Chapter Five Contact and Colonization, A.D. 1500 to 1775

Initial European Contacts A.D. 1492 to 1607 Colonial Period 1607 to 1775

1524 1571-1585 1607 1634 1750 1775 |||||| Earliest written Initial attempts Jamestown, Saint Mary’s Colonial Colonial record of at colonization Virginia City, Maryland population population contact established established reaches 380,000 reaches 700,000

AN ECOLOGY OF SIGNIFICANT ▫ 1649–Maryland’s Act ▫ 1700–African Americans of Toleration protects comprise half the region’s PEOPLE AND PLACE EVENTS Catholic, Protestant, workforce and forty ▫ and Quaker worship; percent of its population 1524–Giovanni da Act repealed in1654 Ⅺ PEOPLE Verrazano pens the ▫ 1707–Act of Union joins earliest written record of ▫ 1650–war and disease Scotland with England, As it had been for more than 12,000 contact in the region reduce regional Indian Wales and Ireland as ▫ population to 2,400, one- United Kingdom of Great years, the Chesapeake was an exclu- 1550 to 1575–Susquehan- tenth of pre-contact size; Britain nock immigrants from the Colonial population rises sively Indian world when European upper Susquehanna River ▫ 1717–America’s first thea- from zero to 13,000 ter opens in Williamsburg supplant Shenks Ferry during the same years navigators began making their first ten- culture people in the ▫ ▫ 1729–Baltimore, tative landings on North American lower Pennsylvania 1665–Charles II restores Maryland founded Piedmont royal prerogatives shores in the early 1500s (see Map 6, throughout his domain ▫ 1730–Lancaster, Pennsyl- ▫ 1571 to 1585–early vania established page 52). Unlike their ancestors, who ▫ 1675 to 1676–Susquehan- Spanish and English ▫ colonization attempts fail nocks dispersed and 1738 to 1745–Great Awak- lived at the mercy of the climate and ening religious revival ▫ Jamestown burned during the seasons, Late Woodland people 1600–Powhatan chiefdom Bacon’s Rebellion sweeps region develops along the James ▫ used their abilities to produce food, River Coastal Plain ▫ 1677–Treaty of Middle 1742–Richmond, Virginia is founded develop ever more sophisticated tools ▫ Plantation (now Williams- 1607–first successful burg) reduces Virginia’s ▫ English colony 1748–Petersburg, Virginia and weapons, and organize larger, Native American popula- founded established at tion to tributary status more efficient social and political or- Jamestown, Virginia ▫ 1749–Alexandria, Virginia ▫ 1681–William Penn ganizations to free themselves from ▫ 1612–Demand for Virginia established granted charter for ▫ 1750–colonial population complete dependence on their envi- tobacco grows in Europe Pennsylvania ▫ rises to 380,000 (African ronment. They built their communities 1619–enslaved Africans ▫ 1688–authority of first brought to the region Americans comprise more in clearings, surrounded by dense Commonwealth’s than one-third of ▫ 1634–Maryland founded parliamentary system population); Cooler and forests and bordering fresh and salt at Saint Mary’s City affirmed after James II wetter climatic regime, water wetlands. The larger of these ▫ 1638–Virginian trader deposed during the known as Little Ice-Age, Glorious Revolution begins around this time towns were fortified communities of as William Claiborne forcibly ejected from Maryland ▫ 1690 to 1720–Georgian ▫ 1762–Charlottesville, many as a hundred roundhouses and ▫ 1642 to 1649–Puritan architecture first Virginia founded long houses. These houses consisted of Parliamentarians and becomes model for high- ▫ 1764–first tax levies, style housing bark or grass covered sapling frames Crown fight the English collectively known as Civil War; Charles I is ▫ 1693–College of William Intolerable Acts, arouse (see Figure 17, page 53). executed and England and Mary founded in discontent throughout is declared a Common- Williamsburg region wealth in 1649 All Late Woodland towns were located ▫ 1695–Maryland moves ▫ 1767–survey completed on or close to well-drained, fertile soils. ▫ 1645–Protestant Parlia- capital to Annapolis on Mason-Dixon Line mentarians led by Richard between Maryland and Such soils were required by farmers ▫ 1699–Virginia’s capital Ingles seize and plunder moved from Jamestown to Pennsylvania growing corn, beans, squash, and Maryland during English Williamsburg ▫ Civil War. 1775–regional population tobacco. As in earlier Woodland times, reaches 700,000 their small fields had been slashed and

An Ecology of People and Place 51 Map 6: Tribal Locations and Contact Archeological Sites

SHENK FERRY CULTURE (1300-1550's) SUSQUEHANNOCKS (1550-1670's) CONOYS (1670-1750's)

Middletown "Up" Conoy Town Bashore Island Brand Lancaster County Park Sus Billmyer qu Washington All Saints Cemetery e h Boro Complex Wrightsville an n Schultz-Funk a Conestoga Frey-Haverstrick Strickler Oscar Leibhart Roberts Shenks Byrd Leibhart R i v Ferry er

r n i

e

a t v Long Green Creek S i Arrowhead n H u R and Sweathouse Farm G r o e y Branch O M c v W i a P Natural Area h K R t c a Catoctin Ridge t C er u o a O st o n ps T e o c h S o Riv e C M r er v Harper's Ferry Gap Heater's i Island Burle Kent R Sugar Loaf Island k Mountain Broadneck n a Thomas S t WICOMISSESp K o N h A C T NACOCHTANKS P iver Potomac River O Manassas Gap H ke R Nacochtank C in a NottinghamP t tico S n a n E u t a o u N K x M Thorofare Chicone O Belt Woods e n Gap n IC u t PISCATAWAYS Locust Neck T R R

