Nuclear Shutdown Chernobyl Deaths Top Nuclear Shutdown a Million Based on Real Dr

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Contents Nuclear Shutdown Chernobyl Deaths Top Nuclear Shutdown a Million Based on Real Dr. Mae-Wan Ho and Prof. Peter Saunders Evidence Truth about Fukushima Now or never But as in Chernobyl, the government Fukushima Fallout Rivals “We lost Japan,” said Rie Inomata, who works has withheld vital information from people, as an interpreter [1]. the international regulators are downplay- Chernobyl “I feel guilty and sorry for the children. They ing the health impacts, and to this day, the Bystander Effects Amplify did not choose nuclear power plants, they total radioactivity released from the stricken Dose and Harm from did not choose to be born; but it is them that Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant is still have to suffer in the future.” unknown [6] (Truth about Fukushima, SiS 55). Ionizing Radiation “By not protesting against nuclear power I al- The most authoritative estimates based Apple Pectin for lowed this accident to happen. If we go in the on measurements carried out by the Compre- same direction, I don’t see any future.” hensive Test Ban Treaty monitoring stations Radioprotection “If we [are to] make a difference, we must around the globe indicate that the total radio- The Pectin Controversy decide now, it is now or never.” activity released from the Fukushima accident is at least as great as from Chernobyl; some Green Tea Compound for Potential future of Fukushima children 15 times the official estimate, and much more Radioprotection written in Chernobyl global in reach [7] (Fukushima Fallout Rivals WHO Report on Fukushima a The potential future for the Fukushima Chernobyl, SiS 55). The radioactivity in the children victims is written starkly in the waste water discharged into the Pacific Ocean Travesty government birth and death registries of the is already the single largest release into the UK’s Nuclear Illusion heavily contaminated regions in the Cherno- ocean in history. byl fallout; dedicated doctors, scientists, and The Japanese government’s own measurements show widespread contamination, ISIS special report by Dr. Mae-Wan Ho, ordinary citizens are bearing witness to the with levels of radioactivity outside the official Susie Greaves and Prof. Peter Saunders humanitarian disaster still unfolding. There have been close to a million excess evacuation zone so high that within a matter deaths, with general mortality rates doubled of weeks, people would have been exposed to or tripled [2] (Chernobyl Deaths Top a Million 10-200 times the legal limit dose for a whole Based on Real Evidence, SiS 55). A diversity year [6]. Evacuation especially of children of illnesses continue to claim lives includ- from those areas is a matter of the utmost ing those of children: birth abnormalities, urgency. Yet the Japanese government is still cancers, cardiovascular malfunction, prema- refusing to do that. ture aging, defects affecting practically every organ system, often multiple illnesses in the Nuclear reactors to restart despite lag in same individual, all associated with exposure crisis plan to radioactivity in the body either inhaled or On 16 June 2o12, Japanese premier Noda ingested in contaminated food. The number ordered the restart of two nuclear reactors of children in Belarus has fallen by more than amid widespread protest, and new crisis plans 27% since 2000, despite increasing birth rates. drafted after the Fukushima disaster are still The horrific health impacts of the nuclear to be implemented by any local community accident are still emerging more than 26 years living near the nuclear power reactors. The later because the land is still contaminated, Ohi nuclear reactors to be restarted are a case and the genetic/epigenetic legacy is just as in point. long lasting. If a Fukushima-style meltdown were to Many of the deaths and sicknesses could happen, the only route for escape or sending have been avoided had governments not help is [8] “a winding, cliff-hugging road often done their best to suppress the evidence from closed by snow in winter or clogged by beach- the start, even to the point of persecuting goers in summer.” Radioactivity from the doctors and scientists - who put their lives and meltdown could contaminate Lake Biwa, the careers at risk in trying to save the children country’s biggest freshwater source serving -including cutting off major funding for a 14 million people. The reactors sit on Wakasa simple treatment that would have reduced Bay, a region home to 13 commercial reactors. the children’s radioactive burden [3, 4] (Apple Some of the crucial measures designed to Pectin for Radioprotection, The Pectin Contro- protect residents in the new crisis plans are versy, SiS 55). not ready, such as a raised seawall in 2013 and an onsite command centre by March 2o16. Fukushima fallout as big as Chernobyl And filter vents that could reduce radiation Chernobyl was generally recognized as the leaks to the environment won’t be ready for biggest nuclear accident in history. Within three more years. days of the first explosion, Fukushima was The Fukui provincial government only reclassified by the International Atomic started a survey in June 2012 for a multibillion Energy Agency to the highest grade 7 – dollar project to repair the sole route to the with “widespread health and environmen- Ohi nuclear plant and to add a new alternative tal effects” – the same as Chernobyl [5] evacuation road. (Fukushima Nuclear Crisis, SiS 50). Governor Yukuko Kada of neighbouring

Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 3

Shiga province accuses the central govern- mined to go ahead with the construction the Chernobyl radioactivity fallout ment of still ignoring the residents, and of at least 10 new reactors, despite plenty suppressed by governments and pro-nuclear says it has still refused to provide radiation of counter-evidence available to it, which regulatory authorities simulation data she has asked for in order to include evidence that an adequate supply of • The real extent of the Fukushima fallout compile an evacuation map and to study the low carbon energy could be produced with- and health hazards faced by victims, both impact on Lake Biwa, as another Fukushima- out it, to the point of misleading Parliament downplayed by the Japanese government class crisis could “instantly make the lake by omission of the evidence in order to get and the regulatory authorities water undrinkable.” the decision through [11] (UK’s Nuclear Illu- • New findings on the amplified health Public opposition to resuming opera- sion, SiS 55), and with a huge public subsidy. impacts of low dose ionizing radiation tions remains high because of the Fukushima Why? • Simple radioprotection measures. disaster and a lingering distrust of the nuclear The most likely explanation is a too-cosy It also shows why the official picture industry as well as the pro-nuclear regulators relationship between the government and presented by organisations such as the WHO and governments. the nuclear industry, which applies in other is highly misleading, and why countries still But the public have good reason on their countries like France [12] (The True Costs determined to go nuclear are clinging to side. of French Nuclear Power, SiS 53) with close obsolete energy and defence policies. links to nuclear weaponry. But times have The report makes clear that children liv- Big nuclear accidents 200 times more often changed, the nuclear option is a dinosaur, ing in the highly contaminated areas outside than previous estimates both as far as energy supply and defence is the official evacuation zone around Fukushi- Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for concerned, and it is time to end the nuclear ma Dai-ichi nuclear plants must be evacuated Chemistry in Mainz have calculated that cata- illusion once and for all. promptly in order to avert a humanitarian strophic nuclear accidents such as Chernobyl disaster on the scale of Chernobyl. Concerted and Fukushima may occur once every 10 to WHO cannot be trusted international effort is needed to provide help 20 years, based on the operating hours of The World Health Organisation (WHO), which for evacuating the children and to continue all civil nuclear reactors and the number of should have been an independent regula- health monitoring and research on radiopro- nuclear meltdowns that have occurred [9]. tor of nuclear safety, has long abandoned tection. Finally, a global phase out of nuclear This is more than 200 times as often than this obligation. In 1959, the WHO signed power is in order given that a combination of estimated in the past. The research team also an agreement (WHA 12-40) with IAEA that renewable energy options can provide all our determined that in the event of such a major effectively gave the IAEA responsibility for energy needs safely, sustainably and at much accident, half of the long-lived radioactive health issues arising from the civilian use of more affordable costs for all, as we made the caesium-137 would be spread over an area nuclear power. The terms of the agreement case thoroughly in ([16] Green Energies - 100% extending more than 1 000 km away from the are freely available to the public [13] but they Renewable by 2050, ISIS Report). reactor. Western Europe in particular is likely are still not widely known, with the result that most people are unaware that reports References to be contaminated about once in 50 years by 1. Stories from Fukushima, Message in a Bottle, From the more than 40kBq of Cs-137 per square metre, and other documents that purport to have kids of Fukushima to the World, accessed 20 June 2012, a level upwards that the International Atomic major input from the WHO, the agency set up http://message.in.a.bottle.over-blog.com/pages/STORIES_ Energy Agency (IAEA) defines as ‘contami- by the UN in 1948 to deal with international FROM_FUKUSHIMA_ENGLISH-6985709.html 2. Ho MW. Chernobyl deaths top a million. Science in nated’. health issues, are actually from the IAEA, Society 55, 14-17, 2012. Their calculations showed that if a single the body whose mission is to promote the 3. Ho MW. Apple pectin for radioprotection. Science in nuclear meltdown were to occur in Western nuclear industry. The WHO has put its name Society 55, 32-33, 2012. on documents such as the 2003-2005 report 4. Greaves S. The pectin controversy. Science in Society 55, Europe, ~ 28 million people would be affected 34-36, 2012. by contamination of more than 40 kBq per of the Chernobyl Forum [14] that it had little 5. Ho MW. Fukushima nuclear crisis. Science in Society 50 square metre. In southern Asia, the dense to do with; it could not have because it has no 4-9, 2011. population would put the number of people department for nuclear health and no experts 6. Ho MW. Truth about Fukushima. Science in Society 55, 18-23, 2012. affected by a major nuclear accident at ~34 in the field. Its report on Fukushima, similarly, 7. Ho MW. Fukushima fallout rivals Chernobyl. Science in million, while in the eastern USA and in East cannot be trusted [15] (WHO Report on Fuku- Society 55, 24-27, 2012. Asia this would be 14 to 21 million. shima a Travesty, SiS 55) 8. “Crisis plans lag even as Japan’s reactors restart”, Mari IndependentWHO, an organisation con- Yamaguchi, Associated Press, chron.com, 21 June 2012, Fukushima has triggered Germany’s exit http://www.chron.com/business/article/Crisis-plans-lag- from their nuclear power programme. It is to cerned about the dangers of nuclear power in even-as-Japan-s-reactors-restart-3650896.php#page-1 close down all 17 nuclear reactors and replace general and the consequences of Chernobyl 9. “Probability of contamination from nuclear accidents is them with renewable energies, mostly wind and Fukushima in particular, demands the re- higher than expected” Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, 22 May 2012, http://www.mpg.de/5809418/reactor_accidents and solar, and has invested €200 billion (8 % vision of agreement WHA 12/40, and has held 10. “Germany swaps nuclear for solar and wind power”, of the country’s GDP) towards that end [10]. a vigil outside WHO headquarters in Geneva Oliver Lazenby, Truthout, 22 June 2012, http://truth-out. “Germany’s exit from the nuclear energy every working day since April 2007 to draw org/news/item/9932-germany-swaps-nuclear-for-solar-and- attention to the crime of non-assistance to wind-power program will reduce the national risk of radio- 11. Saunders PT. UK’s nuclear illusion. Science in Society 55, active contamination.” said Director and lead the victims of Chernobyl and now Fukushima. 40-42, 2012. author of the Max Planck study Jos Lelieveld, (For more, see its web site: http://independ- 12. Greaves S . The true costs of French nuclear power. an atmosphere chemist [9]. “However, an entwho.org/en/.) Science in Society 53, 8-11, 2012. 13. Agreement between the International Atomic Energy even stronger reduction would result if Ger- Thanks to the IndependentWHO, the Agency and the World Health Organisation, IAEA/WHO, many’s neighbours were to switch off their editors of SiS were invited to the Scientific 1959, http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/In- reactors. Not only do we need an in-depth and Citizen Forum on Radioprotection – From fcircs/Others/inf20.shtml#note_c Chernobyl to Fukushima, 11-13 May 2012, Ge- 14. Chernobyl’s Legacy: Health Environmental and Socio- and public analysis of the actual risks of nucle- Economic Impacts and Recommendations to the Govern- ar accidents. In light of our findings I believe neva, which the group organized. This led to ments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. an internationally coordinated phasing out of the series of articles that has been collected IAEA Division of Public Information. Vienna, IAEA, 2006, nuclear energy should also be considered.” into the present report, Death Camp Fuku- http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Booklets/Chernobyl/ chernobyl.pdf shima Chernobyl. 15. Greaves S. WHO report on Fukushima a travesty. Sci- Some governments have too cosy a rela- ence in Society 55, 38-39, 2012. tionship with the nuclear industry Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 16. Ho MW, Brett C, Burcher S and Saunders PT. Green Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl is a concise Energies, 100 % Renewables by 2050, ISIS/TWN, London/ The UK government is chief among those Penang, 2009, http://www.i-sis.org.uk/GreenEnergies.php countries with nuclear ambitions undaunted summary of scientific evidence on: by the Fukushima disaster. It is still deter- • The devastating health consequences of SiS

www.i-sis.org.uk 4 Chernobyl Deaths Top a Million Based on Real Evidence

Medical records from contaminated areas speak for themselves; doctors, scientists and citizens bear witness to the devastating health impacts of radioactive fallout from nuclear accidents Dr. Mae-Wan Ho

Official denial by nuclear lobby es the total The Chernobyl disaster occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl confirmed Nuclear Power Plant near the city of Prypiat in Ukraine, then part of deaths from the Soviet Union, and close to the administrative border with radiation Belarus. A sudden power output surge prompted an attempt at at 64 as of emergency shutdown; but a more extreme spike in power output led 2008. The to the rupture of a reactor vessel and a series of explosions. The Chernobyl graphite moderator was exposed, causing it to ignite, and the Forum [4] resulting fire sent a plume of highly radioactive fallout over large founded in parts of the western Soviet Union and Europe. From 1986 to 2000, February 350 400 people were evacuated and resettled from the most 2003 at the contaminated areas of Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. According to IAEA Head- Alexey Yablokov Dr. official post-Soviet data, about 57 % of the fallout landed in Belarus quarters in [1]. Chernobyl is widely considered to have been the worst nuclear Vienna with representatives from IAEA and UN agencies including accident in history and one of only two classified as a level 7 event on UNSCEAR, WHO, the World Bank, and Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, the International Nuclear Event Scale, the other being the Fukushima estimates that the eventual death toll could reach 4 000 among Daiichi nuclear meltdown in 2011 (see [2] Fukushima Nuclear Crisis, SiS those exposed to the highest levels of radiation (200 000 emer- 50). gency workers, 115 000 evacuees and 270 000 residents of the most From the beginning, the official nuclear safety experts were at contaminated areas); the figure includes some 50 emergency work- pains to minimise the projected health impacts, as they are doing ers who died of acute radiation syndrome, 9 children who died of now for the Fukushima accident. thyroid cancer and an estimated total of 3950 deaths from radiation- The UNSCEAR (United Nations Scientific Committee on the induced cancer and leukemia. The Union of Concerned Scientists Effects of Atomic Radiation) estimated a “global collective dose” of based in Washington in the United States estimates another 50 000 radiation exposure from the accident “equivalent on average to 21 excess cancer cases among people living in areas outside the most additional days of world exposure to natural background radiation”. contaminated, and 25 000 excess deaths. A Greenpeace report puts Successive studies reported by the IAEA (International Atomic En- the figure at 200 000 or more. The Russian publication,Chernobyl , ergy Agency) continued to underestimate the level of exposure and by scientists Alexey V. Yablokov, Vassily B Nesterenko, and Alexey V. to understate health impacts other than [3] “psychosocial effects, Nesterenko, translated and published by the New York Academy of believed to be unrelated to radiation exposure” resulting from the Sciences in 2009, concludes that among the billions of people world- lack of information immediately after the accident, “the stress and wide who were exposed to radioactive contamination from the trauma of compulsory relocation to less contaminated areas, the disaster, nearly a million deaths had already occurred between 1986 breaking of social ties and the fear that radiation exposure could and 2004. Most of the deaths were in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine [5] cause health damage in the future.” (see Truth about Chernobyl, SiS 47). The report drew on thousands The number of deaths attributed to Chernobyl varies widely [1]. of published papers and internet and printed publications. Those Thirty-one deaths are directly attributed to the accident, all among publications and papers, written by leading Eastern authorities, were the reactor staff and emergency workers. An UNSCEAR report plac- downplayed or ignored by the IAEA and UNSCEAR. These agencies minimised their estimates by several ploys including [6]: Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 5

• Underestimating the level of radiation by averaging exposure over a large regions, such as an entire country; so high exposure doses and health statistics of the most contaminated areas are lumped together with the less and least exposed • Ignoring internal sources of radiation due to inhalation and ingestion of radioactive material

Dr. Galina Bandajevskaya Dr. from fallout • Using an obsolete and erroneous model of linear energy transfer due to external sources of ionising radiation • Not counting diseases and conditions other than cancers • Overestimating the natural background radiation; today’s ‘back- Figure 1 Relative death rates in 6 highly contaminated provinces com- ground’ has been greatly increased by discharges from nuclear ac- pared with 6 less contaminated provinces in Russia; zero represents tivities including tests of nuclear weapons, use of depleted uranium, no difference from Russia as a whole and uranium mining • Suppressing and withholding information from the public. are places in Norway, Germany, Switzerland, France and other Nevertheless, the devastating health impacts did not escape European countries where deer, boar, fish and mushrooms are still the notice of the hundreds of doctors, scientists and other citizens contaminated by caesium 137 at dangerous levels [8]. who had to bear witness to the deformities, sicknesses and deaths The health legacy from Chernobyl is long lasting. The genetic of exposed babies, children and adults in their care. damage in terms of chromosomal breaks and other mutations will affect the health of millions over several generations yet to come. “The full picture of deteriorating health in the contaminated territo- Diversity of health impacts and their global extent over ries is far from complete,” Yablohov said. More research is needed; generations to come instead, research on the health impacts of Chernobyl has been cut Alexei Yablokov, distinguished academician of the Russian Academy back in Russia, Ukarine, and Belarus. of Sciences in Moscow, spoke at the Scientific and Citizen Forum on Radioprotection – From Chernobyl to Fukushima, 11-13 May 2012 in Overview of the evidence

