1

THE CLASSICAL GUITAR IN AUSTRALIA: FOUNDATIONS

by

ANGELINA M. ELLIS

L. Mus. A (Australian Music Examinations Board) Dip. Sec. Teach. (Brisbane College of Advanced Education) B. Mus. (University of Queensland)

Submitted in full requirement for the award of AT22 Master of Arts (Research) in the Faculty of Arts Queensland University of Technology

March 2000 2

ABSTRACT

Drawing upon data from published and unpublished sources, this thesis examines the classical guitar in Australia during the years spanning European settlement to the early 1970s. The significant factors, events and individuals that shaped the early history of the instrument in this country have been documented and examined, and form the central focus of this investigation.

This study begins with an examination of the origins of the guitar in Australia during colonial times. Following this, against the background of international events and influences, the lean years of classical guitar activity in Australia between 1900 and 1945 are examined. The study then focuses on the rise of classical guitar activity that occurred in this country after the Second World War, and in particular the work pioneered by Len

Williams and guitar societies throughout Australia.

In this study a special focus has been given to the 1960s: a decade that witnessed a flourishing of classical guitar activity throughout Australia. The latter part of this thesis investigates the critical developments and shifting attitudes that led towards the acceptance of the classical guitar as a serious instrument of performance and academic study in this country. The conclusion of this study identifies and examines three major periods of activity, highlighting the geographical, cultural and educational factors that have influenced the history of the classical guitar in Australia during its formative years.

Finally, recommendations are made for further study into Australian classical guitar culture after 1970, and in particular the specialist and high growth areas of guitar composition and guitar construction. 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4

STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP 5

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 6

INTRODUCTION 8

CHAPTER ONE THE GUITAR IN AUSTRALIA DURING THE NINETEENTH 14 CENTURY The Guitar in Australia: 1830s 21 The Guitar in Australia: 1850-1890 23 Guitar Activity in Sydney during the 1890s 26

CHAPTER TWO THE CLASSICAL GUITAR IN AUSTRALIA DURING THE 33 TWENTIETH CENTURY: 1900-1950 Len Williams: A Pioneer of the Classical Guitar in Australia 36

CHAPTER THREE THE YEARS OF EXPANSION: 1947-1970 44 The Society of the Classical Guitar (Sydney) 45 Other Classical Guitar Societies in Australia 54 Touring Classical Guitarists in Australia during the 1950s and 1960s 58 Resident Classical Guitarists in Australia during the 1950s and 1960s 64 Sadie Bishop (1922-) 65 Don Andrews (1929-) 71 Jose Luis Gonzalez (1932-1998) 74 Antonio Losada (1938-) 78

CHAPTER FOUR THE INTRODUCTION OF THE CLASSICAL GUITAR INTO 84 SYSTEMS OF AUSTRALIAN MUSIC EDUCATION. Tertiary Music Education Public Music Examinations 93

CONCLUSION 101

BIBLIOGRAPHY 106 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank my supervisor, Dr. Adrian Thomas, for his guidance and advice during the years taken to prepare this thesis.

In the collection of data for this study a number of people were most generous in giving their time and resources. My thanks goes to all those people I have interviewed over the past years for their accounts of the past have been invaluable to this study.

I would also like to acknowledge the help and assistance of the staff at the AMEB

Federal Office in Melbourne. I am grateful to them for allowing me full access to files and conference proceedings.

Finally, I would like to thank my family, especially my parents Graham and

Roslyn Ellis and my grandmother Irene Pope for their constant support. 5

DECLARATION

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, this thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Date: ____<--1-/--'!_2... __ /_2._tJ_o_r; __ _ r1 6

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Fig.1. Modem Classical Guitar. Made by Simon Marty, Sydney, 1994 7

Fig. 2. Nineteenth Century Guitar. A copy of a guitar by Louis Panormo, 15 London, ca. 1830. Copy made by Ian Watchorn, Victoria, 1999. !!lid II Fig. 1 Modem Classical Guitar 1111111 Made by Simon Marty 11111• Sydney, 1994. 111.11 1111111 1111111 1111111 1111111 1111111 1111111 1111111 1111111 ~11111~ 111111 111111 111111 111111 •II

. .. . ,. 8

INTRODUCTION

The central focus of this thesis is an instrument that today is commonly known as the classical guitar. This same instrument has also been referred to as the classic guitar or Spanish guitar. 1 Other forms of the guitar, namely folk, jazz, country and western and flamenco, are not the subject of this investigation, and as such, are discussed only when they have affected the growth or popularity of the classical guitar. For the purposes of this thesis, the classical guitar will be referred to as the guitar, and any other form of the instrument or style of performance will otherwise be stated. Although design of modern classical guitars vary greatly, traditionally these instruments are made from selected hard woods for the back, sides and neck, and high quality spruce and cedar for the soundboard. 2 Internally, the instrument is supported and stabilised by an arrangement of struts and braces, and the most traditional method of support is known as 'fan' strutting. During the nineteenth century, instruments were smaller in size and produced a lighter and softer tone. 3 After 1880, the modern classical guitar was produced with larger dimensions and the string length was increased to 65 centimetres.4 The earliest strings were made of animal gut however after 1946, the upper three strings were made from nylon and the lower ones with nylon fibre overspun with fine metal. 5 The strings are tuned by pegs that activate gear mechanisms. The standard tuning for the instrument is E-A-d-g-b-e.

1 The term "Spanish" guitar emerged around 1800, in part denoting the instrument's Iberian origins but also to distinguish it from the English guittar (sic), a form of cittern that coexisted in England at that time.

2 See Fig. 1. Modern Classical Guitar.

3 See Fig. 2 Nineteenth Century Guitar.

4 Stanley Sadie, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments (London: Macmillan, 1984) 101. See Fig. 2. Nineteenth Century Guitar.

5 Sadie 101. 9

In the traditional playing position, the classical guitarist is seated and supports the instrument on the left leg elevated by a footstool. More recently, some exponents have used various support devices that attach to the guitar and rest on the player's leg. The strings are plucked systematically by the right-hand fingers using the nails and flesh, and the accomplished guitarist can achieve a variety of tonal colours and articulations. The repertoire of the classical guitar spans many centuries and comprises a large body of transcriptions and a growing repertory of original works. Most, but not all compositions, are contrapuntal in style and written in treble clef notation one octave higher than the sounding pitch. The close of the twentieth century is a timely point at which to reflect upon the events of the past that have secured the classical guitar a permanent position in Australian music culture. Today, the instrument is heard regularly in Australian concert halls, on

Australian radio, and is accepted by Australian institutions of higher learning and public music examination boards. Furthermore, with growing numbers of Australian guitarists, guitar makers and composers of guitar music gaining recognition here and abroad, and guitar societies and festivals throughout the country enjoying a healthy revival, the outlook for the guitar in this country has never been more positive.

However, it has been only in relatively recent times that the guitar has emerged from obscurity to reach this positive status in Australia. In past decades, the instrument has been misunderstood and encountered prejudice, and these obstacles have affected its progress. In view of this, the aim of this thesis is to trace the early history of the guitar in this country and document the significant factors, events and prominent individuals that have been influential in establishing the guitar as a serious instrument of performance and study in Australia. This thesis focuses on the foundations of the guitar in this country and therefore is not a comprehensive history of the instrument in Australia or a complete 10 biography of Australian guitarists: an investigation of this scale lies beyond both the purpose and parameters of this study. In order to establish the foundations of the guitar in Australia, this study has focused on the years spanning 1830 to the early 1970s, with some consideration of activity which took place in the decades before and after. Most attention has been devoted to events after 1945, and specifically during the 1960s and early 1970s when interest in the guitar escalated and a number of significant developments took place. The decision to focus on this time frame was made for several reasons. First, researchers and musicologists have disregarded almost entirely the early years of Australian guitar activity. 6 In addition to this, Australian guitarists of the past and present have written very little about their experiences, and a study of this kind was necessary before valuable knowledge was lost as generations grow older. Second, the present status of the guitar in this country is often taken for granted; thus, an examination of the instrument's formative years reveals the foundations upon which more recent developments have been able to take place. This study also reveals aspects of past cultural, social and political attitudes in this country, and how these are reflected in the development of the guitar in Australia. This thesis is divided into four chapters and a conclusion, and generally progresses in a chronological order. Chapter one examines the origins and existence of the guitar in Australia during the nineteenth century. It deals with the European heritage of Australian guitar culture and examines the periods of growth and decline that took place throughout the 1800s. In the light of world events, the state of the guitar in Australia during the early twentieth century is examined in chapter two. The second part of this chapter then focuses on the life and work of Len Williams, a pioneering figure in the history of the guitar in this country. Chapter three examines the expansion of the

6 An examination of Australian and international music journals revealed this fact. Publications accessed included Studies in Music. Miscellanea Musjcologia, Musicology Australia .Ganm:!., Music and Dance Australian Journal of Music Education, as well as guitar journals Guitar International, Guitar Review, Sound.board. 11 guitar in Australia during the 1950s and 1960s, firstly under the auspices of guitar societies, and secondly through the rise of professional activity. In chapter four, the introduction and expansion of the guitar into Australian tertiary music education and public music examinations systems is examined. The conclusion draws together the main threads of this study and identifies the three major periods of guitar activity in Australia between 1830 and the 1970s. This study concludes with a brief review of Australian guitar culture since the late 1970s, and is followed by recommendations for further study in this field.

It should be noted that although this study has addressed the existence and growth of the guitar on a nation-wide scale, findings have largely emanated from the eastern mainland states of Australia. Although activity took place in other parts of Australia, the cities of the east coast were more densely populated and therefore hosted greater numbers of players and higher levels of activity during the formative years. Furthermore, the bulk of evidence gathered in this study indicates that before the 1970s Sydney was the most active capital city for guitar playing. Given that it has long been the nation's most populous and wealthy city, not surprisingly, Sydney was home to guitar playing during colonial times, and the centre of much activity after World War Two. The inspiration for this study took place in 1993 and 1994 when I was undertaking postgraduate studies in Malmo, Sweden. During this time, I observed first­ hand a society and musical culture very different from my own. More specifically, I became aware of the similarities and differences between the classical guitar-playing traditions of the Scandinavian countries, and learned something about the historical and social forces that have created these national identities. In May 1994, my curiosity for this subject deepened after hearing a lecture on the history of the guitar in Denmark presented by Erling M¢eldrup, Professor of Guitar at the Royal Academy of Music in 12

Arhus, Denmark.7 M¢eldrup's lecture highlighted the geographical, historical and social factors which have shaped the development of the guitar in Denmark, and how these have contributed to a contemporary guitar culture in Denmark which is distinct from those found in neighboring countries. From this, I began to wonder about the origins, influences and individuals of the past that have helped shape the history of the guitar in

Australia. Thus, shortly after returning to Australia I set about answering some of these questions by undertaking this study.

I soon discovered that no comprehensive study of the history of the classical guitar in Australia had been undertaken, and what material did exist on the topic was sporadic and vague. Indeed, references to the guitar in Australian texts, particularly dating from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are scarce, and thus have limited the process of investigation. Nevertheless, some early documents, namely newspaper and magazine advertisements, reviews and diaries, have revealed something about the genesis of the guitar in colonial Australia. In examining developments after the Second World

War, sources of data became more readily available, for as interest in the guitar grew, so too did the number of literary references to the instrument. The formation and activities of the early Australian guitar societies were documented in journals and newsletters of the time. Also, the admission of the guitar into Australian conservatories and universities, together with the Australian Music Examinations Board, (the largest music examination scheme in this country) has been recorded officially. In addition to this, the library of guitar music, journals and letters once belonging to William Morris, co-founder of the first Australian guitar society, has also been an important source of data in this investigation. 8 In order to complete this study many interviews were carried out, and

7 Erling M0eldrup, "Guitar Music in Denmark from its Origins to the Present Day," Soundboard 13 ( 1986): 94-99.

8 After William (Bill) Morris' death, his library of guitar and mandoline music was passed on to one of his former students. Following this, the guitar and mandoline works were then divided, and the guitar music and journals were sold. The William Morris Collection is privately owned in Hornsby, New South Wales. 13 these have been a critical source of data. Where it was possible face-to-face and phone interviews were conducted, but where individuals were no longer living or unable to be contacted, interviews were held with their former students and colleagues.

The format of this thesis has been written in accordance with the guidelines in

Joseph Gib al di and Walter Achtert, MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 3rd ed. (New York: The Modem Language Association of America, 1988). 14

CHAPTER ONE

THE GUITAR IN AUSTRALIA DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

During the years spanning the European colonization of Australia, the free settlers of this nation experienced great isolation from the comforts and lifestyle they had known in their homelands. In relocating to settlements on the other side of the globe, they transported with them not only their most treasured material possessions, but also the musical customs and cultures that prevailed in Europe during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Musical instruments, particularly those fashionable in Europe at the time, provided Australia's new middle class with some assurance of the genteel life from which they had been removed. Among the list of instruments introduced to this country were a variety of plucked stringed instruments including the guitar.

In Europe during the late eighteenth century, the guitar underwent significant modifications that in turn led to an upsurge of interest in the instrument.9 From around

1780, not only had players and makers begun discarding the use of double-course strings to reduce tuning and technical problems, and to improve the instrument's sonority, but also guitars began to appear with an additional sixth bass string. In addition to this, the tuning system of E-A-d-g-b-e was well accepted, and the use of treble clef notation had superseded forms of tablature. Numerous physical innovations were also introduced to the guitar: body shapes became more circular in design, and guitars featured inlaid frets made of brass or ivory and "worm gear" machine heads. To a large degree, these changes helped standardise the guitar, and, coupled with favourable socio-economic conditions, this led to an unprecedented upsurge of interest in the instrument throughout

Europe. 10

9 See Fig.2. Nineteenth Century Guitar.

10 Alexander Bellow, The Illustrated History of the Guitar (USA: Bel win Mills, 1970) 158. Fig. 2 Nineteenth Century Guitar. Copy of a guitar by Louis Panormo, London c. 183( made by Ian Watchorn, Victoria 1999. 16

By the early nineteenth century a lively interest in the guitar had emerged in all the major musical centres of Europe. In Spain, a wave of interest was led by exponents such as Father Basilio and Don Federico Moretti, and later by the famous virtuosi

Fernando Sor and Dionisio Aguado, whose concert performances and compositions did much to promote the guitar throughout Europe. 11 The guitar had also become increasingly popular throughout the German-speaking countries, and especially in Vienna. Home to a wealth of musical activity during the classical and romantic eras, Vienna also attracted virtuosi guitarist/composers including Simon Molitor, Anton Diabelli, Wenzel Matiegka and Mauro Giuliani, and the city became an active centre for guitar publications and guitar construction. 12 Likewise, Paris was also home to a great deal of guitar playing and in turn experienced what the French described "la guitaromanie", an all-embracing mania for the guitar that showed no signs of abating until the 1830s. 13 The popularity of the single six-string guitar throughout continental Europe subsequently gave rise to the instrument in England. According to English guitar historian Stewart Button, the six-string guitar could be found in England before 180614 however, interest in it escalated over the next twenty years, largely due to the arrival of many professional guitarists from mainland Europe: The successful introduction of the guitar into England has been comparatively of recent date. Till the peace of 1815, it may be assumed that few persons in this country were acquainted with its full and varied powers. From that time, however, to the present moment, no instrument can be brought in comparison

11 Harvey Turnbull, The Guitar from the Renaissance to the Present Day (UK: Batsford, 1976) 82.

12 Bellow 158.

13 Frederic V. Grunfeld, The Art and Times of the Guitar (New York: Macmillan, 1969) 169.

14 Stewart Button, The Guitar in England. 1800-1924 diss., U of Surrey, 1984, Oustanding Dissertations in Music from British Universities (London: Garland Publishing Inc.,1989) 3. 17

with its rapid advancement in public estimation. No instrument in fifteen years

has attained such decided success and extensive circulation. This may in a very

great degree be ascribed to the many excellent masters with which the Continent

has furnished us; to them must we concede the merit of having given the guitar a

character which antecedently was unknown in England, and of having brought it

to its present high state of fashionable popularity. 15

Among the guitarists to have performed, taught and composed in Britain before 1820 were the Italians Filippo Verini, Charles Sola and Guiseppe Anelli, as well as the celebrated Spanish virtuoso Fernando Sor. 16 This professional activity did much to spread interest in and knowledge about the guitar throughout Britain, and in tum inspired a growing number of amateur enthusiasts to take up the instrument.

After 1820 many more guitarists, notably from Spain, Germany and Poland, settled in London where performing and teaching opportunities burgeoned. 17 Leading guitarists such as Giuseppe Anelli, Giulio Regondi and Ferdinand Pelzer secured royal and aristocratic patronage, and guitar-playing child prodigies such as Luigi Sagrini,

Giulio Regondi, Leonard Schulz and Catherine Pelzer also emerged to become favourites with English royalty and nobility. 18 Acceptance of the guitar among English aristocracy did much to popularise the instrument with the growing English middle class, and by

1830s the instrument had reached an unprecedented level of popularity throughout

Britain. Although men performed the bulk of professional guitar concerts at this time, large numbers of young female amateurs were attracted to the instrument, particularly as

15 Turnbull 92.

16 Button 8.

17 Button 121. These foreign-born guitarists included Hureta, Jose and R.A. de Ciebra (Spain), Derwort, Eulenstein, Nuske, Neuland and Pelzer (Germany), Hortezky and Sczepanowski (Poland).

18 Button 122. 18

an elegant, intimate and portable means to accompany the voice. 19 Further evidence of this female affiliation is evident in some guitar tutors published in England before 1830 that featured illustrations of young women poised with guitars in hand. In addition to this, both foreign and English-born guitar makers such as Vincenzo Panormo and sons,

Joseph Gerard and Thomas Howell established workshops in London where demand was at its highest.20 Indeed, by the 1830s the guitar had reached a height of popularity in

Britain, as manifest in 1833 with the publication of the Giulianiad, one of the first periodicals devoted to the guitar.21 This upsurge of interest in the guitar in England during the 1820s and 1830s, together with the large number of British immigrants moving to Australia before and during these years, were the significant forces which led to the introduction of the guitar in Australia. During the first sixty years of European settlement, white Australia was dominated by British-born immigrants, chiefly from England but also from Ireland and

Scotland.22 In relocating more than ten thousand miles away British free settlers brought with them their cultural habits and pastimes. Given these circumstances, musical culture in the Australian colonies before 1850 was largely imitative of European, and especially

British forms. Thus, the musical styles, instruments and repertoire deemed fashionable in

England were also favoured by Australia's free settling immigrants who were intent on copying the latest trends of Europe.

In addition to these social and cultural influences, guitars were brought to this country for other reasons. Being relatively compact and light in weight, they were

19 Button 31.

20 Button 218, 256, 269.

21 Turnbull 92.

22 Jan Kociumbus, Oxford History of Australia Volume 2 Cl770-186Q) (Melbourne: Oxford University Press) 86. 19 suitable and inexpensive instruments to transport vast distances by sea and land.

Furthermore, owing to their portability, guitars were transported as personal luggage, and a useful means of accompaniment for song and dance during long journeys to Australia:

We had thirty passengers in the 'tween deck amongst whom were two who played

the violin, one the guitar and one the flute, and he was also a first rate drummer.

We soon made a very good skin out of an empty flour cask and a couple of pieces

of calf skin and so we had quite a good little music band.23

Despite an extensive search, only a small number of nineteenth-century

Australian texts make mention of the guitar, and there is no known illustrated evidence of the instrument dating from the nineteenth century. This small volume of references suggests that although the guitar was present in colonial Australian society, it was not highly popular or valued, particularly when compared to the piano. Despite the difficulties and expense, from the earliest years of European settlement, pianos were transported to Australia in large numbers, often for reasons beyond their capacity for music making.24 As a precise and sophisticated musical mechanism, the piano was a definitive symbol of bourgeoisie life, and thus sought after by many middle class

Australian colonists. This sentimental devotion to the piano, however, was not emulated in an attraction for the guitar largely because the guitar did not engender sufficiently the status and values of "civilised" Europe. The comparatively lower status of the guitar may in part account for the instrument's rare appearance in public musical life in colonial

Australia and why it was seldom documented in early Australian literature.