ll N r Little Marsh Creek i u v A e Piscataway v B Lazy Point e Battle Creek N i Complex NHL r S R Cypress Swamp Thornton Gap Taft O h C a I o Port Calvert Cliffs Preserve iver d M n Tobacco O a Jefferson-Patterson C n s P I oke R S e n Posey/Indian O Compton h i TO W E a M Cumberland S t Head Complex A K n R C ocom C P O u a H o p IE p Potomac Creek FD M M a O O h M e DeShazo C MANAHOACS annock Caledon g Yoacomaco- O d R i State Park Potomac Ri P R Germanna i ver St. Mary’s R a ver pi e r City NHL e da Ri v White Oak u n l B RA Point PPA Smith Montpelier H Island Camden A Chicacoan Complex S Forest NN C NHL OC O R Mt. Airy K Downing Tangier N ap S Island A pa H M ha Woodbury C O at nn Farm C ta o h C po ck Owings A ni R e R i s iv ve Virginia Rockfish Gap er r a Pa Indian Town Farm Coast m P p un A k M e Reserve ey S U a C Ri Pamunkey Indian N A v k er Reservation K OM EY e CC s B n Jame Wright Powhatan/ S A i s River ta Tree Hill Farm P O a n W u H y o AT M A N Yo e C rk g H R id Maycock's IE i Cape iver FD v e r R Point O Charles e M lu B MONACANS Kiser Jordan's Flowerdew Chickahominy attox R Journey Hatch Hundred Complex James River Gap Pasbehegh J ppom Fort Christanna am Governor's Land Cape A Charles es Henry Riv C. Steirly er Seashore Natural Area Natural Area

Great Dismal Swamp

LEGEND Archeological Site © National Natural Landmark ■ Natural or Cultural Feature National Historic Landmark Bay Plain 0 5 10 25 50 miles Piedmont 0 5 10 40 80 kilometers North

52 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION KEY LOCALES (MAP 6) CONTACT Nottingham Roberts Jordan’s Journey ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES Piscataway Complex Schultz-Funk Kiser District of Columbia Port Tobacco Shenks Ferry Lazy Point Posey/Indian Head Complex Leedstown Bead Cache Nacochtank Strickler St. Mary’s City Washington Boro complex Little Marsh Creek Maryland Thomas Wrightsville Maycock’s Point Arrowhead Farm Mount Airy Broadneck Pennsylvania Virginia Owings Burle Billmyer Chicacoan complex Pamunkey Indian Reservation Chicone Brand Chickahominy complex Pasbehegh/Governor’s Land Compton Byrd Leibhart DeShazo Potomac Creek Cumberland Conestoga Downing Taft Ferguson Conoy Town complex Flowerdew Hundred Powhatan/Tree Hill Farm Heater’s Island Frey-Haverstick Hatch White Oak Point Jefferson-Patterson Lancaster County Park Indian Point Woodbury Farm Locust Neck Oscar Leibhart Indian Town Farm Wright

burned from the forest floor. Groups of and York Rivers and the Potomac chief- families and friends from these towns dom in the Rappahannock and Potomac moved periodically to smaller camps to Valleys. Supported by priests and war- fish, hunt game, and gather shellfish and riors, these chiefdoms held sway over ter- wild plants in season. And entire com- ritories measuring many hundreds of munities relocated every ten or twenty square miles. Farther west in the years to new lands, when they had used Piedmont, Iroquoian speaking Susque- up the resources at their former site. hannock people moved south from the Concentrated within strictly defined upper Susquehanna River. By the late areas and surrounded by vast, uninhab- 1500s, they occupied the lands of a ited borderlands, these Native American nation known to archeologists as Shenks heartlands were widely separated islands Ferry people. To the south of these lands, of settlement in the otherwise unbroken Monacans, Manahoacs, and other expanses of the northeastern woodlands. Piedmont people found themselves increasingly at war with expanding Along the coast, many of these settle- Coastal Plain chiefdoms and the newly ments were linked into political units arrived Susquehannocks. These wars held together by powerful chiefs. Among came about when coastal chiefdom and the more influential of these units were Susquehannock warriors and hunters the Powhatan chiefdom along the James pressed into upland Piedmont forests in search of white-tailed deer, black bears, and other game animals far less numer- ous in their own homelands farther east. This wholly Indian world changed for- ever with the coming of Europeans (see Map 7, page 54). The open waters of Chesapeake Bay became the stage for the earliest direct contacts between these peoples in the region. The earliest written record of contact in the region is a chronicle of the 1524 voyage of Giovanni da Verrazano, an Italian cap- tain sailing in the service of King Francis Figure 17: Filling in a Post-Mold Pattern: I of France. Other early impressions were Reconstructed long house at the Strickler recorded by Spanish priests from Florida, archeological site, Lancaster County, who tried to establish a mission at what Pennsylvania, 1969. (Photograph from Susque- they called Ajacán on the James River in Ajacán, Virginia hanna’s Indians used by permission of the Pennsylvania Museum and Historical Commission, ©1984.) 1570, and English Roanoke colonists,

An Ecology of People and Place 53 Map 7: Contact and Colonization, A.D. 1500 to 1775