Lost city near Chernobyl Geneva [7]. He is adamant that the consequences of the Chernobyl Evidence of the devastating health impacts from the radioactive disaster can be clearly demonstrated by comparing the states of fallout of Chernobyl is still to be found long after the accident. Sev- people’s health in areas receiving different amounts of additional enteen years later, areas contaminated at levels above 40 kBq/m2 in radiation following the accident, instead of one based on average Belarus, Ukraine and Russia, have seen an increase in total average effective dose calculated by the ICRP and UNSCEAR which under- mortality of 3.8 to 4 % (an excess of 237 000 people) compared estimates the true levels of irradiation. For example, there is a clear with neighbouring regions that were less contaminated [9]. (A Bq, difference in mortality rates between highly contaminated provinces becquerel, is a radioactive disintegration rate of one per second.) A and less contaminated provinces of Russia (see Figure 1). Yablokov conservative extrapolation from these figures led to the conclusion is lead author of a massive report, now in its third enlarged 2011 edi- that over the 20 years following the accident, Chernobyl has caused tion [8], which has collated all the available evidence. an additional million deaths (about 0.1 of total mortality). The evidence that emerged is also striking for the diversity of Some general effects of the Chernobyl accident that began to deformities and illnesses observed apart from cancers; and this appear in the 3rd to 4th year and have continued over the following is documented in more than 10 000 studies published in different 10 to 15 years; these are as follows. countries, mainly Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, in the 25 years since • Two to three times the general morbidity rate in the most con- the disaster. Contrary to the figures given out by UNSCEAR, IAEA taminated territories (including children) and the World Health Organization (WHO), even reports published • Increase in primary illness by the governments of Belarus and Ukraine recognise that there has • Increase in the number of low birth-weight babies and birth been a significant increase in levels of illness and deaths every- defects where: various forms of cancer (not only of the thyroid), cataracts, • Premature ageing (biological age 5-7 years higher than chronologi- cardiovascular diseases, diseases of the respiratory and digestive cal age systems, immunological and neuropsychiatric effects, birth defects, • Poly-morbidity, the presence of a number of illnesses in one and alterations in reproductive function, and premature aging. individual. Death rate among the liquidators (recovery workers) remained Specific health problems linked to radiation from Chernobyl affect high even four years after the disaster, despite the fact that most practically all organ systems. of them were young and in good health. Twenty years later, 115 000 • The circulatory system (radiological lesions of the endothelium, (out of 830 000) are dead. the interior walls of the blood vessels) Yablokov emphasized that the fallout from Chernobyl is global, • Heart disease as 57 % of the radioactive material fell outside the former Soviet • The endocrine system (including non-cancerous diseases of the Union. Consequently, many countries in the Northern hemisphere thyroid gland) ; particularly Europe and Western Asia would also be affected. A • The immune system significant increase in birth defects was observed in many European • The respiratory system (including lesions of the upper airways) countries and in Turkey. Particularly telling are the higher infant • The genito-urinary system and reproductive processes mortality rates above a long-term decreasing trend recorded simul- • The skeleton (osteopenia and osteoporosis, low density or fragile taneously in four different European countries between 1986 and bone) 1992 (see Figure 2). • The central nervous and neuropsychiatric system (associated with Another impact of fallout from Chernobyl is the increase in can- organic modifications of the post-frontal, temporal and parieto- cer, death rates and marked deterioration in educational achieve- occipital lobes of the brain cortex and other deeper structures) ment in schoolchildren in the most contaminated areas of Sweden • The visual apparatus (including radiation cataracts) compared with less contaminated areas. Even after 26 years, there

www.i-sis.org.uk 6 Science & Religion

Figure 2 Infant mortality in four different European countries

• The digestive system cal statistics for the first three and a half years after the catastrophe, • Birth defects and developmental anomalies on the difficulties in estimating absorbed doses by individuals, the • Thyroid cancer (not only in children but also in adults) and other inability to determine the impact of each of the radionuclides (fission malignant tumours. products are notoriously heterogeneous) [7], and most of all, the Other health impacts include the following. agreement signed between the WHO and the IAEA in 1959, whereby • Alterations in the health of children born to irradiated parents the WHO needs the consent of the IAEA to publish the results of (including the liquidators and also people who left the contaminated studies on ionising radiation [12]. That has resulted in crucial data areas), and in particular those children who were irradiated in utero; being concealed. • Genetic alterations (frequent mutations of the somatic and germ tissues, changes in the secondary sex ratio). The children of Belarus One specific effect of the radioactive contamination from Cher- Thyroid cancer is practically the only health impact admitted by the nobyl is the change in the secondary sex ratio (ratio of male/female UNSCEAR assessment to be linked to Chernobyl [13]. It recognized births). After 1987, there was a statistically significant decrease in more than 6 000 cases of thyroid cancer reported in children and the number of girls born in some European countries [10]. In 2008, adolescents up to 2005 who were exposed at the time of the acci- there was a deficit of female births worldwide of around a million dent, and “more cases to be expected during the next decades.” In [11]. fact, 8 700 additional thyroid cancer cases occurred in Belarus alone Yablokov (and other speakers at the conference) blamed the between 1990 and 2006, according to M.V. Malko of the Belarus lack of clear understanding of the negative impact of the Chernobyl National Academy of Sciences [14]. The number of thyroid cancer disaster first of all on the secrecy and falsification of the USSR medi- cases registered during this period was about 13 300 as against 4 600 expected. The situation has got worse, as populations are living in areas still highly contaminated. Since 2005, malignant tumours of the thyroid in both adults and children had jumped again, from 10.8 per 100 000 inhabitants to more than 11.8 or more in 2008 and 2009. Galina Bandajevskaya, a paediatrician in Belarus, is witnessing the continuing impact on the children in her country. Since 2000, the number of children under 18 in Belarus has decreased by 27.4 % (see Figure 3), despite the fact that birth rate has been increasing since 2003, from 9 per 1 000 to 11.4 per 1 000 in 2010. “To-day, paediatricians like myself are seeing, in the course of our clinical examinations, an increase in the number of illnesses and a general deterioration in children’s health in Belarus.” Bandajevs- kaya said. According to the data, out of a total of more than 1 million school children in Belarus in 2009, only 26.7 % were considered in good health, 58.1 % had functional deficiencies and were at risk of Figure 3 Population trend in children of Belarus developing chronic illnesses, while 13.8 % already suffered from

Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 7

constituting 30 % of all birth defects observed. Congenital heart malformations represent a large and heterogeneous group that includes relatively minor forms to serious conditions incompatible with life. Paediatric cardiologists are very concerned about problems of heart arrhythmia (abnormal irregular heartbeat) and electrical conduction, both of which are increasing. Arrhythmia has a tendency to become chronic and increases the risk of sudden death. Children in apparent “good health” can also experience certain problems of arrhythmia and conductivity. Between 2004 and 2011, children with cardiovascular disease have more than doubled, mainly due to increases in congenital heart malformations and heart arrhythmias. Public health specialists working in the areas contaminated by the accident note that diseases of the eye and related visual apparatus has more than tripled in children. Bandajevskaya called on government authorities to take concrete action to stem the rapidly deteriorating health of children in contaminated areas, and for the concerted efforts of radioprotection experts to give practical advice and scientists to develop and introduce prophylactic measures and treatment. This cannot happen until governments and the regulatory authorities stop suppressing and concealing information on the health impacts of ionising radiation in general and of nuclear accidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima in particular. Figure 4 Primary diseases in children of Belarus by regions The health impacts of the Fukushima disaster are chronic illness. already emerging, thanks to the concerted efforts of In 2010, a high incidence or primary diseases of the endocrine Japanese doctors, scientists and citizens in the face of government system, the blood and circulatory system and tumours were seen disinformation (see [16] Truth about Fukushima, SiS 55). especially in the Gomel and Moguilev regions, which are the most Meanwhile new research is exposing how the health impacts of highly contaminated (see Figure 4) ionizing radiation has been greatly underestimated by the conven- Bandajevskaya’s speciality is cardiovascular disease. The diag- tional model used by IAEA, UNSCEAR and the ICRP (International) nosis of heart problems in children is very straight forward. Every (see [17] Bystander Effects Multiply Dose & Harm from Ionizing paediatric clinic has a cardiac monitor to measure heart rhythm, and Radiation, SiS 55); and more importantly, which treatments and in maternity wards, every new born baby is given an electrocardio- prophylactic measures may be effective. gram and a Doppler ultrasound test. And here, paediatricians have been baffled by what they found, because they are unable to explain References 1. Chernobyl disaster, Wikipedia, 20 May 2012, the cause of the problem. The official sources present a list of risk 2. Ho MW. Fukushima nuclear crisis. Science in Society 50m 4-9, 2011. factors such as arterial hypertension, overweight, obesity, smok- 3. Assessing the Chernobyl Consequences, IAEA, accessed 21 May 2012, http:// ing, and family history; but just as important a risk factor is living in en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster#Assessing_the_disaster.27s_effects_on_hu- man_healthhttp://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull383/boxp6.html areas that have been contaminated by Chernobyl radioactivity, and 4. Chernobyl Forum, IAEA.org, accessed 21 May 2012, http://www-ns.iaea.org/meetings/ that has been completely ignored. In the official preventative care rw-summaries/chernobyl_forum.asp programmes, the health authorities see no need to include meas- 5. Saunders PT. Truth about Chernobyl. Science in Society 47, 40-41, 2010. urement of radionuclides in the bodies of children affected by the 6. Many presentations at Scientific and Citizen Forum on Radioprotection – From Cher- nobyl to Fukushima, 11-13 May 2012, Geneva Chernobyl accident, and clinics and hospitals in urban areas do not 7. Yablokov A. The diversity of biomedical consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. have human radiation spectrometers to do the job. Presentation at Scientific and Citizen Forum on Radioprotection – From Chernobyl to Cardiovascular disease in children from contaminated regions Fukushima, 11-13 May 2012, Geneva. 8. Yablokov AV, Nesterenko VB, Nesterenko AV. and Preobrazhenskaya NE. Chernobyl: of Belarus was found to increase in the first few years after the acci- Consequencies of the Catastrophe for People and the Nature, 3rd Enlarged Edition (in Rus- dent. Today, the incidence of the disease continues to climb (Figure sian), Kiev, Universarium Publ., 2011. 5). 9. Khudoley VV, Blokov IP, Sadovnichik T and, Bisaro S. An attempt to evaluate the ef- The frequency of congenital heart malformations has also in- fects of the accident at Chernobyl on the population living in the radioactively contaminated territories in Russia: estimation and prognosis of excess mortality and cases of creased. Estimates vary between 0.8 and 1.2 % of all new born babies, cancer. Moscow, Centre for Independent Ecological Expertise at the Russian Academy of Science, OMNNO “Greenpeace Council”, 2006, p.3 à 19. 10. ScherbH, K.Voigt,2011.The human sex odds at birth after the atmospheric atomic bomb tests, after Chernobyl, and in the vicinity of nuclear facilities.Environ SciPollutRes. vol. 18, # 5, pp. 697 - 707. 11. Scherb H and Voigt K. Adverse genetic effects induced by chemical or physical environmental pollution. Environ Sci Pollut Res 2010, DOI 10.1007/s11356-010-0332-0. 12. World Health Organization. Controversies. IAEA – Agreement WHA 12–40 .Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization). 13. The Chernobyl accident, UNSCEAR’s assessment of the radiation effects. UNSCEAR, accessed 22 May 2012, http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/chernobyl.html 14. Malko MV. Risk assessment of radiation-induced thyroid cancer in population of Belarus. In ECRR Proceedings Lesvos 2009 (Busby C, Busby J Rietuma D and de Messiere M, eds.), Green Audit, 2011. 15. Bandajevskaya GS. The state of children’s health in Belarus following the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power station. Presentation at Scientific and Citizen Forum on Radioprotection – From Chernobyl to Fukushima, 11-13 May 2012, Geneva. 16. Ho MW. Truth about Fukushima. Science in Society 55, 18-23, 2012. 17. Ho MW. Bystander effects multiply ionizing radiation dose and illnesses.Science in Society 55, 28-31, 2012. Figure 5 Cardiovascular disease in children of Belarus SiS

www.i-sis.org.uk 8 Truth about Fukushima Image courtesy enformable.com

The release of radioactivity from Fukushima is at least as great as from Chernobyl, and a humanitarian disaster on the scale of Chernobyl needs to be averted by acknowledging the truth and taking responsibility for mitigating measures Dr. Mae-Wan Ho

Regulators seriously economical with the truth March 2011. “Few people will develop cancer as a consequence of being exposed The later estimate was based on measurements suggesting the to the radioactive material that spewed from Japan’s Fukushima amount of radioactive iodine I-131 released was much larger than Dai-ichi nuclear power plant…and those who do will never know for previous estimates. TEPCO said it had initially been unable to ac- sure what caused their disease.” These conclusions, published in the curately judge the amount of radioactive materials released because journal Nature [1] are based on two “comprehensive, independent radiation sensors closest to the plant were disabled in the disaster. assessments” from UNSCEAR (United Nations Scientific Committee Several days later, ex-Prime Minister Naoto Ken apologized for on the Effects of Atomic Radiation) and WHO (World Health Organi- his role in the Fukushima nuclear crisis [5]. His government’s push sation), both notorious for downplaying and denying the devastat- for nuclear energy was largely to blame. Ken had stepped down in ing health impacts of the Chernobyl accident [2] (see Chernobyl September 2011 when the government faced fierce criticism over its Deaths Top a Million Based on Real Evidence, SiS 55). They are now handling of the crisis and for providing too little information to the using the same tactics to rule out, a priori, potential health impacts public. It was Ken, however, who ordered TEPCO to keep the men from Fukushima radioactive releases. on site; otherwise Fukushima would have spiralled out of control, According to the draft UNSCEAR report seen by Nature [1], 167 according to a private panel probing the accident. workers at the plant received radiation doses that “slightly raise But the threat remains. Experts are now worried about the their risk of developing cancer.” Actually, six former reactor work- state of the spent fuel pool in unit 4, which is unlikely to withstand ers have died since the catastrophe, but UNSCEAR ruled they were another earthquake [6]. The severely damaged unit 4 building unrelated to the accident [3]. houses a spent nuclear fuel pool that contains 10 times the amount “There may be some increase in cancer risk that may not be de- of Cs-137 released at Chernobyl. Nearly all of the 10 893 spent fuel tectable statistically,” Kiuohiko Mabuchi, head of Chernobyl studies assemblies at the Fukushima Daiichi plant sit in pools vulnerable to at the National Cancer Institute in Rockville, Maryland, told Nature. future earthquakes, with altogether 85 times the long-lived radioac- He said that in Chernobyl, where clean-up workers were exposed to tivity released at Chernobyl. A letter was sent by 72 Japanese NGOs much higher dose, 0.1 % of the 110 000 workers surveyed have so far to the United Nations with an urgent request for immediate action developed leukaemia, although not all of those cases resulted from to stabilize unit 4’s spent nuclear fuel. The letter was endorsed by the accident. In fact, the death rate of the “clean-up workers” at nuclear experts from both Japan and abroad. Chernobyl remained high even four years after the accident, and 20 Andrew DeWit, professor of political economy at Rikkyo Univer- years later, 115 000 (out of 830 000) are dead [2]. sity told Al Jazeera that transparency on the issues of nuclear energy WHO, for its part, estimates that most residents of Fukushima was paramount. And that is precisely what’s lacking, in Japan, and in and neighbouring Japanese prefectures received absorbed doses the world at large. below 10 mSv [1]. Residents of Namie town and Iitate village, not evacuated until months after the accident, received 10-50 mSv, “We heard it first from the though infants in Namie may have been exposed to enough I-131 to internet” have received 100-200 mSv. The government aims to keep public Miwa Chiwaki from Kodomo Fuku- exposure from the accident below 20 mSv, but in the longer term, shima (Fukushima network to pro- it wants to decontaminate the region so residents will receive no tect children from radiation) said more than 1 mSv per year from the accident. Thus, people have been [7] it was in a BBC programme exposed within a matter of weeks, 10 to 200 times the legal limit via the internet that people first dose for a whole year. saw pictures of the explosions at Yet, WHO’s conclusion for Fukushima is the same as for Cher- the power station. The Japanese nobyl [1]: “A greater health risk may come from the psychological Miwa Chiwaki government had information stress created.” from SPEEDI (System for Predic- tion of Environment Emergency Dose Information) and they passed A day later.. the information first to the US government on 14 March and to the A day later, Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) announced that Japanese people only on 23 March. the amount of radioactive material released during the first days The day after the tsunami struck the Fukushima nuclear plant, of the Fukushima nuclear disaster was almost two and a half times thousands of residents at the nearby town of Namie gathered to the initial estimate by Japanese safety regulators [4]. The operator evacuate. In the absence of guidance from Tokyo, the town officials said the meltdowns at the three reactors released about 900 000 led the residents north, in the belief that the winter winds would Terabecquerels (1012 Bq) of radioactive substances into the air during blow south and carry away the radioactive plume. They stayed in the

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Tsushima district for three nights where the children played outside ordinary chemical energy, where typically kJ quantities are needed and some parents used the water from a mountain stream to cook before anything can happen, the energy in ionizing radiation exists rice [8]. But the ill winds from Fukushima had been blowing directly in extremely concentrated quanta or packets; hence 1 J of energy towards them in Tsushima, as it would transpire two months later. would already contain many of these energetic missiles (typically a SPEEDI had predicted that. But bureaucrats in Tokyo had not seen it billion) that target atoms and molecules. This is the major difference their responsibility to make that information public. Japan’s political between ionizing radiation and ordinary chemical energy. leaders did not know about the system, and later downplayed the The Becquerel and the Sievert are not directly convertible, data, fearful of having to enlarge the evacuation zone and acknowl- because it depends on the radionuclide involved, which particles or edge the severity of the accident. photons it produces per disintegration, and how much energy each Tamotsu Baba, the mayor of Namie, now living with thousands of the photons or particles carries. There is a website that tells you in temporary housing in another town, condemned the withholding how the calculation is done and actually does it for you [9] (http:// of information as being akin to “murder”. www.radprocalculator.com/Gamma.aspx). Some useful approxi- The true level of contamination is also hidden from people, mate correspondences are: Chiwaki said [7]. Many mothers queued up with their children in the 1 mSv of I-131 = 2.06525 x 106 Bq rain for several hours to receive water rations (while radioactivity 1 mSv of Cs-137 = 1.30878 x 106 Bq was being washed down over them with the rain), in Iitate, villagers Radiation exposure considers how long a period over which the were left in very high levels of contamination for a whole month. dose is absorbed, usually in mSv/year. “Advisers on radiation control from Fukushima prefecture The exposure limit in Europe is 1 mSv/year for the public, and flocked to the villages,” Chiwaki said, “and, with broad smiles on the occupational exposure, 20 mSv/year [10]. For USA, the oc- their faces, told the people that “there is nothing to worry about, cupational exposure limit is 50 mSv, reduced to 10 % for pregnant you can let your children play outside.”” Three days later, the village women. Dose limit for the public is 1 mSv/year, in addition to a was classified “planned evacuation zone”. background of o.3 mSv and 0.05 mSv from sources such as medical The circumstances of the accident and the real levels of con- X-ray [11]. tamination were only revealed piecemeal. A “safety campaign” was To put these exposure limits in perspective, it is generally recog- initiated on 20 March. Professor Shunichi Yamashita of Nagasaki Uni- nized that a dose of 1 000 mSi will kill an adult. A whole body dose of versity was sent around the country, smiling and say things like: “100 400 mSv will kill about 50 % of people within 60 days of the expo- mSv? No problem!” “Radiation is only a threat to people who worry sure, mostly from infection, as their immune systems are destroyed [12]. At very low doses, such as what most of us receive every day from background radiation, the cells are able to repair the damage, though the recent discovery of bystander effects indicate that doses Experts are now worried as low as tens of mSi are harmful [3]. At higher doses (up to 100 mSi), the cells may not be able to repair the damage, and may either be changed permanently, or die. Most cells that die are replaced about the state of the with few consequences. Cells changed permanently may give rise to diseases, they may go on to produce abnormal cells when they spent fuel pool in unit divide, and may become cancerous. A comment submitted to the ICRP (International Commission 4, which is unlikely on Radiological Protection) by the Sierra Club in 2006 stated [13]: “Numerous academic researchers, independent scholars, and gov- ernmental bodies, such as the U.S. National Academies of Science to withstand another and National Research Council, have now concluded that the linear no-threshold hypothesis is valid and that there is no “safe” level of earthquake. The severely radiation exposure.” damaged unit 4 building Exposure limits and exposure levels in Japan post-Fukushima houses a spent nuclear The pre-Fukushima legal exposure limit for the public in Japan was 10 mSv/y and 50 mSv/y for occupational fuel pool that contains 10 exposure [14]. The occupational legal limits were soon scrapped after the times the amount of Cs-137 accident. At the end of April 2011, the Japanese government released a map released at Chernobyl based on air surveys done by MEXT (Japan’s Ministry of Education, Cul- ture, Sports, Science and Technology), which revealed that people living in Matsui Eisuke about it.” “Smile and you won’t be affected by the radiation.” areas not being evacuated will receive Radioactivity, dose and general exposure limits radiation doses up to 23.5 times their A great deal of confusion and anxiety is created by the different annual legal limit over the course of the next year [15]. units used in announcements to the popular media. The unit of It is important to note that all the exposure limits and projected radioactivity is a Becquerel, Bq, equal to 1 radioactive disintegration exposure mentioned so far are for external sources. As the French per second, coming directly from a source, a radionuclide in con- expert body, Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire taminated food or drink, soil or air. Larger units are the kBq (1 000), (IRSN) pointed out, they take no account of [15, p. 4] “exposure MBq (106), (GBq (109), TBq (1012), PBq (1015), and EBq (1018). from other pathways such as immersion within the plume and in- The unit of absorbed dose (amount of energy absorbed by a halation of particles in the plume during the accident nor the doses unit of material) is the Gray, Gy, equal to 1 Joule/kg. The equivalent already received or to be received from ingestion of contaminated or effective dose is the Sievert, Sv (also in units of Joule/kg) which is foodstuffs. The total effective doses to be received (external + inter- the absorbed dose modified to represent the presumed biological nal) could be much higher according to the type of deposit (dry or effect. Note that 1 Joule is a very small amount of energy. But unlike wet), diet and source of food.”

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tion of internal exposure up to 1 million Bq a year, depending on how fast the radionuclides are cleared from the body. We already know that much lower levels have proven deadly for the children of Belarus (see [19] Apple Pectin for Radioprotection, SiS 55). According to the German Society for Radiation Protection, a person is normally exposed to about 0.3 mSv per year through ingestion of food and drink; and this should be considered the permissible level of ingested radioactivity. In order not to go beyond this level, the amount of radioactive caesium-137 should not exceed 8 Bq/kg in milk and baby formula and 16 Bq/kg in all other foodstuff. Radioac- tive iodine with its short half-life should not be permitted in food at all [20].

