajednici, u kojoj je kult utemeljitelja bio maksimalno poštivan i slavljen, izgradio se zajednički identitet i osjećaj pripadnosti, koji nije bio prisutan kod ostalih škola tog vremena. Prihvatiti osnovne Epikurove postavke značilo je prihvatiti određeni stil života. Stoga se niti u svojim tekstovima kasniji epikurovci ne udaljavaju od originalnog Epikurovog učenja, iako ga nadopunjavaju i razvijaju sukladno raspravama aktualnim vremenu u kojem žive. Najjasniji dokaz poštovanja prema učitelju nalazimo kod rimskog epikurovca, Lukrecija, koji epikurovskoj filozofiji posvećuje djelo De rerum natura. U njemu Lukrecije piše o osnovnim postulatima epikurovske filozofije na način da je predstavlja kao jedinu istinitu. U isto vrijeme kada Lukrecije piše, aktivna je i epikurovska škola koja djeluje pored Napulja i čiji je osnivač Filodem. (De Fin. II.119) Njegovo djelo De signis je jedno od najznačajnijih prikaza kasnije epikurovske filozofije o metodama provjere istinitosti vjerovanja i zaključivanju na temelju znakova. Filodemovo pisanje jasno pokazuje da se Epikura i dalje smatralo apsolutnim autoritetom, što potvrđuje i praksa nekih drugih kasnijih epikurovaca, primjerice Kolota, koji svoju filozofsku aktivnost vide u tome da na sustavan način pokažu kako su sve ostale filozofske škole u krivu. Sve ovo, dakle, daje za osnovu da govorimo o epikurovskoj epistemologiji kao zajedničkoj doktrini Epikura i njegovih kasnijih sljedbenika. Epikurova filozofija prije svega podređena je moralnoj teoriji i zamisli da je ugoda najviše dobro kojem ljudi teže, te je stoga osnovni cilj riješiti se neugode. Jedan od uzroka neugode Epikur vidi u krivim vjerovanjima, koji u nas unose nemir i strah, a to su prije svega vjerovanje da se bogovi mogu miješati u naše živote, zatim da su nebeska tijela božanstva i da je smrt nešto čega se trebamo plašiti. (DL. X.76-7, 124) epikurovska filozofija stoga ima za cilj ukloniti ova vjerovanja, dakle djelovati terapeutski, sa ciljem postizanja sreće (eudaimonia). No, takva vjerovanja moguće je ukloniti samo ukoliko spoznamo pravu sliku svijeta, a to je atomistička teorija, koja će nam onda pokazati da se bogovi ne miješaju u naš svijet, da nebeska tijela nisu božanstva, kao i to da smrt nije nešto čega se trebamo plašiti. Stoga, potrebno je dakle krenuti u fizikalno istraživanje osnovnih sastavnica svijeta i prave prirode predmeta koji nas okružuju, odnosno steći znanje o svijetu. Za Epikura je epistemologija stoga podređena moralnoj teoriji i njena funkcija je prije svega instrumentalna. No, to ne umanjuje njezin značaj, budući bez znanja o svijetu sreća nije ostvariva. Epikur u epistemologiji polazi od toga da je potrebno odrediti sredstva na temelju kojih utvrđujemo istinitost ili lažnost vjerovanja. Drugim riječima, potrebno je odrediti standarde istinitosti. Problem standarda ili kriterija istinitosti je središnji problem helenističke epistemologije, a uvodi ga upravo Epikur. Kod Diogena nalazimo zapis da je Epikur napisao djelo O kriteriju, ili Kanon, gdje 'kanon' u doslovnom značenju označava ravnalo kojim se provjeravala ravnoća dugih crta. (DL X.27) U skladu s tom metaforom, Epikura smatra da je u epistemologiji potrebno pronaći ekvivalentno oruđe kojim ćemo provjeravati istinitost. Problem kriterija kojeg potom prihvaćaju i ostale škole, prije svega stoička, tako postaje temeljni problem epistemologije, koji se odnosi na utvrđivanje temelja istinitosti. Epikur je smatrao da postoje tri kriterija: opažaji (aistheseis), osjećaji (pathe) i pretpojmovi (prolepseis). Opažaji i pretpojmovi su epistemološki kriteriji, dok su osjećaji kriterij za djelovanje i spadaju u područje etike, te se stoga s njima ne bavim u radu.1 Rad započinje pregledom razvoja i motivacije koja je dovela do otvaranja problema kriterija istinitosti u helenističkoj filozofiji. U literaturi se obično govori o 'epistemološkom obratu' koji je nastao uvođenjem ovog problema, budući da se njime fokus interesa u epistemologiji sada usmjerava prije svega na pitanje mogućnosti znanja, što implicira ozbiljniju potrebu da se odgovori skeptičkom izazovu, te stoga i potrebu da se jasno odrede polazišne točke i temelj istinitosti. U radu tvrdim da ono što potiče Epikura na bavljenje ovim problemom jeste skepticizam koji proizlazi iz demokritovske epistemologije. Naime, Demokrit otvara jaz između svijeta osjetilnog iskustva, koji se sastoji od boja i drugih kvalitativnih svojstava s jedne strane, i s druge svijeta kakav zapravo jeste, dakle, svijet atoma i praznine. Ono što je osobito problematično jeste činjenica da atomistička slika svijeta pokazuje ovu iskustvenu kao neprimjerenu i lažnu, te je stoga razumno odbaciti je što 1 Više o pathe vidi DL X.129, 34; Cicero, De fin I.23. Demokrit upravo i čini. Međutim, posljedica toga pogubna je i za sam atomizam, budući da metoda dolaska do znanja o atomima polazi od iskustva i nikako od razuma. Epikur je svjestan ovih loših, skeptičkih posljedica koje proizlaze iz Demokritove epistemologije i cilj mu je pokazati da se obje slike svijeta mogu spasiti. Drugim riječima, Epikur tvrdi da je moguće imati znanje o obje realnosti i to tako da se one međusobno ne isključuju, nego upravo suprotno – opažaji služe kao znakovi na temelju kojih je opravdano izvesti zaključak
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