Bomberger's Ephrata Distillery Cloister

● Lancaster

Ferncliff Wildlife ● Yo r k and Wildflower Preserve Robert Fulton S Birthplace us qu eh an n a Gilpin’s Falls Line R ● ixon i n-D ve Maso r Elkton Susquehanna Flats Bohemia Long Green Creek Manor M r n i and Sweathouse e a a s t v Branch Natural Area o i n Joppa Town r n u R e ● v D o i i y R x M c Hampton r o Chestertown e a P t n h s t c a e L Catoctin Ridge ● t Baltimore h u o i a C n o n ● Frederick ps e o c S o Riv e M r er v Harper's Ferry Gap Doughoregan i Kent R Manor Annapolis Harper’s Ferry● Sugar Loaf Island k n Mountain Londontown a t Waterford Publik House p o h Montpelier C Georgetown iver Manassas Gap Potomac River●Bladensburg Alexandria ke R in Tulip Hill a P t tico n a n u t a o u N x M Thorofare Mount Belt Woods e n Gap Vernon n u His Lordship's t ●

R R l Kindness Cambridge l i r u v e e v B Battle Creek i Gunston r R Cypress Swamp Thornton Gap Hall h ● Sussquehannock a R o a Fort 1675 Calvert Cliffs Preserve iver d p n p a a Accokeek Creek n s h oke R e n h i a Port Tobacco a ● S t n n Habre-de-Venture ocom n Belmont Kingsmill u o P o ck Plantation M R Aquia e iver Caledon g Church

d St. Mary's City i ● State Park ● Potomac Ri R ver R a George pi e r Fredericksburg e da Ri v Washington's Birthplace u n l Montpelier B Germanna-Tubal Clift's Stratford Smith Forest Montpelier Furnace Plantation Hall Island Yecomico Camden Mount Church Airy R Menokin Tangier ap Island pa Sabine Hall h C M a Christ Scotchtown at nn ● Charlottesville ta o Church h po ck ni R e R i s Monticello iv ve e r a Virginia Rockfish Gap P r a p Coast Green Springs mu n e ke Reserve y R Elsing Green a Hanover County ive k r e Tuckahoe Courthouse s B in a Richmond t Y r a n e ● o u v Shirley r i k y o R R M s Plantation i e ve e m Westover Governor's r g a id J Flowerdew iver Land Williamsburg Cape R Hundred Charles e Jamestown lu Berkeley B Plantation Martin's Hundred attox R Brandon Adam James River Gap (Carter's Grove) ● Thoroughgood Bacon's J ppom Petersburg Castle am House Cape A es Henry Riv ●Norfolk Charles er ● C. Steirly Lynchburg Natural Area Seashore St. Luke's Natural Area Church Great Dismal Swamp LEGEND Archeological Site © National Natural Landmark ■ Natural or Cultural Feature National Historic Landmark ¥ City or Town Bay Earliest Colonization Plain Colonization to 1700 0 5 10 25 50 miles Piedmont Expansions to 1750 0 5 10 40 80 kilometers North

54 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION KEY LOCALES (MAP 7)

NATIONAL HISTORIC William Paca House [1765] Elsing Green [1758], King Adam Thoroughgood House William County [ca. 1640], Virginia Beach LANDMARKS Peggy Stewart House [1764] Green Springs Historic District Tuckahoe [ca. 1712], Whitehall [ca. 1765] District of Columbia [18th-19th centuries], Louisa Goochland County Georgetown Historic District County [18th-19th centuries] St. Mary’s City Landmarks Waterford Historic District Greenway Court [1762], Clarke [18th-19th centuries], Resurrection Manor [ca. 1660], County Loudon County Maryland Saint Mary’s County Gunston Hall [1758], Fairfax Westover [1734], Charles City Accokeek Creek Site [A.D. Saint Mary’s City Historic County County 1000-1675], Prince George’s District [1634-1695], Saint County Mary’s County Hanover County Courthouse Yecomico Church [ca. 1706], [1735], Hanover County Westmoreland County Chestertown Historic District West Saint Mary’s Manor [18th [18th-19th centuries], Kent century], Saint Mary’s County Martin’s Hundred Carter’s Alexandria City Landmarks County Grove [17th-18th centuries], Doughoregan Manor [ca. Pennsylvania James City County Alexandria Historic District [18th-19th centuries] 1727], Howard County Bomberger’s Distillery [1753, Menokin [ca. 1769], Richmond Habre-de-Venture [1771], 1840], Lebanon County County Christ Church [1768] Charles County Ephrata Cloister [1746], Monticello [1770-1789], Gadsby’s Tavern [1752, 1792] His Lordship’s Kindness [ca. Lancaster County Albemarle County Fredericksburg City 1735], Prince George’s Robert Fulton Birthplace [ca. Montpelier [ca. 1760], Orange Landmarks County 1765], Lancaster County County Kenmore [1752] London Town Publik House [ca. Stiegel-Coleman House [1758], Mount Airy [1762], Richmond 1750], Anne Arundel County Lancaster County County James Monroe Law Office [1758, 1786-1789] Montpelier [ca. 1745], Prince Virginia Mount Vernon [1743, 1792- George’s County 1799], Fairfax County Rising Sun Tavern [1760] Aquia Church [1757], Stafford Mount Clare [ca. 1763], Sabine Hall [ca. 1730], Baltimore City County Williamsburg City Richmond County Landmarks Tulip Hill [1756, 1790], Anne Bacon’s Castle [ca. 1655], Surry County Saint John’s Episcopal Church Bruton Parish Church [1715] Arundel County [1741], Richmond County Belmont [1761], Stafford Peyton Randolph House [1715] Annapolis Landmarks County Saint Luke’s Church [1682], Isle of Wight County James Semple House [ca. Brice House [1773] Berkeley Plantation[1726], 1770] Charles City County Scotchtown [1719], Hanover Chase-Lloyd House [1774] County Williamsburg Historic District Colonial Annapolis Historic Brandon [ca. 1720], Prince [1633-1779] George County Shirley Plantation [1770], District [17th-18th centuries] Charles City County Wren Building, College of Hammond-Harwood House [ca. Camden [17th-19th centuries], William and Mary [1702] Caroline County Stratford Hall [1730], 1774] Westmoreland County Wythe House [ca. 1755] Maryland State House Christ Church [1732], [ca. 1772] Lancaster County who attempted to settle along the nearby Trade and commerce dominated initial North Carolina coast in 1585. The contacts on these waters. The local Europeans marveled at what they con- inhabitants exchanged furs, food, and sidered the strangeness of the inhabi- facts for metal tools, glass beads, and tants’ customs, the temperate nature of other European items brought by the the climate, and the lushness of the land. growing and diversifying group of visi- The native subjects of these observations tors. Most of these were men of different paddled their log dugout canoes into the nationalities and faiths who only stayed Bay to visit the ships anchored off their for a few days or weeks. Others tried to shores and watched the strangers scrib- remain longer, but they were inexperi- ble on pieces of paper. Attracted first by enced and poorly supplied. Initial colo- the calm waters of the sheltered bay, nial efforts, such as the Ajacán mission Ajacán mission, European mariners soon charted the on the James and Roanoke, collapsed Virginia deepest channels, where oceangoing quickly. But the English learned from sailing ships could drop anchor within past mistakes, and their Virginia Company coves and inlets. managed to establish the first permanent