Whilst bands and chamber music groups flourished throughout the Australian colonies, these ensembles rarely, if ever, employed the guitar. Much of the earliest

23 David Proctor, Music of the Sea (London: OHMS, 1992) 75. An excerpt taken from Af mit Livs Historie. Cl824-191Q) by C.F. Hansen. Manuscript in the Danish National Maritime Museum, Kronberg Denmark.

24 Roger Covell, Australia's Music: Themes of a New Society (Melbourne: Sun Books, 1967) 21. 20

European music making in this country was ceremonial,25 and therefore employed instruments traditional and suitable for military and liturgical purposes; and although opera and chamber music concerts were staged before 1850,26 these performances almost always comprised voice, piano, string and wind instruments. Thus, the guitar's absence from these conventional bands and ensembles restricted the extent of guitar playing, and meant the instrument was seldom part of public musical life in the Australian colonies.

More commonly, the guitar was played in the home as a means of private entertainment. An additional factor that affected the extent of guitar playing in Australia during the colonial years was the instrument's susceptibility to Australian conditions. Musicologist Anthony Baines summarised this dilemma stating that "although the guitar is sonorously one of the most perfect instruments, it tends to be structurally not the most robust" .27 An examination of guitars surviving from the first half of the nineteenth century reveals that although many were well made, these instruments were smaller, lighter and generally less sturdy, especially when compared to modern-day classical guitars. Constructed almost entirely from wood (metal tuning pegs and frets not standard features until the 1830s), guitars were prone to damage when transported long distances by land and sea, especially if not well protected in a solid case. Once in Australia,

European-made guitars were also subjected to harsh and dramatic climatic changes. Over time, heat and humidity weakened glues, and European timbers unaccustomed to these conditions, may have easily warped and cracked. Australian folk music historian John Manifold argued that during the colonial era the guitar's appearance in the Australian bush was rare probably because it proved "too bulky" or "too fragile" for survival.28

25 Covell 8.

26 Covell 12.

27 Anthony Baines, European and American Musical Instruments (London: Batsford, 1966) 49.

28 John Manifold, "The Bush Band," Australian Tradition Sept. 1973: 21. 21

Evidence supporting the fragile condition of the guitar, especially in pioneering Australia, is found in an old Victorian goldfield ballad The German Girls, which tells of a girl who

"sat in the Union bar with her old crack'd guitar".29 In addition, there were very few skilled craftsmen who could adequately repair instruments in Australia during the colonial times.

The Guitar in Australia: 1830s

Although it is possible that the guitar arrived earlier, the instrument is first known to have been present in Australia during the 1830s. According to Manifold "the guitar had reached Australia as early as 1835: not from Portuguese Indonesia or the Spanish islands of the Pacific, where it had been known since the 17th century, but from Spain, via England" .30 Unfortunately, Manifold did not further substantiate this claim, however his proposed date of arrival and country of origin are congruent with prevailing social and cultural patterns previously discussed, and with evidence located in this investigation.

An insight into the guitar, its music and status in colonial Australia is found in

Annabella Boswell's Journal, an account of a young woman's life in colonial New South

Wales from 1834 to 1848.31 On the 16th April 1836, the young Annabella wrote to her uncle: "I am learning to play the guitar; I found it very difficult at first. It made my fingers sore and my arms ache, but now my fingers have got quite hard at the points, and

I am getting on quite well with it" .32 Annabella and her sister had recently been placed in the care of a guitar-playing governess, Miss Willis, who taught them how to "play nicely and to sing some simple songs" to guitar accompaniment including "Ye Banks and

29 Ronald G. Edwards, The Big Book of Australian Folk Songs (Sydney: Rigby, 1976) 146.

30 John Manifold, The Violin. the Banjo and the Bones (Femtree Gully: Ramscull Press, 1957) 13.

31 Morton Herman,ed. Annabella Bowell's Journal (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1965).

32 Herman 9. 22

Braes", "Ah Vousdirais: and "Rondo" .33 A month later Annabella wrote that she had

11 11 learnt to play several long pieces and three pretty waltzes , suggesting that easy solo guitar works were also part of her repertoire. However, to the Boswell sisters' regret, in late 1836 Miss Willis resigned from her position and was replaced by a new governess who 'despised' the guitar and lessons were ceased. From the same year, further evidence of the guitar being played as part of an 'at home' evening in September 1836 appeared in the Sydney Gazette: Of Miss Wallace, we cannot speak in too high terms, when her extreme youth is taken into account, it is indeed wonderful the compass she possesses and the rapidity of her changes; in the Swiss air she was particularly happy but the Guitar with which she accompanied herself was a wretched instrument. 34 By the 1830s, the term and spelling of 'guitar' in Britain referred almost invariably to the six single-stringed guitar, or 'Spanish' guitar as defined in the introduction.35 Thus, the guitars played by Anna Boswell and Miss Wallace were almost certain to have been European-made instruments of this design. Both these accounts illustrate a strong link between British and Australian guitar playing during the 1830s. As already mentioned, the guitar was accepted among the English gentry, and especially popular with young females as a means to accompany their voices, and these sources confirm that the instrument continued to follow these social and musical patterns in Australia.36

33 Herman 9.

34 Sydney Gazette 17 Sept 1836, N. pag.

35 From the mid of the eighteenth century until the early nineteenth century the English guittar, a form of cittern was popular in Britain ; however this instrument became obsolete after the introduction of the Spanish guitar. Evidence of the English guitar has been found in Sydney dating from 1807. ~ Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser 1March1807.

36 Elisabeth Wallace (1813-1878) was born into a middle-class musical family in Waterford, Ireland and emigrated with her family to Hobart Town whilst a teenager. She was a talented singer and violinist who later taught at the family music school, the first of its kind opened in Sydney in January 1836. After some years singing professionally in England she returned to Sydney where she worked as a music teacher until her death in 1878. Elisabeth Wallace was the eldest sister of William Vincent Wall ace, one of early Australia's most eminent musicians. 23

Manifold's findings also support the view that in Australia during the 1830s "like the piano, the guitar was considered a "young lady's instrument". 37 In addition to this, the description of Miss Wallace's guitar as being 'wretched' may have been a comment upon the instrument's state of disrepair, or perhaps, as 'despised' suggests, a reflection of the relatively precarious status of the instrument as discussed earlier in this chapter.

The Guitar in Australia: 1850-1890

A steady rise in the wealth and population of Australia after the first fifty years of

European settlement38 yielded an upsurge of cultural activity, particularly in the musical arts. An array of amateur and professional musical performances were staged, and after

1850 large music houses and publishing companies such as Palings and Allens were founded to supply Australians with instruments and sheet music.39 Contrary to this general pattern of growth, the very limited number of literary references to the guitar between 1850 and 1890 suggests that its use amongst the middle class in Australia probably decreased during this period. Indeed, worldwide, these were lean years for the instrument for it had lost much ground to the piano. 40 In Britain, the popularity of the guitar had diminished significantly: many professional exponents who popularised the instrument had either departed England or died, and enthusiasm among amateur players abated soon after. 41 As colonial Australia closely followed British trends, this decline in

37 Manifold, "The Bush Band": 21.

38 Beverly Kingston, The Oxford History of Australia Volume 3 0860-1900), (Melbourne: Oxford UP, 1988) 108, 226.

39 Kingston 232.

40 Grunfeld 282.

41 Button 202. 24

England was likely to have had a diminishing effect upon the instrument's popularity in this country. In addition to this, the guitar's reputation with the middle class, and particularly as a 'lady's instrument', was damaged by the instrument's introduction into Australian folk music after 1850. During the second half of the nineteenth century, guitars were owned not only by middle-class city dwellers but also by migrants, many of whom pioneered the coastal and rural regions of Australia. According to Manifold, "German, Italian and Kanaka immigrants all brought reinforcements of guitar players to Queensland's cane-growing and small-farming areas",42 and the instrument was part of the early German 'Dorfmusikanten' in the Barossa region in South Australia.43 Indeed, the appropriation of the guitar into Australian folk music by non-British immigrants reflects changes in Australia's social and cultural climate during the latter half of the nineteenth century. Interestingly, the guitar underwent a similar transition in America during the nineteenth century when it became a popular folk instrument of southern American negros and pioneers of the mid-West. 44 With the guitar's assimilation into Australian folk music came signs of regional adaptation. 45 Firstly, given the expense and scarce supply of European-made instruments, guitars were built from and modified with locally available resources such as cigar boxes and fishing line.46 Manifold asserts that, although the 'Spanish' tuning of E-A-d-g-b-e was most common, Australian folk guitarists used other methods of tuning usually based

42 Manifold, The Violin. the Banjo and the Bones 13.

43 Manifold, "The Bush Band" 21.

44 Grunfeld 229-50.

45 Manifold "The Bush Band" 21. Manifold refers to an instrument's adaptation to local conditions as "regionalisation".

46 Manifold, The Violin. the Banjo and the Bones 13. 25

around open major chords to simplify the role of accompanying.47 In the tradition of folk

music, such guitar tunings were seldom notated; however it is likely that they were the

inspiration for Percy Grainger's use of altered tunings for the guitar. In 1913 he wrote: "I

have written for the Guitars to be played in what I call the "Australian" way ...this

consists of tuning the Guitar to a complete chord such as: 48

..Q.. -e- lb- 1~:1 ! I~ 1~:~ II -0- -e-

As suggested by an advertisement in the Sydney Morning Herald in 1860, despite

declining interest abroad and affiliations with folk music, the guitar did not disappear

completely from favour with Australia's middle class after 1850:

Mr. E. S. Deane, Professor of the Pianoforte, Violin, Guitar, Concertina, and Singing, 55 Riley Street.49

Edward Deane was the youngest son of Englishman John Phillip Deane ( 1796-1849), one of Australia's earliest professional musicians.50 Taught by his father, Edward and his siblings were some of the finest musicians and music teachers in New South Wales during the 1860s.51 Owing to his distinguished musical upbringing, Edward Deane was

47 Manifold, The Violin. the Banjo and the Bones 13.

48 Cecil Forsyth, Orcbestration (London: Macrnillan,1935) 481.

49 Sydney Morning Herald 3 July 1860: 1.

50 Australian Dictionary of Biography Volume One: 1780-1850 (Melbourne: UP, 1966) 301.

51 Kingston 229. 26 an educated musician who would have played and instructed upon the guitar in the classical traditional.

Guitar Activity in Sydney during the 1890s

Although interest in the guitar amongst middle-class Australians began to fade during the latter half of the nineteenth century, events in this country and abroad led to a revival of the instrument in Sydney during the 1890s. First, during the 1880s, important modifications had taken place that did much to reawaken interest in the guitar throughout the world. Drawing on the best of the designs that had gone before, Spanish luthier

Antonio Torres (1817-1892) created a guitar capable of producing greater volume and sustain.52 Although early nineteenth-century guitars continued to be played,53 this modem instrument appealed to enthusiasts and signaled a new era for the guitar. Second, from the late 1880s, a resurgance in fretted stringed instruments took place throughout the world. In part, this was fuelled by the new commercial production of fretted instruments by firms such as John Alvey Turner in England, and Martin, Gibson and

Stewart & Sons in the United States.54 Following this, banjo, mandoline and guitar orchestras became fashionable in Britain and North America,55 and a new generation of professional fretted instrument exponents including Ernest Shand, Herbert J. Ellis and

George B. Marchisio staged concerts and produced a host of tutor books for the banjo, mandoline and guitar. In turn, these international events sparked a similar fad for

52 Grunfeld 282. Amongst the most important modifications credited to Torres were his alterations to the size and proportions of the guitar's body and fingerboard, standardising the length of the strings to 650mm, and developing new patterns of fan-barring to produce a more resonant top.

53 Sydney Morning Herald 24 July 1897. N. pag. It was reported that Ernest Shand performed on a Lacote guitar, a French-made instrument which predated 1860.

54 Geroge Grunfeld and Walter Carter, Acoustic Guitars and Other Fretted Instruments: a Photographic ~(San Francisco: Miller Freeman, 1993) 74-76.

55 Button 203. 27 fretted-stringed instruments, including the guitar in Australia. By the early 1890, Sydney was Australia's most populated city and home to a host of foreign-born musicians including exponents who helped revive interest in the guitar. These professional musicians were part of the growing populace of non-British immigrants who settled in this country before Federation.

The first of these exponents was Walter J. Stent, an American who settled in

Australia sometime before 1890:

Walter J. Stent, teacher and importer of the American banjo. Come and hear the Stewart. Banjos, guitars and mandolins. 19 Hunter St. 56

Within a short time Stent had established himself as a prominent banjo player and teacher in Sydney, then later in Newcastle.57 As well as being a skilled banjoist, Stent was also an accomplished guitarist and teacher. Although no accounts or reviews of him performing the guitar could be located, music bearing Stent's personal stamp provides some indication of the standard at which he played and taught the instrument. The advanced guitar solos Impromptu Op.44, Fantasie Irlandaise Op.59 and Lyric Pieces

Op.104 by virtuoso guitarist/composer Ernest Shand, were part of Stent's library.58

Furthermore, his professional association with the virtuoso guitarist/composer Shand provides some indication of Stent's expertise with the guitar.

56 Gary Shearston, "Besse Campbell - Australia's Queen of the Banjo," Australian Traditions Oct.1966: 3.

57 Australian Musical Time and Magazine of Art. 6 Nov. 1897: 34. A review of a concert at The Sydney Orpheus Club on 8 October 1897 reported that "Mr Stent gave some capital banjo selections." The New South Wales Post Office Commerical Directory- 1910. Walter Stent's name and business is listed in the general section as "teacher of the Banjo, Guitar and Mandoline, Hunter St. Newcastle."

58 These works were found in the William Morris Collection. Walter Stent's personal stamp appears on the front cover of these works which suggests that they were at one time in Stent's possession or possibly sold through his studio. 28

In addition to being a successful actor and comic, Ernest Shand (1868-1924) was also the leading English guitarist/composer of his day. At a time when the guitar's popularity waned, Shand's approach to technique and composition gave the instrument a new lease of life in England.59 In May 1897 he arrived in Australia, and although chiefly engaged as an actor with a touring music hall company, Shand also impressed with his abilities on the guitar. Whilst in Sydney he was invited by Walter Stent to give a solo recital at the Hunter St Chambers: 60 He [Shand] played a score of pieces, including some of his own which were

characterised by feeling and melodic refinement. The artist used a Lacote guitar, particularly mellow in tone. Ernest Shand's method largely owed its charm to his power of sustaining the tone in a way by which he avoids the montonous effect of the average guitar player. His legato touch by which he occasionally bridges a long interval with a glissando of ethereal delicacy, is particularly skilful, and he is in every respect one of the most pleasing guitarists ever heard here. 61

Although there is no evidence of Shand performing or teaching outside of Sydney, Roy Bainton claims that whilst "in Australia he met many socialites who were budding guitarists [and] his private late-night concerts earned him a great reputation". 62 Shand's visit almost certainly helped revive the reputation of and interest in the guitar in Sydney during the late 1890s. Furthermore, his presence, together with the circulation of his compositions in Australia, also reaffirms the accord between English and Australian guitar culture during the late nineteenth century.

59 Button 152.

60 Button 168.

61 Sydney Morning Herald 24 July 1897. N. pag.

62 Roy Bainton, "Pioneer of the Guitar - Ernest Shand," .GlJ.ilar. July 1981: 11. 29

Although the British accounted for the bulk of the migrant population prior to Federation, economic prosperity also attracted other European nationalities to Australian cities and towns. Amongst the influx of permanent settlers were Italians, many of who were born in northern Italian cities and rural areas. 63 During colonial times, Italians did much to enrich the cultural life of this nation, and none more so than musicians. Singers and instrumentalists of Italian background were an important part of operatic and orchestral performances, and equally vital as chamber musicians and music teachers.64 Two Italian musicians, Giovanni Podenzana and E. Rossi, played an active role in propogating the guitar as a serious instrument in Sydney before the close of the nineteenth century. Biographical details on Podenzana and Rossi are scant, however, it is known that they settled in Sydney independent of each other before 1897.65 Their musical accomplishments reveal that they were professional and versatile musicians who performed, taught, composed, and in Podenzana's case, conducted orchestras in Sydney.66 Teaching advertisements provide the earliest evidence of Podenzana's and Rossi's careers in Australia. Between 1897 the early 1900s, they established successful teaching practices, advertising regularly and renting studios in some of Sydney's best streets and arcades. Rossi's fees suggest he aimed to attract clientele from the wealthier city- dwelling middle class.

63 Robert Pascoe, Buongiorno Australia: Our Italian Heritage (Melbourne: Greenhouse, 1987) 82. The national cencus of 1901 recorded that 5,678 Italian-born people officially resided throughout Australia, and the largest proportion of these people came from northern Italy.

64 Pascoe 82.

65 There is no evidence of Podenzana or Rossi teaching or performing in Sydney or elsewhere in Australia before 1897. Podenzana marriage certificate of 19 December 1901 reveals he was born in the northern Italian region of Spezia in 1863. No official documentation on E. Rossi could be located.

66 Podenzana was a member of the first Professional Orchestral Association founded in Sydney in 1897. The Australian Musical Times and Magazine of Art 10 Dec. 1897: 24. It was reported that Podenzana "ably conducted Schubert's Rosamund Overture." The Australian Musical Times and Magazine of Art. February 1 1898: 2. In 1898 Podenzana was also chosen as one of Sydney's most distinguished musicians to welcome the acclaimed soprano Madame Albani to the city. 30

SIGNOR PODENZANA Mandoline, Mandola and Guitar Studio: 18 Beale's Chamber 482 George St. 67

Signor G. Podenzana Professor of Music Violoncello, Singing and Theory Method used at the Conservatoire in Milan Studio: 18 Beale's Chambers 482 George St.68

SIGNOR ROSSI Professor of Music Violin, Mandoline, Guitar and Banjo Students Prepared for Exams Terms per Quarter 2 lessons per week of 40 mins each ...... £ 3 3 0 1 lesson per week of 45 mins each ...... £ 2 2 0 1 lesson per week of 30 mins each ...... £ 1 11 0 Special terms available to Families and Schools Pupils received at W.D.JOHNSTONE'S 163 Strand Arcade Upstairs (Pitt St End). 69

In addition to the guitar, Podenzana and Rossi, together with Stent, also instructed in the banjo, mandoline and mandola. With a more lively interest in these instruments came an increase in demand for tuition. In addition, growing numbers of enthusiasts

67 This is the first known advertisement placed by Podenzana in The Australian Musical Times and Magazine of Art, Nov. 6, 1897: 2.

68 Australian Musical Times and Magazine of Art, Jan. 10, 1898: 14.

69 Australian Musical Times and Magazine of Art, Nov. 6, 1897: 24 31 began to form banjo, mandoline and guitar ensembles and "plettro" orchestras.70 Popular in England from the late 1880s until the early 1900s, ensembles of this kind were also formed in Australia prior to 1900. On July 17, 1897 the Sydney Morning Herald reported "Signor Podenzana's mandolin, mandala and guitar septet played capitally in some selections, and others appearing were Mrs George Leeder and Messers. Woodhouse, Staedtgen, and Podenzana" in a public concert at Centenary Hall, Sydney. 71 The appearance of this septet in a major public concert attests to the newfound acceptance of these fretted instruments including the guitar that had hitherto declined in status. Although the formation and programme of this septet remains unknown, it members consisted almost certainly of Podenzana and his students. In addition to this performance, music found in the William Morris Collection also verifies that guitars were used in ensembles in Australia during this era. These include guitar parts arranged for the "War March of the Priests" by Mendelssohn (1809- 1847) (arranged G.B Marchisio) and "Ruyawiak" by Henri Wieniawski (1835-1880), both bearing Rossi's professional stamp, as well as an anonymous work entitled

"Bohemian Air". Although other parts of these arrangements have not been found, the use of tacet bars, single-line melodies in the upper register and long chordal passages in these guitar parts, suggest that they are part of an ensemble setting.