How much radioactivity was released by the stricken Fukushima nuclear plant? Although a picture of the radioactivity deposited on land is emerging, the actual levels of radioactivity to which people have been exposed are impossible to tell because there is a lot of uncertainty as to how much radioactivity has been released in the series of explosions in the Fukushima nuclear plant thus far. TEPCO’s latest press release [21] gave the amounts of radionuclides released between 12 and 31 March 2011 as follows. Releases into the air: Noble gas: Approx. 5x1017 Bq Iodine 131: Approx. 5x1017 Bq Caesium 134: Approx. 1x1016 Bq Caesium 137: Approx. 1x1016 Bq Releases into the ocean: Iodine-131: Approx. 1.1x1016 Bq Cesium-134: Approx. 3.5x1015 Bq Cesium-137: Approx. 3.6x1015 Bq These add up to a total of 1 038.1 x 1015Bq or 1 038.1 PBq released. TEPCO admits that the radioactivity measuring equipment were Figure 1 Map of caesium 137 + 134 deposits (Figure 7) superimposed on the map “unavailable due to the accident,” so “further data still need to be of projected doses for the 1st year (Figure 4) for 3 dose levels only (5, 10 and 20 collected to review the validity of the evaluation result.” These re- mSv) ported radioactive releases from Fukushima are less than one-tenth those from the Chernobyl accident, a total of some 14 EBq (14 x 1018 In addition, as Director of the Medical Institute of Environment Bq), over half of it in noble gases [22]. at Gifu in Japan Matsui Eisuke pointed out [16], the government and How reliable are the latest TEPCO results? its professional advisors in measuring exposure have relied mainly Using data from radioactivity measuring posts set up under on g-rays that are easy to detect. But, in terms of internal radiation the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), the Austrian Central exposure, b and a- particles have a far more serious effect. “The Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics (ZAMG) gave estimates government and TEPCO hardly measure such isotopes as b-emitting of between 360-390 PBq iodine-131 and about 50 PBq of caesium-137 strontium-90 or a-emitting plutonium-239.” for the period of 12-14 March [23]. According to their calculations, Exposure due to ingested or inhaled radionuclide is a major the iodine-131 emissions from Fukushima in those three days problem in radioactive fallout, particularly when prompt evacuation, amounted to 20 % of the total iodine-131 emissions from Chernobyl radioactive monitoring, and remediation have all failed to be carried (1 760 PBq), while the emissions of caesium-137 in those three days out, as was the case for both Chernobyl and Fukushima. amounted to about 60 % of the total caesium-137 emissions from IRSN’s assessment of projected doses based on the Japanese Chernobyl (85 PBq). map released (see Figure 1), estimated that some 70 000 people A study led by the Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) including 9 500 children are living in the most contaminated areas found about 16 700 PBq of xenon-133 (250% of the amount released outside the initial 20 km evacuation zone projected to receive at Chernobyl) emitted by the Fukushima power plant between 12 further doses up to 200 mSv or more. This clearly calls for further and 19 March 2011, the largest release of radioactive Xenon in his- evacuation beyond the initial 20 km zone. Under Japanese Food tory [24]. In addition, 35.8 PBq of caesium-137 (42% of the amount Sanitation Law, 5 000 Bq/kg of radioactive Cs is considered the safe released at Chernobyl) was emitted in the same period. The study limit in soil [17]. Consequently, large areas of Japan may no longer be found that radioactive emissions were first measured right after suitable for agriculture. the earthquake and before the tsunami struck the plant, indicating The Japanese government at first raised the legal exposure limit that the quake itself had already caused substantial damage to the to 20 mSv a year for the public, including children, thereby leaving reactors. The NILU report also suggests that the fire in the spent fuel them in areas from which they would have been barred under the pond of reactor 4 may have been the major contributor to airborne old standard [7]. The limit for children was later scaled back to 1 emissions, as emissions decreased significantly after the fire had mSi/y but only applies while they are inside school buildings. been brought under control. In March 2012, the Japanese government announced a new The same team of researchers updated their estimates in a standard limit for radionuclides in foods to 1 mSv/y, reducing from a paper published online giving estimates of 15 300 PBq of Xenon-133 previous provisional limit of 5 mSv/y. This translates into a maximum and 36.6 PBq Cs-137 released into the atmosphere [25], not count- of 100 Bq/kg for regular food items such as meat, vegetables and ing iodine-131 or Cs-134 (which was as much as Cs-137), nor releases fish (revised down from 500 Bq just after the Fukushima meltdown), into the ocean. But already, this is nearly 15 times the latest TEPCO 50 Bq/l for milk and infant food and 10 Bq for drinking water (revised estimate for total releases. I shall report separately in detail on down from 200) [18]. As shown above, this still means an accumula- this latest independent estimate, which gives a global picture of

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contamination from the fallout (see [26] Fukushima Fallout Rivals Chernobyl, SiS 55).

Contamination of soil [27] MEXT conducted soil surveys in 100 locations within 80 km of the Fukushima power plant in June and July of 2011. They found contamination with various radionuclides; the main ones were strontium-90, iodine-131, and caesium-137. Strontium-90, with a half- life of 28 years, is similar to calcium, and is therefore incorporated into bone where it can remain for decades, emitting b-particles and irradiating the bone-marrow, causing leukaemia and other cancers. Image courtesy 2.bp.blogspot Strontium-90 was found at concentrations of 1.8-32 Bq/kg at sites outside the 30 kM evacuation zone in Nishigou, Motomiya, Ootama and Ono. Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8 days. When ingested, it is incor- some 70 000 people porated like ordinary iodine in the thyroid gland, where it emits b- and a-radiation, causing thyroid cancer especially in children. I-131 was found in milk, drinking water, vegetables and water around including 9 500 children Northern Japan. According to the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), iodine-131 deposition in Tokyo reached 36 000 Bq/m2 are living in the most between 22 and 23 March 2011. Soil samples in the municipalities of Nishigou, Izumizaki, Ootama, Shirakawa, Nihonmatsu, Date, Iwaki, contaminated areas Iitate, Ono, Minamisoma and Tamura showed concentrations of I-131 between 2 000 and 1 170 000 Bq/kg. In the municipality of Ono, 40 km southwest of the Fukushima plant, MEXT scientists found up outside the initial 20 km to 7 440 Bq/kg of I-131 in rainwater samples. In August 2011, MEXT scientists still found I-131 concentrations of more than 200 Bq/kg in evacuation zone projected most of the municipalities, with maximum in Namie and Iitate of 1 300 and 1 100 Bq/kg respectively. Given its short half-life, this high to receive further doses up level detected 145 days after the initial fallout on 15 March suggests extremely high initial contamination of the soil > 288 MBq/kg, or additional contamination of the area after the initial fallout. To con- to 200 mSv or more vert from Bq/kg to Bq/m2, the convention is to multiply by 20 or 65, depending on the depth to which the soil is sampled. A conservative multiplier of 20 would give a value of > 5760 MBq/kg, going way Fukushima prefecture even reached up to 30 MBq/m2 north-west off the top of the scale shown in the map of Fig. 1, which only gives of the plant, and up to 10 MBq/m2 in neighbouring prefectures. Soil radioactivity due to Cs-137 and Cs-134. sample with Cs-137 between 20 000 and 220 000 Bq/kg were found Cs-137 has a half-life of 30 years. It is similar to potassium, so by MEXT scientists in the municipalities of Iitate, Kawamata, Name, its distribution is fairly even throughout the body if ingested. It is Katsurao and Nihonmatsu in April 2011. Even higher values up to 420 mainly a b-emitter, but its decay product barium-137 also produces 000 Bq/kg were recorded later in August 2011. According to IAEA, g-radiation. It can cause solid tumours in virtually all organs. Cs-137 Cs-137 deposition in Tokyo reached 340 Bq/m2 22-23 March 2011. has a biological half-life of 70 days and is excreted through urine like Radioactive caesium was also found in large quantities in beef, rice, potassium. It therefore accumulates in the bladder and irradiates milk, fish, drinking water and other foodstuff. the adjacent uterus and foetus in pregnant women. IRSN states that around 874 km2 of the area outside the 20 km evacuation zone must Contamination of the marine environment be considered highly contaminated with Cs-137, to an estimated Massive amounts of radioactive waste water used in cooling the concentration >6MBq/m2, similar to the evacuation zone around reactors and spent fuel ponds were discharged into the sea, seeped the Chernobyl power plant [15] (see Figure 1). In fact, Cs-137 in the into the soil or ground water or evaporated into the atmosphere [27]. Between 4 and 10 April 2011, TEPCO deliberately released 10 393 tonnes of radioactive water. It constituted the single largest radioactive discharge into the oceans in history. A 1-2 week pulse of radioactivity peaked in the water around the Fukushima plant on 6 April 2011, with ocean concentrations of 68 MBq/m3, and an estimated total release of up to 22 PBq [28, 29]; TEPCO admits 18.1 PBq [21]. After considerable dilution 2-3 months following the peak, surface concentrations were still higher than previously existing by as much as 10 000-fold in coastal waters and as much as 1 000-fold over a 150 000 km2 area of the Pacific up to 600 k east of Japan. Ra- dioactive Cs was detected in all species of marine organisms ranging from phytoplankton to fish. The waters northeast of the Fukushima plant are among the major fishing zones in the world, responsible for half of Japan’s seafood. But catch from the Ibaraki prefecture showed such high levels of radioactive isotopes that it had to be discarded as radioactive waste [27]. Radioactive contamination in the ocean does not get diluted away, like other pollutants it gets accumulated in the marine food chain, up to fish consumed by humans. Radioactive caesium in sea bass caught in the North Pacific continually rose from March till September, with a maximum found on 15 September of 670Bq/kg.

Image courtesy 2.bp.blogspot Radioactivity not only disperses passively in the ocean by currents

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678 mSv. That did not take into account effects of internal radiation through ingested or inhaled radioisotopes. An under-cover report broadcast on 4 October 2011 on German TV ZDF revealed radiation levels as high as 10 Sv/h, and new hotspots were still being discovered [30]. The exposure badges given to the workers routinely registered an error message as the radioactivity went way off-scale. The workers, paid €80-100 a day, were forbidden by contract to talk to reporters and given little information on the radiation levels in the plant. They only discovered that on TV. Some 18 000 workers had gone through the plant by then. Following the nuclear meltdowns, the Japanese government ordered the evacuation of 200 000 people in an area of about 600 km2. As mentioned above, 70 000 people including 9 500 children were still living in highly contaminated areas outside this evacuation zone 2 months after the accident [15]. IAEA measured radiation levels 16-115 mSv/h (i.e., up to 140-1 007 mSv/y) outside the 20 km evacuation zone. MEXT scientists confirmed these levels in their soil surveys of April 2011. Dose rates recorded in several cities outside Image courtesy 2.bp.blogspot the evacuation zone were 2 mSv/h in Nihonmatsu, Tamura, Souma, Minamisoma and Date; more than 5 mSv/h in Namie, and more than and mixing, but is also spread by fish and mammals. The Pacific Blue- 100 mSv/h in Iitate. Four months later in August 2011, MEXT scientists fin tuna was found to transport Fukushima-derived radionuclides still detected radiation doses up to 34 mSv/h in Namie, up to 16 mSv/h from Japan to California. Fifteen Pacific Bluefin tuna sampled in August 2011 had elevated levels of Cs- 134 (4.0 + 1.4 Bq/kg) and Cs-137 (6.3 + 1.5 Bq/kg).

Contamination of food and drinking water According to the German Extensive contamination of food and drinking water was documented in the months after the disaster [27]. Outside the evacuation zone in Fukushima prefecture, MEXT Society for Radiation survey one week after the earthquake found contaminated vegetables in the municipalities of Iitate, Kawamata, Tamua, Ono, Minami- Protection, a person is soma, Iwaki, Tshukidate, Nihonmatsu, Sirakawa, Sukagawa, Ootama, Izumizaki and Saigou. I-131 concentrations were as high as 2.54 normally exposed to about MBq/kg and Cs-137 up to 2.65 MBq/kg. One month after meltdown, radioactivity was still above 100 000 Bq/kg for I-131, and 900 000 Bq/ kg for Cs-137 in some regions. In Ibaraki prefecture ~100 km south of 0.3 mSv per year through the Fukushima plant, spinach was found with I-131 up to 54 100 Bq/ kg and Cs-137 up to 1 931 Bq/kg. Other highly contaminated vegeta- ingestion of food and drink. bles included mustard, parsley, and Shitake mushrooms, and lesser amounts of radiation were detected in lettuce, onions, tomatoes, In order not to go beyond strawberries, wheat and barley. Milk, beef, rice and drinking water were also contaminated. The IAEA warned that levels of I-131 exceeded permissible limits between this level, the amount of 17 and 23 March. Even in the northern district of Tokyo, tap water contained 210 Bq/l of I-131. radioactive caesium-137 Seafood and fish caught close to the nuclear plant reached 500 – 1 000 Bq/kg. In April 2011, the Japanese Fishing Ministry found should not exceed 8 Bq/kg radioactive iodine and caesium in sand lance from Fukushima prefecture each with an activity up to 12 000 Bq/kg. The independent in milk and baby formula French radioactivity laboratory ACRO found readings of more than 10 000 Bq/kg in algae harvested outside the 20 km evacuation zone. One sample showed levels of 127 000 Bq/kg of I-131, 800 Bq/kg of Cs- and 16 Bq/kg in all other 134 and 840 Bq/kg of Cs-137. In the prefecture of Shizuoka ~400 km from Fukushima, local foodstuff. Radioactive tea leaves were found contaminated with 670 Bq/kg Cs-137, and radioactive Japanese green tea was discovered in France in June 2011. iodine with its short half- Emerging health impacts [27] Employees of the stricken Fukushima nuclear plant, rescue- and life should not be permitted clean-up workers are the most acutely exposed group. According to the Japanese Atomic Information Forum, radiation levels inside the in food at all plant peaked at around 1 000 mSi/h, a dose fatal to humans exposed for more than an hour. While airborne emissions decreased gradual- ly, massive amounts of radiation still remained on site through wash- out in water continually pumped into the plant to cool the reactors. in Iitate, and up to 17.5 mSv/h in Katsurao. By 1 August 2011, radiation of 10 Sv/h was still detected around the IRSN projected the external exposure of the 70 000 living in the premises. A total of 8 300 workers have been deployed in rescue and highly contaminated areas outside the 20 km evacuation zone to clean-up since March. In July, TEPCO announced that 111 workers had reach 200 mSv/y or more in the first year [15]. The external collec- been exposed to radiation of more than 100 mSv, some as high as tive dose over 4 years of this population was calculated to be 4 400

Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 13 person-Sv, amounting to 60 % of the collective dose received by the radioactivity in food are opening one after another all over Japan, population in the highly contaminated regions around Chernobyl. and not just in Fukushima [7]. Parents have banded together to set MEXT’s calculations confirm those exposure levels. The esti- up organic cafes to stock non-contaminated organic vegetables, and mated doses over the course of a year are up to 235.4 mSv in the also to demand that school canteens use only uncontaminated in- town of Namie, 61.7 mSv in Iitate, 24.2 mSv in Kawamata, 21.2 mSv in gredients. “It is mainly thanks to independent networks that people Date, 18 mSv in Katsurao, 15.6 mSv in Minamisoma and more than 10 have been able to go somewhere else temporarily to take care of mSv in Fukushima city and Koriyama – both more than 55 km away their health.” from the plant. The natural (pre-existing) background radiation level in Japan is 1.48 mSv/y. Evacuation from highly contaminated areas still refused These high external sources of exposure have been and will The government still refuses to evacuate people from the highly continue to be internalized in food and drink. The devastating im- contaminated regions [7]. The city of Fukushima organized a plan- pacts of chronic exposure have been documented especially in the ning meeting in the Ônami district that had been recommended multiple diseases and deaths of hundreds of thousands of children for evacuation, and the opening words were: “Evacuation reduces as the result of the Chernobyl catastrophe, exacerbated by official economic activity, so we would opt for decontamination,” in other denial, suppression, and disinformation [2]. words, “We won’t let you leave.” The city has designated zones I-131 is one of the most acute causes of cancer in children after measuring >2 mSv/h for decontamination, and wanted volunteers; a nuclear meltdown. Uptake of radioactive iodine can be prevented but when asked about their decontamination plans, said they have by a timely supply of iodine tablets. While such iodine tablets were none. In February 2012, an estimated 62 000 people left Fukushima supplied to the municipalities and evacuation centres during the prefecture to seek refuge elsewhere. first few days of the disaster, the order to distribute them was never In June 2011, pupils from 14 primary and secondary schools from issued, and hence, with very few exceptions, no iodine tablets were the town of Kôriyama formally demanded that the local authority taken by people exposed to radioactive iodine [27]. The may lead to a respect their right to be evacuated and to continue their education large number of cases of thyroid cancer, as in the case of Chernobyl in a less contaminated area. But six months later, the demand has [2]. And the signs are ominous. been refused. At the end of March 2011, a group of researchers around Hiroshi- “We have launched an appeal.” Chiwaki said. Refugees from ma professor Satoshi Tashiro tested 1 149 children aged 0 to 15 from the evacuation zones leave however they can, sometimes the whole Iwaki city Kawamata town and Iitate village. Some 44.5 % showed family and sometimes the mother leaves with the children, and the radioactive contamination of up to 35 mSv in their thyroid gland. husband stays behind to work and look after the house. Sharp divi- In October 2011, the University of Fukushima began with thyroid- sions of opinion end in divorce and break up families. examinations on 360 000 children living in the regions affected by ra- “We have learnt lessons from the experience of Chernobyl and dioactive contamination. Matsui Eisuke reported some of the results will never give up in our efforts to protect the lives of our children so far [16]. Between October 2011 and 31 March 2012, 38 114 children and everyone else. We ask the whole world to give us their sup- 1-18 y in Fukushima prefecture were examined by ultrasonography port.” of the thyroid gland. Cysts were found in more than 35 % of the chil- For more information and especially if you can offer help, please dren. In comparison, in Nagaski where 250 children 7-14 y had been contact http://fukushima-evacuation-e.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/take- examined since 2000, only 2 (0.8 %) had cysts in their thyroid gland. action-to-help-children-in.html SiS Chiwaki reports that today, centres for measuring levels of

References doses internal radiation exposure in Japan. Presentation at Scientific and Citizen Forum 1. “Fukushima’s doses tallied”, Geoff Brumfiel, Nature 2012, 423-4, 24 May 2012, http:// on Radioprotection – From Chernobyl to Fukushima, 11-13 May 2012, Geneva. www.nature.com/news/fukushima-s-doses-tallied-1.10686 17. Yasunari TJ, Stohl A, Hayano RS, Burkhart JF, Eckhardt S and Yssunari T. Cesium-137 2. Ho MW. Chernobyl deaths top one million based on real evidence. Science in Society deposition and contamination of Japanese soils due to the Fukushima nuclear accident. 55, 14-17, 2012. PNAS 2011, 108, 19530-4. 3. “Fukushima deaths not cause by radiation, UN says”, George Jahn, Huffington 18. Food Safety Department, Pharmaceutical & Food Safety Bureau, MHLW, New Stand- Post, 23 May 2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/23/fukushima-deaths- ard Limits for Radionuclides in Foods, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, March radiation_n_1540397.html 2012, http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/topics/2011eq/dl/new_standard.pdf 4. “Utility says it underestimated radiation released in Japan”, New York Times, 24 May 19. Ho MW. Apple pectin for radioprotection. Science in Society 55, 32-33, 2012. 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/25/world/asia/radioactive-release-at-fukushima- 20. “Calculated Fatalities from Radiation”, Study by the German Society for Radiation plant-was-underestimated.html Protection and German IPPNW, Berlin, September 2011 http://foodwatch.de/foodwatch/ 5. “Japan ex-PM apologises for Fukushima failure”, Aljazeera, 28 May 2012, http://www. content/e10/e42688/e44884/e44993/CalculatedFatalities fromRadiation_Reportfood- aljazeera.com/news/asia-pacific/2012/05/201252842649729894.html watch-IPPNW2011-09-20_ger.pdf 6. “Fukushima reactor 4 requires urgent intervention; coalition calls for emergency UN 21. Press release, Tokyo Electric Power Company, 24 May 2012, http://www.tepco.co.jp/ action to halt catastrophic release of radiation”, Mike Adams, 6 May 2012, http://www. en/press/corp-com/release/2012/1204659_1870.html naturalnews.com/035788_Fukushima_United_Nations_radiation.html 22. Chernobyl Accident 1986, World Nuclear Association, April 2012, http://www.world- 7. Chiwaki M. Our struggle for survival continues. Presentation at Scientific and Citizen nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html Forum on Radioprotection – From Chernobyl to Fukushima, 11-13 May 2012, Geneva. 23. Accident in the Japanese NPP Fukushima: Large emissions of Cesium-137 and 8. “Japan held nuclear data, leaving evacuees in peril” Norimitsu Onishi and Martin Iodine-131. Austrian Central Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics (ZAMG), March Fackler, The New York Times, 8 August 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/09/world/ 24th, 2011, www.zamg.ac.at/docs/aktuell/Japan2011-03-24_1600_E.pdf asia/09japan.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2 24. Stohl A et al. Xenon-133 and caesium-137 releases into the atmosphere from the 9. Rad Pro Calculator Site Description and Details, accessed 1 June 2012, http://www. Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant: determination of the source term, atmospheric radprocalculator.com/Gamma.aspx dispersion, and deposition“, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 11, 28319-28394, 2011, www. 10. Radiation exposure, dose limits, European nuclear society, accessed 29 May 2012, atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/11/28319/2011/acpd-11-28319-2011.html http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/r/radiation-exposure-dose-limit.htm 25. Stohl A, Seibert P, Wotawa G, Arnold D, Burkhart JF, Eckhardt S, Tapia C, Varga 11. Occupational dose limits, US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, accessed 29 May 2012, and Yasunari TJ. Xenon-133 and caesium-137 releases into the atmosphere from the http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/cfr/part020/part020-1201.html Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant: determination of the source term, atmospheric 12. Radiation and Risk, Idaho State University, accessed 30 May 2012, http://www.phys- dispersion, and deposition. Atmos Chem Phy 2012, 12, 2313-43. ics.isu.edu/radinf/risk.htmhttp://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/risk.htm 26. Ho MW. Fukushima fallout rivals Chernobyl. Science in Society 55, 24-27, 2012. 13. Johnsrud JH. Sierra Club, Radiation Committee, Commenting on behalf of the or- 27. Rosen A. Effects of the Fukushima nuclear meltdowns on environment and health, ganisation on The Scope of Radiological Protection, ICRP Consultation, accessed 31 May 9 March 2012, http://www.ippnw.de/commonFiles/pdfs/Atomenergie/Effects_Fuku- 2012, http://www.icrp.org/consultation_viewitem.asp?guid=%7B762C6A55-ECE0-41AB- shima_rosen.pdf A349-AB5E7FD56462%7D 28. Buesseler K, Aoyama M and Fukasawa M. Impacts of the Fukushima nuclear power 14. “Japan forsees high radiation over the next year in areas not evacuated”, Alexander plants on Marine Radioactivity. Environ Sci Tecnol 2011, 45, 9931-5. Higgins, 28 April 2011, http://blog.alexanderhiggins.com/2011/04/28/japan-forsees-high- 29. Buesseler KO, Jayne SR, Fisher NS, et al. Fukushima-derived radionuclides in the radiation-year-areas-evacuated-20732/ ocean and biota off Japan.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2012, 109:5984–8. 15. Assessment on the 66th day of projected external doses for populations living in 30. Fisuke M. Research and activities of scientists and citizens in Japan who are con- the north-west fallout zone of the Fukushima nuclear accident, outcome of population cerned about low dose internal radiation exposures. Presentation at Scientific and Citi- evacuation measures, Report DRPH/2011-10, Directorate of Radiological Protection and zen Forum on Radioprotection – From Chernobyl to Fukushima, 11-13 May 2012, Geneva Human Health, Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire, October 2011 31. “German TV-channel ZDF talks with workers at Fukushima Dai-ichi”, YouTube, ac- 16. Matsui E. Action taken by Japanese scientists and citizens concerned about low- cessed 4 June 2012, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V1T4Ac9nHeY

www.i-sis.org.uk 14 Fukushima Fallout Rivals Chernobyl State-of-the-art analysis based on the most inclusive datasets available reveals that radioactive fallout from the Fukushima meltdown is at least as big as Chernobyl and more global in reach Dr. Mae-Wan Ho