Where, What, and When 55 In fact, far more people died from these diseases than in the seemingly endless wars fought with the region’s native inhabitants between 1610 and 1675. But neither the threats of disease nor the dangers of attack discouraged settlers searching for trade, wealth, and deeds to pieces of the region’s land. A continual stream of English immigrants replenished the numbers Jamestown lost to disease and war. First brought to the Chesapeake in 1619, a small, slowly growing number of enslaved Africans added to the region’s population. Other people attracted to the Chesapeake’s bounty settled at various places in the region. For example, the Eries and other Great Lakes native people driven from their homelands by Iroquois warriors during the second quarter of the seven- teenth century tried to settle in the Figure 18: Imagining a Colonial Landscape: 1660 Jamestown street scene based on written records, museum artifacts, and archeological research. Piedmont. And traders traveled south (Illustration by Keith Rocco, courtesy of the National Park Service) from the Dutch New Netherland colony along the Hudson and Delaware Rivers European settlement at Jamestown in in search of pelts and plunder. One of 1607 (see Figure 18). Colonists led by them, a central European named Jamestown, Virginia captains John Smith and Christopher Augustine Hermann, established a settle- Bohemia Manor, Newport soon fanned out along the ment, christened Bohemia Manor in Maryland Coastal Plain. They were searching for honor of his homeland, at the northeast gold, fur, potent ginseng roots, and a hal- end of the Bay in 1662. lucinogenic plant they called Jimson Virginian claims to the region did not go (Jamestown) weed. No gold was found, unchallenged. Powhatan leaders resisted the fur trade proved unreliable, the gin- Jamestown colonists until their final seng roots were not potent enough to sat- defeat in 1646. Susquehannocks fought isfy consumers, and Jimson weed never too, armed with muskets obtained from caught on. Two other plants, growing not Dutch traders and Swedish colonists, wild in forests but cultivated in Indian who were settling their own colony on fields and gardens, would become the the banks of the Delaware River between economic mainstays of English coloniza- 1638 and 1655. The Susquehannocks tion along the Chesapeake. One of these, challenged anyone asserting authority sweet or Indian corn, would ultimately over their upper Bay domain. And the feed much of the world. The other, Spanish authorities issued protests from tobacco, would soon become the their capital at Saint Augustine, continually region’s wildly popular and uniquely threatening to drive Virginians away from irresistible export. a region they considered part of Florida. Word of the riches to be had in the English Catholics established the proprie- Chesapeake soon attracted settlers. tary colony of Maryland in 1634, led by a Thousands began sailing to the region favorite of the king named Leonard Cal- from southern English ports. Malaria, yel- vert, or Lord Baltimore. This marked the low fever, and dysentery killed many of most significant challenge to Virginia’s these men and women during their first authority in the region. Maryland colon- years of seasoning, as the process of ists–traveling on transports named the acclimatization was known in the region. Ark and the Dove–established their first