The William Morris Collection also contains solo guitar pieces, some of which are signed by Rossi and may date back to the 1890s. All works are notated in the conventional manner with some left and right hand fingerings indicated. With the exception of one piece, these solos employ the standard tuning of E-A-d-g-b-e. One work entitled "Australian Medley March" composed and arranged by E. Rossi, indicates

70 Button 151, 203. Amongst the instruments commonly heard in "Plettro Orchestras" of the late nineteenth century were guitars, mandolines, mandolas, lutes, double basses and piano. The repertory for these ensembles was usually arrangements, especially popular operatic overtures and songs.

71 Leipsic, "Musical Notes" Sydney Morning Herald 17 July 1897: 18. 32

the guitarist should "tune to DGDGBD". Although altered tunings are seldom found in concert guitar repertoire of this time, the appearance of altered tunings in "Australian

Medley March" may be linked to those used by Australian folk guitarists guitar discussed earlier in this chapter.

Although altered tunings are an unusual feature of this work, the use of popular

British songs as the basis of this early "Australian" composition is far less surprising. Patriotic British songs including "British Grenadiers", "The Blue Bells of Scotland", "Auld Lang Syne", "Home Sweet Home", together with the then Australian National

Anthem, "God Save the King", are themes of this work and clearly illustrate how British values continued to dominate Australian music culture before 1900. However, other influences appear in Australian guitar music of the late colonial period. The American melodies "Yankee Doodle" and "The Last Rose" were also used as themes in the "Australian Medley March" and reflect the growing impact of American folk music in

Australian music culture before the twentieth century. Other solo guitar pieces of

German and Italian influence are found in the collection including "Altdeutsches

Volkslied", the tenth divertimento by the English guitarist/composer Madame Sidney Pratten, as well as an anonymous solo arrangement of Mascagni's overture to Cavaliera Rusticana. 72

72 Both these manuscripts appear with Rossi's new stamp and studio address: "Violin, Mandoline, Mandolyra, Banjo and Guitar Academy. Signor E. Rossi, Class and Private Lessons. Latest Music, Instruments and Strings. Solo Agent for the Mandolyra, 331 George St, Near G.P.O. Sydney." These manuscripts appear in two differing hands from those signed by Rossi. 33

CHAPTER TWO

THE CLASSICAL GUITAR IN AUSTRALIA DURING THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: 1900-1950

The advent of the modern classical guitar, together with the resurgence of fretted instruments during the late 1800s, stimulated new interest in the guitar worldwide dming the early twentieth century. In addition to this, interest in the classical guitar was reawakened in Europe by the work of Spanish guitarist/composer Francisco Tarrega

(1854-1909) and his leading pupils Miguel Llobet, Emilio Pujol and Daniel Fortea.

However, despite these positive influences, for the most part, the guitar was regarded inferior compared to the piano or violin, and largely unsuitable as a concert instrument.73

During the early part of the twentieth century, a number of circumstances affected the popularity and status of the classical guitar. First, by the 1920s, the guitar had begun appearing in early jazz and dance bands, as well as country and western bands. In turn, an array of steel-stringed, wide-bodied acoustic guitars better suited for these popular genres were designed and sold with increasing popularity. As a consequence, not only did this divert attention away from the traditional classical guitar but it also tainted the instrument's image as a serious conceit instrument.

Another factor that affected the concert guitar during the early 1900s was the limited repertory of works available to the instrument. Although many guitar works were composed during the first half of the nineteenth century, after 1850 much of this was neglected or considered unfashionable for the modern concert platform. Furthermore, the celebrated composers of the classical and romantic period had largely disregarded the

73 GrahamWade, Seirnvia-A Celebration of the Man and His Music (London: Allison & Busby, 1983) 35. 34 guitar, and the vast treasury of works for lute, vihuela and baroque guitar had yet to be resurrected and transcribed for the guitar. Despite the early twentieth century being a period of great artistic fervor and experimentation in the arts, the lowly image of the guitar, and a lack of performing concert guitarists deterred many modem composers from writing for the instrument.

Upon the musical heritage of Tarrega, another Spanish guitarist, Andres Segovia

(1893-1984), was able to overcome many prejudices and obstacles to raise the guitar to new heights during the first half of twentieth century. At the age of sixteen, Segovia gave his public debut in Granada and thereafter ascended to international prominence, touring extensively throughout Europe, South America and Japan from the 1920s.74 From early in his career he did much to increase the guitar's repertoire, firstly by transcribing suitable works for the instrument, and secondly, by approaching composers to write original works for the guitar. The advent of recording was a timely technological advancement that propelled Segovia's career; and with records circulating worldwide, he profoundly influenced subsequent generations of guitarists.75 Indeed, his performing and recording accomplishments generated significant momentum for classical guitar playing throughout the world, and, as will be discussed in chapter three, he was a major catalyst for the expansion of the guitar in Australia after the Second World War.

Although the classical guitar was played in Australia during the early part of this century, activity was on a very small scale and largely residual from the late nineteenth century. Exponents such as Rossi and Stent continued to teach the guitar and other

74 Wade 43-66.

75 Wade 121. Segovia made his first recordings in Havana in 1924-25. His first commercially issued 78s were released by HMV in 1927. Segovia produced 38 albums during his lifetime. 35 fretted instruments into the 1930s, however, there is no evidence that they turned to specialised work with the classical guitar, or that their music teaching businesses greatly expanded.76 Furthermore, this study has revealed that before 1940, no other influential exponents emerged in Sydney or elsewhere in Australia to further interest in the classical guitar. Thus, a shortage of experienced classical guitar players and teachers naturally arrested the expansion of the instrument in this country prior to World War Two. As elsewhere in the world, interest in the classical guitar in Australia was affected by the rise of jazz and country and western music. A survey of Australian music periodicals dating from the first half of this century reveals very few references to the classical or "Spanish" guitar; in contrast to this, many more advertisements and articles relating to jazz and dance-band guitar playing can be found. 77

Continuing on from the late nineteenth century, Sydney remained the centre of what modest activity did exist in Australia before the Second World War. During the

1930s a small circle of amateur classical guitar players and makers lived in Sydney, some who later founded Australia's first classical guitar society.78 The remains of their personal libraries of music, journals and correspondence with guitarists abroad, testifies to the budding interest in the classical guitar found in Australia immediately before and after the Second World War. However, none of these amateur guitarists possessed

76 Addresses of the teaching studios of Walter Stent and Signor E. Rossi appear in the educational section of the Post Office Directory of New South Wales up until 1935.

77 Periodicals surveyed include Australian Dance Band News, Australian Musical News and Music and ~.

78 Amongst these amateur players were William Morris, Robert Blackett and H. R Kenworthy. It is known that these gentlemen were avid collectors of guitar music and journals, and subsequent founders of the Society of the Classical Guitar in Sydney shortly after World War Two. With the exception of Morris Collection the whereabouts of these libraries are now unknown. 36 expertise to generate anything substantial, a situation that hindered progress in Sydney until the 1960s.79 Although interest in the classical guitar was likely to have emerged in other Australian cities before the Second World War, substantial levels of activity or influential exponents were not uncovered in this investigation.

The years spanning the Second World War (1939-1945) caused many artistic enterprises in Australia to lie dormant: not only were resources channeled into war-time projects, but many artists were reluctant to travel to Australia by air and sea for fear of their safety. However, the rising tensions of war also saw many musicians flee Europe for the safe havens of North America and Australia. One such person was Leonard (Len)

Williams, who, after settling in Australia at the outbreak of World War Two, did much to further classical guitar playing in this country.

Len Williams: A Pioneer of the Classical Guitar in Australia Len Williams' musical training began in his youth in England. Born into a musical family in 1910, at age four Williams studied the piano with his aunt, and by sixteen he was playing jazz piano professionally in dance bands and clubs around London.80 The advent of talking films during the 1920s however, forced many pianists and organists out of work, and this led Williams to rethink his musical career, and he turned to fretted stringed instruments. 81 He first developed an interest in the banjo but after hearing a recording of the American jazz guitarist Eddie Lang, Williams was inspired to play the guitar. 82

79 The absence of professional guitarists in Sydney before 1960s will be discussed in Chapter Three.

80 George Clinton, "Len Williams: The Man Who Started It All," .G.ui1ar Oct. 1978: 25-29.

81 Clinton 25.

82 Clinton 25. 37

Initially, Williams experimented on the guitar by combining his knowledge of jazz harmony from the piano with guitar styles and techniques popularised by jazz guitarists such as Eddie Lang and Jango Reinhardt. In 1927, he heard Segovia perform in

London and from the first row of the Aeolin Hall he was transfixed by the Spanish maestro's virtuosity. 83 Whilst many tried to imitate the likes of Segovia, Lang and Reinhardt, Williams went a step further to critically analyse the work of these master­ guitarists in the quest to further his technique and knowledge of the guitar. Indeed, his ability to deconstruct and translate the work of others was fundamental in his work as a guitar teacher in later years. 84

In 1928, whilst working at John Alvey Turner's fretted instrument firm in London, Williams befriended the Italian guitarist Mario Maccaferri. 85 Although Williams only learnt from Maccaferri for less than a year, his influence was significant: I heard Segovia on record and that just knocked me sideways; and then

Maccaferri sits down and as far as I was concerned in those days, he played just as well as Segovia. And he taught me the proper apoyando technique when I was seventeen. I was bewitched by Mario Maccaferri and I never recovered. 86 Rising political pressure at the outbreak of World War Two prompted Williams, a vocal advocate of left wing causes, to emigrate to Australia in 1939.87 Although his wife found the "colonial provincialism" of Australia abhorrent and returned to England almost immediately,88 Williams stayed on and settled in Melbourne. With the absence of

83 Clinton 26.

84 Dr Peter Calvo, interview, 10 August 1996, Sydney.

85 Clinton 25.

86 Clinton 25.

87 Jeff Penberthy, "In Tune With The Left," The National Times 16-20 November 1984: 27-29.

88 Penberthy 29. 38 accomplished guitarists there, he was soon in demand as a performer and teacher. His professional experience found him work as a session musician for radio station 3DB, and as a freelance jazz guitarist in the dance band circuit around Melbourne. 89 Williams was also equally sought after as a guitar teacher. Instructing in plectrum, finger-style jazz, and some classical guitar, he operated a successful teaching practice at Sutton's Music

House in Elizabeth St. 90 Williams also taught from his home in Brighton Road, St Kilda, a house which he and his family shared with other like-minded artists, writers and musicians:

There were many of us living together in one large house during the Melbourne period. Naturally we had many interests in common-socially culturally and politically. There was the arranger-guitarist Joe Washington, the artist Robert Felix, and Sam Dunn- a musician and journalist ... Musicians and other friends joined us at open house on weekends. Amongst these were the Australian composers Felix Werder and Miles Maxwell, the actor Frank Thring and the great 'cellist David Sissterman .91

Williams was also friendly with the Jorgensen and Skipper families who founded Monsalvat, an alternative community of artisans that was based on the outskirts of Melbourne.92 During the late 1940s and early 1950s, they spent much time there, and Williams and his pupils often performed in soirees and recitals at Monsalvat. 93

89 Maurice Summerfield, The Classical Guitar. Its Evolution and its Players since 1800 (Gateshead: Ashley Mark, 1982) 237.

90 Summerfield 237.

91 Clinton 29.

92 Monsalvat is situated at Eltham, Melbourne.

93 Sadie Bishop, interview, 27 Feb. 1997. 39

Although he was introduced to the classical guitar during his late teens, Williams did not devote his full attention to the instrument and its repertoire until after 1946.94 The catalyst for this was his son John, who, from an early age, demonstrated a natural talent on the instrument.95 In 1952, Williams and his family returned to England. Firstly, this would provide John with greater opportunities to develop his talents and to hear the concert guitarists of Europe, and secondly, Williams wanted to establish a centre specialising in classical guitar tuition, a venture destined for greater success in London than in Melbourne during the early 1950s. Williams fulfilled these ambitions: continuing under his father's tuition, John's career flourished in London, as did "The London Spanish Guitar Centre" .96

Although highly respected as a performer, Williams' work in education was his greatest legacy to the development of the classical guitar in Australia and Britain. Despite having no formal training as a teacher, Williams was an inspirational educator who possessed discerning powers of observation.97 Indeed, Williams believed he was "a good observer", and these skills, together with his fascination with philosophy and social engineering, were fundamental to his success as both a professional ethnologist and guitar teacher. 98 By observing and analysing the work of master concert guitarists, and in particular Segovia, Williams learned much about the instrument. 99 Furthermore, the

94 Summerfield 237.

95 Clinton 27.

96 Clinton 27.

97 Dr Peter Calvo, interview, 10 Aug. 1996, Sydney.

98 Clinton 25.

99 Clinton 29. 40 importance of visual and aural observation was clearly reflected in Williams' use of interactive group tuition, a strategy he believed accelerated most students' learning. 100

An additional strength of Williams' teaching was his ability to disseminate knowledge of guitar technique with consistency to the beginner or advanced student, whether a child and adult. His son John, who began playing the guitar from age four, credits his father's expertise for much of his success as a concert guitarist:

My father was a very forceful character, and in relation to me and the

guitar, he was very persuasive, so like I never actually had to practice. But

he had this way of making one feel as if they ought to. My father taught

me well and it's just that I've been lucky, really lucky. I've been

amazingly well taught. 101

Peter Calvo, who studied with Williams from 1952 until 1960, argued that for Len, technical efficiency was paramount, and he placed great emphasis on obtaining the

"equipment" in the quest to achieve the fullest tone and expression on the guitar:

Len was a master of the right hand. Whilst his knowledge of the left hand

was adequate and certainly not misleading, his understanding of sound

production on the right hand was miraculously simple and elegant, though

difficult to understand, and even more so to emulate. 102

Williams' contribution to the expansion of classical guitar playing in Australia can be divided into two periods: first, during his early years in Australia between 1939 to

100 The impact of Williams' methodology upon tuition conducted in Australia is discussed later in this chapter.

101 "John Williams Seville Concert" narr. John Williams, Sony 1993.

102 Dr Peter Calvo, interview, 10 Aug. 1996, Sydney. 41

1952, and second, during the 1950s and early 1960s in London. According to Sadie

Bishop, Williams was "the pioneer of the instrument in Melbourne - there was no

[classical] guitar scene to speak of before Len arrived". 103 During the late 1940s and early 1950s, when he specialised in the classical guitar, Williams taught a growing number of Melbourne guitarists, the most successful being Sadie Bishop and Sebastian

Jorgensen, who in turn established professional musical careers of their own. Williams was also active in Sydney, where, on more than one occasion, he presented recitals and masterclasses for the Society of the Classical Guitar. 104

In addition to this, Williams was also instrumental in helping to improve the standard and availability of classical guitars in Australia. Frustrated by a lack of locally- made guitars, and the expense of imported instruments, Williams approached Victorian guitar maker Bill May to build classical guitars to meet the growing demand of

Australian students. 105 Around 1947, under Williams' guidance, May's family business,

"Maton Guitars", produced their first classical guitars, and thereafter manufactured various other classical guitar models which were made available in music stores throughout Australia during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.

Shortly after returning to London in 1952 Williams opened "The Spanish Guitar

Centre" at 36 Cranbourne St, London, a centre where he offered a systematic approach to learning the guitar. From the outset it was successful, "partly due to Len's teaching,

103 Michael Buhagiar, "Interview with Sadie Bishop," Newsletter of the Classical Guitar Society March 1995:13.

104 Sadie Bishop, interview, 27 Feb. 1997.

105 Michael Atherton, Australian made. Australian Played (Sydney: New South Wales UP, 1990) 84. 42 partly due to the fact that there was nothing else around, and partly because of an emerging international awareness of the guitar as an art-music instrument" .106 Not only did the centre play an important role in expanding interest in the classical guitar in

England, but Williams' school in London was also influential in the expansion of the instrument in Australia. Firstly, it was at the London centre that Williams taught students who were to become influential exponents in the Australian classical guitar scene. Sadie

Bishop, who began lessons with Williams in Melbourne, continued to study with him in

London, before returning to Australia.107 Other figures who studied with Williams, including his son John, as well as John Duarte and Peter Calvo, 108 were also active and influential in Australia during the 1970s and 1980s.

Having studied with Williams during the 1950s, Peter Calvo emigrated to

Australia in late 1968 and soon after established "The Sydney Spanish Guitar Centre", a prototype of Williams' school in London. From 1969 until the late 1980s scores of guitar students enrolled at the Sydney centre and similar guitar schools established in Adelaide,

Brisbane, Perth, Ballarat, Cooma, Penrith and Paramatta during the 1970s and 1980s. 109

According to Calvo, several aspects of Williams' teaching were influential in the approaches used at these Australian centres. Firstly, graded group tuition was often implemented and students were encouraged to observe and comment upon the playing of

106 Dr Peter Calvo, interview, 10 Aug. 1996.

107 Further details on Sadie Bishop will be covered in Chapter Three.

108 Clinton 29.

109 Dr Peter Calvo, interview, 10 August 1996. Calvo asserts guitar centres were established, most by his former students which were modeled upon the Sydney Spanish Guitar Centre: Adelaide (1972), Brisbane (1975), Perth (1978), Ballarat (1982), Cooma (1984), Penerith (1988) and Paramatta School of Guitar (1989). 43 others in lessons. Secondly, Williams' anthology of student guitar repertoire, used at The

Spanish Guitar Centre in London, was also widely used in these guitar schools throughout Australia. Comprising various levels, these handbooks contained graded works from the renaissance to the modem period and supplementary exercises and scales.

According to Calvo, Williams' syllabus was an important model for those used at the

Sydney Spanish Guitar Centre and elsewhere: 110

The impact of extracting from the vast and disorganised repertoire of the

guitar an ordered ladder of development, with the promise of weekly

instalments geared to measurable improvement, was irresistible

pedagogically ... when it is realised that Len Williams achieved all this in

the dark days of the guitar with little available knowledge on the subject,

his efforts in today's terms would have deserved him a Ph.D. in

performance practice. 111

110 Dr Peter Calvo, interview, 10 August 1996.

111 Dr Peter Calvo, interview, 10 August 1996. 44

CHAPTER THREE

THE YEARS OF EXPANSION: 1947-1970

Although the Second World War restricted many musical enterprises in Australia, the uncertainties of war also stimulated a fierce hunger for the emotional clarification and sense of order induced by some kind of music. 112 In respects to the classical guitar in Australia, this was the case, for interest in the instrument heightened in the years during and immediately after World War Two. Whilst there was a shortage of Australian classical guitar players and teachers, and none matching the expertise of Len Williams, events abroad rapidly took hold and stimulated an upsurge of interest in the classical guitar during the 1950s. As discussed earlier, Segovia had a profound influence upon raising the status and popularity of the guitar this century, but especially after World War Two when his recording output increased. In addition to this, other concert guitarists such as Ida Presti, Alexander Lago ya, Regino Sainz de la Maza, and Narciso Yepes began to emerge on the international guitar scene, and their 78s also inspired a growing number of Australians to study the instrument. The influence of professional recordings, however, was not the only force to activate more substantial levels of guitar playing in Australia after 1945. The invention of nylon strings in 1947 was a momentous break-through for all players of the instrument. Not only did they enhance the tone quality of the guitar, but also they could be more easily tuned and maintained in the hands of amateur players. Of additional importance was the increased publication and distribution of classical guitar literature. Since the 1920s the volume of guitar music, both original works and transcriptions, had grown steadily but after 1945, publishing houses including Schott, Max Eshig, Biblioteca

Fortea and Universal Editions began to specialise in and increase their output of classical

112 Covell 124. 45 guitar literature. Further coinciding with this was the publication of international guitar journals. Periodicals such as BMG (Banjo, Mandoline and Guitar), Guitar News and

Guitar Review were a new means of communication that kept guitar enthusiasts, even those living in remote musical outposts such as Australia, up-to-date with international events and trends. 113 In addition to this, whilst classical guitar societies were formed in Europe and North America during the early twentieth century, many more were founded after 1945, emerging not only in the world's leading musical centres114 but as far afield as Montreal, Teheran, Buenos Aires, Johannesburg, Tokyo and Sydney. 115

The Society of the Classical Guitar, Sydney

Since colonial times amateur music societies have made a vital contribution toward the conscious organisation and maintenance of Australia's musical tradition. 116 The founding of Australia's first classical guitar society took place during the culturally and artistically-active years immediately after World War Two, ironically at a time when many other amateur music societies in Australia had become defunct. Its formation shortly after World War Two was timely and in accordance with international trends; however, given the embryonic state of classical guitar playing then found in this country, and the absence of guiding professional exponents, the formation of this society was a progressive and important initiative.