14 000 Americans already died from health disaster still unfolding more than 25 distribution and deposition of radionuclides Fukushima fallout? years after the Chernobyl disaster (see [4] and provide a more complete picture than A paper published online December 2011 in a Chernobyl Deaths Top a Million Based on the measurements alone. The simulations peer-reviewed journal estimated that nearly Real Evidence, SiS 55). must be compared, and fit the measurement 14 000 have died in the United States in 14 data. However, the single largest source weeks following the arrival of the radioactive Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty of error in prediction is the source term, fallout from the Fukushima meltdown [1]. It Measurements the rate of emissions into the atmosphere noted that the estimate is comparable to the Withholding data, or not bothering col- from the accident site. To this day, the time 16 500 excess deaths in the 17 weeks after lecting appropriate data, appear endemic variation of emissions from Chernobyl is still the Chernobyl disaster. The rise in reported to the nuclear industry and governments uncertain. deaths after Fukushima was greatest among in general; and Fukushima is no exception The most comprehensive information infants less than one year of age. ([5] Truth about Fukushima, SiS 55). But a on the events in the Fukushima disaster is A paper published online December 2011 in a peer-reviewed journal estimated that nearly 14 000 have died in the United States in 14 weeks following the arrival of the radioactive fallout from the Fukushima meltdown

The authors’ credentials appeared surprising source of observations is coming a report released by the Japanese Govern- impeccable [2]. Joseph Mangano is a public from radioactivity measuring stations set up ment in June 2011 to the International Atom- health administrator and researcher who under the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty ic Energy Agency (IAEA) [7], and its subse- studies low-dose radiation exposure and (CTBT), which foresees a global ban of all quent updates. Although the report contains subsequent risk of diseases such as can- nuclear explosions. To verify compliance estimates of the amounts of radioactivity cer and damage to the newborn. He has with the Treaty, a global monitoring system released into the atmosphere for certain published numerous articles and letters in is being built, which includes measurements key radionuclides, the data are not reliable; medical and other journals as well as books, of radionuclides. Measurements of atmos- as the releases did not take place through including Low Level Radiation and Immune pheric concentrations of both Xe-133 and defined pathways and were not metered. system Disorders: an Atomic Era Legacy. Cs-137 were available from CTBT stations to To make the best use of the available Janette Sherman worked for the Atomic En- a high degree of sensitivity. Sixty monitor- information and data, an international team ergy Commission (precursor of the Nuclear ing stations are currently delivering data on led by Andreas Stohl at the Norwegian Regulatory Commission) at University of Cs-137, and 25 stations delivering data on Institute for Air Research (NILU) applied California Berkeley, and for the US Navy Ra- Xe-133 to the International Data Centre of state-of-the-art atmospheric dispersion mod- diation Defense Laboratory in San Francisco. the Preparatory Commission for the CTBT els to optimise the fit between the model She specializes in internal medicine and Organisation in Vienna. Cs-137, with a half-life calculations (simulations) and the observed toxicology, with an emphasis on chemicals of 30.17 years, comprises approximately half measurements, thereby to obtain the most and nuclear radiation, was an advisor to the of the total radioactive caesium released, reliable source term. This top-down ap- National Cancer Institute, and served on the the other half being Cs-134 [6]. Xe-133, with proach, called inverse modelling, was earlier advisory board of the Environment Protec- a half-life of 5.25 days is the most abundant used to make estimates of the Chernobyl tion Agency for 6 years. Xe isotope, comprising >97.3 % of xenon in source term. And members of the team have A major criticism of their work is that emissions. previously developed an inverse modelling the authors claimed Fukushima fallout method for volcanic eruptions and green- arrived just six days after the earthquake, State of the art analysis on the most house gas emissions. A first guess of release rates were tsunami, and meltdowns, but they provided inclusive available datasets based on fuel inventories and documented no evidence for this assertion [3]. Another After the earthquake and Tsunami struck, el- accident events at the site based on informa- is the paucity of radioactive measurement evated levels of radioactive emissions were tion provided by the Japanese government’s data; but that is the responsibility of the measured in Japan and all over the Northern report [7]. The first guess was subsequently US Environment Protection Agency (EPA), Hemisphere including the CTBT monitoring improved by inverse modelling, which com- and is hardly the authors’ fault. Indeed, the stations. But the point measurements are bined the results of an atmospheric trans- authors are themselves critical [1]: “The pau- too sparse to determine the three-dimen- port model, FLEXPART, and measurement city of data from the U.S. EPA is unfortunate sional distribution of radionuclides in the at- data from several dozen stations in Japan, and will hamper future studies.” The same mosphere and their deposition on land and North America and other regions. paucity of data has indeed hampered studies sea. Given accurate emissions data, disper- The simulation was driven with three- that might have prevented the humanitarian sion models can simulate the atmospheric

Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 15

is a background emission of Xe-133 from nuclear facilities, which is highly variable, and this is allowed for by adding a value of 1 x 10-4 Bq /m3 to every simulated concentration; consequently, one cannot expect correlation between measured and simulated values at the low end (lower left quadrant). Many of the data points there represent enhanced background observed. Data point in the upper right quadrant all reflect emissions from the Fukushima fallout, and for those data points, the modelled and observed values show a tight correlation, with most simulated points falling within a factor of 5 of the observed values. While the model results using the first guess emissions are already well correlated with the measurements, applying the inversion simulation clearly improves Figure 1 Scatter log/log plot of all Xe-133 data both a priori and a posteriori (see text) the correspondence, with most of the data points falling closer to the 1:1 line. The scatter plot of the measured and simulated Cs-137 concentrations is given in Figure 2, where again, a background of normally distributed random concentration was added to every simulated concentration value. The fit between simulated and observed data are not as good for Cs-137 as it is for Xe-133. One reason is the added complexity of modelling wet and dry removal of the particles carrying Cs-137 from the atmosphere. Nevertheless, there is still a clear correlation between simulated and observed concentrations. Time series of simulated and observed measurements made at key stations in Japan, Oahu (Hawaii), Richland (Washington State), and Stockholm were also produced, Figure 2 as well as the amount of radioactivity deposited on the ground. The fit between simulated and observed tend to be better hourly operational meteorological data from emission peaked on 14-15 March but were outside Japan, possibly due to contamina- two different sources: The European Centre generally high from 12 until 19 March, when tion of monitoring stations in Japan. for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts they suddenly dropped by orders of mag-

(ECMWF) analyses, and the National Centers nitude at the time when spraying of water for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Global on the spent-fuel pool of unit 4 started. This Deposition of radioactivity on land Forecast System (GFS) analyses. indicates the emission may not have origi- It may have seemed fortunate that westerly nated only from the damaged reactor cores, winds prevailed during most of the accident to carry the radioactive plume offshore. But Total releases greater than Chernobyl but also from the spent fuel pool of unit 4. exactly during and following the period of The results obtained for the total release Altogether, an estimated 6.4 PBq of the strongest Cs-137 releases on 14 and 15 of Xe-133 was 15.3 EBq (uncertainty range Cs-137, or 18 % of the total fallout until 20 March, as well as after another period with 12.2-18.3, EBq – 1018 Bq), more than 2 x total April were deposited over Japanese land strong emissions on 19 March, the radioac- release from Chernobyl (Chernobyl total was areas, while most of the rest fell over the tive plume was carried over Eastern Honshu 5.2 EBq) and “likely the largest radioactive North Pacific Ocean. Only 0.7 PBq or 1.9 % of Island, where rain deposited a large fraction noble gas release in history”. This took place the total fallout was deposited on land areas of Cs-137 on the land. between 11 and 15 March 2011. In fact, the other than Japan. Radioactive clouds reached North release is greater than the entire estimated America on 15 March and Europe on 22 Xe-133 inventory of the Fukushima Dai-ichi Correspondence between simulated and March. By mid-April, Xe-133 was fairly nuclear plant, and is explained by the decay observed results improved by inverse uniformly distributed in the mid-latitudes of of I-133 (half-life 20.8h) into Xe-133. There is modelling the entire Northern Hemisphere and was for strong evidence that Xe-133 release started A scatter plot of all available Xe-137 obser- the first time also measured in the Southern before the first active venting was made, vations versus simulation results, both a Hemisphere (Darwin Station, Australia). In possibly from structural damage to reactor prior (from guess estimate of source) and a general, simulated and observed concentra- components and/or leaks due to excessive posteriori (source values optimised to fit the tions of Xe-133 and Cs-137 both at Japanese pressure inside the reactor. data) is given in Figure 1. as well as distant sites were in good quanti- For Cs-137, the inversion modelling The straight line in the middle is where tative agreement. results gave a total emission of 36.6 PBq the correspondence is 1:1 between measured The dispersion of radionuclides from (20.1-53.2, PBq = 1015 Bq); 70 % more than first and simulated values, the lines above and the Fukushima fallout was simulated based guess, and about 43 % of estimated Cherno- below represent respectively overestimates on GFS meteorological analyses. The first byl emission. The results showed that Cs-137 and underestimates by a factor of 5. There releases associated with the venting and ex-

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release was an order of magnitude lower than on 13 and 14 March, associated with the venting and explosions in the other units. On 14 March, a cyclone developed over southern Japan, and this coincided with a period of very high emissions from ventings and explosions of unit 2, unit 3 and in the spent-fuel pool of unit 4. (Details of the release events are given in an Appendix of the paper [4].) During the accident events, Xe-133 and Cs-137 from the Fukushima fallout dispersed throughout the Northern Hemisphere and eventually also reached the Southern Hemi- sphere. A first radionuclide cloud ahead of the main plume containing only Xe-133 was transported rapidly across the North Pacific at low altitudes and arrived in western North America on 15 March (Figure 3). The first radioactive cloud skimmed along the North American seaboard because a large cyclone over the Eastern Pacific produced a souther- ly flow along the coastline. It was nevertheless detected at Richland, Washington State 2 Figure 3 Simulated total atmospheric columns of Xe-133 (colour shading) in kBq/ m and geopotential in USA. The main part of the radioactive (height adjusted for pressure, blue isolines) at four different time points from 12 March (upper left) to 22 cloud entered western North America on 17- March 2011 (lower right); Fukushima Dai-ichi Power plant, yellow circle; air sampling site at Tokai-mura, green square; deposition monitoring site in Tokyo, green diamond; air sampling station on Oahu (Hawaii), 18 March and could be detected by monitor- green triangle; Stockholm, green circle. ing sites there (see Figure 4). A comparison of the top left panels in Figure 3 and 4 shows that the lead part of the Xe-133 plume is much stronger than the Cs-137 plume, resulting mainly from the earlier start of Xe-133 emissions. On 18 March, high levels of both Xe-133 and Cs-137 can be found over the eastern Pacific Ocean and western North America. This part of the cloud was still close to the surface south of 50º. The high altitude head of the cloud with lower levels of Cs-137 had already arrived over the North Atlantic. At the same time, the radioactive cloud pen- etrated the subtropics and arrived at Hawaii on 19 March. From the Xe-133 maps (Figure 3), it can be seen that already, by 18 March, the highly radioactive plume had engulfed much of western and central North America from Canada to the USA, with radioactivity ranging well over 1 000 to 100 000 Bq or more. Some of this could be easily have been inhaled by the inhabitants. By 22 March, contaminated air from Fukushima had circled the Northern Figure 4 Simulated total atmospheric columns of Cs-137 (colour shading) in Bq/m2 and geopotential (height Hemisphere and reached both the tropics adjusted for pressure, blue isolines); other details as in Figure 3 as well as the polar regions (Figs. 3 and 4). Even though enhanced surface concentra- plosion of Fukushima Daichi Nuclear Power though a change in wind direction on 12 tions were still limited to small parts of the Plant unit 1 reactor on 11 and 12 March 2011 March blew the plume over the coastal Northern Hemisphere, this changed quickly. was blown mainly offshore and transported areas north of the power plant. There was In April, all measurement stations recorded eastsoutheast over the North Pacific Ocean, no precipitation, and the magnitude of the an enhanced background of Xe-133. Even the By 22 March, contaminated air from Fukushima had circled the Northern Hemisphere and reached both the tropics as well as the polar regions. In April, all measurement stations recorded an enhanced background of Xe-133. Even the Australian station Darwin started registering enhanced Xe-133 in April Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 17

available,” and calling for a central data repository to be created. The analysis has only derived the source terms for two important radionuclides, and work needs to be done on others, notably I-131. This is absolutely necessary to address and mitigate the health impacts of the Fukushima catastrophe already unfolding. The reluctance of officials to disclose information in the early days of the disaster has meant that iodine tablets were not distributed to people in the most highly contaminated areas, with the result that 44.5 % of the children showed radioactive contamination of up to 35 mSv in their thyroid gland; and an examination of more than 38 000 children in Fukushima prefecture found cysts in 35 % of the children’s thyroid gland (see [5]). The excess deaths in the US observed by Mangano and Sherman in the 14 weeks following the accident do coincide with the arrival of high levels of radioactivity (in X-133) by day 5 (Figure 3), and by day 10 engulfed the whole of North America in both X-133 and Cs-137 (Figures 3 and 4). They wrote in the conclusion of their report [1]: “It is critical that research should proceed with all due haste, as answers are essential to early diagnosis and treatment for exposed people, particularly the children and Figure 5 Maps of total deposition of Cs-137 until 20 April 2011 for Japan (upper panel) and globally (lower the very young.” panel). The colour scale is in kBq/m2; other details as in Figure 3 The need for systematic monitoring, data-sharing, and research applies across Australian station Darwin started registering to a previous estimate of 22 % reported, the globe; as the available data already enhanced Xe-133 in April. although their absolute values are smaller demonstrate, the disease burden will not be The maps of total deposition of Cs-137 because of lower source emissions used. restricted to Japan. in Japan and globally are shown in Figure 5. Only 0.7 PBq or 1.9 % of total Cs-137 deposi- Note that the scale is in kBq/m2. The orienta- tion occurred over land areas other than References tion of the simulated plume is exactly as Japan, while the remaining 80 % (29.28 PBq) 1. Mangano JJ and Sherman JD. An unexpected mortal- found by aerial surveys of Cs-137 between were deposited in the oceans. This is in addi- ity increase in the United States follows arrival of the radioactive plume from Fukushima: Is there a correlation? 6 April and 26 May by MEXT. The airborne tion to the deliberate releases of radioactiv- Internation Jour al of Health Services 2012, 42, 47-64. measurements show that along the main ity that constituted “the largest radioactivity 2. “Study: Fukushima radiation has already killed 14,000 plume axis, Cs-137 deposition values greater releases into the ocean in history” [5]). Americans”, WashingtonsBlog, 24 December 2011, http:// 2 www.washingtonsblog.com/2011/12/study-fukushima- than 1 000 kBq/m extends about 50 km radiation-has-already-killed-14000-americans.html from the Fukushima plant (well outside the Central data repository and increased 3. “Researchers trumpet another flawed Fukushima evacuation zone) [5]. monitoring urgently needed death study”, Micheal Moyer, Scientific American, 20 In the Chernobyl disaster, Cs-137 deposi- December 2011, http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/ These results for only two of the main radio- observations/2011/12/20/researchers-trumpet-another- 2 tion values exceeding 1 000 kBq/m were nuclides already added up to nearly 15 times flawed-fukushima-death-study/ observed in two areas: in the exclusion zone the total radioactivity in the latest TEPCO es- 4. Stohl A, Seibert P, Wotawa G, Arnold D, Burkhart JF, around Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant and Eckhardt S, Tapia C, Varga and Yasunari TJ. Xenon-133 timates [8] of just over 1 EBq. If we take the and caesium-137 releases into the atmosphere from the Prypjat, and north of the city of Gomel in Be- amount of Cs-134 as equal to 36.6 PBq (same Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant: determination of larus. For the Fukushima accident, the land as for Cs-137 when measured [6]), and add the source term, atmospheric dispersion, and deposi- areas receiving such high deposition values the value of 500 PBq for I-131 given by TEPCO tion. Atmos Chem Phy 2012, 12, 2313-43. Led by A. Stohl at are smaller, but still extensive. In the extrat- Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Kjeller. for releases into the atmosphere, as well as 5. Ho MW. Truth about Fukushima. Science in Society 55, ropical North Hemisphere, Cs-137 deposited the rest released into the ocean (18.1 PBq), 18-23, 2012. from past nuclear testing is still present, we arrive at a total of 16.0532 EBq. This is 6. Assessment on the 66th day of projected external dos- raising the background to about 1-2 kBq/m2. es for populations living in the north-west fallout zone of certainly more than the estimated total of 14 the Fukushima nuclear accident, outcome of population That value is exceeded by deposition from EBq released in Chernobyl according to the evacuation measures, Report DRPH/2011-10, Directorate Fukushima over large parts of Honshu Island World Nuclear Association [9]. of Radiological Protection and Human Health, Institut de and the western Pacific Ocean. However, The estimates are the best available Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire, October 2011. deposition of Cs-137 over other parts of Asia, 7. Nuclear Emergency Response Headquarters, Govern- based on still very incomplete information. ment of Japan: Report of the Japanese Government to North America and Europe is minor com- In their closing remarks, the authors pointed the IAEA Ministerial Conference on Nuclear Safety – The pared to this pre-existing background. out that the data collected for the analysis Accident at TEPCO’s Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations, The analysis accounts for more than 90 accessed 7 October 2011, http://www.iaea.org/newscent- come from various sources, none of which is er/focus/fukushima/japan-report/ % of the Cs-137 emissions until 20 April, with available to the public [4]. They speculated 8. Press release, Tokyo Electric Power Company, 24 the rest still residing in the atmosphere and that more useful data sets were not even May 2012, http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/ small amounts lost by radioactive decay. accessible to the research team; stating: release/2012/1204659_1870.html Japan received 6.4 PBq or 18 % of total Cs-137 9. Chernobyl Accident 1986, World Nuclear Association, “Institutions having produced relevant April 2012, http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/ deposition until 20 April. This is quite similar measurement data should make them freely inf07.html SiS