56 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION masonry foundations and constructed in the high-styles then popular in England. Whatever their size or level of style, houses and surrounding plantations were situated on rich, black soils along navigable stretches of waterways cours- Figure 19: Moving Goods by Water along ing through the Coastal Plain. Planters the Coastal Plain Landscape: Reconstruc- tion of a Chesapeake landing during living along shallower stretches had long colonial times. (Sketch by Edwin Tunis, used by wooden wharfs built out into deeper permission of HarperCollins Publishers ©) waters to accommodate ocean-going ships (See Figure 19). Colonists quickly settlement on the banks of a deep revealed a preference for home sites, Potomac River bay at a place they chris- fields, and other tracts already cleared tened Saint Mary’s City. The new settlers by Indians as they moved onto lands Saint Mary’s City, Maryland purchased land there from the local purchased or seized from their original Yeocomico people, but they soon found owners. These colonists depended on themselves embroiled in disputes with Coastal Plain waterways to link their - both Susquehannock warriors and scattered sites–plantations, farms, fac- Virginian colonists, who resented their tories, tobacco storehouses (also known presence and claimed their land. as rollhouses, a reference to rollwagons These disputes periodically broke out (see Figure 20), large, barrel-like hogs- into open warfare. In 1635, for example, head casks drawn by horses, mules, or the Calverts confronted a Virginian set- oxen, used to store and convey tobacco tler named William Claiborne. In 1631, from farms to docks), shops, churches, Claiborne had set up a trading post at courthouses, taverns, and inns (called the southern tip of Kent Island, near pre- ordinaries)–with the few small cities sent-day Annapolis, to dominate trade established during the first century of with Susquehannocks controlling access colonization. These included James- Jamestown and to fur sources from the interior. He was town, Williamsburg, and Saint Mary’s Williamsburg, Virginia defeated by Marylander’s in a noisy but City. Saint Mary’s City, Maryland relatively bloodless naval skirmish on the Settlers milled lumber cut from local Pocomoke River in 1635, but he continued forests to build small shallow drafted one the fight to remain on Kent Island. Though or two masted sailing ships, known as driven from Maryland in 1638, Claiborne shallops, and other small craft. These carried on the contest from Virginia. were used to ply the shallower tidewater Over-hunting and warfare caused the col- bays and inlets, where English colonists lapse of the fur trade by mid-century. located most of their settlements. Slowly, Plantations such as Martin’s Hundred, the Bay grew into an important commer- Martin’s Hundred, Clift’s Plantation, and Governor’s Land cial artery. Oceangoing sailing ships car- Clift’s Plantation, rying settlers, slaves, and imports from and Governor’s Land, replaced trading posts as the most impor- Virginia tant settlements on the Bay. Planters first Europe, Africa, and the Caribbean laid erected hastily constructed, earthfast up alongside various docks to take on structures whose wooden support posts were sunk directly into the ground rather than in stone, brick, or cement founda- tions. Although earthfast construction al- lowed settlers to build houses quickly and cheaply, such foundations rotted swiftly in the wet soils of the region. More substan- tial structures, known as great or manor Figure 20: Moving Goods Overland Across houses, only began appearing in large the Coastal Plain Landscape: Reconstruc- numbers later in the seventeenth cen- tion of an ox-drawn hogshead roll wagon used to convey tobacco on rolling roads. tury. Most of these buildings were frame (Sketch by Edwin Tunis, used by permission of and brick edifices resting on stone or HarperCollins Publishers ©)

An Ecology of People and Place 57 cargoes of lumber, grain, tobacco, and consumption. African Americans made other Chesapeake products. On shore, up fully half the region’s workforce by small fishing communities grew up 1700. Not all Africans coming to Chesa- alongside major port towns. Tidal water peake Bay labored as slaves. And, most and wind powered mills and pumps of the region’s first laborers were impov- began draining more accessible wet- erished Europeans who agreed to work lands for fresh groundwater. for a stipulated number of years for landowners willing to pay their passage. European settlers faced challenges they African servants of frontier traders occa- could not have predicted. For example, sionally played important roles, establish- the tidewater soils–well watered and ing close relationships with Indian highly organic–were initially too rich for clients. By learning Indian languages European crops. Wheat planted in new and becoming familiar with their cus- fields grew extravagantly abundant fol- toms, several became significant culture iage, but produced little grain. Tobacco, brokers, go-betweens possessing skills however, thrived in such soils (see Figure essential to conduct business and diplo- 21). But tobacco was a demanding crop, macy among people belonging to vastly requiring constant care and exhausting different cultures. even the richest ground after three or four years. Large amounts of cow, horse, As conflict continued to plague the pig, and chicken manure spread on region, diplomatic skills became increas- these spent fields could restore the ingly important. Intercolonial struggles degree of fertility needed for wheat, and wars with Indians devastated com- corn, flax, and other crops, but manur- munities everywhere. Conflicts between ing was time consuming and expensive. rich and poor and between those favoring Instead, because the expanses of land in local control and those defending royal the tidewater seemed limitless, most privilege sometimes broke out into open planters abandoned their old fields and warfare. And a combination of economic temporary support structures and moved competition, border disputes, and religious on. Such practices soon produced the disagreements kept Virginia, Maryland, tidewater landscape that colonial and their provincial neighbors to the observers decried–one of broken down north and south in constant conflict. farms and weed-strewn, exhausted fields. Old World struggles, too, spilled across Demand for labor increased as cultiva- the ocean to ensnare Chesapeake peo- tion consumed ever-larger expanses of ple. These included the English Civil War new lands. Plantation owners used of 1642-1649, the Glorious Revolution of indentured servants, free laborers, and, 1688, and the four European imperial increasingly, enslaved Africans to grow wars fought in the Americas by Britain, tobacco for export and to raise corn, France, and Spain between 1689 and cotton, flax, cattle, and pigs for local 1760. The first shots of this last war, known as the Seven Year’s or French and Indian War, were fired in 1754 by troops led by a young Virginian militiaman named George Washington. Sent beyond the Blue Ridge by Virginia’s royal gov- ernor, Robert Dinwiddie, Washington and his troops were contesting French expansion into western lands claimed by his province. Other disputes dragged on for years. The protracted boundary dispute between Pennsylvania and Maryland, which had begun when Pennsylvania received its Figure 21: Agricultural Landscape: Maryland tobacco field and barns. (Photograph courtesy of the Maryland Historical Trust) charter in 1681, was only settled with the

