Cold War Games: Operational Gaming and Interactive Programming in Historical and Contemporary Contexts by Matthew Jason Wells A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Information University of Toronto © Copyright by Matthew Wells 2017 Cold War Games: Operational Gaming and Interactive Programming in Historical and Contemporary Contexts Matthew Wells Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Information University of Toronto 2017 Abstract With the emergence of STEM-centric educational strategies, particularly those that promote what is called "computational thinking," computer programming is being marketed as a critical skill with a fervour not seen since the 1980s. Products such as the Raspberry Pi computer and Arduino circuit board are very deliberately marketed as DIY computing tools, inheritors of the legacy left by companies such as Commodore and Tandy Corporation. At the same time, new programming languages and systems have emerged that very much target new learners, with MIT's Scratch system being foremost among them. The present study traces the historical roots of DIY computing by focusing on the concept of interactivity, and especially interactive forms of digital gaming. Interactivity may take a variety of forms, but due to certain forces discussed in this study, a particularly limiting type of interactivity was picked up and popularized via the earliest personal computers. This model sharply divides the roles of programmer and user, and reduces the user largely to a supplier of data for pre-existing programs and games. ii This study will discuss and analyze a variant form of interactive computing that emerged in the late 1970s, and is typically known as the Interactive Programming System (IPS). In an IPS, developers and users occupy the same environment, thus giving users virtually full access to code. The IPS model, moreover, encourages all users to develop code "ecosystems," which may contain variables, functions, objects, and relationships between them all. For various reasons, IPSs only had limited success, but this study will advocate for their continued use by presenting a simple IPS developed by the author of this thesis called Hail-Workshop. Designed as a platform for text-based games, Hail-Workshop allows users to develop such games in piecemeal fashion, and thus treats game players the same as game developers. iii Acknowledgments This dissertation would simply not exist were it not for the support, generosity, and understanding of individuals too numerous to name here (though I will try). First and foremost would be my wife, Emily Wells. With a level of care and generosity that I strive to match, but could never equal, Emily has helped guide my way through academia, championing every success and consoling me with every setback. Though a doctoral degree requires hard work and sacrifice, I am here because she worked hard, and she made sacrifices, and unconditionally supported my efforts. Emily, I know I do not say this often enough, but you coming into my life has brought me a level of joy that is much more than I ever expected or deserved. I will strive to repay my debts to you for many years to come. Almost five and a half years ago, moreover, our little family expanded with the arrival of our daughter, Riley. I began my PhD when Riley was not even one year old, and leave with her on the cusp of entering first grade. Her presence throughout has kept me grounded (as well as entertained), and reminded me of the importance of making time for family. Riley is not only a great kid, she is an admirable person, and has enriched our lives in ways that words cannot ever hope to describe. My years at the Faculty of Information (a.k.a. the "iSchool") have been memorable, and overwhelmingly positive. I must begin here by thanking my committee – Professors Sara Grimes, Alan Galey, and Siobhan Stevenson – which I took to calling the "dream team" upon its formation, a sobriquet that was entirely appropriate from the start of this process to the finish. Each has helped out in so many ways, even before I entered into the PhD program. Siobhan was my academic advisor when I started at the iSchool, and early on she recommended that I should seriously consider going into the doctoral program. At a time when my academic career was uncertain, such encouragement was instrumental in keeping me motivated and focused. Alan helped me reconnect with older interests – specifically, coding and history – that I had largely given up, and opened pathways through which both of these pursuits could be joined for both scholarly and hobbyist pursuits. And Sara, who years ago responded so positively to a somewhat rambling email in which I outlined a potential game-related research project, opened iv my eyes to the vast libraries of critical scholarship that provided the foundation for much of my doctoral work. Her course on research methods that I took as the Master level was a transformative event in my academic career. Sara has since guided my efforts with care and consideration, donating her time generously and providing reassurance at the most stressful of times. These are merely examples of how each of these distinguished scholars (and people) has shepherded me along this path. A proper elaboration of their efforts would require much more space than is provided here. I would be remiss if I did not also thank Carleton University professor Marc Saurette. Marc was my first true academic mentor, and always pushed and challenged me to do better. Marc also impressed upon me the sanctity of academic research (and teaching), giving purpose to my initially haphazard academic efforts. Our in-class and in-office discussions remain some of my most cherished memories of student life. Though academically I ended up going in a different direction, the research (and life) skills Marc impressed upon me continue to resonate. Returning to family, I have long been blessed with parents and siblings who unfailingly cared about and supported me even in the toughest of times. This includes my father, George Wells, his partner, Karen Arsenault, my brother Jamie Wells and sister-in-law Karen Chang, my sister Laura Wells and brother-in-law Brendan Warren, and of course my late mother, Geraldine Wells. My last in-person conversation with my mom was when I announced that I had been accepted into the iSchool PhD program. Though illness took her away from us far too early, in my mind and heart her love and support will never wane. I have many friends and peers to thank for helping me along this path. This list includes (in no particular order): Chris Young, Dan Southwick, Hervé St-Louis and the rest of the 2012 PhD cohort, Andy Keenan, Matt Bouchard, Jenna Jacobson, Jack Jamieson and the rest of the Semaphore gang, Rhon Teruelle, Corinna Prior, Abraham Plunkett-Latimer, and Meagan Gilpin. Finally, I would like to thank the Ministry of Advanced Education and Skills Development of the Government of Ontario, who through the Ontario Graduate Scholarship Program provided a significant amount of funding for my research. Thanks as well go to the Faculty of Information and the School of Graduate Studies (University of Toronto), who also provided pivotal support. v Table of Contents Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................x List of Appendices ........................................................................................................................ xii Introduction ......................................................................................................................................1 Background .................................................................................................................................8 The Current Study .....................................................................................................................14 Chapter Overview .....................................................................................................................19 1 Literature Review ......................................................................................................................22 1.1 Game Studies .....................................................................................................................23 1.1.1 Gaming Histories ...................................................................................................25 1.1.2 Constraints and Creativity......................................................................................25 1.2 Amateur Computing: Hobbyist and Pedagogical Perspectives .........................................29 1.3 Pedagogical Computing .....................................................................................................31 1.4 The Cold War and Computing ...........................................................................................34 1.4.1 Technology-Centric Cold War Histories ...............................................................34 1.4.2 History of Interactive Computing ..........................................................................37 1.4.3 Critical Approaches