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Bystander Effects Multiply Dose & Harm from Ionizing Radiation

Effects of radiation felt by non-radiated neighbouring cells prompt a rethink of radiation risk, radiotherapy and radioprotection Dr. Mae-Wan Ho

Low dose big effects Linear dose response relationships are routinely used in risk assessments of exposure to environmental hazards, and ionizing radiation is no exception. Typically, effects at high doses that kill cells, cause gene mutations and cancers, are back extrapolated to obtain an exposure limit at which the harm caused is considered miniscule or acceptable in view of the benefits gained. Ionizing radiation was widely believed to cause mutations by directly breaking the bonds of DNA molecules in the nucleus. In the early 1990s, Hatsumi Nagasawa and John Little at Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, discovered, to their surprise, that while a linear relationship applies to high doses of a-radiation (from 5cGy to 1.2 Gy, where cGy = 10-2Gy) (see Box), a much enhanced effect was ob- Box 1 tained at very low doses of 0.03 cGy to 0. 25 cGy, when 30 to 45 % of the cells in a population of Chinese hamster cells exhibited sister chromatid exchange (SCE Absorbed dose, equivalent dose and effect dose involving double-stranded DNA breaks). At that low dose of radiation, only 0.07 Radioactivity is measured physically as Curies (1 Ci = to 0.6 % of the nuclei should have been directly hit by an alpha-particle. Yet the 3.7 x1010 disintegrations per second). But that does not frequency of SCE rose rapidly at very low doses reaching a plateau below 1 cGy, take account of the energy of different kinds of radia- after which no further increase occurred with increasing dose, though a decline tion and their interaction with biological tissues. occurred at higher doses. That was the first indication that damaging signals may The absorbed dose, Gray (Gy) is equal to and en- be transmitted from irradiated to neighbouring non-irradiated cells in a popula- ergy of 1 Joule/ kg absorbed. tion, and they called it “the bystander effect” [1]. The equivalent dose Sievert (Si), is weighted by In another experiment they looked at mutation frequency of a specific en- biological potency of different kinds of radiation (1 zyme, and found the same enhanced effect at very low dose. At the lowest dose for g-rays, b-particles, and X-rays, 20 for a-particles of 0.83 cGy, the efficiency with which the alpha-particle can induce a mutation and 10 for neutrons). The effective dose also in Sievert increases nearly five-fold; the mutation frequency was the same as that due a takes into account the sensitivities of different tissues, dose 100 times as great (0.83 Gy). applying fractional weighting factors derived from pre- Using the then newly developed microbeam of very low dose alpha particles vious epidemiological studies of radio-induced cancers to target individual cells, researchers at Columbia University, New York, showed in different tissues that all sum up to 1, so it should that hitting the cytoplasm was sufficient to induce mutation in the nucleus [3]. give an effective dose equal the uniform equivalent They commented that low dose radiation is all the more dangerous because it dose for the whole body. Thus, lots of judgements does not kill the targeted cell, but allows its influence to spread widely to adja- are used in arriving at the effective dose, based on cent cells, thus multiplying the radiation effect (about 100 fold). a model of linear energy transfer (and linear dose response relationship) that has proven inapplicable for Bystander effects now abundantly confirmed cells and organisms. Since then, a wide range of bystander effects in cells not directly exposed to ionizing radiation have been found, which are the same as or similar to those in the cells that were exposed [4], including cell death and chromosomal instability. Actually, radiation induced bystander effects have been described as far back as 1954, when factors that cause damage to chromosomes could be detected in the blood of irradiated patients. Carmel Mothersill and Colin Seymour at McMaster University published a key paper in 1997 showing that filtered medium from irradiated human epithelial cells can reduce the survival of unirradiated cells, suggesting that solu- ble factors produced by the irradiated cells were involved in the bystander effects [5]. Indeed, serum from cancer patients treated with radiotherapy also causes cell death and chromosomal instability in unexposed cells in culture, and this has been shown as far back as 1968 [6]. In 2001, researchers at Columbia University, New York used microbeams to target single cells with exactly defined numbers ofa -particles (see Figure 1). They found that hitting 10 % of the cells induced the same frequency of cancerous transformation as when every cell in the dish was targeted [7]. More recently, bystander DNA double-strand breaks were induced in a three-dimensional human tissue culture that is closer to in vivo conditions. The results obtained by the team led by Olga Sedelnikova at the National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, were much more dramatic. In marked contrast to cultured cells in two-dimensions where maximal DSB occurred 30 minutes after irradiation, the incidence of DSBs in bystander cells reached a maximum between 12 to 48 hours after irradiation, gradu- ally decreasing only over 7 days. At Figure 1 Microbeam shows up bystander effects in cells; red arrow microbeam, white cells normal, purple cells show the maximum, 40 to 60 % of cells bystander effects were affected [8]. These increases in

Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 19 bystander DSBs were followed by increased apoptosis and micronucleus formation, loss of nuclear DNA methylation and increased fractions of senescent cells. The authors commented that treatment of primary tumours with radiation therapy frequently results in the growth of a secondary malignancy of the same or different origin. They raised the question on whether bystander effects could introduce negative com- plications in radiation therapy, such as genomic instability in normal tissues. They concluded that induced senescence might be a protective mechanism. On the other hand, failure of these protective pathways can lead to the appearance of proliferating, damaged cells and to an increased probability of oncogenic transformation. New research from the University of Pittsburgh Pennsylvania throws further light on the implications of bystander effects for radiotherapy. It is customary for patients receiving bone-marrow transplant to undergo whole body irradiation to kill the bone marrow cells of the host so as to encourage repopulation by transplanted cells. The researcher found that irradiated mouse recipients significantly impaired the long-term repopulating ability of transplanted mouse haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) 17 hours after exposure to irradiated hosts, and before the cells began to divide. There was an increase in acute cell death associated with accelerated proliferation of the bystander HSCs. The effect was marked by a dramatic down-regulation of c-Kit (a proto- oncogene), apparently because of elevated reactive oxygen species Box 2 (ROS). Administration of an antioxidant chemical or ectopically through over-expression of a ROS scavenging enzyme catalase improved the How ionizing radiation can impact on health Ionizing radiation comes from radioactive decay of unstable function of transplanted HSCs in the irradiated hosts [9]. This obviously chemical elements, which are generated in the nuclear fission has implications for protecting patients during radiotherapy as well as process in nuclear power reactors, or in linear accelerators those receiving bone-marrow transplant. that produce X-rays and electron beams (b-particles) for radio-

therapy [12, 13]. In general photons or particles with energy What causes the bystander effects? above 10 eV (electron volts) are ionizing. The bystander effect is largely a low-dose phenomenon, appearing at Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of a large doses below 10 cGy [10]. Higher doses often do not produce bystander atom into two, along with a few neutrons and release of effect possibly because the cells targeted are killed before they can energy in the form of heat and g-rays; about 0.2 to 0.4 % of influence non-targeted cells. As with the “war on cancer”, numer- fissions also producea -particles (nuclei of helium-4 with two ous attempts have been made to identify the genes or gene products protons and two neutrons), or nuclei of tritium (one proton involved in the bystander effects. And as in cancer, genes up-regulated or and two neutrons). The fission products are often unstable down-regulated are secondary to a state of electronic imbalance (see [11] and hence radioactive; they undergo b-decay giving out Cancer a Redox Disease, SiS 54) created by the ionizing radiation, which b-particles, antineutrinos, and additional g-rays. Antinutrinos breaks chemical bonds and generate free electrons (see Box 2). pass easily through ordinary matter; consequently, the major When cells are irradiated, it is likely that ionization of one or more of ionising radiations that can affect health area - and b-particles, the atoms on DNA molecules will occur in a direct hit, breaking the DNA X-rays, g-rays and neutrons. chain or the links between chains. However, direct attack of radiation on a- and b-particles are directly ionizing radiation; they in- the structure of DNA is not the only way radiation affect cells. The human teract directly with atoms, and if the energy is sufficient, knock body is about 70 % water; hence water is probably the most frequent outer electrons away to produce a free electron and a posi- target of ionizing radiation. Ionization of water leads to the formation tively charged ion. A b-particle produces more than 100 ion- of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (see Box 3) that damages DNA, lipids, izing events per cm in its track, whereas an a-particle produces proteins, carbohydrates, and other molecules. It is becoming increasingly more than 10 000 ionizing events per cm. But while a b-particle clear that ROS is a major culprit in the bystander effect, as suggested by can travel for centimetres through tissues, a-particles travel those who discovered the effect [1, 2]. This has been confirmed by more for micrometres only. As the energy of each particle increases, recent findings. so does the range. Consequently, external sources of a-particles are stopped by the skin, while external b-particles can ROS and oxidized extracellular DNA penetrate into the body. However, inhaled or ingested sources A team led by Aleksei Ermakov at the Research Centre for Medical of a-particles can do a lot more damage within the body. Genetics, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences in Moscow Researchers X-rays and g-rays induce ionization indirectly through 3 showed that an extracellular DNA (ecDNA) derived from the cell genome principal mechanisms: Compton scattering where they are participates in the bystander effect induced by X-ray exposure in human scattered from the outer electrons of atoms, transferring lymphocytes and human umbilical-vein epithelial cells [15]. Their previous energy to the electrons, and if enough energy is transferred, work suggested that radiation-sensitive cells undergoing apoptosis serve give rise to a free electron and a positively charged ion. In the as a source of ecDNA fragments that diffuse in the medium and bind to photoelectric effect, one of the inner electrons of the atom ab- DNA receptors on the surface of bystander cells. Bystander effects could sorbs the energy of the X-ray or g-ray, and is ejected from the be stimulated by ecDNA of irradiated cells but not by ecDNA produced atom, again leaving a positively charged ion. Following this, by normal cells. In a new study, the team tested the idea that the differ- one of the outer electrons ‘falls’ in to fill the vacancy, and X-ray ence between the two types of ecDNA is due to DNA oxidation events is emitted from the atom. In pair formation, the x-ray or g-ray occurring during and after irradiation. They compared the production of interacts with the electric field of the nucleus, and is converted NO (nitric oxide, a free radical and reactive oxygen species) and ROS in into an electron and a positron, the positron in travelling human endothelial cells that were irradiated at a low dose radiation, or through the tissue material will usually react with another elec- R exposed to the ecDNA extracted from the media conditioned by irradi- tron and become converted back to two X-rays or g-rays. ated cells, or exposed to the genomic DNA oxidized in vitro by treatment Neutrons are scattered directly from the atomic nuclei with H O , (DNAo1), or H O plus uv light (DNAO2more strongly oxidizing). 2 2 2 2 of atoms, resulting either in losing energy that is released as They found that all three treatments gave similar responses. The produc- g-rays or else it is absorbed by the nuclei resulting in a new nu- tion of NO at 2h was suppressed at low doses of 0.03 Gy and 0.1 Gy but cleus (element) being formed. If the new nucleus is unstable, R increased at 0.5 Gy or higher. Similarly, the ecDNA extracted from media radioactive decay occurs creating a-, b- or g-rays. The second conditioned by irradiated cells decreased NO but not the extracellular option can only occur if the neutron is sufficiently slow, and o1 O2 DNA from non-irradiated cells; the oxidized DNA and more so DNA that is what happens in the nuclear fission process in nuclear also reduced NO. ROS levels in general were increased in all three treat- power reactors. R o1 ments by 1.2 to 1.8-times the controls with ecDNA and oxidized DNA Some of the free electrons generated by the ionizing O2 and DNA to larger extents than the direct radiation, or the bystander radiation may be energetic enough to cause ionizations of effect due from the conditioned medium. their own; this is the secondary photoelectron effect of ion- Other researchers have shown that the major source of ROS in izing radiation. endothelial cells is the activity of NAD(P)H-oxidases, predominantly one

www.i-sis.org.uk 20

encoded by the NOX4 gene. Irradiation with 0.1 Box 3 Gy and treatment with ecDNAR led respectively Reactive oxygen species generated from water [14] to a 3-fold and 1.7 fold increase in NOX4 mRNA, Oxygen is the most important electron acceptor in the biosphere. It readily accepts un- while oxidized DNA stimulated transcription 5-15 paired electrons to give rise to a series of partially reduced species collectively known fold compared with unoxidized DNA. - Also in previous work by the Russian team, as reactive oxygen species (ROS). These include superoxide O2 , hydrogen peroxide the bystander effect involves DNA-binding to H2O2, hydroxyl radical HO· and peroxyl radical OO·, which may be initiate and propa- gate free radical chain reactions damaging to cells. Hydroxyl radicals are generated by Toll-like receptor TLR9. This was confirmed by ionizing radiation either directly from water, or indirectly by the formation of second- blocking the TLR9 response with chloroquine ary partial ROS that are subsequently converted to hydroxyl radicals by metabolic and oligonucleotide 2088, which suppressed the processes. Gamma rays, beta and alpha particles are all able to ionize water to produce increase in ROS production and eliminated the hydroxyl radicals, the most reactive, and therefore potentially the most hazardous. Hy- effects of ecDNAR. droxyl radicals have a very short persistence time, while hydrogen peroxide is the most The team suggested that the bystander long-lasting. Hydrogen peroxide can diffuse freely and can generate hydroxyl radicals effect-like properties of ecDNAR and oxidized by reacting with free electrons: DNA may be used for the development of novel anti-tumour therapy that may stimulate cell - - death without actual irradiation, or synergisti- H2O2 + e → HO· + HO (1) cally with reduced irradiation doses. Oxidative attack on proteins destroys their enzyme, receptor and other biological function; damage to DNA causes mutations and chromosomal rearrangements; and Secondary photoelectron effects peroxidation of lipids destroys membrane structure and function. Another way low dose ionization radiation can More than 80 % of energy of ionizing radiation deposited in cells results in the be amplified and appear as bystander effects ejection of electrons from water. Subsequent reactions with surrounding water results is through scattering of photons through the - in the formation of several reactive species: eaq (hydrated free electron) HO· (hydroxyl tissues. Photons or particles can bounce off one

radical, the most important reactive oxygen species), H· (hydrogen radical), H2 (hydro- target atom and strike another, generating a

gen gas) and H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide, a stable and diffusible reactive oxygen species). further free electron (see Box 2). These products react rapidly with each other and with surrounding molecules. In the A research team at the Maria Sklodowska- presence of O2, superoxide radicals (another reactive oxygen species) are formed: Curie Memorial Cancer Centre and Institute of Oncology Gliwice Branch, Poland investigated di- - - eaq + O2 → O·2 (1) rect and bystander effects induced by scattered - + H· + O2 → O·2 + H (2) radiation in two human cell lines – normal bron- chial epithelial cells BEAS-2B and lung cancer Superoxide generates hydrogen peroxide on a longer time scale: epithelial cells A549 – placed in a bath of water at different depths and subjected to irradia- - + 2 O·2 + H → O2 + H2O2 (3) tion by 6 MeV photon beam or 22 MeV electron Because of their instability, most of the reactions generating the primary radical beam (5Gy maximum dose), and examined for

products will have taken place within 1 millisecond, but superoxide and H2O2 will persist apoptosis and micronucleated cells [16]. and diffuse to more distant sites. They found that for electron radiation both Cellular damage by hydroxyl radical attack depends partly on the antioxidant the numbers of apoptotic and micronucleated status of the cell and partly on the availability of reducing systems capable of reducing cells were greater than expected from the cor- or activating superoxide or hydrogen peroxide. The cellular antioxidant status deter- responding received dose, and the discrepancy mines the intracellular concentration of ROS. It has been shown that the effects of between observed and expected becomes

H2O2 resemble those of ionizing radiation. Cells exhibiting high levels of SOD, catalase, larger with increased medium depth. At a depth and peroxidase activity are relatively less vulnerable to secondary effects of radiation. of 15-17 cm, the observed was ten times the Glutathione peroxidase catalyses the reaction: expected, while micronucleated cells was about 2-3 fold. For photon radiation the biological

H2O2 + 2 GSH (reduced glutathione) → 2 H2O + GSSG (oxidized glutathione) (4) effect did not differ significantly from expected value because photon radiation penetrates the The activity of this peroxidase depends on the availability of reduced GSH. Re- medium better. When cells were placed outside generation of GSH from GSSG by glutathione reductase requires reduced nicotinamde the radiation field or under a shield, differences adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) as electron donor. from expected dose were also found for both The hydroxyl radical can be produced from more stable ROS via the participa- photon and electron, but no depth dependence tion of an electron donor, and many transition metal ions can act as electron donors: was observed. For cells exposed outside the field of the photon beam, apoptosis was again - H2O2 + Fe (II) → Fe(III) + HO + HO· (5) about 7-10 fold the expected while micronuclei formation was 4-5 fold. For shielded cells

Thus, hydroxyl radicals are generated from H2O2 at sites where reduced transition under photon irradiation, apoptosis was about metals are present. 3-fold while micronuclei was about 1.2-fold. For cells exposed outside the radiation field of the electron beam, again, a 10-fold difference from the expected, and for micronucleated cells, 1.5 to 4-fold in BEAS cells, and 4-7 fold in A549 cells. All the irradiated cell medium, when added to non-irradiated A549 cells gave a 2-fold increase in micronucleated cells and a 2-fold increase in apoptotic cells, regardless of the dose of irradiation or whether it was inside the beam, outside the beam or shielded. Apart from the bystander effects mediated through the exposed cell medium, these experiments indicate that secondary photoelectron scattering may be involved in the biological effects of low-dose radiation. This has been suggested by research published in the early 1990s [17]. Monte Carlo track structure methods were used to illustrate the importance of low-energy electrons produced by low linear-energy- transfer radiations. These low-energy secondary electrons contribute substantially to the dose in all low-LET irradiations, and account for up to nearly 50 % of the total dose imparted to a medium when irradiated with electrons or photons. Up to 50 % of secondary electrons themselves can also undergo further scattering and to generate more free electrons. For most ionizing radiations, nearly 50 % of all ionizations are due to secondary electrons with starting energies less than 1 keV.

Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 21

Implications for risk assessment, radiotherapy and radioprotection Risk assessment and radiation protection have been based on extrapolation from known epidemiological data that mainly relate to high dose effects that assume a linear dose-response relationship even at very low doses [4]. This is clearly untenable in view of the bystander effects at low doses, which amplify the effective dose and harm caused. The best available evidence suggests that bystander effects are mediated by ROS. ROS is well-known to be involved in general oxidative stress, with many downstream effects that mirror bystander effects: DNA breaks, genome instability, cell death, cancer, including cell senescence and aging [18], and cataracts [19]. It is notable that these effects are appearing as significant health impacts linked to the Chernobyl fallout [20] (Chernobyl Deaths Top a Million Based on Real Evidence, SiS 55). The pro-nuclear lobby and regulators should stop denying these impacts and governments should devote much more resources to studying them instead, to prevent repeating the humanitarian disaster in the wake of the Fukushima meltdown (see [21] Truth about Fukushima, SiS 55). The involvement of ROS also suggests that antioxidant interventions should be considered as a mitigation of bystander effects in those exposed or still being exposed to the Fukushima and Chernobyl fallouts. This is a matter of some urgency. Among the most promising findings are the well-known benefits of green tea in cancer prevention (see [22] Green eaT Against Cancers, SiS 33), and its many antioxidants polyphenols that probably account for reducing risks of heart disease, cancers, Alzheimer’s disease, obesity, arthritis, diabetes, and a host of other conditions associated with oxidative stress (see [23] Green Tea, The Elixir of Life? SiS 33). New research from the Radiation and Cancer Therapeutics Lab at Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, and the Central University of Gujarat in India indeed shows that one of the main green tea polyphenols, EGCG (epigallocatechin-3-gallate) is most efficient at protecting DNA againstg -radiation induced breaks both inside and outside the cell, and also protects cells against radiation-induced cell death, lipid peroxidation and membrane damage (see [24] Green Tea Compound for Radioprotection, SiS 55). As far as cancer radiotherapy is concerned, the bystander effects mean that the radiation beam will cover a wider area than the physical beam, and the potential harm may outweigh the presumed benefit. The same goes for diagnostic radiology, as it occurs at doses that might induce more harmful bystander effects than the potential benefit the procedure might deliver. It is also possible that antioxidants could offer radioprotection against these procedures. SiS

References 13. Kelly M. Effects of Radiation, accessed 23 May 2012, http://www.marts100.com/ 1. Nagasawa H and Little JB. Induction of sister chromatid exchanges by extremely low Effects.htm doses of alpha particles. Cancer Res 1992, 52, 6394-6. 14. Kostyuk SV, Ermakov AV, Alekseeva AY, Smirnova TD, Glebova KV, Efremova :V. 2. Nagasawa H and Little JB. Unexpected sensitivity to the induction of mutations by Barampva A amd Veiko NN. Role of extracellular DNA oxidative modification in radiation very low doses of alpha-particle radiation: evidence for a bystander effect. Radiation induced bystander effects in human endotheliocytes. Mutation Research 2012, 729, Research 1999, 152, 552-7. 52-60. 3. Wu L-J, Randers-Pehrson G, Xu A, Waldren CA, Geard CR, Yu Z, and Hei TK. PNAS 1999, 15. Kostyuk SV, Ermakov AV, Alekseeva AY, Smirnova TD, Glebova KV, Efremova :V. 96, 4959-64. Barampva A amd Veiko NN. Role of extracellular DNA oxidative modification in radiation 4. Mothersill C and Seymour CB. Radiation-induced bystander effects – implications for induced bystander effects in human endotheliocytes. Mutation Research 2012, 729, cancer. Nature Reviews Cancer 2004, 4, 158-164. 52-60. 5. Mothersill C and Seymour CB. Medium from irradiated human epithelial cells but not 16. Konopacka M, Rogoliński J and Ślosarek K. Direct and bystander effects induced by human fibroblasts reduces the clonogenic survival of unirradiated cells. Int J Radia Biol scattered radiation generated during penetration or radiation inside a water phantom. 1997, 71, 421-7. Mutation Research 2011, 721, 6-14. 6. Hollowell JG and Littlefield LG. Chromosome damage induced by plasma of X-rayed 17. Nikjoo H and Goodhead DT. Track structure analysis illustrating the prominent role patient: an indirect effect of radiation.Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1968, 129, 240-4. of low-energy electrons in radiobiological effects of low-LET radiations,Phys. Med. Biol. 7. Sawant SG, Rander-Pehrson G, Geard CR, Brenner DJ and Hall EJ. The bystander effect 1991, 36, 229–238. in radiation oncogenesis: I. Transformation in CeH 10T1/2 cells in vitro can be initiated in 18. Bonnefoy M, Drai J and Kostka T. Antioxidants to slow aging, facts and perspectives the unirradiated neighbors of irradiated cells. Radiation Research 2001, 155, 397-401. (in French) Presse Med 2002, 31, 1174-84. 8. Sedelnikova OA, Nakamura A, Kovalchuk O, Koturbash I, Mitchell SA, Marino SA, 19. Babizhayev MA. Mitochondira induce oxidative stress, generation of reaction oxygen Brenner DH. And Bonner WM. DNA double-strand breaks form in bystander cells after species and redox state unbalance of the eye lens leading to human cataract formation: microbeam irradiation of three-dimensional human tissue models. Cancer Res 2007, 67, disruption of redox lens organization by phospholipid hydroperoxides as a common ba- 4295-302. sis for cataract disease. Cell Biochem Funct 2011, Apr;29(3):183-206. doi: 10.1002/cbf.1737. 9. Shen H, Yu H, Liang PH, Cheng H, XuFeng R, Yuan Y, Zhang P, Smithe CA and Cheng Epub 2011 Mar 7. T. An acute negative bystander effect of g-irradiated recipients on transplanted hemat- 20. Ho MW. Chernobyl deaths top a million based on real evidence. Science in Society 55, opoietic stem cells. Blood 2012, 119, 3629-37. 14-17, 2012. 10. Hei TK, Zhou H, Ivanov VN, Hong M, Lieberman HB, Brenner DJ, Amundson SA and 21. Ho MW. Truth about Fukushima. Science in Society 55, 18-23, 2012. Geard CR. Mechanism of radiation-induced bystander effects: a unifying model JPP 22. Ho MW. Green tea against cancer. Science in Society 33, 17-19, 2007. 2008, 60, 943-50. 23. Ho MW. Green tea, the elixir of life? Science in Society 33, 12-16, 2007. 11. Ho MW. Cancer a redox disease. Science in Society 54, 12-17, 2012. 24. Ho MW. Green tea compound for radioprotection. Science in Society 55, 36-37, 2012 12. Nuclear fission product, Wikipedia, 12 May 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nu- clear_fission_product

www.i-sis.org.uk 22 Apple Pectin for Radioprotection

A group of doctors and scientists risked their lives and careers to bleeding, and cerebral malformation. help children living in the most contaminated areas of the Cher- Histological abnormalities were also nobyl fallout and discovered a simple treatment that clears the demonstrated in the organ tissues and radionuclides from their bodies, offering hope for future genera- in animal models exposed to Cs-137 in tions of Chernobyl and Fukushima victims Dr. Mae-Wan Ho their feed [6]. As these children were born after Vassili Nesterenko and Yuri Bandazhevsky, champions of the March 1987, they did not suffer from victims of Chernobyl radioactive “iodine shock”; hence their The radioactive fallout from Chernobyl contaminated vast areas of illnesses and death was not due to neighbouring Belarus to > 37 000 Bq/m2. Agricultural production was short-lived I-131, but long-lived radionu- halted on 264 000 hectares, where 2 million people live, among them clides especially Cs-137. 500 000 children [1]. In the course of his work, Banda- Vassili Nesterenko (1934-2008), a physician from Belarus and shevsky found that Cs-137 over 20 Bq/ a former director of the Institute of Nuclear Energy at the National kg leads to disturbance of electrophysi- Academy of Sciences of Belarus, was one of the co-authors of a ological processes in the heart muscle comprehensive report documenting the health impacts of Chernobyl of children. Those born after 1986 and (see [2] Chernobyl Deaths Top a Million Based on Real Evidence, SiS continuously living in contaminated areas with concentrations above 15 Ci/ 55). Since 1990, he had been the director of the Belarusian independ- 2 10 ent Institute of Radiation Safety (BELRAD), created in 1989 with the km (Ci, Curie = 3.7 x 10 Bq) suffer seri- help of Soviet physicist, dissident, and human rights activist Andrei ous pathological modifications of the Sakharov (Nobel Peace Award, 1975), Belarusian writer and critic, cardiovascular system (see [2]). Ales Adamovich, and Russian chess grandmaster and former world champion Anatoly Karpov. The mission of BELRAD was to document Apple pectin reduces radioactivity in Top: Vassili Nesterenko, and study the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster [3]. Because children’s body bottom: Yuri Bandazhevsky of his work on Chernobyl, Nesterenko lost his job and was threat- Meanwhile, the BELRAD, under the ened internment in a psychiatric asylum. He escaped two attempts direction of Nesterenko, carried out ra- on his life. diation monitoring of the inhabitants of the Chernobyl contaminated Nesterenko intervened personally during the accident at Cher- zone and their foodstuffs, and developed measures for the main- nobyl. As an expert on the subject and with his experience as a fire tenance of radiation safety and radioprotection. Nesterenko also fighter, he threw liquid nitrogen containers from a helicopter in an pioneered a treatment with apple pectin for children living in highly attempt to cool the reactor core, risking his life in the radioactive contaminated areas and eating highly contaminated food. smoke. He survived, but three of his 4 passengers in the helicopter As a complement to standard radioprotection measures, apple- died from the radiation and contamination. pectin preparations have been given especially in Ukraine to reduce Nesterenko was not alone in being persecuted for working on the Cs-137 uptake in children. Pectin acts by binding to the radionu- Chernobyl. clide in the gut to block its absorption. The question was raised as Yuri Bandazhevsky, former director of the Medical Institute in to whether pectin might also be useful in clearing it from tissues. Gomel (Belarus) is a scientist also dedicated to understanding and Caesium is chemically similar to potassium, and therefore has a wide mitigating the health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. He distribution in tissues and cells, and is also excreted in urine. created the Gomel Medical Institute, and was named its director Researchers at BELRAD carried out a randomised, double-blind in 1990. But in June 2001, Bandazhevsky was sentenced to 8 years placebo-controlled trial to test the efficacy of dry, milled apple- imprisonment, as was the Deputy Director, Vladimir Ravkov. The extract containing 15-16 % pectin on 64 children from contaminated imprisonment was widely believed to be due to his work on the con- villages of the Gomel regions. The average Cs137 load in the group of sequences of Chernobyl, as his arrest came soon after he published children was about 30 Bq/kg body weight. The trial was conducted reports critical of the official research being conducted into the during a one-month stay in the sanatorium Silver Spring where only Chernobyl incident [4]. uncontaminated food was given to the children. Bandazhevsky was released on parole from prison in 2005, and The results showed that Cs-137 counts in children given pectin- prohibited from leaving Belarus for five months. He was afterwards powder were reduced by an average of 62 %, whereas the average invited by the mayor of Clermont-Ferrand in France to work at the reduction in those children given only placebo powder was only 13.9 university and at the hospital on the consequences of Chernobyl. %. The difference was significant at less than 1 % level. The reduction Since 1977, Clermont Ferrand has been linked to Gomel. In France, was medically significant, as no child in the placebo group reached Bandazhevsky is supported by the Commission de Recherche et values below 20 Bq/kg body weight, which is considered by Bandaz- d’Information Independantes sur la Radioactivité (CRIIRAD). hevsky as potentially associated with specific pathological tissue damages. Chronic incorporation of Cs-137 into children’s organs Among the children living in the contaminated areas, 70 to 90 Bandazhevsky documented the chronic incorporation of Cs-137 in the % of the children had Cs-137 exceeding 15-20 Bq/kg body weight. In organs of children living in contaminated areas. A paper published many villages, the levels reached 200-400 Bq/kg; the highest values in 2003 examined the organs of 52 children up to the age of 10, who were measured in Narovlya district with 6 700-7 300 Bq/kg. As shown died in 1997. The highest accumulation was in the endocrine glands, by Bandazhevsky, the chronic accumulation of Cs-137 contributed to in particular the thyroid, the adrenals and the pancreas. High levels progressive deterioration of health [7, 8]. were also found in the heart, the thymus and the spleen [5]. Children In a second study published in 2007 carried out by the BELRAD have a higher average burden of Cs-137 compared with adults living and the Research Centre Jülich in Germany, a joint data-base was in the same community, typically 2 to 3 times. created to include all available data from previous measurements at The organs from 6 infants with very high levels of contamination both research institutes and evaluated to identify settlements with in organs - thousands to >12 500 Bq/kg – all had severe symptoms: potentially enhanced radiation burdens. Serial measurements of the premature malformation, sepsis, cardiac abnormality, sepsis and Cs body burden were then performed at those settlements. The new

Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 23 data for 17 000 children were used to evaluate the actual situation of Fukushima (see [11] Truth about Fukushima, SiS 55). A study car- with special attention to the critical group – the 10 % in age group 1-19 ried out at the Institute of Radiation Medicine in Beijing China in 1991 y with the highest dose. These children were recruited into further demonstrated that sodium alginate prepared from seaweeds such as investigations on the effectiveness of different treatments including Sargassum sp. and kelp (Laminaria sp.) was able to block radioactive apple pectin to reduce the Cs-137 burdens in the body. strontium uptake [12]. Na alginate from S. siliquastrum in particular, Although total annual doses for most of nearly 17 000 children reduced the body burden of strontium 3.3-4.2 fold in rats, and by 78% assessed in 2002-2003 were generally below 1 mSv (the international (+/- 8.9) in human subjects. No undesirable effects on gastrointesti- exposure limit, approximately equivalent to 1 308 780 Bq), there are nal function was observed nor were Ca, Fe, Cu and Zn metabolism still cases where the limit is exceeded merely due to a high ingestion altered, both in the animal experiments and in human volunteers. A dose. This calls for remedial measures for agricultural land and the more recent study at the Institute of Radiation Protection, Ingolstad- use of clean food and control of food contamination. ter, Germany, found that sodium alginate added to Sr-90 contami- A brand of pectin called Vitapect consists of apple pectins nated milk reduced the uptake of Sr-90 by a factor of 9 [13]. with added vitamins, mineral nutrient and flavouring. In a placebo The seaweed Nori in the Japanese diet is also a rich source of controlled double-blind study, 8 groups of internally contaminated alginate. children were treated with Vitapect (5 g twice a day) for a two-week period during their stay in a sanatorium. An equal number of control Hope groups were given a placebo preparation. Each group comprised Bandazhevsky and the Gomel Medical Institute, and Nesterenko 40-50 children. A total of 729 children participated in the study. The and BELRAD have made a real difference to the lives of villagers Cs-137 body count of each child was measured at the beginning and that they have been able to help. The levels of radionuclides have end of the treatment. been reduced in comparison with the villages where the radiological The relative reduction of specific activity was 32.4 + 0.6 % for contamination has remained the same or where the situation has got the pectin groups compared with an average of 14.2 + 0.5 % for the worse as the result of particular local conditions, such as, for exam- control groups. The mechanism of action of pectin is assumed to be ple, an abundant crop of contaminated mushrooms. The importance similar to that of Prussian Blue, a proven and recommended agent of decontamination, continuing health surveillance and radioprotec- for removing Cs-137 from the body. It blocks the re-uptake of Cs-137 tion cannot be over-emphasized. excreted into the gut, thereby reducing the biological half-life by a BALRAD would have made much more progress had it not been factor of 2.5 from 69 to 27 days, in good agreement with a theoreti- for a scandalous disinformation campaign mounted against the apple cal model. pectin treatment, which stopped major funding from the European It is of interest that NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Parliament in the 1990s [14] (see also [15] The Pectin Controversy, SiS Administration) in the United States has suggested the following di- 55). etary countermeasures against ionizing radiation for astronauts [9]: There is indeed hope for future generations to recover health “Dietary countermeasures are drugs, that when ingested by and vitality, thanks to the work of these courageous doctors and an astronaut, may have the potential to reduce effects of ionizing scientists, who put their lives and careers on the line for the sake of radiation. These supplements can be broadly categorized into two learning the truth about the consequences of Chernobyl and helping groups. The first group includes specific nutrients that prevent the the children affected. They deserve all our support. radiation damage. For example, antioxidants like vitamins C and A For more information and especially if you would like to help, may help by soaking up radiation-produced free-radicals before they please contact Enfants de Tchernobyl Belarus (http://enfants-tcherno- can do any harm. Research has also suggested that pectin fiber from byl-belarus.org); [email protected]; or the Institute fruits and vegetables, and omega-3-rich fish oils may be beneficial of Radioprotection “BELRAD” (http://belrad-institute.org); irs.belrad@ countermeasures to damage from long-term radiation exposure. gmail.com; [email protected]. Other studies have shown that diets rich in strawberries, blueberries, kale, and spinach prevent neurological damage due to radiation. In References addition, drugs such as Radiogardase (also known as Prussian blue) 1. Nesterenko BV. Radioprotective measures for the Belarusian population after the Chernobyl accident. Internat J Radiation Medicine 2001, 3, 12. that contain Ferric (III) hexacyanoferrate (II) are designed to increase 2. Ho MW. Chernobyl deaths top a million based on real evidence. Science in Society 55, the rate at which cesium-137 or thallium are eliminated from the 14-17, 2012. body.” 3. Vassili Nesterenko, Wikipedia, 6 March 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassili_Nes- terenko BELRAD holds training seminars for parents and children, who 4. Yury Bandazhevsky, Wikipedia, 27 Ma7 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yury_Bandaz- receive the booklet, How to Pr0tect Yourself and Your Child from Ra- hevsky diation”, containing practical advice such as how to reduce the levels 5. Bandazhevsky YI. Chronic Cs-137 incorporation in children’s organs. Swiss Med Wkly of radionuclides in wild fowl, mushrooms and fish, before they are 2003, 133, 488-90. 6. Bandazhevsky Y. From the syndrome of chronic incorporation of long lived radionu- cooked: by soaking them for two periods of 3-4 hours each in salted clides (SLIR) to the creation of programmes and radioprotection policies for populations, water (two tablespoons of salt with one tablespoon of vinegar in 1 an example of an integrated model. Presentation at Scientific and Citizen Forum on litre of water) [10]. Radioprotection – From Chernobyl to Fukushima, 11-13 May 2012, Geneva. 7. Bandazhevsky YL. Pathophysiology of incorporated radioactive emission. Gomel State To-date, BELRAD has performed 433 000 whole body count Medical Institute, 1998, 57pp. measurement (WBC) in 300 villages in the provinces of Mogilyov, 8. Bandazhevsky YL. Medical and biological effects of radiocaesium incorporated into the Brest, Grodno, Vitebsk, Minsk and Bryansk. In 2001, the WBC labora- organism. Minsk 2000, 70 pp. tory of the Institute was officially accredited and certified. The large 9. Space Faring, The Radiation Challenge, An Interdisciplinary Guide on Radiation Biol- ogy for grades 9 through 12, Module 3: Radiation Countermeasures, NASA, George C. scope of the work required the collation and evaluation of all the Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL 35812, p.5, www. Nasa.gov.centers.marshall, data received, which was then combined to produce The Radio- accessed 30 May 2012, http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/284275main_Radiation_HS_Mod3.pdf ecological Atlas: Human Beings and Radiation, a systematic analysis of 10. Nesterenko VB, Nesterenko AV, Babenko VI, Kozyrenko MA, Krasnopyorov IV and Voida OA. Implementaion of radioprotection for populations at local level. Radio-eco- whole body count measurements of Cs-137 performed on children logical Atlas: human beings and radiation. Presented by Alexei Nesterenko at Scientific in villages in 19 districts of the Chernobyl region of Belarus between and Citizen Forum on Radioprotection – From Chernobyl to Fukushima, 11-13 May 2012, 2001 and 2007. The Atlas is regularly updated as the Institute contin- Geneva. ues the radiation monitoring of children. It now includes measure- 11. Ho MW. Truth about Fukushima. Science in Society 55, 18-23, 2012. 12. Gong YF, Huan ZJ, Qiang MY, Lan FX, Bai GA, Mao YX, Ma XP and Zhang FG. Sup- ments performed up to 2011, including additional results from two pression of radioactive strontium absorption by sodium alginate in animals and human further provinces. subjects. Biomed Environ Sci 1991, 4, 273-82. 13. Hollriegl V, Rohmuss M, Oeh U and Roth P. Strontium biokinetics in humans. Influence of alginate on the uptake of ingested strontium. Health Physics 2004, 86, 193-6. Seaweed alginate for radioprotection 14. Tchertkoff W.Le Crime de Tchernobyl: Le Goulag Nucleaire, Actes Sud, 2006. Radioprotection is an urgent issue not just for the victims of Cherno- 15. Greaves S. The pectin controversy. Science in Society 55, 34-36, 2012. byl but especially now for those living in highly contaminated areas SiS

www.i-sis.org.uk 24 The Pectin Controversy How the government orchestrated attack on science and scientists to protect the nuclear industry Susie Greaves

Chronic low level internal radiation from contaminated food The major health impacts in the last 26 years in areas contaminated by Chernobyl are due to chronic internal radiation from eating contaminated food. The rural areas are worst affected because the local population live off the land, eat fish from the rivers, hunt game and gather berries and mushrooms in the forest, all of which are contaminated with radionuclides. The people in these areas of Europe were abandoned to their fate, first by the Soviet government but soon after, by the West, as the nuclear lobby took over and persuaded governments that chronic low level radiation has no health effects. The nuclear lobby has only recently accepted that a distinction must be made between the effects of acute short livedexternal exposure to high levels of radiation as currently at Hiroshima and chronic low level internal radiation as in the case of Chernobyl victims [1]. Scientists from the three countries most affected - Belarus, Ukraine and Russia - battled from the start against this disinformation. Spurred on by the desperate plight of their people, they made unique discoveries about the effects of internally incorporated Wladimir Tchertkoff, Wikimedia radionuclides, in particular caesium 137. Using this information, they developed a series of radioprotection measures, and one of these By 1990, BELRAD had set up 370 local radioprotection centres was the use of pectin as an adsorbent to aid the clearing of radionu- for HRS measurements, and where samples of food can be moni- clides from the body. The following account is based on an excel- tored for radioactivity, and techniques introduced for reducing the lent book, Le crime de Tchernobyl: le goulag nucleaire, by journalist level of caesium 137 in food. With help from charities abroad, some Wladimir Tchertkoff [2]. children went away on holiday for three weeks to reduce the radioactive burden in their bodies. BELRAD also introduced apple pectin cures.