58 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION completion of the Mason-Dixon survey sylvania; the Calvert family, whose suc- line in 1767. Protestants periodically cessive heads held the title Lord Balti- tried to drive away Catholic colonists, as more, had the same rights in Maryland. Mason-Dixon survey when Puritans supported Parliamentary Both families held monopolies on the line, Maryland and Pennsylvania partisan Richard Ingle’s seizure of sale and rental of all provincial lands Maryland from the Catholic Calverts in within their proprietary bounds, and 1645, during the English Civil War. At both zealously maintained these rights other times, Maryland Catholics tried to up to the time of the Revolution. suppress Protestant denominations. And The English organized their colonies into Protestants also fought among them- political units, each with its own bound- selves in these years. Anglicans support- aries, rights, and responsibilities. They ing the king periodically clashed with called these units provinces, counties, militant Puritans; Maryland Catholics parishes, townships, municipalities, and allied themselves with one Protestant hundreds. The origin and meaning of faction or another when political strug- hundreds–and the exact amount of land gles swept through the region. Finally, but they included–are only vaguely under- not in an eager or an organized manner, stood today. We do know that hundreds contending provinces and factions had were judicial districts, larger than to band together to resist both Indian parishes and smaller than counties. An attacks and the threatened invasions of area could be considered a hundred if it rival European powers. either contained a hundred eligible vot- Native and new diseases continued to ers or could mobilize a like number of ravage communities without regard to militiamen. their politics, religion, or race. Indian Social boundaries, too, became more nations, unable to replenish populations pronounced, as profits from free and devastated by war and new diseases slave labor concentrated wealth in the such as smallpox, were forced to submit hands of influential families and, to English rule. The English were able to depending on the type of colony, propri- replace losses with a seemingly endless flow of new immigrants and supplies from etary authorities, corporate directors, or the mother country and other colonies. placemen appointed to positions of Drawing on their vast support network, power and influence by the Crown. which stretched across the North Governors-general, appointed by the Atlantic world, the English finally man- Crown and responsible for both the gov- aged to consolidate political control over ernance and defense of their colonies, Chesapeake Bay’s Coastal Plain by 1700. consulted with provincial councils and assemblies made up of these new elites. The English employed a variety of frame- By 1700, these groups had established works to govern their colonies. Virginia new state capitals at Annapolis in Annapolis, Maryland began as a charter colony under the con- Maryland (1695) and at Williamsburg in Williamsburg, Virginia trol of the Virginia Company. The Crown Virginia (1699). Several Chesapeake granted charters to boards of corporate cities were laid out in accordance with stockholders extending rights to colonize carefully designed ground plans. Others and govern often vaguely demarcated developed in a somewhat more haphaz- areas not yet reduced to royal control. In ardly spontaneous manner. Many popu- 1624, Virginia also became the first lation centers grew up around county English province to become a royal courts, community churches, river fords, colony under the direct control of the and important crossroads. The legal and Crown. Maryland and Pennsylvania, by religious needs of isolated communities contrast, were organized as proprietary were served by judges and ministers colonies under the control of influential making regularly scheduled circuits proprietors granted authority over partic- through thinly populated districts. ular areas by the English crown. The Penn family was given control of the gov- Numbers and densities of English and ernment and all lands within Penn- African populations increased dramati-

An Ecology of People and Place 59 COLONIAL ANNAPOLIS HISTORIC DISTRICT. Designation as an historic district preserves the distinctive street plan and buildings constructed after Annapolis was made Maryland’s capital in 1695 (see Figure 22) Unlike the earlier capital at Saint Mary’s City, which was built alongside a relatively small, shallow harbor that was close to the mouth of the Bay and vulnerable to sudden attacks from the sea, Annapolis was located in a more secure position farther up the Bay on the banks of a well-sheltered deepwater harbor. Easier to reach by its citizens, it was also much farther from Virginian rivals. Provincial governor Francis Nicholson planned the city. Naming it for his sovereign, Queen Anne, he used the Baroque layout of the French court at Versailles and adapted by architects Christopher Wren and John Evelyn during the rebuilding of London after the Great Fire of 1666. The provincial State House and the state-supported Anglican church were located in circles on high ground dominating the town and the har- bor. Narrow streets stretched from these circles like the spokes of a wheel. Although the plan was designed to provide clear vistas of city’s twin centers of authority, lack of exper- tise resulted in misalignment of several streets. Construction of the current State House began in 1772 and was com- pleted twelve years later. The Continental Congress met in session in the building from 1783 to 1784. During that time, Congress ratified the Treaty of Paris ending the Revolutionary War and accepted Washington’s resignation of his commission as commander in chief of the Continental Army. The city’s oldest standing building, the Old Treasury (built between 1735 and 1737) stands near the State House. Figure 22: Urban Landscape Although some streets have been widened and others renamed, the Preserved: Colonial Annapolis modern-day street plan is little altered from the original design. Historic District, 1995. (Photograph courtesy of the Historic Annapolis Foundation)

cally in most parts of the Coastal Plain in cut, arable land throughout the Coastal the 1700s. Population expansion and the Plain as more enslaved Africans were closing of established harbors, such as brought into the provinces of Maryland Port Tobacco after it filled with silt and Virginia. Larger farms relying on the Port Tobacco and eroded from cleared fields and forests, labor of large numbers of slaves grew Baltimore, Maryland required construction of new cities and into opulent plantations. Slaves cut tim- towns. Many, such as Baltimore (estab- ber into fence rails to enclose ever larger lished in 1729), were built alongside fields, to demarcate their master’s prop- wide harbors providing sheltered deep erty, and to protect crops from free rang- water anchorages for large numbers of ing livestock. Much more than fences oceangoing vessels. Others were con- came to separate people living side by structed on mostly level plots of land side as slaves and freemen. These social near rapids. Such plots were highly val- divisions created a new world in tidewa- ued, as they could both accommodate ter areas, a world marked by increasing warehouses and be near the fall of water extremes of wealth and poverty. needed to power mill wheels. The larger As the most favorable Coastal Plain of these towns were built at the heads of locales were taken up, tidewater specula- navigation of rivers (the uppermost limits tors began staking claims to lands above of oceangoing boating) in fall line the fall line in the Maryland and Virginia Richmond, Shoccoe’s locales such as Richmond on the James Piedmont. Although European explorers Warehouse, Petersburg, (founded at the site of Shoccoe’s Alexandria, and traveled up the rivers coursing through Warehouse in 1742), Petersburg on the Hunting Creek the Piedmont by the 1650s, no perma- Warehouse, Virginia Appomattox (established in 1748), and nent English settlements had yet been Alexandria on the Potomac (founded at built in the interior. This situation the Hunting Creek Warehouse in 1749). changed dramatically after Bacon’s Although swamps and pine barrens were Rebellion broke out in 1675. Named hard to penetrate, farms grew on clear after its leader, Virginian Nathaniel