113 BMG, a magazine specialising in fretted instruments, began in the 1930s. Guitar Review began publication in New York in 1947, and Guitar News, the official organ of the International Classic Guitar Association, dates back to 1951. Evidence confirms that some of the founding members of the Society of the Classical Guitar (Sydney), H. R. Kenworthy, Roy S. Adams and William Morris, subscribed to these publication.

114 By 1945 classical guitar societies existed in London, Paris, Madrid, Vienna, Rome, Moscow and New York.

115 The existence of guitar societies in these cities were located in various volumes of Guitar News and Guitar Review dating from 1947 until 1950.

116 Covell 17. 46

Formed in Sydney in 1947, the Society of the Classical Guitar can be acknowledged as the first significant organisation to promote the classical guitar and its music in Australia. 117 Furthermore, its importance lies not only in being the first of its kind, but also in serving as the longest running and most influential organisation to foster the development of the classical guitar in Australia in the two decades after the Second

World War. Classical guitar societies came to exist in other Australian capital cities, and even in regional areas, but most did not emerge until the mid 1960s and were less active and influential. 118 The Society of the Classical Guitar in Sydney ran continuously for over thirty years from 1947 until approximately 1975. The history of the organisation can be divided into roughly three stages: firstly, the fourteen-year period from 1947 to 1960 were years that saw the inauguration and modest expansion of the society. The following years, from 1961 to 1970, were the society's most successful during which membership and activities reached their peak. After this time, however, internal and external factors began to weaken the organisation and eventually caused it to disband during the mid

1970s. Despite being Australia's most populous and musically-active city, Sydney during the 1940s was without professional or expert classical guitarists. According to William (Bill) Morris, "there were very few people who knew anything about the classical guitar in those days around the War" .119 Whilst this lack of professional expertise restricted playing and teaching standards, it was the catalyst for uniting some of Sydney's amateur guitarists who were in search of more substantial levels of activity. Thus, amateur

117 This can be verified in two sources: firstly, the society's monthly newsletter, Guitar Bulletin, and secondly, in the fact that the society's news, letters of correspondence and extracts from the Guitar Bulletin appeared far more frequently in international guitar journals than did those of any other Australian society.

118 Other guitar societies formed in Australia will be discussed later in this chapter.

119 William Morris, interview, The Guitar in Sydney, 2MBS, 25 Oct 1997. 47

guitarists can be credited for having established the first organisation to promote a greater understanding and a higher regard for the classical guitar and its music in this country.

It was whilst living in Sydney during the early 1940s that William (Bill) Morris

came in contact with two gentlemen, Englishman Robert (Bob) Blackett and Roy

Adams,120 who like himself, were keen amateur players of the classical guitar. On

occasions they met at their private homes to play and discuss matters relating to the instrument. Over time newcomers found their way into this circle of enthusiasts, some of whom made their own guitars. 121 Eventually, at Morris' suggestion, the group united more formally under the auspices of The Society of the Classical Guitar (Sydney):

There were five of us all together, and I arranged for us to meet at a premises I

knew about in the city, and from then on we decided that we would organise The

Society for the Classical Guitar. We appointed Roy Adams as the president, and I

was the organising secretary. 122 In keeping with prevailing international trends, the society's membership consisted of males. 123 An account in Guitar Review in 1948 reported that:

120 William Morris, interview, The Guitar in Sydney. 2MBS, Sydney, 25 Oct 1997.

121 Souces from Guitar News reveal that two of the founding members, Roy Adams and H. R. Kenworthy, were avid classical guitar makers.

122 William Morris, interview, The Guitar in Sydney. 2MBS, Sydney, 25 Oct 1997.

123 Guitar Review 11 (1950): 169. A photograph of the Society of the Classical guitar members taken shortly after its formation in 1947 features eight males between the approximate ages of 20 and 60. No names accompany the photograph however through other sources it has been possible to identify some of the early members. These gentlemen included Roy. S. Adams, founding president of the society in 1947 and H. R. Kenworthy, who succeeded Adams as society president in 1948 until 1960. William (Bill) Morris, a guitarist and mandolin player, was one of the longest-serving members of the society. Other members active during the early years included Danish-born Niels Stevns society president in 1962 and 1963; Ernest Wigglesworth, president in 1964; English guitar enthusiast Robert Blackett, and William Schumacher, who, together with his wife Bonnie, were also office-bearers in the society from the late 1950s until the early 1970s. 48

News reaches us from Sydney of the formation of a guitar association known as

Society of the Classical Guitar of Sydney, R.S. Adams, President. Mr Adams

plays a guitar of his own make, and lectures on the construction of the guitar

before his own group and other interested parties. The GUITAR REVIEW and

societies the world over welcome the new organisations to the guitar fraternity

which knows no boundaries.124

Strictly speaking, the society never promoted itself as a governing body or teaching organisation. Central to its activities were monthly meetings that provided a regular and informal performance forum. Lectures on the history of the guitar and guitar construction were also presented by society members125 but these were not rigorously academic by today's standards.

One of the major debts owing for the enrichment of modern Australian music culture is to European migrants, many of whom sought refuge in this country immediately before and after World War Two.126 During the 1950s, Sydney's guitar society was boosted by the arrival of European immigrants who continued to pursue an active interest in the guitar after settling in Australia. On the thirteenth anniversary of the formation of the society it was reported that the "society has 50 members, quite cosmopolitan for they include Danes, Greeks, Italians, Germans, White Russians,

124 "Australia," Guitar Review 7 1948: 21.

125 "News in Australia," Guitar News Oct. 1951: 7.

126 Covell 133. 49

Canadians, English and other overseas people" .127 These foreign-born guitarists enriched

Australian guitar culture and introduced superior quality guitars to this country:

There is good news of the guitarists in Australia. The Classical Guitar Society in

Sydney continues to meet and enjoy much good guitar playing. New arrivals

from Europe have joined, and some excellent guitars are in use by them including

two Tatay concert models, a Hermann Hauser (Jnr.) 'Segovia' model, two Monch

guitars and a beautiful 'Petersen', an instrument of fine materials and

workmanship with a tone outstanding in volume and timbre. 128

The Sydney society progressed steadily beyond its first decade, and although migrant players accounted for an important part of the growing fraternity of classical guitarists in this country, during the 1960s, the organisation grew more rapidly due to the involvement of professional guitarists. Contact with professional guitarists brought growing credibility and support to the society and in tum signaled a second and more enterprising period for the organisation. The most influential figure in this category was

Andres Segovia, whose Sydney recitals and receptions (which were hosted by the society) generated much enthusiasm for the classical guitar, as well as the guitar society. 129 Following Segovia, a succession of professional guitarists including Sadie

Bishop, Jose Luis Gonzalez, Antonio Losada, Don Andrews, Susan Prendiville, Patrick

Bashford and Alfred Alexander, all performed on behalf of the society, and in doing so helped raise the organisation's profile.

127 "The Sydney Society of the Classical Guitar," Guitar News Nov. 1960: 25.

128 "News from Australia," Guitar News Oct. 1959: 18.

129 The impact of Segovia in Australia will be discussed later in this chapter. 50

Increased professional involvement did much to stimulate progress within the society and to elevate public opinion of the guitar in Sydney. In 1963 William

Schumacher wrote:

At least one musical critic of a Sydney paper produced an intelligent and

constructive critique which in its very matter-of-factness establishes what we have

been striving for: the recognition of the Classical Guitar, not as a 'freak' or an

oddity, but as a legitimate (I will not say ordinary) musical instrument like the

piano, violin, flute, etc. It is understandable that the local music critics whose

first experience of 'live' guitar playing was Segovia's visit not so long ago, at the

time went 'overboard' without knowing analytically why. Now, with three recitals

by Gonzalez and two by Losada, they are no longer emotionally fascinated a

priori but are at least striving to be as objective as if they were comparing the

merits of Heifetz and Menuhin. Which means to them the Classical Guitar has

'arrived'. 130

Aided by professional involvement, by 1965 the society's membership trebled in a period of little more than two years.131 In 1969, the then secretary reported optimistically that "our membership is growing all the time and the youth of Sydney are finding their way to Chapter House each month to participate in the continuous interest of the classical guitar". 132 However, professional activity did more than boost the society's membership during the 1960s. Importantly, concert and teaching activity conducted by

130 "The Press and the Guitar," Guitar News Nov. 1963: 22.

131 "At the Annual General Meeting," Guitar Bulletin April 1965:15

132 "New Faces," Guitar Bulletin Dec. 1969: 2. 51 visiting and resident-Australian guitarists was a catalyst for raising local standards of guitar playing in Sydney. In 1963 the Guitar Bulletin reported that "two professional guitarists now resident in Sydney [have] assisted the steadily improving standard in playing at the monthly meetings of the Society" .133

To better improve playing standards among its members, the Sydney society organised performing opportunities. Members and visitors were welcome to perform at the monthly meetings and "At Home" evenings hosted by members. More formal events such as "A Teacher Presents His Pupils" series were also held providing a beneficial platform for students and teachers. Another event that supported Sydney's young guitarists was the annual "City of Sydney Eisteddfod". In 1966 the society successfully fulfilled its campaign for the inclusion of the guitar in Sydney's leading amateur music competition.134 It was also during the society's enterprising years that it began publication of a monthly newsletter. Beginning in 1964, the Guitar Bulletin was the first publication of its kind in Australia to keep enthusiasts informed of local and international guitar news.

By early 1970, the classical guitar was in vogue in Australia, and among other indicators of this fact was that the Sydney guitar society had over 130 financial members, the highest number in its history. 135 However, in this same year, external and internal factors began to arise which led to instability within the society. By the late 1960s, many older and long-standing members had departed or reduced their participation in the

133 "Progress in Australia," Guitar News Nov. 1963: 22.

134 "City of Sydney Eisteddfod," Guitar News Jan. 1967: 36.

135 "Membership," Guitar Bulletin Jan. 1971: 2. 52 society. In their absence, younger guitarists were called upon to take action: "1969 was a challenging year for the Society - a new year if you like, our audience has changed: no longer can older members be relied upon to attend the monthly meetings as in the past" .136 However, despite this plea, the call to younger guitarists went largely unanswered.

Waning enthusiasm for the society was not because of declining interest in the classical guitar but paradoxically a result of the growing popularity of the instrument in

Sydney. In answering a growing demand for classical guitar tuition, during the late

1960s a number of guitar "academies", "schools" and "studios" were established in

Sydney. 137 Unlike the society, these were teaching centres which offered "complete academic training in all aspects of the guitar from some of Australia's leading professionals [providing] training for exams, music lending library, student workshops and specialised training in chamber music as well as guitar accompaniments". 138 By the early 1970s these guitar schools had attracted large numbers of students, many of whom formed loyal alliances with these centres and, consequently had little need for involvement in the society. Similarly, commitment from local professional guitarists also diminished within the organisation. On more than one occasion, Sydney's growing fraternity of classical guitar teachers were asked to "be more willing to present their pupils - after all it is a form of free advertising and an opportunity for their pupils to hear

136 "Society of the Classical Guitar," Guitar Bulletin Jan. 1970: 1.

137 In Sydney during the late 1960s Ricordi's, Academy of the Guitar, The Sydney Spanish Guitar Centre, Nicholson's College, Bainbridge Reeves Academy of Music and Chatswood College of Music, all offered classical guitar tuition.

138 An advertisement for the "Academy of the Guitar", under the direction of Don Andrews, appeared in Guitar Bulletin, Dec. 1968. Employing seven assistant teaching staff, this was the largest guitar centre of its kind operating in Australia during the late 1960s. 53 one another". 139 However, as performing and teaching opportunities increased, many professional guitarists lessened their involvement in the society and devoted their time to more lucrative pursuits.

After 1970, disputes among society members became more common and caused irreparable division within the organisation. Firstly, some older members continuing to serve in the society felt "criticism of some of our players in the recent past is too strongly worded [and] could easily discourage some members from the Society, not to mention other harmful 'side effects'".140 Conversely, younger and more ambitious members responded "that to praise a player for a poor performance would be of no benefit either to him [sic] or to the Society". 141 Secondly, controversy emerged amongst professional members regarding prevailing standards of teaching in Sydney. In 1971, a newcomer to the society declared that the "local scene [in Sydney] is subject to the worst kind of anarchy in teaching [which is] leading to a squandering of Australian talent". 142 Other members rejected this as "disparaging criticism" and protested that "we have many teachers of unquestionable standing in our community" .143

By 1972 the future of the society looked bleak. Flagging support generated by the affects of new teaching academies coupled with growing disharmony within the society resulted in a significant drop in membership. Depleting membership placed added

139 "Secretary's Report on 1971 and Forecast for 1972," Guitar Bulletin Jan. 1972: 2.

140 "Correspondence," Guitar Bulletin July 1970: 5-6.

141 "Correspondence," Guitar Bulletin July 1970: 5-6.

142 "Correspondence," Guitar Bulletin Dec. 1971: 5.

143 "Correspondence," Guitar Bulletin Dec. 1971: 6. 54 financial pressure on the organisation and the Guitar Bulletin was reduced from monthly to quarterly distribution.144 Waning support caused remaining members to question whether the society should stick rigidly to the classical guitar or perhaps embrace other popular guitar styles to rejuvenate the organisation. 145 Over the next five years attempts were made to regenerate the society but harmony among members had further declined, as had also the organisation's capacity to further the guitar in Sydney. Thus, the Sydney society eventually disbanded around 197 5. 146

Other Classical Guitar Societies in Australia during the 1950s and 1960s

As the largest and longest-serving classical guitar society in Australia, the

Society of the Classical Guitar in Sydney played an efficacious and leading role in fostering Australian classical guitar playing during the 1950s and 1960s. However, it was not the only organisation of its kind to do so during these years. The emergence of guitar societies in other Australian capital cities and regional areas is further evidence of the growing popularity of the classical guitar and the rising ambitions of Australian guitarists from the late 1950s.

Despite its isolation from other Australian capital cities, Perth was next behind

Sydney to form a classical guitar society. From the early 1950s, guitar playing in

Western Australia gained momentum with the arrival of Dutch-born guitarist Joshua

Heygen. A profile on Heygen featured in Guitar News of June 1960 reported that:

prior to his arrival the classic guitar was at that time practically unheard of in

Perth, but through [his] broadcasts for the ABC and a commercial station, [and]

144 "Secretary's Report on 1971 and Forecast for 1972," Guitar Bulletin Jan. 1972: 2.

145 "Secretary's Report on 1971 and Forecast for 1972," Guitar Bulletin Jan. 1972: 2.

146 Although an exact date for the close of the society could not be found, no evidence of activity was found after 1975. 55

through his teaching and regular meetings with scores of amateur guitarists, he has played his part in introducing the classic guitar into a part of the world where little was known of the instrument.147 Although Heygen had left Perth by 1959, in that year some of Heygen's former students were instrumental in forming the Western Australian Classical Guitar Society which endeavoured "to promote the playing and teaching of the nylon-strung classic guitar in the manner of the great masters, Segovia and Tarrega" .148 At a time when the guitar was not yet uniformly accepted by tertiary music institutions in this country, a guitar society was formed in Brisbane during the early 1960s with the support of the Queensland Conservatorium of Music. 149 The Queensland Classical Guitar Society was founded in 1963 by a small group of Brisbane-based guitarists including Anthony Allen, who had been recently appointed to teach the guitar at the Queensland Conservatorium, as well as some of his students. 150 In addition to this, Mr Basil Jones, founding director of the Conservatorium, together with Mr Jan Sedivka, senior lecturer in strings, were appointed founding patrons of the society. 151 Although its membership was small, reports in Guitar News and the Guitar Bulletin confirm that guitarists met regularly and staged various recitals at the former Conservatorium theatre and other venues during the 1960s and early 1970s. 152

147 "Joshua Heygen," Guitar News May 1960: 3.

148 "Siena in Australia," Guitar News May 1961: 7.

149 "A Society in Queesnsland," Guitar News Nov. 1963: 23.

15° Further details on the guitar's introduction in the Queensland Conservatoriurn of Music will be discussed in Chapter Four.

151 "A Society in Queensland," Guitar News Nov. 1963: 23.

152 Concert activities of the early Queensland Classical Guitar Society were reported in Guitar News and the Guitar Bulletin. 56

Given that a small but active circle of guitarists had resided in Victoria since the 1940s, the founding of Melbourne's first guitar society in 1964 was slow to form in comparison with those in other Australian capital cities. Due to the absence of a local society during the 1950s and early 1960s, Melbourne's enthusiasts had to be content with being members of the Sydney society. 153 However, in October 1964, a new society was formed in Victoria when John Pascoe, an enterprising devotee of the guitar, obtained permission to place a notice inside Andres Segovia's Melbourne concert programmes that called for other enthusiasts to join him in establishing a guitar society in Melbourne. 154 The response was reported to have been "heartening, not only amongst young people who were tired of beating up the piano at home but particularly among middle-agers who suddenly were made aware that music participation is well within everybody's grasp". 155 In less than two years, the Melbourne society had attracted a sizeable membership and hosted various activities to improve local interest in the classical guitar and its music. Regular monthly meetings for lectures and impromptu performances got underway, and thereafter concerts were arranged for both local and visiting performers including Sadie Bishop, Susan Ellis, Jose Luis Gonzalez, Antonio Losada, Susan Prendiville and Jochen Schubert. Recitals hosted by the society were well supported by Melbourne concert goers, especially those staged in-conjunction with Melbourne's annual Moomba Festival during the late 1960s and early 1970s. The Moomba Festival concerts were the most important ventures undertaken by the Melbourne society for they provided significant exposure for local and visiting guitarists. On at least one occasion, local composers were commissioned by the society to write guitar works for performance at the festival. Under

153 A list of financial members of the Sydney's society dating from 1964 verifies the addresses of more than a dozen interstate members, most of which resided in Victoria.

154 Felix Werder, "Guitar - Hellenic Disposition," The Age Nov. 28, 1967: 26.

155 Felix Werder, "Guitar -Hellenic Disposition," The Age Nov. 28, 1967: 26. Amongst those known to be involved in the early Melbourne society were Sadie Bishop, Susan Ellis, John Pascoe, Diana Pascoe and Gregory Young. 57 the auspices of the 1970 Moomba Festival, the Melbourne guitar society staged a concert that featured new works by local composers Francois Gifford, Keith Humble and Ian Bonighton. The society's initiative was applauded by Felix Werder, erstwhile music critic of The Age, as:

... a fine example of progressive thinking [for] musical instruments die when composers stop writing for them. The guitar is very much alive because the people who play the instrument are interested in alive music. The Society of the Classical Guitar [Melbourne] has opened its purse and commissioned these

composers to make a worthy contribution to the literature of the instrument. It is a two-way traffic that keeps everyone alive. 156 Less than a year after the founding of Victoria's first classical guitar society a somewhat smaller society was established in neighbouring South Australia. Formally in operation after 1965, the Adelaide Classical Guitar Society's constitution stated that "full members must agree to use an instrument of traditional form; to use accepted modern technique; to read music and to play on not less than five occasions a year" .157 Despite its size and isolation from guitar societies on the eastern seaboard, one member coITesponding to the Guitar Bulletin believed that the Adelaide society was doing much to foster interest in and improve standards of guitar playing in that city. Among other events, the Adelaide society acquired the expertise of visiting master guitarist Alirio Diaz in 1969, and in 1970, the society hosted a weekend seminar under the direction of resident-Sydney guitarist Peter Calvo. 158

156 Felix Werder, "Moomba gives boost to local composers," The A~e 28 Feb. 1970.

157 "Adelaide C.G.S," Guitar News July 1965: 24. Amongst those known to be involved in the early Adelaide society were John Boyce (founding president), Ann Boyce, John Della Torre, Theo Peters, Bruce McCelland, Nick Marinos, Joan Smyth and Chris von der Borch.