The major health impacts in the last Correlation between internal radioactivity and pathology estab- lished 26 years in areas contaminated by In 1994, Nesterenko met Dr Yuri Bandajevsky, a pathologist and Chernobyl are due to chronic internal Rector of the Gomel Institute of Medicine. Yuri and his wife Galina Bandajevskaya, a paediatric cardiologist, had made two important radiation from eating contaminated food discoveries. First that caesium 137, ingested through food, concen- trates unevenly in the organs of the body. Thus, for an average of 50 Bq/kg in a child’s body, there could be 1000 Bq/kg in the kidneys Vassili Nesterenko and over 2500 Bq/kg in the heart. Their second discovery was that ir- Professor Vassili Nesterenko was the director of the Institute for reversible lesions would occur in all vital organs of the body at levels Atomic Energy at the Academy of Sciences in Belarus from 1977 to above 50 Bq/kg. (This level was subsequently reduced to 20 Bq/kg, 1987. When the accident occurred in 1986, he was called in by the see [3] Apple Pectin for Radioprotection, SiS 55). Soviet government to assess the situation. He flew over the stricken The importance of the discoveries cannot be overstated. The reactor in a helicopter, receiving high levels of radiation that af- keystone of the nuclear lobby’s insistence that Chernobyl cannot fected his health for the rest of his life. Nesterenko was a thorn in explain the increase in illness and death in the contaminated ter- the flesh of the Soviet authorities from the start, insisting on iodine ritories rests on the inability to correctly assess radiation dose and distribution, a wider evacuation, (neither of which were done soon therefore correlate it with individual pathologies. This is precisely enough) and producing his own reports of the contamination that what Bandajevsky had done and it was extremely threatening to the challenged the official data. He received continual harassment and nuclear lobby and to the Ministry of Health in Belarus. two attempts on his life. In 1989, unable to continue with his radio- Nesterenko and Bandajevsky, among others, had also severely protection work at the state institute, he set up the independent criticised the 17 billion roubles spent in 1998 by the Belarus govern- Belarussian Institute of Radiation Safety (BELRAD), with the support ment supposedly on mitigating the consequences of the Chernobyl of Andrei Sakharov, another nuclear physicist, Ales Adamovitch, a disaster. Instead, the money had been wasted on producing a faulty writer, and Anatoli Karpov, the chess champion. register of radiation doses that was abandoned a year later. The BELRAD measured the internal radiation in each individual child Ministry of Health in Belarus began to put obstacles in BELRAD’s with a Human Radiation Spectrometer (HRS), and used this informa- way. Throughout 1999, the Ministry of Health harassed the institute tion to advise parents and teachers in the villages on how best to re- as to whether HRS (Human Radiation Spectrometer) measurements duce the burden. It was vital to use HRS measurements rather than constituted a medical or a scientific procedure, and whether BELRAD rely on abstract mathematical calculations, bordering on the absurd, needed a licence from the Ministry of Health. When the government of the total assumed radiation dose in one area. This method ignores lost this battle, they turned to the argument about the efficacy of the real situation in which there can be widely differing levels of pectin as an adsorbent. radioactive contamination metres apart, and in any case, each child has a particular diet that is more or less contaminated. Swiss Medical Weekly endorses apple pectin as effective adsor-

Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 25 bent for caesium 137 aims to help Eastern European countries make the transition to a It has been known for decades that the use of adsorbents can market economy). enhance the elimination of heavy metals and radioactive materi- There was disagreement about the efficacy of pectin at the als from the body. The US Food and Drug Administration advise meeting of the TACIS approval board, and it was proposed that a industry on the use of these adsorbents. What could possibly explain study be commissioned to answer the question once and for all. the controversy surrounding the use of apple pectin, a natural According to the German Deputy Gila Altman, Lengfelder wielded his product that has no side effects, is cheap to produce and according influence here too, and prevented the study being undertaken. Since to a study published by BELRAD in a reputable scientific journal, the then, BELRAD has survived only on donations from charitable bodies Swiss Medical Weekly, has proven results in reducing levels of radio- abroad and has great difficulty even paying the meagre wages of its active contamination in children’s bodies? (The details are described staff. Vassili Nesterenko died in 2008, but his son Alexei continues in [3].) the work and Belrad is now offering help and advice to Japanese radioprotection organisations. War against pectin or repression of science Solange Fernex (1934-2006) European Deputy, wrote, in 2000, It was clear that when the Ministry of Health in Belarus opposed an impassioned plea to the French ambassador in Minsk to ask why BELRAD in its use of pectin, it was simply the nuclear lobby’s Lengfelder “…is spending so much time attacking a fellow professor continuing attempt to silence Bandajevsky and stop the work of (Bandajevsky), who is defenceless, imprisoned, removed from his BELRAD. If Bandajevsky’s findings were to be admitted, the future post and relegated to the status of a criminal. What could motivate of nuclear power would be under threat. Health effects from such him to destroy the BELRAD Institute, to condemn the work it under- low levels of radiation, contaminating enormous areas and endan- takes and in particular its pectin cures?” (See page 319 of Le crime de gering the health of millions of people, would have such devastating Tchernobyl [1].) financial consequences, thatno government could consider nuclear Nesterenko answered this question as follows: “Because if pec- power viable. tin is administered three or four times a year, it really can lower, by The Ministry of Health in Belarus then enlisted Belarussian scien- a factor of two or three, the annual concentration of radionuclides tist Dr Jacob Kenigsberg, who worked (and continues to work!) for in the child, in other words they will be less ill. Our food is contami- the International Atomic Energy Agency, and Professor Lengfelder, nated. I think, I hope, that if such a terrible event were to happen in president of Deutscher Verbande fur Tschernobyl-Hilfe (German France or Germany, contaminated produce would be banned and Association for Aid to Chernobyl) to oppose Bandajevsky and the everyone would eat clean food. But here, the State cannot pro- pectin therapy. Lengfelder and his vice-president Madame Frenzel vide it, and the people cannot afford to buy it. They eat what they conducted a smear campaign against Nesterenko and Bandajevsky, grow…I think they didn’t want to recognise that there had been mass both of whom had brilliant careers as younger men before devot- contamination.” (my italics) ing themselves entirely to helping the victims of Chernobyl. The Nesterenko added. “I don’t think that pectin is a universal pana- government-sponsored campaign against the two men culminated cea. But it’s an effective product that works, given that the popula- in Bandajevsky being sacked from his post at Gomel in 1999, arrested tion is not being evacuated from the contaminated territories.” on trumped up charges and sentenced to eight years in prison [4]. What would Nesterenko feel today, seeing not only the continuing He was adopted as a prisoner of conscience by Amnesty Interna- plight of people in Belarus but now in Japan, and the arguments tional and released in 2005. about whether or not to evacuate (see [5] Truth about Fukushima, SiS 55)? Unfounded claims against apple pectin Lengfelder, Frenzel and Kenigsberg claimed that pectin had no use- Ramifications for the nuclear industry worldwide ful properties. According to them, a study had been conducted by Here is the shameful truth. If the government in Belarus agreed Herbstreith and Fox in Germany had proved that pectin was ineffec- that pectin was effective, they would have to agree that there was tive in decorporation (removing from body) of radionuclides. When widespread radioactive contamination. Then they would have to a representative from Herbstreith and Fox was later interviewed, he agree that they (and the West) have allowed their people, 2 million, said that only the effect of apple pectin on heavy metals had been including 500,000 children, to eat contaminated food for 26 years, studied, not the effect on radionuclide (p.137 of [1]). become ill, live miserable lives and die prematurely (90 % of children But in a letter sent from the Ministry of Health of the Russian in Belarus were healthy in 1985. Now that figure is 20 %).The ramifica- Federation in 2003 to local health authority directors, the pectin tions for the nuclear industry worldwide need hardly be stated. In product Zosterine-Ultra was recommended as a “mass prophy- 2000, Kofi Annan was asked to write the preface to the Office for lactic in the atomic industry [with] the capacity to eliminate from the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs report [6]Chernobyl, A the body the toxic components of lead, mercury, cadmium, zinc, continuing catastrophe. These were his final words. manganese and other heavy metals as well as radionuclides includ- “The most vulnerable victims were, in fact, young children and ing plutonium.” It was “perfectly tolerated by patients and has no babies, unborn at the moment when the reactor exploded. Their contra indications.” The letter went on to say how important this adulthood- now fast approaching- is likely to be blighted by that mo- product has been in the Chernobyl area in “lowering the levels of ac- ment, as their childhood has been. Many will die prematurely. Are cumulation and concentration of toxic substances in the body, and we to let them live and die, believing the world indifferent to their reinforcing the body’s own defence mechanisms.” And the product plight?” has been “approved as a therapeutic and prophylactic food additive by various medical research institutes, hospitals and clinics, includ- Coda ing the State Scientific Centre, Institute of Biophysics, the Institute Since this article was first circulated, an important missing chapter of Research of the Academy of Medical Science of Russia, the Kirov in the pectin controversy has opened up. The French nuclear lobby Academy of Military Medicine, the Institute of Toxicology at the Min- mounted a particularly insidious attack on BELRAD through the pro- istry for Public Health in Russia, the Academy of Ongoing Medical gramme ETHOS in 1996 and its successor CORE (Cooperation pour Training (Saint Petersberg).” In short, it was a ringing endorsement la rehabilitation des conditions de vie dans les territories de Belarus from the Russian Ministry of Health. contamine par l’accident de Tchernobyl). These programmes were financed by EDF (Electricite de France) and the CEA (Commissariat a BELRAD refused European funding l’Energie Atomique) and directed by Jacques Lochard, previously of But Lengfelder, Frenzel and Kenigsberg continued their campaign the CEA. The philosophy behind these programmes, as expressed in against the efficacy of pectin, with disastrous consequences. In a glossy brochure produced by the CEA in 2001 was that the people spring 2005, the European Parliament refused to give financial back- around Chernobyl needed to learn to “integrate the presence of ing to BELRAD through the programme TACIS (EU programme that radioactivity into their daily lives as a new part of existence.”

www.i-sis.org.uk 26

Between 1996 and 1998, ETHOS worked alongside Nesterenko’s system of local radioprotection centres, making use of the excellent Green Tea Compound for database and dedicated staff. But soon after, ETHOS, together with the Belarus government, made sure that all the centres were removed from Nesterenko’s control. With Nesterenko Radioprotection out of the way, effective radioprotection measures were abandoned and a new phase of rehabilitation was announced in the contaminated Green tea polyphenol antioxidant protects against bystander territories. Crucially, they refused to administer effects of low dose ionizing radiation that damage cells and pectin to the children, with disastrous consequences. cause numerous diseases including cancer Dr. Mae-Wan Ho In 2005, Nesterenko wrote in desperation to various ambassadors in Belarus, stating [2]: The recent discovery of bystander ef- “It is highly regrettable that the proposal put fects from low levels of ionizing radiation has forward by Belarusian scientists ….such as thrown risk assessment and radioprotection the introduction into the diet of pectin based into disarray [1] (Bystander Effects Multiply adsorbents, was not accepted as part of the Dose and Harm from Ionizing Radiation, SiS CORE project.” Nesterenko found that under 55). However, it has also led to the discovery the CORE project between 2004 and 2005 of potential mitigating measures against when children had not been given pectin, the exposure to radioactivity, especially from nu- level of caesium-137 in their bodies remained clear accidents like Chernobyl (and Fukushi- unchanged. Yet between 2000 and 2001, when ma), the devastation health impacts of which he had been in charge of radioprotection in the are still surfacing 25 years later [2] (Chernobyl same villages, and the children had received Deaths Top a Million Based on Real Evidence. courses of pectin, caesium-137 was reduced by SiS 55). Figure 1 EGCG (epigallocatechin-3-gallate) from green tea 27 % in Braguine, 32 % in Bourki, Mikoulitchi and Ionizing radiation has been known to Khrakovitchi and 35 % in Komarine. produce free radicals and reactive oxygen Unfortunately, ETHOS, with Lochard once species (ROS), predominantly by ionizing more as director, is now in Japan advising the water, the most abundant molecules in tissues and cells (see [1] for an explanation of population in Japan on radioprotection. At pub- ROS). ROS are responsible for oxidative damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids, initiat- lic meetings in Fukushima city, Lochard speaks ing cell death, genomic instability and other consequences of radiation, both in cells with pride of the radioprotection work done that have been directly targeted, and in bystander cells that have not been irradiated by ETHOS and CORE around Chernobyl. His [1]. There is evidence that various antioxidants can protect cells against bystander message to the Japanese people is remarkably radiation damages, and new findings published online inMutation Research appear similar to the message given to the victims of particularly promising. Chernobyl. He says [7]: “…the fear of radiation Ashu Tiku and Benila Richi at Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi and Roasa- is slowly vanishing outside the affected areas heb Kale at Central University of Gujarat in India may have found the ideal antioxidant around Fukushima….there is really no objective for radioprotectopm [3]. reason for being scared taking into account the extremely low levels of exposure….a key issue Non-toxic compound needed for radioprotection will be to maintain strong links (social economic One main problem in radioprotection is to find compounds that are non-toxic or and cultural) between the affected areas and minimally so, and natural compounds fit the bill in being both non-toxic and easily the rest of the country…the experience of Cher- available. Green tea is a rich source of polyphenols with strong antioxidant activities. nobyl has shown that over time the stigma of Green tea extracts and its polyphenols have been shown to possess many health ben- the territories and their inhabitants is a serious efits attributed to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (see [4, 5] Green issue and it is important to take action against Tea, The Elixir of Life? and Green Tea Against Cancers, SiS 33). Most of the health this risk.” benefits of green tea have been credited to the major polyphenol EGCG (epigallocat- In other words, psychological factors such echin-3-gallate) (Figure 1), which constitutes 55 – 70 % of total polyphenols in green as poor attitude, lack of determination, and fear tea extract. Its antioxidant potential is believed to be far greater than vitamin E and are the real enemies, all part of a continuing vitamin C, the two main antioxidants among vitamins [6]. propaganda war on behalf of the nuclear indus- The team exposed both pBR322 plasmid DNA as well as spleen cells from mice to try at the expense of genuine radioprotection. g-radiation at different concentrations of EGCG. Preliminary experiments found that EGCG concentrations above 125 mM were toxic to the cells, so the highest concentra- Notes & References tion used was restricted to 100 mM. The effects of quercetin - another polyphenol 1. By 2007, the ICRP was at least mentioning the words internal and external in their recommendations: “An important found in fruits, vegetables, leaves and grains - and vitamin C were also investigated. change is that doses from external and internal sources will The plasmid DNA and cells were incubated for 2 hours with EGCG at different concen- be calculated using reference computational phantoms of the trations or quercetin and vitamin C, both at 100 mM, before being irradiated. After- human body based on medical tomographic images, replacing the use of various mathematical models.” (http://www.icrp. wards, the plasmid and cells were assessed for DNA damage, and the cells for viabil- org/docs/ICRP_Publication_103-Annals_of_the_ICRP_37(2-4)- ity, lipid peroxidation, membrane fluidity, and for activities of enzymes and cofactors Free_extract.pdf). involved in detoxification and scavenging of ROS. 2. Wladimir Tchertkoff. “Le crime de Tchernobyl : le goulag nucleaire”, Actes Sud, 2006. 3. Ho MW. Apple pectin for radioprotection. Science in Society Tea compound protects against DNA breaks and cell death 55, 32-33, 2012. The intact plasmid is supercoiled in a compact form, while the cut plasmid is circular, 4. Bertell R. Avoidable tragedy post-Chernobyl. Journal of and the two forms can be clearly distinguished and quantified by electrophoresis. The Humanitarian Medicine 2002, Vol. II, No. 3, 21 - 28. 5. Ho MW. Truth about Fukushima. Science in Society 55 2012 control (unexposed) sample is about 85% supercoiled. EGCG was found to protect 6. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian plasmid DNA against breaks at high (50 Gy) or low (3 Gy) dose radiation: >82.5 % Affairs “Chernobyl: A continuing catastrophe”, OCHA/99/20, protection even at the lowest concentration of EGCG tested (10 mM) and complete 2000. SiS 100 % protection at 50 mM. EGCG was better at protection against DNA breaks than

Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 27 Boseong green tea field, Korea

quercetin or vitamin C at the same concentration of 100 mM. important in maintaining the cell’s electronic balance and antioxi- The viability of cells was determined with a vital dye that dant defence. depends on active mitochondria. At 3 to 7 Gy of g-irradiation, cell g-irradiation reduced the activities of both GST and SOD. The viability was significantly decreased, and at the highest dose, to 53 % reduction was countered by EGCG, and also by quercetin and of unexposed controls; but pre-incubation with EGCG protected the vitamin C. The level of LDH, an indicator of damage was increased cells and restored viability in a concentration dependent manner, at in g-irradiated cells, while glutathione was decreased, as indicative 100 mM, viability was restored to >96 % of control. of oxidative stress. EGCG was able to counteract those effects, Single cell comet assay was used to determine the extent of and almost completely at 100 mM. Quercetin was just as effective DNA degradation in the cells. In this assay, cells are trapped in agar in reducing LDH and restoring GSH levels to those of controls, but gel on a microscope slide, lysed to expose their DNA for electropho- vitamin C less so. resis, and stained with a fluorescent dye. Cells with intact DNA will appear as a small compact bright spot, while cells with degraded EGCG intercalates in DNA double helix DNA will appear as a diffuse spot with a tail, like a comet, hence The authors suggest that EGCG can intercalate in the DNA double he- the name of the assay. The bigger the tail, the greater is the extent lix and protect it from free radical attack. EGCG binding to both DNA of degradation, which can be quantified with computer software and RNA was documented for the first time by researchers at the under a fluorescent microscope. Exposing the cells to 3 Gy led to Tokushima Bunri University and the Saitama Cancer Centre in Japan substantial DNA degradation, which was reduced in a concentration [7]. They found that EGCG binds to single-stranded DNA and RNA, as dependent manner by EGCG. Quercetin and vitamin C also protected well as double-stranded DNA. Moreover, EGCG binding appears to the cells against DNA damage, though not as effectively as EGCG. stabilize double-stranded DNA. Previous work has also demonstrated that due to the pres- Protection against lipid peroxidation ence of abundant phenolic hydroxyl groups on aromatic rings (see Peroxidation of membrane lipids by ROS destroys membrane Figure 1), EGCG is a highly efficient free radical scavenger, effectively structure and function. The results showed that lipid peroxidation disarming the free radicals and rendering harmless [8]. increased with radiation dose from 0 to 7 Gy; and membrane fluidity Most importantly, in the absence of g-radiation, EGCG did not also increased but more slowly. Pre-incubation with EGCG prevented have any significant effect. Thus the innocuous habit of drinking two lipid peroxidation and increase in membrane fluidity in a concentra- cups of green tea a day may indeed have surprisingly beneficial ef- tion dependent manner. Quercetin and vitamin C similarly protected fects [4, 5] that include protecting against ionizing radiation. against peroxidation and increase in membrane fluidity, but again, less efficiently than EGCG. References 1. Ho MW. Bystander effects amplify dose & harm of ionizing radiation.Science in Society 55, 28-31, 2012. Key enzyme activities for antioxidant defence restored 2. Ho MW. Chernobyl deaths top a million based on real evidence. Science in Society 55, Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) is a family of enzymes catalyz- 14-17, 2012. 3. Richi B, Kale RK and Tiku AB. Radio-modulatory effects of green tea catechin EGCG on ing the conjugation of reduced glutathione (GSH) to peroxidized pBR322 plasmid DNA and murine splenocytes against gamma-radiation induced damage. lipids to detoxify them. Reduced glutathione GSH is a tripeptide Mutation Research, Genet. Toxicol. Environ. Mutagen. 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. antioxidant that takes part in reduction-oxidation reactions; in the mrgentox.2012.04.002 process, it is oxidized into glutathione disulphide (GSSG). The ratio 4. Ho MW. Green tea against cancer. Science in Society 33, 17-19, 2007. 5. Ho MW. Green tea, the elixir of life? Science in Society 33, 12-16, 2007. of reduced to oxidized glutathione is important in the cell’s antioxi- 6. Rice-Evans C. Implications of the mechanisms of action of tea polyphenols as antioxidant defence. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) catalyses the conversion dants in vitro for chemoprevention in humans. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1999, 220, 262-266. of superoxide (a reactive oxygen species) into oxygen and hydro- 7. Kuzuhara T, Sie Y, Yamaguchi K, Suganuma M and Fujiki H. DNA and RNA as new binding targets of green tea catechins. J Biol Chem 2006, 281, 17446-56. gen peroxide and is an important ROS scavenger in cells. Lactate 8. Sang S, Cheng X, Stark RE Rosen RT, Yang CS and Ho C-T. Chemical studies on antioxi- dehydrogenase (LDH) catalyzes the interconversion of pyruvate dant mechanism of tea catechins: analysis of radical reaction products of catechin and and lactic acid with simultaneous interconversion of NADH and NAD epicatechin with 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 2002, 10,

(reduced and oxidized nicotinamde adenine dinucleotide), which is 2233-7. SiS

www.i-sis.org.uk 28 WHO Report on Fukushima a Travesty

The World Health Organisation has failed in its obligation to protect the public and guilty of the crime of non-assistance Susie Greaves

World Health Organisation subservient to nuclear lobby The World Health Report (May 2012) entitled “Preliminary dose estimation from the nuclear accident after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami” [1] is a public relations exercise to reassure the world that WHO is fulfilling its role in the area of radiation and health. Following the preliminary dose estimation, WHO will complete a health risk assessment to “support the identification of needs and priorities for public health action.” But this report and the one to follow cannot help those people in Japan who should have been evacuated much sooner and who will certainly suffer health consequences of varying degrees from their exposure to radiation since March 2011. This report bears all the hallmarks of WHO’s subservience to the IAEA. It was not written by WHO personnel but by an International Expert Panel convened by the WHO. A cursory glance at the list of contributors shows that all have ties to the nuclear industry, whether directly, as members of the IAEA or UNSCEAR, or as members of organisations like the UK Health Protection Agency (previously the National Radiological Protection Board). WHO has no department or expert in radiation and health [2]. It is entirely dependent on the IAEA for its information on the subject after signing the 1959 agreement WHA 12/40 between the two organisations [3].