60 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION Bacon, this revolt broke out when poorer Tidewater residents and new immigrants settlers, resenting the government’s fail- from Europe purchased the first ure to protect them from Indian attack Piedmont lands and established farm- (among other grievances), rebelled steads near the banks of the James and against royal authority. Fighting started other major rivers. They dammed fast after colonists attacked Susquehannocks, running streams flowing into these rivers who had been ordered by Maryland and erected mills to grind grain, saw authorities to settle on the Potomac to wood, run bellows, and crush iron and protect provincial frontiers from attacks other ores extracted from nearby mines by other Indians. Retaliating Susque- and quarries. An influx of Scots-Irish and hannock war parties soon devastated German refugees, forced from their own farms along the Blue Ridge frontier. homelands, quickened the pace and Unable to avenge themselves on the scope of penetration in the early 1700s. Susquehannocks and resenting the pre- These immigrants began moving south- rogatives of powerful, well placed west from Pennsylvania’s Delaware Valley landowners whose privileges came in into unsettled portions of the Piedmont. part from royal favor, angered colonists ransacked the homes of wealthy planters They and other settlers encountered a and captured and burned the city of Piedmont landscape dominated by Jamestown, After gaining control over dense, tangled forests. These had not Jamestown, Virginia much of the colony, Nathaniel Bacon existed before warfare, disease, and dis- died suddenly (probably of dysentery), location virtually ended Indian burning and the revolt was quickly suppressed. practices that cleared undergrowth from Taking advantage of the situation, large areas of woodland. Armed with Virginian authorities reduced all remain- steel axes and using water driven saw ing Indians in the province to tributary mills, colonists soon began clearing status at the 1677 Treaty of Middle timber from the richest, best drained Plantation (present-day Williamsburg) soils. They used whole trees, sawn Williamsburg, Virginia regardless of whether or not they had planks, and split shingles to build log supported the Susquehannocks in the cabins and frame houses and barns. fighting. Wealthy tidewater families soon And, using river cobbles, quarried stone, claimed the lands of the Susque- and bricks fired from riverbank clay, they hannocks and those of other Indian built homes, churches, and other struc- nations driven out by the fighting. tures. They fashioned split wooden rails

SOTTERLEY PLANTATION. The plantation was built in 1710 on a bluff providing a commanding view of the Patuxent River in Maryland’s Saint Mary’s County. Like most other tobacco plantation houses of the period, Sotterley’s manor house was originally constructed as a vernacular wood-frame earthfast/false plate structure. Later modifications transformed the building into an opulent Georgian show place, complete with a majestic winding Chinese Chippendale staircase and a wood- paneled drawing room and parlor. Further modified in more recent years into a Colonial Revival country seat, this building today stands within a Figure 23: Preserving a Landscape of Servitude: Slave cabin at Sotterley Plantation, 1998. ninety-acre farming tract. Planting fields, a formal gar- (Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service) den, a brick necessary and stable, a river wharf, the rolling road running from the wharf to the plantation’s tobacco barns, and one of the few slave cabins (built around 1840) surviving to the present day (see Figure 23), are preserved on the property.

An Ecology of People and Place 61 and piled fieldstones into fences sur- form of worship that freed participants rounding fields and pens. Earthen dams from the restraints of more controlled impounded ponds that watered their free church hierarchies. Also on the religious ranging livestock and provided power to front, forerunners of today’s Plain Sect drive mill wheels. Laboring on their own communities and members of other holdings, Piedmont settlers created a pious orders persecuted in Europe estab- patchwork of miniature environments lished settlements in the Piedmont coun- that increasingly transformed the region’s try, drawn by promises of religious landscape. Level, graded sunken roads tolerance. These immigrants were metic- bordered Piedmont fields, forests, and ulous craftspeople, and their experi- millponds. Hard packed dirt paths soon ments with existing technologies grew into a network linking communities resulted in the development of such throughout the area. Before long, town improvements as the Conestoga wagon centers began growing in places such as and the Pennsylvania long rifle. Lancaster, Pennsylvania Lancaster, Pennsylvania (1730); Although they were growing more and Frederick, Maryland (built as a county Frederick, Maryland more able to produce life’s necessities seat in 1748); and Charlottesville, Charlottesville, Virginia themselves, Chesapeake Bay colonists Virginia (made a county seat in 1762). relied on trade for products that were Almost the entire Chesapeake Bay region locally unavailable for luxury items, and was intensively settled by the mid-1700s. for new ideas and fashions. The British In the Coastal Plain, a small number of attempted to limit provincial develop- established families and the newly rich ment and raise their colonial income by acquired more and more slaves and regulating this trade and imposing new erected ever larger and more lavish plan- taxes. These tactics caused increasing tation houses. Most Coastal Plain unrest throughout the region in the third landowners lived more modestly, in quarter of the eighteenth century. By small frame or brick houses on holdings 1775–the end of the period covered by rarely over two hundred acres. Farther this chapter–a rebellion had broken out inland, the few larger estates of powerful in British America. Feeling threatened by Monticello, Virginia families (such as Monticello, begun by the extension of imperial authority, pow- Thomas Jefferson at Charlottesville in erful families such as the Washingtons, 1769) were surrounded by the more Lees, and Jeffersons led large numbers modest homesteads of newcomers from of Chesapeake Bay colonists in revolt. the tidewater and those of even newer immigrants from England, Scotland, Ⅺ PLACE Ireland, and the German states. Seeking new lands and new profits, tidewater As in all earlier periods, geological natives and Piedmont pioneers soon research supplies much of the available began staking claims to Indian territory information about the environment in beyond the Blue Ridge Mountains. the Chesapeake Bay region between 1500 and 1775. Like archeologists, geolo- Social tensions proliferated between rich gists use radiometric techniques to date and poor, male and female, slave and bits of organic matter in naturally buried free, old settler and newcomer. These soil strata recovered from core samples, provided fertile ground for the Great drilling at sites throughout the region. Awakening, a religious revival movement But such techniques must be used with that swept through the British American care. Single assays sometimes render provinces between 1738 and 1745. date ranges extending over several hun- Promoting social and racial equality in dred years. The broadness of such date the eyes of God, its leading lights– ranges requires the testing of multiple including Presbyterian minister Samuel samples from deposits less than five Davies, New England immigrant Baptist hundred years old. preacher Shubal Stearns, and African American missionary John Marrant– Archeologists, too, continue to uncover encouraged a more personal, emotional floors of living spaces as well as pits,