158 "Adelaide C.G.S," Guitar Bulletin July 1970: 5. 58

The 1968 September edition of Guitar News reported that "knowledge and love of the classic guitar is increasing in Australia, and it is pleasing to note that this is happening outside the state capital cities in Wangaratta, one hundred and forty five miles north-east of Melbourne". 159 The Wangaratta Classical Guitar Group was one of the few guitar societies known to have emerged in regional Australia. Its formation was the work of Arturo Campagna, an Italian-born guitarist who migrated to Australia in the years after World War Two. 160 It was reported that the recitals presented by the group were received enthusiastically by large audiences from the district, and its activities even attracted brief attention on ABC National Television News. 161

Touring Classical Guitarists in Australia during the 1950s and 1960s The founding and expansion of classical guitar societies in Australia in the two decades following World War Two was a strong affirmation of the growing popularity of the instrument in this country during those years. Whilst the number of guitar players in Australia increased markedly during this period, this did not correspond to an immediate rise in performing and teaching standards on the instrument. Prior to the era of international telecommunications and commercial airline transport, Australia's remoteness of location from major guitar-playing centres in Europe and the Americas meant standards in this country were heavily dependent upon the caprices of local talent and resources. Thus, a shortage of resident-Australian guitarists from whom students could study the finer points of guitar playing, together with the limited number of international concert guitarists touring this country, were the principal factors which arrested the development of the classical guitar in this country before the 1960s.

159 "Wangaratta Classical Guitar Group," Guitar News Sept. 1968: 36.

160 "Wangaratta Classical Guitar Group," Guitar News Sept. 1968: 36.

161 "Wangaratta Classical Guitar Group," Guitar News Sept. 1968: 36. 59

Although there was a substantial rise in the number of singers, pianists and orchestral musicians touring Australia in the years immediately following the Second World War, 162 classical guitarists did not appear on this list. Despite the emergence of many more concert guitarists throughout the world after 1945, the majority of these players probably regarded Australia as a remote and musically insignificant destination.

Indeed, it was more than a decade after the end of the Second World War that Australians were given the first opportunity to hear international concert guitarists perform live. However, it was also reluctance among Australian music promoters that saw so few international concert guitarists tour this country before the 1960s. Although promoters abroad were regularly staging guitar recitals, during the post-war years Australian music management such as the ABC, Musica Viva, and smaller private promoters could marshal little confidence in the idea that the guitar would appeal to Australian audiences. Entrepreneurs, liable for hefty concert fees and expenses believed that "Australian audiences are not educated to the appreciation of the classical guitar and box-office business would pose a big gamble" .163 Their concern was largely based on the fact that the guitar had received little exposure in Australian concert halls, and thus it remained an unknown entity for the concert-going public. Further fuelling scepticism was the guitar's growing image as a "rock 'n roll" instrument. By the late 1950s, a plethora of steel-stringed acoustic and electric guitars had emerged in Australia so that generically, the instrument was more commonly associated with popular music culture than classical music making. This perception generated further uncertainty among concert promoters who were doubtful whether guitar recitals would be well attended by conservative classical-music-loving audiences in Australia. Indeed, this unwillingness to stage tours, even for concert guitarists of irrefutable renown, is indicative of the less-

162 Covell 134-136.

163 "Segovia's Australian Tour-1961," Guitar News May 1962: 3. 60 than-positive attitude that prevailed towards the guitar in the Australian music industry before the 1960s. Although the number of concert guitarists to have toured Australia before the 1960s was scarce, a few international players are known to have performed in this country. Among the earliest was the Brazilian soprano-guitarist Olga Coelho. 164 As a former pupil of Segovia, she was well known in North and South America; however, Australian guitarists and audiences were probably not familiar with Coelho, and consequently her tour in the mid 1950s raised only minimal attention. Shortly following

Coelho's visit, the Presti-Lagoya Duo, came to Australia in 1958: After a long and most successful tour that took them to Indonesia, where they gave a great number of recitals, dramatically escaping with the last B.O.A.C.

plane to Australia, where they gave fifteen more concerts (Adelaide, Melbourne, Canberra, Sydney, etc), Alexandre Lagoya and his wife Ida Presti came back to Europe to fulfil their other engagements in southern France and Italy. 165 Until the untimely death of Ida Presti in 1967, this guitar duo was hailed as the finest in the world. Guitar scholar Miguel Abloniz argued that "for a long time we have measured the value of solo guitarists by using a measurement called 'Segovia', so from now on guitar duos will be measured by that called 'Presti-Lagoya"' .166 However, despite their international reputation, very little coverage was given to Presti and Lagoya's Australian tour, and their visit probably made only a minor impression upon the emerging classical guitar scene in Australia during the late 1950s. 167

164 "Olga Coelho," Guitar News July 1959: 3.

165 "The Presti-Lagoya Duo-A Miracle," Guitar News July 1958: 22.

166 "The Presti-Lagoya Duo-A Miracle," Guitar News July 1958: 22.

167 This is supported by the fact that only one brief reference to the Presti-Lagoya Duo's Australian tour was found in international guitar journals of the day. Additionally, there was no mention made of their visit in the Guitar Bulletin. or by the any persons interviewed for this investigation. 61

Developments of far greater significance were generated in late 1961 by the arrival of one of the twentieth century's most famous musicians: Andres Segovia. As discussed in chapter two, increased distribution and broadcasting of his recordings, especially after 1945, established Segovia's reputation in Australia as the cardinal exponent of the classical guitar. Since the end of the Second World War:

Australian-guitar lovers, envious and frustrated, have read of Segovia's tours of

the "Far East" (our near north). Surely, we have asked, leading Australian

producers could have kept in touch with the Maestro's connections and arranged

for the inclusion of our country in his itinerary on his trips to Japan, for example .

. . Then in mid-1961 the almost incredible announcement that Segovia was

coming-'dinkum' this time!'. 168

Segovia was booked to tour Australia, not under the direction of Australia's larger organisations of concert management, but rather by a smaller and more enterprising promoter, Arthur J. Tait. 169 At the outset, eight concerts were scheduled between 4

October and 9 November 1961 in Sydney, Melbourne, Perth, Adelaide, Hobart and

Brisbane, as well as a national television appearance.170 Exceeding all expectations, organisers were astounded when seats sold out almost immediately. Thus, they had underestimated the demand to hear the world's most celebrated classical guitarist:

... even the most sanguine guitarists were not prepared for the astonishing

success of Segovia's tour. All seats were sold for concerts on the original

schedule and many people were disappointed. Extra concerts were hurriedly

arranged, one in each of the following places: Melbourne, Sydney, Perth and

168 "Segovia's Australian Tour-1961," Guitar News May 1962: 3.

169 "Segovia's Australian Tour-1961," Guitar News May 1962: 3.

170 Graham Wade and Gerald Garno, A New Look at Segovia Yol. 1 (USA: Mel Bay Publications, 1997: 45. 62

Adelaide. Wollongong, 50 miles south of Sydney on the coast, was given an unscheduled recital. These too were 'sellouts'. 171 The maestro's first Australian tour was declared "an unqualified success artistically and financially [and] as to the public reaction to this great man's art, one can only describe it as sheer enchantment". 172 The success of Segovia's initial visit saw promoters quickly arrange a second and larger national tour beginning September 1964, less than three years after his first visit. His second tour produced yet again "sell-out" concerts that were acclaimed with unrivalled enthusiasm throughout Australia, particularly in Sydney where the guitar society celebrated the maestro's week-long visit as "Segovia Week" .173 As the world's most eminent classical guitarist, Segovia left a resounding mark upon the formative classical guitar scene in Australia during the early 1960s. His performances not only generated wider recognition of the guitar, but also convinced Australian promoters, critics and audiences alike that the instrument was a legitimate one and worthy of any concert hall. According to William Schumacher in 1965, the maestro's recitals profoundly transformed attitudes in Australia for "the local music critics, whose first experience of 'live' guitar playing was Segovia's, went 'overboard' without knowing analytically why" .174 Equally significant was Segovia's influence over the growing ranks of Australian classical guitar players. His live performances confirmed that he possessed a powerful technique and command of guitar repertoire, and thereafter many Australian guitarists set about developing their own guitar playing in accordance with Segovia's.

171 "Segovia's Australian Tour-1961," Guitar News May 1962: 3.

172 "Segovia's Australian Tour-1961," Guitar News May 1962: 3.

173 "The Curtain Rose on Segovia Week," Guitar Bulletin Oct. 1964: 39. Various activities were organised during Segovia's Sydney visit: firstly, a reception committee from the society met Segovia and his wife at Mascot airport. Secondly, Jose Luis Gonzales opened the week with a recital to a capacity crowd at the Art Gallery of New South Wales. This was followed by an official reception held in Segovia's honour at the Sherbrooke Lounge where about seventy people, many representing the society met Mr and Mrs Segovia.

174 "The Press and the Guitar," Guitar News Nov. 1963: 22. 63

Indeed, Segovia's Australian tours, together with his many recordings, injected a markedly Spanish, and "Segovian" preference for and treatment of classical guitar repertoire in Australia, a legacy that only lessened during the latter decades of the twentieth century. Segovia's Australian tours, notably his first, marked an important milestone for the classical guitar in this country. His concerts not only heightened demand for classical guitar performances in Australia, but also paved the way for other guitarists to perform in this country. Throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, concert guitarists, principally from

Europe and South America, toured Australia with increasing regularity. By 1972, promoters had introduced a host of world-class exponents to Australia, some more than once: Alirio Diaz175 (1966,1969,1971,1974), Laurinda Almeida (1966), Julian Bream (1967), Narciso Yepes (1971), Sigfried Behrend176 (1971), The Abreu Brothers (1971), Ernesto Bitetti (1972) and John Williams (1972) featured amongst the impressive array of international artists. For the most part, these concert guitarists were brought to Australia by private music promoters based in Sydney and Melbourne, namely Arthur J. Tait, Clifford Hocking and David Vigo. Seemingly, a more conservative attitude towards the guitar was held by the Australian Broadcasting Commission, for only Julian Bream, a high profile British guitaiist, conducted a solo tour of Australia for the ABC before 1970. Whilst Segovia's tours were a significant catalyst for the expansion of interest in the classical guitar, other forces also contributed to this upsurge. From the late 1950s, there had been a steady rise in the level of classical guitar music broadcast on Australian radio. This was not only the result of rising public demand for classical guitar music but also due to a rise in the quality and variety of guitar recordings available in Australia. In

175 Australian concert promoter Clifford Hocking was the organiser of Alirio Diaz's three Australian tours.

176 German-born Sigfried Behrend was the first guitarist to perform a nation-wide solo tour of Australia for the Musica Viva Society in 1971. 64 addition to this, the growth of folk music indirectly helped stimulate interest in the classical guitar during the 1960s. By way of finger-style acoustic guitar, made popular by artists such as Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, The Seekers and Peter, Paul and Mary, many were introduced to the guitar and subsequently explored the techniques and repertoire of the classical guitar. Similarly, the exotic strains of the flamenco guitar, especially those produced by Carlos Montoya and Paco Pena, who toured Australia during the late 1960s, was another agent that inspired some Australians to take up the classical guitar.

Resident Classical Guitarists in Australia during the 1950s and 1960s

By introducing new standards, touring concert guitarists helped promote and expand the classical guitar throughout Australia during the 1960s. However, despite the impressive quality and number, visiting players were more of a transient and inspirational influence rather than a compelling and long-term force in improving the standard of classical guitar playing in Australia. Whilst touring professionals planted the seeds of interest, the serious cultivation of classical guitar playing in Australia was left to guitarists of varying proficiency who lived in this country during the 1950s and 1960s.

As discussed in chapter two, Len Williams was the forerunner of the Australian classical guitar scene after World War Two; however after his return to England in 1952, other exponents of the instrument gradually emerged. Among those prominent in this category were foreign-born as well as native-born Australians, the first to have achieved full professional status as performers and teachers of the classical guitar in this country.

Although their musical careers were already underway in the 1950s, these exponents did not rise to prominence in Australia until the 1960s, with most continuing to be active and influential into the 1970s and beyond.

On the whole, these newcomers were experienced and proficient musicians who had undertaken performance studies with teachers of international renown, and in some cases, they had completed formal music studies in European tertiary institutes. Prior to 65 this time, guitarists bearing this level of training were non-existent in Australia, and for this reason, among others, they proved compelling forces in raising the standard of classical guitar playing in this country. Naturally, these professional musicians resided where performing and teaching opportunities were most abundant during the 1960s, namely in the state capital cities along the eastern seaboard of Australia. Although progress was achieved in Brisbane, Adelaide, Canberra and Perth, during this time, the metropolises of Sydney and Melbourne remained the centres of activity and continued to host the highest quality and quantity of guitar playing in Australia during the 1950s and 60s. A comprehensive study of every active guitarist resident in Australia during this time is beyond both the purpose and scope of this investigation. Therefore, the following segment will focus upon the more influential figures to have contributed to the expansion of the classical guitar in Australia during the 1950s and 1960s.

Sadie Bishop (1922-) In a career spanning more than forty years, Sadie Bishop's accomplishments as a concert guitarist, teacher and adviser are testaments to the pivotal role she played in the development of the guitar in this country. Born in Richmond, Melbourne in 1922, Bishop's earliest introduction to music was through her mother, an amateur pianist who ensured her daughter learnt the keyboard from an early age. However, despite possessing a natural aptitude for music, Bishop was not overly drawn to the piano and consequently only studied it into her teenage years. Bishop had a belated introduction to the guitar. As an adult in her twenties, she met and later married Joe Washington, a professional guitarist performing around Melbourne's jazz clubs during the 1940s. Shortly after their meeting, Washington introduced Bishop to Len Williams. Their meeting proved a significant one for in the late 1940s she took up guitar lessons with Williams, a respected but exacting teacher with whom she would study over the following years. For some 66 time after their marriage Joe Washington and Sadie Bishop shared an open-styled house with Len Williams and his family in St Kilda, Melbourne:

Len Williams was my first teacher. I shared a house with him and his family

during the early fifties. Len used to teach everything in those days - jazz,

plectrum, Hawaiian, classical and so on, but when John started showing promise

he switched solely to classical.177

Under Williams' tutorage founded on the technique of Segovia, Bishop rapidly developed her skills on the guitar. 178 From the late 1940s she began performing both solo and in ensembles: a classical guitar trio comprising Bishop, Washington and Williams during the late 1940s, was the first serious guitar ensemble of its kind in Australia to have attained even modest success. 179 Additionally, it was during these early years that Bishop regularly performed at Monselvat. 180 Soirees and concerts were a regular part of the community's cultural life and attracted many of Melbourne's budding musicians including

Bishop, who, by the early 1950s, had set her sights on a career with the guitar.

Bishop's formative years in Melbourne firmly established the cornerstone of her musical career. In 1951 she moved from Melbourne to Sydney, a city Bishop recalled was then home to "a group of enthusiastic amateurs who did a lot to stimulate interest but nobody of any note was playing there". 181 Thus, in the absence of experienced players,

Bishop was welcomed by the Sydney society. However, with the exception of a few

177 Michael Buhagiar, "Interview with Sadie Bishop," Newsletter of the Classical Guitar Society March 1995: 13.

178 Much of Williams teaching was based what he described the "methodology or system of Segovia". "Len Williams-The Man Who Started in All," .G.u.i1ar Oct. 1978: 25-29.

179 Sadie Bishop, interview, 27 Feb.1997. Bishop recalled that this guitar trio performed concerts in Victoria and New South Wales, a few of which were recorded and broadcast on radio during the early 1950s.

180 Sadie Bishop, interview, 27 Feb. 1997.

181 Sadie Bishop, interview, 27 Feb. 1997. 67 masterclasses, she did little teaching there but instead devoted herself to practice and performing: 182

The Guitar Society feels that Sadie Washington's (nee Bishop) appearance is a definite step towards an understanding of the instrument in Australia, a country where knowledge of the traditional guitar is extremely vague and confused. Mrs

Washington's stage presence and the grace and relaxation of her hands as she played, in themselves made a good impression. Her music, unforced and crisp, carried clearly to every point of the hall. 183 Restless for greater opportunities, Bishop only remained in Sydney for approximately two years before returning to Melbourne where she resumed her teaching activities. With no expert teacher from whom to study, Bishop continued to work independently and corresponded with Len Williams in London about guitar technique and repertoire. 184 Bishop recollected: "I was mad about the guitar in those days, and of course ended up moving to London myself, where I taught at the Spanish Guitar Centre".185 In addition to being appointed an instructor at Williams' centre, moving to Europe in 1955 bought Bishop in contact with new musicians and opportunities including acceptance into the prestigious classical guitar summer school in Siena, Italy in 1956 and 1957. Observations of and advice from Segovia, Alirio Diaz, Emilio Pujol, and other elite concert guitarists attending the summer school refined her abilities as a concert performer and teacher of the guitar.

182 Sadie Bishop, interview, 27 Feb. 1997.

183 "News from Australia," Guitar News March 1955: 13.

184 Michael Buhagiar, "Interview with Sadie Bishop," Newsletter of the Classical Guitar Society March 1995: 13.

185 Michael Buhagiar, "Interview with Sadie Bishop," Newsletter of the Classical Guitar Society March 1995: 13. 68

Thus, as a more experienced musician, Bishop returned to Melbourne in 1959 and quickly resumed her performing and teaching engagements. In the following years, she traveled widely throughout Australia and her performing and teaching exploits gained her a reputation as "a crusader for the classical guitar" .186 In addition to concerts and masterclasses given in Victoria and New South Wales,187 Bishop was guest teacher at a

"Classic Guitar Summer School on Rottnest Island, W.A - the first summer school of its kind in Australia". 188 Held in 1961, the summer school was "Sadie Bishop's attempt to recapture the atmosphere of the Segovia courses in the Italian town of Siena which she had attended for two successive years". 189 Following its initial success, the summer school was held again the next year with many members of the Western Australian guitar society participating.190

By the early 1960s, Bishop had forged a successful career as a classical guitarist: but although her accomplishments on the concert platform, on radio and in producing an album were impressive,191 it was Bishop's contributions in education that left an indelible impression upon Australian guitar playing. From early in her career she was enthusiastic about teaching, but after 1960, Bishop's teaching work expanded and her reputation as a guitar teacher grew. During the length of her career, Bishop tutored scores of students ranging from beginner to advanced level. An impressive number of her pupils, most

186 "At a Summer School on Rottnest Island," The Australian Womens' Week1y 25 Jan. 1961: 7.

187 "Sadie Bishop," Guitar News Nov. 1961: 14.

188 "At a Summer School on Rottnest Island," The Australian Womens' Weekly 25 Jan. 1961: 7.

189 "Siena in Australia," Guitar News May 1961: 7.

190 "At a Summer School on Rottnest Island": 7. A photograph accompanying the article featured some of the participants included Mrs Lorna Prendiville, her daughter Susan Prendiville, Alan Marshall, Ria de Jaeger and her son Andrew de Jaeger.