Unreliable or absent data The report uses data supplied by the Japanese government, and makes no reference to alternative sources of information, for instance from independent Japa- nese citizen organisations [4], CRIIRAD (France) [5], Fairewinds (USA) [6] or Greenpeace international [7]. To rely only on Japanese government figures does a disservice to the people of Japan, many of whom no longer trust their own politicians. Independent Japanese scientists have criticised the methodology used by the Japanese government to measure the radioactive fallout from Fukushima. For example, Prof. Matsui Eisuke, a specialist in respiratory diseases and low dose radiation, and director of the Medical Institute of Environment at Gifu, says that [8] “The government and its professional advisors have relied mainly on gamma rays which are easy to detect. But, in terms of internal radiation exposure, beta and alpha rays have a far more serious effect than gamma rays. The government and TEPCO hardly measure such isotopes as beta emitting strontium 90 or alpha emitting plutonium239. They have been deliberately ignoring the characteristics of internal exposure.” We are told in the WHO report that no assessment can be made of the radiation received by people living within 20 km of the reactor because “precise data” were not available. Similarly we are told that no assessment can be made of the dose received by workers at the nuclear power plant because this requires a different “dosimetric approach”. Thus, two critical groups that have been exposed to very high levels of radiation are dismissed on page 15 of the report and never mentioned again. As regards estimates of the radiation dose in the rest of the world (page 28), we are told no measurements were available. Yet the 60 measuring stations worldwide belonging to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organisation [9] had been collecting crucial data, and could tell us exactly how much radiation was released on any day in many parts of the world since March 11th 2011. But though these stations are paid for by the people of the world, the measurements are only made available to pre-selected official organisations in each country and of course to WHO! Indeed, independent scientists have estimated even from a limited set of such data made available to them that the actual releases of radioactivity from the Fukushima accident has been at least 15 times as great as the official figures [10] (Fukushima Fallout Rivals Chernobyl, SiS 55) Interestingly, in a meeting with the group IndependentWHO on 4 May 2011, Dr Chan, Director-General of the WHO confirmed that she receives these reports from the CTBTO and stated that she does not disseminate the information to the public because, in her view, there is no public health threat [11]. Yet earlier in the meeting, Chan admitted that she personally has no competence in radiation science and furthermore, there is no longer a department of radiation and health in WHO headquarters in Geneva.

Ten to 50 times annual dose limit as defined by International Commission on Radiological Protection The report is padded out with an unnecessary amount of material justifying its methodology, so that we have to read as far as Page 63 before we are given some concrete figures about the actual radiation dose to which people have been exposed. It states that [1]: “In Fukushi- ma prefecture, the estimated effective doses are within a dose band of 1−10 mSv, except in two of the example locations where the effective doses are estimated to be within a dose band of 10–50 mSv…”. These momentous figures are slipped into the text without any comment or interpretation by WHO. woT things should be borne in

Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 29 WHO Report on Fukushima a Travesty

mind. First, the internationally accepted dose limit for members of the public is 1 mSv per year [12], so the 2 million inhabitants of Fukushima province have received up to ten times this limit, and the inhabitants of the worst affected areas (as an example the 75,000 people in Futaba county, and the 22,000 people in Namie county) have received between 10 and 50 times this limit. As the WHO report makes no comment about the health implications of exposure to these amounts of radiation, we the public need to interpret the data ourselves, using other studies as a comparison. The largest study undertaken of nuclear industry workers in 2007, found increased cancer mortality among nuclear workers exposed to an average of 2 mSv/year, [13] and the latest BEIR report (Biological Effects of Ionising Ra- diation) from the United States Academy of Sciences indicates that children and especially girls are many times more vulnerable to the same radiation dose as adults [14].

The crime of non-assistance The objective of the World Health Organisation as stated in Article 1 of its Constitution, is “the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health “ and in Article 2, it states that it should “…assist in developing an informed public opinion among all peoples on matters of health” [15] .WHO ignores its own Constitution and is guilty of the crime of non-assistance, when it fails to point out that these levels of radiation are many times higher than accepted limits and leaves the task of interpreting these levels to the lay reader. A full 14 months after the accident at Fukushima and WHO boasts that its report “provides timely and authoritative information” about the estimated radiation dose. It promises more detailed studies later and an assessment of the health impacts, but the tens of thousands of people, living in dangerously contaminated areas of Japan, cannot wait that long.

Notes & References 1. Preliminary dose estimation from the nuclear accident after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami, World Health Organisation, May 2012. http:// whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2012/9789241503662_eng.pdf 2. “On Tuesday, March 15, Maria Neira, Director of Public Health and Environment Department, acknowledged that the WHO had no experts on site. She said she Vigil of IndependentWHO near WHO’s head office in Geneva was ready to respond to every request from Tokyo, adding that “this request should be made through the IAEA.” Agathe Duparc. Le Monde, 19.03.11 http:// philrr.blog.lemonde.fr/2011/03/ 3. IndependentWHO. The Agreement WHA 12-40 between WHO and IAEA. http:// independentwho.org/en/who-and-aiea-aggreement/ 4. Statement by Scientists and Engineers Concerning Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (no.3). 2011, Citizen`s Nuclear Information Center, http://www.cnic.jp/english/topics/ safety/earthquake/fukukk19may11.html 5. Commission de Recherche et d’Information Indépendantes sur la Radioactivité. Consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Accident in Japan : A substantial and long-lasting contamination. CRIIRAD, 2011. http://www.criirad.org/actualites/dossier2011/japon_bis/en_anglais/11-07-07_cpcriirad_eng.pdf 6. Fukushima Daiichi: The Truth and the Future, Fairewinds Energy Education, 2012 http://fairewinds.com/content/fukushima-daiichi-truth-and-future 7. Lessons from Fukushima, Greenpeace, 28 February, 2012, http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/publications/Campaign-reports/Nuclear-reports/Lessons-from-Fukushima/ 8. Eisuke M. Activities of Citizens and Scientists Concerned about Low Dose Internal Radiation Exposures in Japan. 201, http://independentwho.org/media/Documents_IW/English_ Abstracts_Forum_Radioprotection_IW_Geneva_2012.pdf 9. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organisation. Verification Regime. http://www.ctbto.org/verification-regime/ 10. Ho MW. Fukushima fallout rivals Chernobyl. Science in Society 55, 24-27, 2012 11. Chronologie des échanges avec l’OMS (in French). IndependentWHO, 6 July 2011, http://independentwho.org/fr/chronologie-echanges-avec-oms/ 12. Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, International Commission on Radiological Protection. 2005, http://www.icrp.org/docs/2005_recs_ CONSULTATION_Draft1a.pdf 13. Fairewinds Energy Education. Cancer Risk To Young Children Near Fukushima Daiichi Underestimated. 2012. http://fairewinds.com/content/cancer-risk-young-children-near-fukushima-daiichi-underestimated 14. Using the BEIR risk models, girls are almost twice as vulnerable as same-aged boys, and a 5-year-old girl is 5 times and an infant female 7 times more vulnerable than a 30-year-old man. United States National Academy of Sciences. Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2. 2006. (page 311) http://www.nap.edu/openbook. php?record_id=11340&page=311 15. The Constitution of the World Health Organisation. World Health Organisation, 2006, http://www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf

SiS

www.i-sis.org.uk 30 UK’s Nuclear Illusion UK Parliament’s decision to authorise the construction of 10 new nuclear power plants was taken on the basis of misleading evidence Prof. Peter Saunders

UK’s commitment to nuclear In early May 2012, Japan shut down its last nuclear power station for routine maintenance in a safety drive since the Fukushima meltdown, leaving the country nuclear free for the first time in more than 40 years [1]. Before the Fukushima disaster, Japan got 30 % of its power from nuclear energy. Hundreds marched through Tokyo to celebrate what they hope will be the end of nuclear power in Japan. Most other countries are having second thoughts about nuclear power; some like Germany and Italy have already decided to do without it and others like Japan may follow [2] (Fukushima Fallout (SiS 51), but the UK government is still determined to go ahead with the construction of at least 10 new reactors. This is the only way we can fulfil our future energy needs and still meet our commitment to reduce carbon emissions, so we are told; besides, nuclear is the cheapest alternative to fossil fuels and is safer than coal. Every one of those claims is con- tradicted by evidence, as we have shown in numerous reports. Nuclear power could only make a comparatively small contribution to our total energy needs and this could be supplied from renewable sources such as wind and solar (see [3] Green Energies - 100 % Renewable by 2050, ISIS publication). It is also very expensive; the government insisted there would be no subsidy for nuclear power even though no nuclear plant has ever been built without a subsidy and no one, least of all the companies that are expected to invest in them, seriously believes one ever will be. The government is already discussing with the industry what form the subsidy should take -probably a ‘contract for difference’ that will ensure a higher than market price - and how large it will be. It is also nego- The government is tiating with the European Commission to ensure that the subsidy is permitted under EU rules [4]. Nuclear plants are notorious for coming in years late and hugely over budget already discussing and the two currently under construction in Europe at Olkiluoto in Finland and Fla- manville in France, are no exceptions [5] (The Real Cost of Nuclear Power, SiS 47). with the industry And the danger of a major incident like Three Mile Island, Chernobyl or Fukushima is ever-present [6] (Lessons of Fukushima and Chernobyl, SiS 50). For the latest information, see [7, 8] Chernobyl Deaths Top a Million Based on Real Evidence and Truth what form the about Fukushima, SiS 55. There is a massive amount of evidence in the public domain against the nuclear option. Has the government somehow managed not to notice any of it? The recent No to Hinkley Point Cl subsidy should take. report, A Corruption of Governance?, published jointly by the Association for the Con- servation of Energy (ACE) and Unlock Democracy goes a long way towards answer- It is also negotiating ing this question [9]. By careful reading of Government documents and statements, especially the Draft Overarching National Policy Statement for Energy (EN-1) [10] and the Draft National Policy Statement for Nuclear Power Generation (EN-6) [11] the with the European authors of the report, Ron Bailey and Lotte Blair, demonstrated that the government was well aware of the evidence against nuclear energy; but simply omitted to draw Commission to attention to it in Parliament when the decision was being taken. How much electricity will we need? ensure that the Power stations take a long time to build, so if we want to have enough energy in 2025 or 2050, we need to start planning now. The first step, you would think, is to estimate how much energy we will be using, then work out how much of the differ- subsidy is permitted ent sources – fossil, solar, wind, biomass, nuclear, and so on – we could have in place by then. This will enable us to decide on a strategy taking into account factors such under EU rules as cost, safety and the need to reduce carbon emissions. That’s not what the government did. Instead of analysing present consumption and trends, they asked a consulting firm Redpoint Energy to predict what the generating capacity would be in 2025, includingboth the proposed nuclear new build programme and the new renewables capacity that would be required to achieve the government’s goal of about 29 % of electricity from renewables by that date [12]. Redpoint came up with the figure of 110 GW, which is a prediction of what the generating capacity will be if present policies are carried out. But the government is now using this as its estimate of the UK’s need for energy in 2025, and a justification for the policies. As for 2050, after they had spent much time and effort trying to get the government to supply information regarding demand up to and beyond that date, Bailey and Blair were told that there are no published assessments that extend that far. They then asked if there were any unpublished assessments or evidence and were told there were none. That hasn’t stopped the Government from telling us over and over again that “electricity demand could double by 2050.”

What will it cost? When the Secretary of State was asked for an estimate of the relative costs of energy generation infrastructure, he provided a table that showed the levelised cost (i.e the price at which the electricity must be sold to break even, averaged over the lifetime of the plant) of nuclear as 6.8p/kWh, lower than a selection of other options, such as modern coal and gas plants, onshore and offshore wind [13]. He did not include other sources, for example, biomass combined heat and power (CHP), gas CHP and landfill or sewage gas, all of which also appear in the Mott MacDonald (UK government) report [14] he was citing and are cheaper than nuclear, even according to the report. He also did

Death Camp Fukushima Chernobyl 2012 31 No to Hinkley Point Cl

not remind MPs that renewable sources, such as solar and offshore wind, have a record of becoming considerably less expensive over time, whereas there is no prospect that nuclear will become cheaper in the foreseeable future because the lead time to employing new technology is so long. On the contrary, the cost of constructing nuclear plants generally rises considerably faster than inflation [3]. Bailey and Blair also noticed that the government assumed the nuclear plants would operate for 60 years, although experience shows that even 40 years is optimistic. In the first draft of the EN-1 document, the operating life is given as “in the region of 40-60” years. In the revised draft and in the final document, “40” has disappeared and the lifetime is given as 60 years. The Mott MacDonald analysis of costs as- sumes an operating lifetime of 60 years, but there is no reference given for that. The operating lifetime is especially important in considering nuclear power because so much of the total cost is in building the plants rather than in supplying them with fuel. When the government announced that it was going ahead with 10 more nuclear power plants, it assured us that this would only happen if they could be built without subsidies. Anyone who looked at the evidence could see that this was impossible and indeed that was the view of the major investment bankers [4]. We can now be certain that the government knew that too. The German company E.ON has pulled out of building nuclear reactors and the only companies left in the field, Electricité de France and Centrica, have made it clear that they will go ahead only if they are guaranteed a sufficiently high price for the electricity their nuclear plants produce [15]; a large subsidy, in other words.

Is nuclear necessary? The report the government presented to Parliament greatly exaggerated our future energy needs and underestimated the cost of nuclear energy relative to other non-carbon sources. Despite this, it might – in principle – still be possible that we will not be able both to keep the lights on and meet our greenhouse gas reduction targets without it. That is far from the case. We have given details in our report [3] but per- haps the most convincing evidence is that the German government has already committed itself to closing down its existing nuclear facilities and not replacing them, and it is confident it can reach its targets without them. The British government too knows that it is perfectly feasible to cope without nuclear. In 2010 and 2011 it published two “Pathways” reports [16]. Each included a number of scenarios that could achieve the required 80% reduction in emissions by 2050 and also satisfy the nation’s energy requirements. Of the 16 scenarios in the 2011 report, 6 involved no new nuclear build [5]. In the EN-1 and EN-6 National Policy Statements [NPSs] presented to Parliament, however, MPs were told that ‘failure to develop new nuclear power stations significantly earlier than the end of 2025 would increase the risk of the UK being locked into a higher carbon energy mix’ [17]. They were not told that more than one in three of the scenarios showed that an adequate supply of low carbon energy could be produced without nuclear. The Director of ACE, Andrew Warren, wrote about this to Charles Hendry MP, the Minister responsible for nuclear power. A Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) official eventually replied [6] “you note that the overview of the Pathways 2050 analysis in EN-1 did not present the full information to MPs on all the possible options” and he justified this by saying “this is not, however, the purpose of the NPSs”.

www.i-sis.org.uk 32

It seems a “national policy statement” is just that: a statement of government policy backed by arbitrary ‘evidence’ selected to justify what the government has decided to do. It is not an impartial presentation of the available evidence to help Parliament reach the best decision. It would be interesting to know whether our MPs understand this.

Why was it done? Bailey and Blair believe that it was not government ministers who misled Parliament; that they themselves were given biased information. That’s not implausible. Ministers are busy and do not have the time to go through in detail every document they receive, still less to look up and read all the references. They rely heavily on summaries provided by their staff. We know that in real life, as inYes Minister, civil servants and advisers are not above pushing their own agendas and keeping relevant information from their ministers. All the same, we’re not convinced. We don’t recall hearing any former ministers complaining that they were misled about nuclear energy while they were in office. The real question is why a government should deliberately ignore evidence and choose an option that is going to be more expensive and less effective than the alternative. The most likely explanation is simply that over time, a close and comfortable relationship has grown up between governments on the one hand – ministers and civil servants alike – and the nuclear lobby on the other. Sixty years ago, many people believed both that the UK needed its own atomic bomb and also that nuclear power would provide an unlimited supply of cheap electricity. The military and civilian projects have remained together ever since and have supported each other in many ways, as they have in other countries (see The True Costs of French Nuclear Power [18], SiS 53). For example, one of the advan- tages (from this point of view) of a pressurised water reactor is that it produces plutonium, which can be used in weapons. And much of the cost of research can be hidden in the defence budget, which tends not to be looked at with the same critical eye that other departments may experience. Times have changed. We now know that nuclear power is neither ISIS Green Energy Report cheap nor safe, and even though most people agree that we have to find alternatives to fossil fuels, we also know that nuclear is by no means best option for that. The military situation is also different from before. Even those who believe it was nuclear weapons that kept the peace until the fall of the Soviet Union have been unable to suggest an even remotely plausible scenario in which they might be useful now. They certainly contributed nothing to our efforts in the Falklands, Bosnia, Iraq, Libya or Afghanistan. If anything, they only diverted expenditure from equipment that the soldiers who fought in those wars desperately needed. Yet in the face of all the evidence, the government persists with its nuclear energy programme and uses policy-based evidence to justify it to Parliament. It is bound and determined to spend an estimated £20 billion on a replacement for Trident when no one has any idea what use it could possibly be. The nuclear lobby see themselves as working at the cutting edge of science, promoting the most modern technologies for the defence of the realm and for supplying our energy needs. Successive governments have taken them at their word, and over the years their influence has grown. In fact, theirs is a mid-20th century vision. We are now in the 21st century and the energy of the future is renewables. As for defence, whatever the answer is, it is not Trident. It is time to end our fascination with the nuclear illusion. SiS

References for Nuclear Power Generation (EN-6). http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/ 1. “Tomari shutdown leaves Japan without nuclear power”, BBC News, 5 May 2012, http:// other/9780108508332/9780108508332.pdf www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-17967202 12. Redpoint Energy (2009). Implementation of the EU 2020 Renewables Target in the 2. Saunders PT (2011). Fukushima fallout. Science in Society 51, 22-23, 2011. UK Electricity Sector: RO Reform’. http://www.decc.gov.uk/assets/decc/what%20we%20 3. Ho MW, Cherry B, Burcher S and Saunders PT. Green Energies, 100% Renewables by do/uk%20energy%20supply/energy%20mix/renewable%20energy/renewable%20energy%20 2050, ISIS/TWN, London/Penang, 2009, http://www.i-sis.org.uk/GreenEnergies.php strategy/1_20090715120542_e_@@_redpointimplementationoftheeu2020renewable- 4. Hendry C. Reply to written question from M Horwood MP. Hansard, 18 April stargetintheukelectricitysectorroreform.pdf 2012. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201212/cmhansrd/cm120418/ 13. Hendry C.Reply to written question from M Moon MP. Hansard, 8 March 2011. http:// text/120418w0001.htm#12041878000017 www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201011/cmhansrd/cm110308/text/110308w0002. 5. Saunders PT. The real cost of nuclear power. Science in Society 47, 36-39, 201o. htm 6. Saunders PT (2011) Lessons of Fukushima and Chernobyl. Science in Society 50, 2-3, 14. Mott MacDonald, UK Generation Costs Update, June 2010, http://www.decc.gov.uk/ 2011. assets/decc/statistics/projections/71-uk-electricity-generation-costs-update-.pdf 7. Ho MW. Chernobyl deaths top a million. Science in Society 55, 14-17, 2012. 15. “Centrica threatens nuclear pullout” Guy Chazan and Jim Pickard. Financial Times, 8. Ho MW. Truth about Fukushima. Science in Society 55, 18-23, 2012. 20 April, 2012. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/bb7f393c-8af0-11e1-912d-00144feab49a. 9. Bailey R and Blair L. A Corruption of Governance? Association for the Conservation html#axzz1tj00pUe3 of Energy and Unlock Democracy. http://www.ukace.org/publications/ACE%20Cam- 16. Department of Energy and Climate Change (2010). 2050 Pathways Analysis. http:// paigns%20%282012-01%29%20-%20Corruption%20of%20Governance%20-%20Jan%202012 www.decc.gov.uk/assets/decc/what%20we%20do/a%20low%20carbon%20uk/2050/216- 3/05/12, 2012. 2050-pathways-analysis-report.pdf 10. Department for Energy and Climate Change (2009). Draft Overarching National 17. EN-6 (Ref. [6]), June 2011, p7 para 2.2.3 Policy Statement for Energy (EN-1). http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/ 18. Greaves S . The true costs of French nuclear power. Science in Society 53, 8-11, 2012. other/9780108508493/9780108508493.pdf 11. Department for Energy and Climate Change (2009). Draft National Policy Statement

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