191 Sadie Bishop, interview, 27 Feb. 1997. Sadie Bishop, Classical Guitar. W&G Records, WGB 5037. 69 notably Tim Kain, Peter Lynch, Susan Ellis, Jeff Donovan, Emilio Perone, Valentin Sawenko among others, established successful careers with the guitar and in tum widened the scope of guitar activity, especially in the eastern states of Australia. According to some of her former pupils, characteristics emerged in Bishop's teaching, some of which displayed influences from her formative years. Like many guitarists of her generation, Bishop was influenced by the leading classical guitarists of the day. Master guitarists such as Segovia, Alirio Diaz, Julian Bream and John Williams, and their approaches to fingerings, tone production, interpretation and programming, were exemplary for Bishop and many other Australian guitarists of the 1950s and 1960s: One thing that struck me early on was the inspiration she [Bishop] received from her time with the greats overseas. That was very alive in her. She always had

knowledge and stories on John [Williams], Segovia, Diaz and Oscar Ghiglia. She'd spent time with them and a lot of her ideas and teaching approaches came from them, as well as Len Williams. She would acknowledge their influence but you didn't get the idea it was always second hand knowledge. 192 In her capacity as a teacher, Bishop possessed a solid command and knowledge of classical guitar repertoire, and in turn ensured her pupils studied a balanced list of works. 193 The bulk of pieces she taught, especially to her advanced students, were standards in the repertory of the guitar that had been made known through the recordings of master guitarists Segovia, Diaz, Williams and Bream. The popular compositions and transcriptions for solo guitar by Milan, Bach, Guiliani, Carcassi, Ponce, Villa-Lobos,

Turina, Rodrigo, Brouwer and Martin were among those well represented in Bishop's teaching syllabus.

192 Tim Kain, interview, 6 July 1997.

193 Tim Kain, interview, 6 July 1997. Peter Lynch, interview, 2 May 1997. 70

According to players formerly under her tutorage, although Bishop insisted they were well grounded in the fundamentals of classical guitar technique, 194 she did not focus heavily upon technical elements and issues in lessons, especially at advanced levels:

As a teacher she had very firm ideas about the basics but having established that

framework I don't recall her getting down into highly finicky things in terms of

technique and fingerings. That was left largely up to the individual. She wasn't

dogmatic about those things. At the end of the day her teaching tended to consist

of work on phrasing and rhythm rather than how to play the notes on the

instrument. 195

Performance development, however, was of paramount importance in Bishop's teaching.

Since her early years performing at Monsalvat and for the St Kilda household, Bishop had learnt much about the need to develop confidence as a performer, and in latter years she continued to advocate this in her own teaching:

Sadie was very much into performance. She would put you down for a concert,

whether you thought you were ready or not. She'd often have little house concerts

with guests over, and she'd get you over to play. She was a strong believer in the

fact that music is a shared art and not just something you do in your bedroom.196

Kain echoed this recalling: "Sadie was big on performance. Her attitude was if you're going to play then you're preparing to play for other people. We always had to get out and play, sometimes reluctantly" .197 In addition to this, Bishop encouraged her students to develop in the area of ensemble performance, an area in which she possessed

194 According to former pupils, some of the principles of classical guitar playing which Bishop strongly asserted included attention to posture and hand positions, use of a footstool, the technique of rest stroke (apoyando) and free stroke (tirando) for tone production and vibrato.

195 Peter Lynch, interview, 2 May 1997.

196 Peter Lynch, interview, 2 May 1997.

197 Tim Kain, interview, 6 July 1997. 71 considerable experience. 198 As well as guitar duo, trio and quartets, Bishop's guitar students were encouraged to perform repertoire for other combinations, most commonly works written for flute and guitar, and violin and guitar. 199 Lynch recalled that "at the Canberra School of Music we all had to play ensemble repertoire from year one. Sadie did see the potential for the guitar as an ensemble instrument; in fact I would say that one of the great things she did was to see the possibilities of integrating the guitar with other instruments in a serious way" .200 In conjunction to her contributions in the area of tertiary music education, Bishop played a key role in the introduction of the guitar into the Australian Music Examination Board, and these developments will be examined in detail in chapter four.

Don Andrews (1929-) In the history of guitar playing in Australia, few individuals have forged successful careers as both jazz and classical musicians: Don Andrews, however, is a notable exception. Since the 1950s, Andrews has played a long and active role as a perf01mer, teacher and advisor of the classical guitar in this country. Although Andrews experimented with classical guitar technique during his youth, the bulk of his early years were spent playing steel-string plectrum guitar. He began playing the guitar at age ten201 and one of his earliest teachers was Phil Skinner, a noted

198 Among other ensembles, Bishop was a founding member of the Melbourne Consort that performed throughout Australia during the 1960s and 1970s.

199 Jeff Donovan, interview, 5 July 1997.

200 Peter Lynch, interview, 2 May 1997.

201 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997. During his childhood Andrews sustained an illness which forced him to receive schooling by correspondence at home. Thus, he was able to complete his set homework in less than three hours, leaving him up to 12 hours a day to practice the guitar. 72 banjo and plectrum guitarist from England.202 At the age of twelve, Andrews began playing professionally with various local bands in Sydney including the American

Special Services bands posted in Australia during the Second World War from whom he learnt much about jazz guitar, harmony and music arranging.203

It was during the early 1950s that Andrews developed a serious interest in the classical guitar. After Len Williams' return to England in 1952, Andrews was invited to replace him in a guitar trio together with Sadie Bishop and Joe Washington. He recalled

Bishop and Washington were accomplished classical guitarists and they conveyed valuable knowledge to him.204 Consequently, Andrews synthesised this advice with his jazz guitar skills to develop a greater understanding of the classical guitar. After 1962 he continued to refine his classical guitar playing under the tutorage of Jose Luis

Gonzalez.205 Recognising Andrews' talent, Gonzalez arranged for him to meet and play for Segovia during his second tour of Australia in 1964. Segovia was suitably impressed with Andrews and invited him to attend his prestigious masterclasses in Santiago di

Compostela in Spain later that year. 206

Although Andrews never abandoned his interests in jazz guitar playing, by the early 1960s he had devoted an increasing amount of time to the classical guitar. Andrews performed as a solo concert guitarist, but as a soloist, he did not perform or record widely

202 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997. Records reveal Phil Skinner was an early and active member of Sydney's Classical Guitar Society. From the late 1950s he operated a teaching studio in Crows Nest, Sydney. He was also an avid collector of fretted stringed instruments.

203 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997.

204 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997.

205 Jose Luis Gonzalez and his contribution to classical guitar playing in Australia will be discussed in detail later in this chapter.

206 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997. In 1964, Andrews and his wife Monica left for Spain; however due to expenses and professional commitments in Australia, he was unable to attend the summer school and returned to Australia in late 1964. 73 or receive accolades equal to others during the early 1960s.207 However, from his experience in jazz ensembles, Andrews possessed a natural propensity for ensemble and chamber music performance, and his exploits in this area, particularly during the 1960s, were many. One commentator in 1964 claimed: "having already made his mark as a composer and arranger, Don Andrews could not have done a greater service to the cause of the classical guitar than by getting the instrument accepted as the legitimate instrument it is in chamber music combinations."208 In 1961, the Guitar Bulletin reported that Andrews "made history when he was the first classical guitarist to perform in Australia in a chamber combination for the Australian Broadcasting Commission. The item was then Schubert's 'Quartet for Flute, Viola, Guitar and 'Cello'."209 During the 1960s, Andrews arranged works and performed as a soloist with chamber orchestras in New South Wales, and together with fellow guitarist Jan Gold, he recorded an album entitled Virtuoso Music For Two Guitars. 210 In addition to his performing engagements as a classical guitarist, Andrews was also equally active as a teacher of the classical guitar from the 1960s. His early work as a teacher included an appointment at Ricordi's,211 before he founded his own "Academy of the Guitar" in Bondi Sydney. During the 1960s, Andrews was regularly involved in the Sydney guitar society. He often presented his pupils at guitar society meetings and "his pupils presented him insofar as all of them consistently exhibited his outstanding

207 These prominent soloists were Jose Luis Gonzalez and Antonio Losada and they will be discussed later in this chapter.

208 "Don Andrews," Guitar Bulletin July 1964: 28.

209 "Don Andrews," Guitar Bulletin July 1964: 28.

210 Don Andrews and Jan Gold. Virtuoso Music For Two Guitars. Phonogram Recordings, AY 842722.

211 Andrews taught at Ricordi's during the mid 1960s. Ricordi's advertisements featured in the itlI.llil.t Bulletin during 1966 and 1967 confirm his appointment as teacher there during these years. 74 characteristics of craftsmanship and musicianship" .212 In addition, Andrews produced a popular series of classical guitar tutor books, Classical Guitar Method lA, lB. 2 and 3, and other works that were among the first publications for the classical guitar produced in Australia. 213 During the 1960s, Andrews also did much to help introduce the classical guitar into Australian tertiary music education, as well as the Australian Music Examinations Board, and these important contributions will be discussed in detail in chapter four.

Jose Luis Gonzalez (1932-1998)

Apart from changes already mentioned, Segovia's first visit to Australia brought about another significant occurrence for Australian guitar playing during the 1960s: During Segovia's visit to Australia last year, Niels Stevns, President of the Sydney Society of the Classic Guitar, discussed with him the lack of qualified teachers and concert artists in that country. Thanks to Segovia's help, the Sydney Society has now invited Jose Luis Gonzalez to go to Australia, where he has agreed to remain for at least two years.214 Born in Alcoy, Spain in 1932, Jose Luis Gonzalez began playing the guitar as a child and in his teens he began lessons with Salvador Garcia. After completing his initial studies at the Conservatorium in Valencia he undertook advanced studies at Madrid Conservatorium with Regino Sainz de la Maza, a distinguished professor of the guitar

212 "A Teacher Presents His Pupils and Vice Versa," Guitar Bulletin Sept.1964: 35. Don Andrews was made an honorary member of the Society of the Classical Guitar in Sydney in 1965.

213 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997. The bulk of Andrews' publications for the classical guitar were published by J. Albert & Son. Other works by Andrews published by Alberts included a collection of original solos, a volume of Guiliani's studies op. 1, books that contained works listed on the first and second grade AMEB syllabus, as well as Andrew's arrangements of Vivaldi's Concerto in D major and C major for two guitars.

214 "Jose Luis Gonzalez," Guitar News May 1963: 5. 75 who claimed Gonzalez to be his most gifted pupil. Beginning in 1958, Gonzalez was awarded various scholarships allowing him to attend masterclasses in Santiago de

Compostella. It was there that he studied under the personal tutorage of Segovia who, during the late 1950s, considered Gonzalez to be one of the most promising young guitarists at that time. In conjunction with this, Gonzalez was the winner of several international guitar competitions, accolades that helped him launch a successful concert career. 215 The Sydney society's role in procuring Gonzalez, a concert guitarist of international standing, was a momentous initiative. During his time in Australia, from late 1962 until the middle of 1966,216 he maintained a close alliance with the Sydney guitar society, and in tum this relationship generated much support for the society.217 Gonzalez performed numerous recitals under the auspices of the society, and indeed for many other music promoters throughout Australia. Gonzalez's premiere concert in Australia on 17 November 1962: ... might well have felt like the priestly celebrant of an unusually fanatical cult as he took his solitary place on the platform of the Cell Block Theatre. The hall was crowded and stiflingly warm; there were wistful or mutinous expressions on the faces of the people who had to be turned away; and Senor Gonzalez's playing was received in rapt silence and rewarded by torrential downpours of applause.218

215 Summerfield 47.

216 During these years personal family circumstances forced Gonzalez to return to Spain for months at a time. It is also believed that for these reasons he eventually moved back to Spain. Although Gonzalez visited Australia in later years, he did not resume performing or teaching here. Gonzalez died in Alicante, Spain in 1998.

217 Refer to the earlier section featured in the chapter on the history of The Society of the Classical Guitar in Sydney.

218 "Guitar Recital by Gonzalez," The Sydney Morning Herald 19 Nov. 1962: 27. 76

Similarly, it was reported in the Guitar Bulletin that Gonzalez's inaugural "concerts were an outstanding success and a continent-wide tour is being prepared" .219 As a highly respected concert guitarist, Gonzalez's expertise was greatly welcomed in Australia. His international accolades, coupled with his concert performances confirmed in the minds of many that Gonzalez was the leading performer of the classical guitar in this country: ...that Gonzalez is a master guitarist is not in doubt. He grasped multiple stoppings of a difficulty and awkwardness that made a listener's left hand wince in sympathy; his right hand explored with artistry and fine judgement the tonal variety possible on a guitar, from the hard nail-twang obtainable towards the bridge, to the soft kisses of sound that can be plucked nearer the soundhole; he could play delicately or forcefully, patteringly or sweepingly. 220 In a speech launching Segovia's second Australian tour in 1964, Ernest Wigglesworth, the then president of the Sydney society, spoke of "the terrific impetus the Classical Guitar [had] received in Sydney through Segovia's first visit in 1961 and the subsequent arrival of Jose Luis Gonzalez" .221 Gonzalez's arrival not only helped establish a greater awareness and appreciation of the classical guitar and its music, but importantly helped raise playing standards, notably amongst a new and younger generation of Australian guitarists. A critic at the Sydney Morning Herald noted aptly that "his [Gonzalez's] debut is clearly the prelude to a general raising of expectations from local guitar recitalists and an outstanding piece of good fortune for the devotees of this subtle and versatile instrument. "222 Indeed, it was good fortune for guitarists among his

219 "The Gonzalez Recitals," Guitar Bulletin July 1964: 1.

220 "Guitar Recital by Gonzalez," Sydney Morning Herald 19 Nov. 1962: 27.

221 "The Curtain Rose on Segovia Week," Guitar Bulletin Oct. 1964: 39.

222 "Guitar Recital by Gonzalez," Sydney Morning Herald 19 Nov. 1962: 27. 77 audiences who could closely study Gonzalez's commanding technique and interpretation of repertoire, much of which had never been performed in Australia. Befitting a leading pupil of Segovia, Gonzalez almost always constructed his concert programmes along Spanish lines, often risking comparison to his former teacher and countryman by including many works dedicated to and formerly recorded by Segovia.223 After settling in

224 Australia, Gonzalez also recorded two solo albums for CBS Records in 1963 and 1964 , and these also proved popular with Australian audiences. Gonzalez's influence however, extended beyond the role as an influential concert guitarist and recording artist to being one of the most prominent teachers of the instrument in Australia during the 1960s. Upon arrival, Gonzalez had an immediate and positive effect upon Sydney's classical guitar community. In 1963, less than a year after his arrival to Australia, it was reported that "with more pupils than he can comfortably handle, Jose Luis Gonzalez is settling down in Australia and really putting the guitar 'on the map"'. 225 Ricordi's were quick to employ Gonzalez's services. Not surprisingly, his teaching was in great demand there, at one time instructing over eighty students per week. 226 Among those to have studied with Gonzalez included players who subsequently established active and successful careers as professional guitarists including Don

223 "Jose Luis Gonzalez," Guitar News May 1963: 5. Two Gavottes (J.S.Bach), Studies and Andante and Allegro (Sor), Four Catalan Folksongs, Tonadilla (Castelnuovo-Tedesco), Nortena (Crespo), Preambulo, Oliveras and Madronos (Torroba), Torre Bermeja and Asturias (Albeniz), Song of the Emperor (Narvaez), Chaconne (Courperin), Gavotte (A. Scarlatti), Minuet (Haydn), Andantino, Minuet and Sonata (Sor), Two Preludes (Villa-Lobos), Barcarole and Danza (Tansman). The vast majority of works on these programmes were first performed and recorded by Segovia or written and dedicated to him.

224 The first album recorded in Australia by Gonzalez was entitled "Jose Luis Gonzalez- Classical Guitar" CBS Records SBR 235018 (1963). The second album was "Portrait of the Guitar" CBS 61654 (1964).

225 "News from Australia," Guitar News Sept 1963: 13.

226 "Jose Luis Gonzalez," Guitar News May 1963: 5. 78

Andrews, George Golla, Ken Burns, Peter Andrews, Susan Prendiville and Karl

Schurr.227 As a professional guitarist, he was able to impart valuable knowledge concerning the finer aspects of left and right hand guitar technique. Gonzalez was a highly respected teacher who demanded high standards from his students. Peter Andrews, who studied with Gonzalez in 1964 and 1965, recalled Gonzalez often insisted his pupils play a study for many weeks at a time in an effort to develop the highest possible technical control. According to Andrews, Gonzalez placed emphasis on matters of technique, especially on acquiring a strong and clear tone and perfecting the use of the barre technique.228 As in his performing, Gonzalez harbored a strong affinity for Spanish music in his teaching.

He encouraged his students to play the works of the seventeenth-century Spanish masters Milan, Navarez and Mudarra, the nineteenth-century Spanish studies of Aguado and Sor, as well as the late nineteenth century and twentieth century composers Albeniz, Granados, de Falla, Torroba, Turina and Sainz de la Maza. 229

Antonio Losada (1938-)

Born in Madrid in 1938, Antonio Losada began playing the guitar from an early age. As a teenager he enrolled at the Madrid Conservatorium where he studied with Professor Regino de la Maza and Narcisco Yepes.230 During the late 1950s, Losada began travelling Europe giving solo and ensemble concerts. In 1962, he spent several months in New Zealand performing recitals, some of which were broadcast on national

227 This list of professional Australian guitarists rank amongst the most successful of Gonzalez's pupils of the 1960s.

228 Peter Andrews, interview, 6 Oct.1995.

229 Peter Andrews, interview, 6 Oct. 1995.

230 Antonio Losada, interview, 11 Nov. 1997. 79 television and radio. Upon the conclusion of his tour it was suggested that he return home to Spain via Australia. 231 In early 1963, Losada arrived in Sydney to find a city burgeoning with musical opportunities and so he decided to settle there more permanently. In October 1963, Guitar News reported "great activity in Australia [because] there are two professional guitarists now resident in Sydney." 232

Losada recalled that people were welcoming of his arrival to Sydney but he did not have immediate contact or support from the Sydney guitar society.233 In all likelihood, the society did not welcome Losada too eagerly for fear that it would be perceived as a weakening of loyalty towards Gonzalez. However, within six months

Losada was approached by the society to perform a recital, the first of many he would give for the organisation. Over the following decade, Losada maintained congenial relations with the Sydney society. In addition to concerts, on occasions he gave lectures on the history and technique of the guitar,234 as well as regularly presenting his pupils in "A Teacher Presents His Pupils" series.235 In return for his contributions, in 1964 Losada was made an honorary member of the society.

From the early 1960s Losada established a successful and long-running concert career in Australia. In addition to his many recitals in Sydney, he was received enthusiastically in other Australian cities, notably in Melbourne and Perth: Like Diaz he disclaims expressive pretences; his playing is distinguished by

classical purity and emotional restraint, the music flowing and serene, the tone

231 Antonio Losada, interview, 11 Nov. 1997. This suggestion was made by Losada's then father-in-law, who was a collegue of Charles Moses, erstwhile director of the ABC.

232 "Progress in Australia," Guitar News Nov.1963: 22

233 Antonio Losada, interview, 11 Nov. 1997.

234 "News from Australia," Guitar News Sept. 1963: 13-14.

235 "Society Meeting in Australia," Guitar News Sept. 1969: 27-28. 80

unforced, warm and clear as crystal. He never seems in a hurry ... careful

deliberation and precision-his musicianship is unquestionable .236

With the support of the Australian Arts Council, Losada was also among the first concert guitarists to have toured regional New South Wales and Victoria, presenting solo and ensemble concerts during the late 1960s and early 1970s.237 Although he never recorded commercially, many of his live concerts were broadcast on radio throughout the country, a further indicator of his standing in the Australian guitar scene during the 1960s.

Apart from his accomplishments as a concert guitarist, Losada was also an active and influential teacher of the classical guitar in Australia during the 1960s. His first major teaching appointment in Australia was at Ricardi' s in 1963, which since the earlier arrival of Gonzalez, had been inundated with enthusiasts wanting to learn the classical guitar. The demand for classical guitar tuition in Sydney meant Losada often taught between 55 to 60 hours per week; 238 but despite what he described as "immense enthusiasm and potential" for the classical guitar in Sydney, Losada's early impression was that playing standards were inferior to those found abroad, and to those heard in jazz guitar circles in Australia during the 1960s.239 As a mentor to and teacher of a new generation of Australian guitarists, Losada contributed significantly to Australian guitar playing during the 1960s. A number of his students established successful careers as concert guitarists and teachers in this country including Greg Pikler, Peter Andrews,

236 "Antonio Losada," Guitar Bulletin April 1964: 13.

237 Antonio Losada, interview, 11 Nov. 1997.

238 Losada taught on and off for Riccordi's in Sydney from 1963 until 1971.

239 Antonio Losada, interview, 11 November 1997. Losada mentioned that unlike the classical guitar scene, jazz guitar playing in Australia from the 1950s had been given greater momentum under the direction of professional guitarists such as George Golla and Don Andrews. 81

Alfred Alexander, Ben Maddock, Nicholas Petru, Alan Posselt, Robert Clancey, Susan Prendiville, Robert Hoferhaut and Lorraine Silk.240 For the most part Losada taught in Sydney but in late 1963 he moved to Perth to take up a new position as classical guitar tutor at the University of Western Australia.241 However, Losada found Perth too slow paced and isolated for his liking and consequently stayed there for only ten months. He resettled in Sydney in late 1964 and soon after resumed his position at Ricordi's and taught privately from his home.242 In 1976, Losada was employed on a part-time basis to teach the guitar at the State Conservatorium of New

South Wales in Sydney. His involvement there was only brief for in 1978 he was forced to resign due to complications with his right hand, an indisposition that required surgery and impeded his playing over the following years. 243 In their individual careers, Bishop, Andrews, Gonzalez and Losada played vital roles in forwarding the classical guitar movement in this country, especially during the 1960s. As concert guitarists, they elevated public opinion and awareness of the guitar, and as teachers they disseminated knowledge about the instrument to a new generation of Australian guitarists, especially those living in Melbourne and Sydney. All four sustained dual careers as performers and teachers of the guitar, however individual traits and strengths can be seen in their work. As solo concert guitarists, Gonzalez and Losada were the most dynamic but arguably, Bishop and Andrews were more prominent and

240 Antonio Losada, interview, 11November1997. The bulk of these players gave professional performances in Sydney during the late 1960s and early 1970s, many, but not all, for the Sydney's guitar society.

241 Antonio Losada, interview, 11November1997. Losada recalled there was a small society operating in Perth during his time there.

242 Antonio Losada, interview, 11 November 1997.

243 Antonio Losada, interview, 11 Nov. 1997. In 1993 Losada left Australia to take up a full time position at the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand where he remained until 1989. Thereafter, he returned briefly to Spain, and then resettled in Sydney Australia. Since the early 1990s he has been afflicted with illness which has since forced him to reduce his playing and teaching. He continues to teach a number of guitar students in Randwick, Sydney. 82 active as ensemble performers during the 1950s and 1960s. As teachers, all were highly active, with Bishop, Gonzalez and Losada being the most influential in educating

Australian guitarists of this period. As will be shown in chapter four, Andrews and

Bishop were instrumental in establishing the guitar in two important areas of Australian music education, namely in tertiary music institutions and the Australian Music

Examinations Board.

Although Bishop, Andrews, Gonzalez and Losada were the leading advocates of the instrument, they were by no means the only players to have propagated the classical guitar in Australia before 1970. During the 1960s other guitarists emerged and established themselves throughout the country. Foreign-born players such as Anthony

Allen (QLD, TAS, SA), Peter Calvo (NSW), Emilio Perone (ACT) and Stanislav

Kowarski (WA) helped boost interest in the classical guitar, as well as Australian-born guitarists such as Susan Ellis (VIC), William Bower (NSW), Susan Prendiville (NSW),

Bernard Stahl (VIC), John Della Torre (SA) and John Boyce (SA). Although most of these figures established performing careers, they are best remembered as teachers of the classical guitar. An account of the accomplishments of those listed here is beyond the limits of this study; nevertheless, their careers clearly testify to the fact that by 1970 the scope of professional classical guitar activity in this country had widened significantly and spread permanently beyond Sydney and Melbourne to other cities and regions of

Australia.

The years spanning the late 1950s to 1970 were, until that time, the most dynamic in the development of Australian classical guitar culture. Firstly, through guitar societies, enthusiastic but largely amateur guitarists generated modest progress. Following

Segovia's tour in 1961, there was an unprecedented rise in the level of guitar activity conducted in Australia. Visiting concert guitarists, together with resident Australian performers and teachers, generated an upsurge in classical guitar activity, especially in

Melbourne and Sydney. By 1970, the status of the instrument had risen to the extent that 83 the guitar had gained the widespread approval of Australian concert promoters and audiences, and it was accepted as a serious instrument of performance and study in Australian tertiary music institutions and the Australian Music Examinations Board. 84

CHAPTER FOUR

THE INTRODUCTION OF THE CLASSICAL GUITAR INTO SYSTEMS OF AUSTRALIAN MUSIC EDUCATION

The 1960s were an intense period of growth in Australian classical guitar culture: not only was the guitar heard more frequently in its concert halls and a more popular instrument of musical study among Australians, but also performing and teaching standards on the instrument rose significantly. Despite this progress, the classical guitar was not included in the main curricula of Australian tertiary music institutions or offered as an instrument of study by the Australian Music Examination Board (AMEB) until the late 1960s. As two powerful establishments within Australian music education, tertiary music institutions and the AMEB have done much to widen the scope of learning for many Australian musicians. However, they have also been criticised for being conservative and reluctant to change,244 a claim particularly valid concerning attitudes towards the classical guitar during the 1960s.

Tertiary Music Education

According to Wade, the walls of academia throughout the world have been traditionally well reinforced, and change, particularly concerning acceptance of the classical guitar, did not come easily.245 Although the instrument began appearing in

European conservatoria and academies of music before the Second World War,246 opposition towards the instrument continued in some parts of the world well beyond these years. For example, when Julian Bream entered the Royal College of Music in

244 Covell 284.

245 Wade 118.

246 Guitar News Nov. 1965: 10-11. This untitled article reported that Jacob Ortner was professor of Guitar at Vienna State Academy of Music in 1924. Maria Luisa Anido was appointed Professor of Guitar at the National Conservatory of Music in Buenos Aires during the 1930s and Regino Sainz de la Maza was appointed Professor of Guitar at Madrid Conservatorium during the early 1950s. 85

London during the early 1950s, he not only discovered that there was nobody to teach him, but also he was forbidden by the Director to bring his guitar into the college buildings after his playing aroused the curiosity of fellow students.247 Similarly in Australia, there was resistance towards the instrument well into the 1960s. In late 1964 Walter Schumacher, then Secretary of Sydney's classical guitar society reported that "our efforts to establish a Conservatorium course for the classical guitar in Sydney have completely failed, with no success in sight for some years to come" .248 Opposition towards the classical guitar within Australian tertiary music institutions was partly founded upon prejudice and ignorance towards the instrument, and partly due to poor standards of playing and teaching prevalent in this country before the

1960s. It is possible that those in authority believed the guitar's popularity was just a passing trend, and given time the instrument would fade into obscurity. However, greater scepticism towards the guitar emanated from a genuine lack of understanding of the instrument and its music, a circumstance exacerbated by the absence of concert guitarists performing in Australia before 1960. Further misunderstanding of the classical guitar during the 1960s stemmed from the crude "rock 'n roll" image of the guitar. In 1967 Australian musicologist Sylvia Murphy claimed that "the guitar has acquired a symbolic significance amongst some young people (demonstrators, hippies, pop groups) and is wielded variously as a badge of defiance or a sexual symbol" .249 Thus, as respectable and conservative establishments, most Australian conservatoria and universities hesitated to accept the guitar, an instrument seen more commonly in folk and rock bands than in recital halls in this country during the 1960s.

247 Tony Palmer, A Life on the Road (London: Macdonald & Co., 1982) 2.

248 Walter Schumacher, letter to Mr Townsend, 15 Nov.1964, William Morris Collection, Sydney.

249 Syliva Murphy, "The Guitar in Music Education," The Australian Journal of Music Education Oct. 1975: 9. 86

As documented in chapter three, until the early 1960s there was a serious shortage of expert classical guitar teachers in this country, and without suitably-qualified teachers, tertiary music institutions could not justify nor implement the guitar into courses of study. During the 1960s Murphy argued that the primary obstacle to the wider use of the classical guitar in Australian music education was a lack of acceptably qualified teachers. 25° Furthermore, prior to teachers such as Bishop, Gonzalez, Losada and Andrews, there were probably few classical guitar students playing at a standard adequate for entry into Australian conservatoria and universities. In addition to this, even fewer guitarists would have been educated sufficiently in music theory, a prerequisite for tertiary-level music study, or skilled on a second instrument as was sometimes required.

In 1964 Walter Schumacher believed that there were serious inadequacies in the training of many classical guitarists and "the Conservatorium Diploma [at the State Conservatorium of New South Wales] usually requires proficiency in a second instrument, apart from the requirements in musical theory, etc, [and] this is also quite in order for those who want to make the guitar the vehicle of a professional career" .251 According to Covell, for a long time Australians looked perceptively to other countries for new musical direction.252 In respect to the guitar, the admittance of the instrument into many of the world's leading music schools during the 1950s was a likely incentive for similar developments in this country. In addition to this, Segovia's Australian tours, which heightened regard for and understanding of the guitar among Australian concert-goers of the 1960s, almost certainly generated momentum for the instrument's acceptance into Australian tertiary music education. Less than six months after Segovia's first Australian tour, the guitar was permitted entry into two Australian

250 Murphy 10.

251 Walter Schumacher, letter to Mr Townsend, 15 Nov. 1964, William Morris Collection, Sydney.

252 Covell 269. 87 conservatoria, and several other institutions granted approval shortly after the maestro's second visit in 1964. Rising standards of playing and teaching subsequently compelled Australian tertiary institutions to accept the classical guitar for academic study. Thus, progress was instigated by the advent of expert teachers equipped to instruct on an advanced level, as well as a readiness of more competent guitarists wanting to study music at a tertiary level in this country. From the early 1960s, classical guitar teachers were first appointed part- time to tertiary music institutions in the state capital cities where there had been mounting support for the instrument. In most instances, these teaching positions were filled by the leading exponents resident in each city. However, in order for some institutions to offer classical guitar tuition it was necessary to secure expertise from elsewhere in Australia. The first of two classical guitar tertiary-teaching positions established in Australia during 1962 was at the Conservatorium of Music at the University of Melbourne. After returning from Europe in 1959, Sadie Bishop taught a growing number of classical guitar students at her home in Melbourne, where from time to time she also hosted musical soirees. On one such occasion, she invited Dr Winton (Basil) Dean, then a senior lecturer at Melbourne Conservatorium, to present a lecture on Rodrigo's Concerto de Aranjuez for solo guitar and orchestra. 253 Aware of the need for higher levels of learning for Australian guitarists, and impressed with Bishop's professional record, Dean made a recommendation to the Conservatorium that Bishop be appointed part time to the Faculty of Music at the University of Melbourne as a teacher of the classical guitar. The instrument was accepted but only in the capacity as a single study254

253 Sadie Bishop,interview, 27 Feb. 1997.

254 Single study was the term given to private music lessons offered by most Australian conservatoria and universities. These were usually conducted independent of full time degree and diploma courses and often undertaken by students aiming to enroll in full time tertiary music study. 88 probably because Faculty members were not convinced that the guitar was suitable for serious study in full time diploma and degree courses:

It was agreed to recommend the appointment to the teaching staff of the

Conservatorium of Miss Sadie Bishop as a teacher of the Spanish Guitar for

Single Studies in 1962. Consideration to be given to approval of this instrument

for Second Practical Study in the Degree and Diploma courses. 255

Despite some degree of reservation, Bishop's appointment signaled progress and growing equality for classical guitar players in this country, and generated attention in The Age:

It is understandable that Melbourne's Conservatorium of Music has not had a

guitar teacher until last year, since the teaching of this instrument to professional

standards entails years of intensive schooling and study, after which period most

professionals would rather earn their living by concert tours than accepting

positions as teachers, which is very demanding and often less rewarding. We

should be glad, however, that the Conservatorium now has a teacher of the classic

guitar, and has followed the example of other countries rather than discourage

young people who show interest in the instrument. 256

Beginning with three pupils,257 over the next five years Bishop instructed a growing number of guitarists at the University of Melbourne, and in doing so played a vital role in engineering the introduction of the classical guitar into Australian tertiary music education.

In addition to this appointment in Victoria, "a happy sign of Australia's growing interest in the classic guitar is evident in the official appointment of a guitar teacher in

255 University of Melbourne, Faculty of Music. Report of Proceedings, Meeting 1, 14 Mar. 1962.

256 da Montagne, Juan R. "Learning the Guitar," The Age, 26 Feb. 1964: 2.

257 University of Melbourne, Faculty of Music. Report of Proceedings, Meeting 11, 11 Dec.1963. 89

1962 by the Queensland Conservatorium of Music (Brisbane)".258 The Queensland Conservatorium's decision to introduce classical guitar studies may have been influenced by events in Victoria and the recent formation of a guitar society in Brisbane, whose patron was Basil Jones, founding Director of the Queensland Conservatorium.259 The first appointed teacher of the guitar there was Anthony Allen, a musician who studied the classical guitar, lute and violin with leading teachers in Europe before settling in Australia. 26° From 1962 until 1967 Allen was employed part time at the Queensland Conservatorium as Lecturer in Guitar and Lute, after which he founded studies in these instruments at the Tasmanian Conservatorium. 261 After Allen's departure other classical guitar teachers were employed part time at the Conservatorium including English guitarists Ron Bulter and John Fitzgerald. In 1981 English guitarist Julian Byzantine was appointed the first full time as lecturer of guitar at the Queensland Conservatorium of

Music. Whilst the introduction of the classical guitar into conservatoria in Victoria and Queensland signaled progress, the founding of teaching positions in higher institutions in Western Australia, the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales in 1964 and 1965 consolidated the instrument's position in Australian tertiary music education. Although Perth was home to a growing circle of classical guitarists during the early 1960s, the city remained without anyone to conduct advanced-level tuition on the instrument. Aware of this deficiency and eager to establish the instrument at tertiary level in Western Australia, Frank Callaway, the presiding Dean of the music department

258 "Two Conservatorium Appointments in Australia," Guitar News Jan. 1963: 3.

259 See chapter three for further detail on the early Queensland guitar society.

260 "Biographies," Australian Directory of Music Research Australian Music Centre Ltd. Sydney 1978: 1. Anthony Allen was born in Shanghai, British China in 1933. He studied the guitar under Professor Karl Scheit in Vienna during the late 1950s, before moving to Australia during the early 1960s.

261 "Biographies," Australian Directory of Music Research Australian Music Centre Ltd. Sydney 1978: 1. 90 at the University of Western Australia, approached Antonio Losada to take up a part time appointment as classical guitar teacher at the University.262 Agreeing to this, Losada moved to Perth in late 1963. Shortly afterwards, as a new member of staff, he presented two solo recitals at the University, after which he was warmly received by the university's Faculty of Music and Perth's music critics.263 As a guitarist of international renown, Losada's teaching was in demand. However, he found Perth less stimulating and conducive to furthering his concert career than Sydney. Consequently, after ten months, he resigned from the University and moved back to Sydney.264 Given that Sydney had long been Australia's most active centre of classical guitar playing, the instrument's introduction into the State Conservatorium of New South Wales, was a late occurrence and trailed behind appointments in many other states. Despite a plea for change from the Sydney guitar society, Sydney Conservatorium did not allow entry to classical guitarists until 1965. Seemingly, the obstacle was not a lack of suitably qualified classical guitar teachers for Gonzalez, Losada and Andrews were resident in Sydney. More likely, Conservatorium administrators believed classical guitarists played below the standard or perhaps did not possess the general musical training acceptable for entry into the institution.265 The first steps to introduce the instrument were taken in late 1964 when Joseph Post, 266 then a senior lecturer at the Conservatorium, asked Don Andrews to compile a

262 Antonio Losada, interview, 11 Nov. 1997.

263 "Antonio Losada," Guitar Bulletin Apr. 1964: 13.

264 Antonio Losada, interview, 11 Nov. 1997.

265 The decision not to allow classical guitarists entry into Sydney Conservatorium was particularly ironic given that Bernard Heinze, Director of the Sydney Conservatorium from 1956 to 1966, was also the honorary patron and a life member of the Sydney guitar society.

266 Joseph Post (1906-1972) was an eminent Australian conductor and Director of the New South Wales State Conservatorium from 1966 to 1970. From the early 1950s Andrews had worked alongside Post in various recording projects especially for ABC radio and television. 91 classical guitar syllabus for use at the Conservatorium and commence teaching there the following year. As in other states of Australia, initially a small number of students were enrolled in single studies with the view of introducing the guitar into full-time courses. Over the next four years Andrews taught at the Sydney Conservatorium until his resignation around 1968.267 Following this, other classical guitar teachers were appointed there including Antonio Losada, Peter Andrews and Gregory Pikler. 268 During the same year classical guitar studies were introduced at Sydney Conservatorium, Andrews was also instrumental in establishing the instrument at the

Canberra School of Music (CSM). From its inception in 1965, the CSM was hailed as the most progressive centre for tertiary music study in the country. 269 Indeed, it was upon forward-thinking principles that the school's founding Director, Ernest Llewellyn and other senior lecturers, promptly admitted the classical guitar as an instrument of practical study. Indeed, the school placed such importance on establishing classical guitar tuition that in the absence of a suitably-qualified local teacher, Andrews was flown weekly, sometime more frequently, from Sydney to Canberra to tutor in the classical guitar at the CSM.270 By 1967, the number of students learning the guitar as either a single study or second instrument had increased so that Andrews was offered a full time position. However, unwilling to move permanently to Canberra, he declined this offer and relinquished his position at the CSM. Asked to nominate a successor, Andrews suggested Jose Luis Gonzalez; but by this time Gonzalez had returned to Spain, and therefore was unavailable for the position.271 Subsequently, Andrews recommended

267 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997

268 Gregory Pikler, interview, 10 Sept. 1997.

269 Covell 286.

270 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997.

271 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997. 92

Sadie Bishop who accepted the position. Andrews continued teaching part time until the end of 1967, after which Bishop commenced teaching in 1968. 272

The founding of the first full time lectureship in classical guitar studies in

Australia marked a significant milestone for the instrument in this country. Firstly, it established a greater sense of worth for the guitar, one equal to orchestral instruments, piano and voice in Australian tertiary music institutions. Secondly, it enhanced the prospects of higher standards and greater long-term stability in the training of classical guitar players and teachers. In 1974, under Bishop's tutorage, Tim Kain, Peter Lynch and John Tucker, became the first full-time music students to graduate from an Australian tertiary institute, majoring in classical guitar performance. 273 In the following years, numerous other guitarists taught by Bishop graduated from the CSM, some of whom established successful careers as performers and teachers in this country. Bishop remained a full time staff member at the CSM until 1982, and after a year's leave she rejoined the faculty part-time until her retirement in 1990.274 Boosted by a growth in population, rising levels of activity, together with higher standards of classical guitar playing/teaching during the 1970s saw many more Australian conservatoria, universities and colleges of advanced education offer classical guitar tuition in the curricula for full-time diploma and degree courses. Over the last two decades the breadth of tertiary-level education has expanded significantly, so that it is now possible to study the classical guitar at undergraduate level at more than twenty-five

272 Sadie Bishop, interview, 27 Feb. 1997.

273 Tim Kain, interview, 6 July 1997. Peter Lynch, personal interview, 2 May 1997. The course undertaken by these guitarists was a four-year diploma (DSCM). After graduating from the Canberra School of Music Tim Kain and PeterLynch established successful careers as concert guitarists and teachers. They continue to be active and influential in the Australian guitar scene.

274 After Bishop retirement she was replaced by Tim Kain, who continues to hold a full time teaching position at the Canberra School of Music. 93 tertiary institutions Australia-wide.275 In addition to this, there has been a notable increase in the number of Australian classical guitarists enrolling in postgraduate studies in this country and abroad, a trend which continues to further standards of playing and teaching in this country. Indeed, greater access to tertiary institutions and wider options of study offered by conservatoria and universities, have made tertiary education the preferred course of learning for Australians pursuing a professional career with the classical guitar.

Public Music Examinations

Since the late nineteenth century, public music examinations have been an integral part of Australian music education.276 Although there has been criticism concerning the effects of public music examinations upon music education,277 arguably these systems have helped widened the scope of learning for many thousands of Australian musicians including players of the classical guitar. To varying degrees, public music examinations have provided Australian guitarists with numerous benefits including access to graded lists of works, assessment and feedback from qualified examiners, and more recently, well edited and readily available publications from which to learn.

Furthermore, given the limited opportunities of classical guitar study available in most Australian primary and secondary state schools,278 public music examinations, and

275 Dean Ashenden & Sandra Milligan, The Good Universities Guide to Australian Universities 1998, (Perth: Ashenden and Milligan, 1997). According to this guide undergraduate level music performance (diploma, Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Music degrees) can be studied at the following number of tertiary institutions in each state and territory: NSW-7, VIC-5, QLD-6, TAS-1, NT-1, SA-2, WA-2, ACT-1.

276 Doreen Bridges, "Some Historical Backgrounds to Australian Music Education-Origins of the Music Examination System" Australian Journal of Music Education 11 Oct. 1972: 13-14. In 1887 public music examinations were established by the Universities of Adelaide and Melbourne before they amalgamated with other states to form the Australian Music Examinations Board in 1918. m Roger Covell, "Australian Music Education: A Summary Note" Australian Journal of Music Education 15 Oct. 1974: 70-82.

278 With the exception of Western Australia, the guitar is not taught systematically through Australian State education departments at primary or secondary level. 94

especially those conducted by AMEB, have provided an effective infrastructure and set

of standards for Australian players and teachers of the instrument over the last thirty years.

However, it was not until the early 1960s that public music examinations for the classical guitar were introduced to Australia. As in many other areas of Australian music education, this was first achieved by British associations, and thereafter adopted by an

Australian organisation. Prior to the Second World War, the Banjo, Mandolin and Guitar

Association (BMG) had conducted public music examinations for the classical guitar in the United Kingdom. Following a rise in popularity of the classical guitar and growing distribution of the Banjo. Mandolin and Guitar magazine,279 BMG examinations were introduced to Australia during the early 1960s. Being the first scheme of its kind available to Australian classical guitarists, the BMG diplomas proved popular, particularly in New South Wales and Victoria. In the absence of anything else, they also received the approval of teachers and guitar societies:

After deliberation and consultation between our Society [Sydney] and Jose Luis

Gonzalez and Don Andrews, we are all agreed that any standard is better than

none and that the stipulations of the 'B.M.G' Diplomas of 'A', 'B' and 'C' grade are

not only better than none, but they are admirably suited to serve as an objective

measure of a pupil's progress.280

Although simplistic by today's standards, the BMG classical guitar syllabus was written shortly after World War Two at a time when other public music examination schemes in Britain had not accepted the classical guitar.281 Whilst administered from the

279 Other references to the Banjo. Mandolin and Guitar magazine can be found in chapter three.

280 Walter Schumacher, letter to Mr Townsend, 15 Nov. 1964.

281 This BMG syllabus appeared in the Guitar Bulletin Aug. 1964. BMG Diplomas for the classical guitar consisted of three grades of proficiency: 'A' grade for beginners, 'B' grade for intermediate level students and 'C' grade for more advanced players. Accordingly, BMG 95

United Kingdom, BMG authorities in London appointed examiners in Australia. By 1965, the scheme had become sufficiently popular in Australia to warrant the appointment of four examiners: Don Andrews, Walter Schumacher and Philip Skinner were appointed in New South Wales and the ACT, and Sadie Bishop was a certified

BMG examiner in Victoria. These teachers, together with Jose Luis Gonzalez, Antonio Losada and others prepared many pupils for these examinations during the 1960s. However, with the advent of other examination schemes, the BMG diplomas declined in popularity and were eventually discontinued during the mid 1970s.282 Shortly after the introduction of BMG diplomas, graded classical guitar examinations were established by Trinity College of Music in London and thereafter introduced to Australia.283 Since the 1860s, Trinity College had conducted public music examinations in Australia,284 and as a long-standing and reputable British organisation, classical guitarists were very willing to enrol in its examinations.285 Unlike the BMG diplomas, Trinity College's classical guitar syllabus was written at a higher standard that was commensurate with its other instrumental syllabuses. It contained a more comprehensive and flexible list of grades (one to eight) and incorporated the assessment of aural and sight reading skills of guitar candidates. However, Trinity College did not, candidates were required to prepare technical exercises (scales, chords, harmonics etc.) however few stipulations were made as to how candidates should execute technical requirements. Additionally, only a small number of works appear in each list. Aural assessment was not conducted as part of BMG diplomas.

282 Guitar Bulletin Dec. 1967: 54. BMG diploma results were regularly published in the Guitar Bulletin from April 1964 until July 1972.

283 Despite investigations, an exact date when Trinity College classical guitar examinations were first introduced in Australia could not be located. The earliest documented evidence of Trinity College's classical guitar examinations being conducted in Australia was in Sydney in October 1966 as confirmed in Guitar Bulletin Dec. 1966: 4.

284 Doreen Bridges, "Some Historical Backgrounds to Australian Music Education-Origins of the Music Examination System" Australian Journal ofMusjc Education 11 Oct. 1972: 13-14. Trinity College of Music has conducted public music examinations in Australia since 1882.

285 Antonio Losada, interview, 11 Nov. 1997. 96 nor presently does not, supply specialist instrumental examiners, a practice that may have disadvantaged players of instruments then lesser known or understood such as the classical guitar. Although the early BMG and Trinity College examinations introduced a standard and some degree of structure, the importance of these British schemes gradually diminished after 1970 largely due to the classical guitar's introduction into the Australian

Music Examinations Board (AMEB). 286 Given the conservative musical climate in Australia during the first half of this century, musical instruments initially offered for examination by the AMEB were those deemed as serious classical instruments, namely the piano, voice and most orchestral instruments. Changing musical trends and influences, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s, saw the AMEB begin to cater for a wider range of musical instruments that eventually included the classical guitar. The first steps to introduce the instrument into the AMEB were instigated by Don Andrews and Sadie Bishop in 1966.287 Aware of the need for change, Bishop and Andrews independently submitted classical guitar syllabuses for the consideration of the Board. At the 1967 AMEB National Conference in Hobart a motion was proposed: that serious consideration be given to the introduction of the syllabus for classical

guitar. It was resolved that (1) the Board introduce examinations in classical guitar from first to sixth grade; (2) that Miss Sadie Bishop of Victoria and Mr Donald Andrews of New South Wales be acquainted with each others proposals, and be invited to correspond with a view to producing a single syllabus in conformity with the general style of existing AMEB syllabuses in other

subjects. 288

286 Although BMG examinations have long been abolished, Trinity College examinations are widely available throughout Australia and a regular number of guitarists continue to enrol in this system each year.

287 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997

288 AMEB Conference, Report of Proceedings. Hobart: 1967. AMEB Federal Office, Melbourne. 97

Following the Board's request, in late 1967 Bishop and Andrews met in Canberra, midway from their respective cities, to discuss and prepare a single syllabus for implementation into the AMEB.289 This collaboration saw the drafting of the first classical guitar syllabus that was tabled and adopted by the AMEB in 1969.290 Reflecting the formative state of Australian classical guitar playing, the first

AMEB classical guitar syllabus catered for the growing ranks of players at the elementary and intermediate level. In comparison to the current syllabus, it comprised a smaller and more conservative list of works including many simple studies and pieces by nineteenth-century composers such as Giuliani, Sor, Aguado and Carcassi.291 Prior to

1970 few Australians had composed for the guitar, and thus works by Australian composers were limited but not completely absent from this first syllabus. Andrews recalled efforts were made to include compositions by Australians, namely Donald Hollier and George Dreyfus, the latter composing a work especially for the purpose of the first syllabus.292

Within less than three years AMEB classical guitar examinations had won substantial support throughout Australia, especially in NSW, Victoria and South Australia. 293 Subsequently, the scheme's success, together with a general rising of

289 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997.

290 AMEB Conference, Report of Proceedings. Melbourne: 1968. AMEB Federal Office, Melbourne.

291 An examination of the AMEB's 1969 classical guitar syllabus shows that Lists A and B of each grade feature a particularly large number of works by these nineteenth century guitarists/composers.

292 Don Andrews, interview, 3 Nov. 1997. Andrews recalled that he approached George Dreyfus to compose a piece that would be suitable for the new AMEB classical guitar syllabus. Subsequently, Dreyfus composed "The Adventures of Sebastian the Fox, Suite in 8 movements" which appeared in List C of the third grade list.

293 This is confirmed by the larger number of classical guitar examiners appointed to the AMEB in these states between 1969 and 1972. Further details on the appointment of classical guitar examiners features later in this chapter. 98 standards in Australia, prompted the AMEB to introduce examinations at a higher level.

In 1972, under Andrews' direction, the Board implemented a seventh grade classical guitar syllabus and added an eight grade and A.Mus A. syllabus one year later.294

Following this, T.Mus.A and L.Mus.A. Diplomas were introduced in 197 4, thus establishing a comprehensive syllabus commensurate to most others then offered by the AMEB.29s

As the instigators of the syllabus, in 1969 Andrews and Bishop were appointed as the first classical guitar examiners to the AMEB in New South Wales. Growing support for the scheme during its inaugural year saw examining positions established in other states: Mr Anthony Allen in Tasmania, Ms Susan Ellis in Victoria, and Miss Joan Smyth in South Australia.296 In 1971, further appointments were made in NSW and South

Australia, and by 1973 specialist examiners were appointed in Queensland and Western

Australia.297 By 1975, a nation-wide increase in classical guitar examination enrolments led to the appointment of sixteen specialist examiners throughout Australia.298

By 1974 the AMEB was the most popular examinations scheme among

Australian guitarists. However, by this time some teachers and candidates had expressed dissatisfaction with syllabus, and in turn the AMEB called for a full review of the classical guitar syllabus. This job was given to John Duarte, an English guitarist/musicologist who had visited Australia the previous year. 299 In addition to

294 AMEB Conference, Report of Proceedings. Sydney: 1971. AMEB Federal Office, Melbourne. AMEB Conference, Report of Proceedings. Brisbane: 1972. AMEB Federal Office, Melbourne

295 AMEB Conference, Report of Proceedings. Brisbane: 1972. AMEB Federal Office, Melbourne.

296 AMEB Conference, Report of Proceedings. Adelaide: 1969. AMEB Federal Office, Melbourne.

297 AMEB Conference, Report of Proceedings. Sydney: 1974. AMEB Federal Office, Melbourne.

298 AMEB Conferences, Report of Proceedings from 1969 to 1975.

299 AMEB Conference Minutes, Report of Proceedings. Sydney: 1974. In 1973 Duarte was invited by the director of the Sydney Spanish Guitar Centre, Peter Calvo, to present a series of masterclasses and lectures 99 drafting a "detailed new syllabus", Duarte was also commissioned by the AMEB to prepare the Guitarist's Handbook, a publication designed to assist candidates in preparing technical requirements for examinations.300 The Board's appointment of Duarte, however, created controversy, for not only did it infer that resident Australians were not suitably qualified for the job but additionally, queries were raised about the number of Duarte's publications added to this new syllabus.301 During the 1970s, the number of classical guitar candidates enrolling in AMEB examinations steadily increased, so that by 1980, a specialist panel comprising state representatives was established to assist with the broader national development of the syllabus.302 Among changes instigated by this panel included a review of prescribed editions and the deletion of compositions that were seldom played, as well as the publication of AMEB grade books for lower level examinations.303 In 1991, the panel conducted a major review of the AMEB classical guitar syllabus that resulted in important structural changes, the inclusion of a preliminary grade, the revision of technical requirements and the addition of more contemporary and Australian compositions to the syllabus.304 This syllabus was issued in 1993 and is presently in use bytheAMEB. Over the last thirty years the AMEB has contributed significantly to furthering classical guitar playing in this country. Through its federal infrastructure, set of at the school. Although details are obscure, it is likely that Duarte made contact with and offered his services to the AMEB sometime during his visit in 1973.

300 John Duarte, Guitarist's Handbook (Sydney: Allens, 1976)

301 The AMEB classical guitar syllabus of 1975 contains nine works either composed, arranged or edited by John Duarte.

302 AMEB Conference, Report of Proceedings. Brisbane: 1980. AMEB Federal Office, Melbourne.

303 AMEB Conference, Report of Proceedings. Brisbane: 1980. AMEB Federal Office, Melbourne.

304 AMEB Conference, Report of Proceeding from Specialist Panel Meeting. Melbourne: 1991. AMEB Federal Office, Melbourne. 100 standards and syllabuses, the AMEB has influenced the course of learning for many guitarists in urban and rural Australia, irrespective of whether they enrol in practical examinations or not. Many players have benefited from the educational services provided by the AMEB, which in tum have improved the standard and long-term stability of classical guitar playing throughout Australia.

It is clear that tertiary music institutions, together with the public music examination systems of BMG, Trinity College, and in particular the AMEB, have been vital contributors in the expansion of the classical guitar in Australia. From haphazard and tentative beginnings, these organisations gradually embraced the classical guitar, and in tum helped secure it on an equal standing with instruments such as the piano and violin. Indeed, the introduction of the classical guitar into tertiary music institutions and the AMEB were important victories for Australian classical guitarists and significant turning points in the history of the instrument in Australia. In all likelihood, these institutions of learning and accreditation will continue to facilitate the education of classical guitarists in this country in the years to come. 101

CONCLUSION

In examining the classical guitar in Australia from European settlement to the 1970s three distinct periods of activity emerge. The first period spans Australia's colonial and post-federation years until the end of the Second World War. As shown in chapter one, the guitar existed in Australia on a small scale during these years and experienced fluctuating periods of popularity and decline that largely correlated to events abroad. As discussed in chapter two, although worldwide interest in the classical guitar rose considerably between 1900 and 1945, very little playing could be found in Australia during these years. Progress was arrested not only because few Australians could perform or teach the instrument but also because other popular guitar styles were on the rise and diverted attention away from the classical guitar. Australia's slower rate of progress prior to the 1960s can, in part, be attributed to geographic isolation. Set apart form the rest of the world, Australia has not had easy access to or exchange with active centres of guitar playing found in other nations. Even after the introduction of commercial airlines, levels of exchange remained limited because international concert guitarists largely disregarded Australia until the 1960s. By way of contrast, Japan, a country that is also isolated geographically from Europe and

America, has long been toured by concert guitarists. This factor has contributed to the widespread popularity and growth of the classical guitar there since the Second World War.3os

During the second period of activity from 1946 to 1960 Australians began to show a more lively interest in the classical guitar and its music. These years saw the dawning of professional classical guitar activity, notably in Melbourne where Len

305 Guitar News reported that the following guitarists all toured Japan during the 1950s and early 1960s: Segovia (1951and1959), Narciso Yepes (1960), Carlos and Ramon Montoya (1959), John Williams (1963), Julian Bream (1964). In 1961 it was estimated that there were about 300,000 classical guitarists in Japan including eighty teachers of the guitar in Tokyo alone. Guitar News May 1961: 15 102

Williams did much to propagate interest in the instrument. In Sydney, modest levels of progress were generated by amateur players who united under the auspices of the "Society of the Classical Guitar". Indeed, Williams and the early Sydney society did much to pioneer the classical guitar in these post-war years but the instrument still remained a long way from being accepted seriously in mainstream Australian music culture.

The years spanning the 1960s and the early 1970s, the third period of activity covered in this study, were dynamic years of expansion for the classical guitar in Australia. More significantly, this was the watershed period for the public and institutional acceptance of the instrument in this country. Launching this era was Segovia's tour of Australia in 1961. His concerts not only raised public opinion and understanding of the guitar but also paved the way for a host of international concert guitarists to tour and teach in Australia over the following decade. Indeed, had Segovia toured earlier or later than he did, in all likelihood, the history of the classical guitar in this country would have been a different one. The 1960s saw the emergence of a number of professional concert guitarist/teachers who were influential in furthering the guitar, particularly in Melbourne and Sydney. As shown in chapter three, Sadie Bishop, Don Andrews, Jose Luis Gonzalez and Antonio Losada were significant catalysts for change in this critical period of Australian classical guitar culture. Although it is not possible to measure fully the extent of their contributions, they were compelling forces in raising the quantity and quality of classical guitar playing in Australia during the 1960s. Indeed, without their efforts, Australia might now have a less mature and vibrant guitar scene. With respect to the broader context of music in Australia, this study has shown that Australian music promoters were conservative and slow to acknowledge the classical guitar as a serious instrument of performance. As outlined in chapter three, before the

1960s Australian concert entrepreneurs were dubious about staging classical guitar 103 recitals. After the success of Segovia's tours, however, there was a marked shift in attitude within the Australian music industry so that solo and ensemble guitar performances were presented with increasing regularity by the Australian Broadcasting Commission and private promoters. In tracing the admission of the guitar into Australian tertiary music institutions and the AMEB, this study also reveals the high degree of conservatism that prevailed within systems of Australian education during the 1960s and early 1970s. When compared to similar organisations abroad, Australian tertiary music institutions and the AMEB were slow to welcome the classical guitar as an instrument of serious musical study. However since the 1960s, these institutions of learning and accreditation have done much to widen the scope of study and improve the standard of education for many classical guitar players and teachers in this country, a trend that is likely to continue into the twenty-first century.

An examination of evidence contained in this thesis reveals that although British immigrants and British trends have strongly influenced developments in this country, other nationalities have also enriched Australian classical guitar culture during its formative years. As discussed in chapter one, British settlers first transported the guitar to Australia and British influences appear in guitar music played and composed in Australia during the nineteenth century. This influence continued after the Second World War, firstly in Len Williams' work, and secondly in the introduction of British public music examination schemes such as BMG and Trinity College. However, this study has shown that Australian guitar playing gained significantly due to the arrival of Italian and Spanish-born guitarists, and to the emergence of native-born Australians during the 1950s and 1960s. In addition to Australia's remoteness of location from the rest of the world, this study reveals that there were limited levels of communication and exchange between guitarists living in Australia before the 1970s. In part, this was due to the large distances 104 between Australian cities and towns, as well as the lower levels of mobility among

Australians, especially prior to the availability of affordable domestic air travel. As a result, guitar activity in Australian capital cities developed independently, a fact that also contributed to varying levels and standards of guitar playing throughout the country.

Furthermore, this study has shown that with the exception of the AMEB, attempts to address classical guitar playing on an Australian-wide scale were non-existent before

1970. In contrast to this, since the 1960s, Japan and many other countries have held national and international guitar festivals and competitions; however similar events on this scale did not take place in this country until the 1980s and 1990s.

The years spanning 1970s until 1999 have seen a flourishing of Australian classical guitar activity. Over these decades there has been significant growth in all areas of classical guitar culture, and the guitar is now firmly established as a serious instrument of performance and study in Australian music culture. However, much of the progress that has taken place in Australian guitar culture since the early 1970s has been a consolidation of developments that took place during the formative years examined in this thesis. Australian guitar culture has matured significantly over the last thirty years and this has been made possible due to the accomplishments pioneered in earlier times.

For example, today many more Australian tertiary institutions offer classical guitar performance studies, and there has been a steady rise in the number of guitarists enrolling in undergraduate and postgraduate study throughout Australia. In addition to this, imp01tant progress had been made in the area of public music examinations, especially by the AMEB, which continues to enrol a growing number of classical guitar candidates throughout Australia. Since the late 1980s, there has been an Australian-wide resurgence of guitar societies. Today, with fewer large guitar studios in operation, and financial cut backs affecting Australian tertiary music institutions, guitar societies are re-emerging in this country to play an important role in hosting concerts and masterclasses. 105

In addition to this, areas of classical guitar culture that were less active prior to

1970 have experienced high levels of growth, especially guitar composition and construction. Since this time, Australian composers and guitar makers have contributed significantly to the fabric of Australian classical guitar culture and have gained much international attention. However, these specialist areas, together with the more mature years of Australian classical guitar playing, have received little attention from musicologists and researchers. Given this, there is a need to build upon events of the past that have been examined in this thesis, and investigate the more recent developments of the classical guitar in Australia. 106

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