62 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION shell heaps, and other deposits contain- ing bones, charred wood and plants, pollen, and other indicators of past envi- ronments. All plants and animals require specific environmental conditions. Comparative analyses of remains of bio- logical communities in a single locale can reveal the range of climate condi- tions at a particular time. Written records first begin to supplement geological and archeological evidence Figure 24: Nature’s Hand on the Landscape: as sources of environmental information A wind-blown sand dune advances on a Coastal Plain forest, Cape Henry, Virginia, during this period. Ships’ logs, settlers’ ca. 1905. (Photograph courtesy of the Detroit diaries, more detailed observations by Publishing Company and the Library of Congress) contemporary naturalists such as John Banister and John Clayton, and other Then as now, sandy and gravelly beaches manuscripts produced by European lined Bay shores. Beaches covered by colonists preserve the earliest written tidewaters supported communities of records of the region’s plants, animals, shellfish, insects, and migratory birds. geology, weather, and climate. And Salt marsh and salt meadow cordgrasses, several English herbarium collections American holly, saltgrass, and other preserve to this day the plant specimens plants resistant to salt spray supported a gathered by botanists such as Hugh wide variety of insects, mammals, and birds; these plants also stabilized dunes Jones and William Vernon. Lacking pre- and bluffs above the high tide mark (see cise instruments, these observers of Figure 24). Preserved pollen samples nature were generally limited to impres- affirm colonial accounts of extensive sionistic statements regarding soils, salt, brackish, and freshwater marshes winds, waves, or weather. Although their and swamp lands alongside the region’s writings document an environment gen- watercourses. An abundance of species erally resembling current conditions, such as wild celery, coontail, common scholars continue to assess the ecologi- waterweed, eelgrass, southern naiad, cal impact of deforestation, intensive cul- and curly pondweed (an early introduc- tivation, and other environmentally tion from Europe) were noted by con- transforming colonial practices. temporary observers. According to both archeological evi- Neither Indians nor colonists spent much dence and colonial observations, the time in Chesapeake swamp lands, aside region’s climate in the 1500s was some- from using them as places for refuge dur- what wetter and cooler than it is today. ing conflict or for brief hunting, fishing, Weather moderated between 1650 and and gathering excursions. Mosquitoes, 1750. Then, from 1750 to 1800, tempera- flies, and other pests deterred visitors in tures cooled into what is often called a warmer months. Early colonial activities Little Ice-Age. But the form and content altered wetland habitats–small landfills of Chesapeake Bay itself largely resem- undergirded docks and wharves in shel- bled its current condition. Very little is tered harbors, and dikes enclosed salt known about plant life in the Bay’s open marsh grasses serving as cattle pasture– waters during this period. But archeolog- but did not have an extensive impact on ical evidence affirms written accounts water plants or their environments. This noting that oysters and many species of situation changed when deposits of iron fish, mammals, shellfish, and plankton nodules were discovered in bogs during lived in these waters. Sea grasses, juve- the 1730s and 1740s. This discovery stim- nile fish, crabs, and migratory waterfowl ulated the development of iron furnaces made their homes in shallower portions and mills at Coastal Plain locales to of the Bay. smelt bog ore into pig iron ingots and

An Ecology of People and Place 63 cast iron stove plates, fire backs, and introduced. Some were cultivated plants other wares. And soils eroding from for- such as wheat, apple trees, and grape est lands cleared to fuel these furnaces vines. Johnny jump-up (the ancestor of washed ever greater amounts of soil sedi- the modern pansy), mallows, and oxeye ment into Bay waters, decreasing the daisy were among the many European amount of light reaching submerged plants imported for their medicinal plants. Although direct evidence is lack- value. Ornamental plants, such as lilacs ing, such changes almost surely dam- (first brought to England from Persia dur- aged plants not adapted to lower light ing the 1500s) were carried to Virginia by levels. early settlers and fostered in garden beds. Dandelion leaves were prized as Mature, old growth forests covered as salad greens and brewed to make diu- much as 95 percent of the region in 1500. retic teas. Other plants, such as Queen Southern mixed hardwood forests grew Anne’s Lace, were weeds spread from throughout the Coastal Plain. Oaks and seeds accidentally brought into the hickories dominated higher ground, country in bales of fodder, seed bags, while red maples, gums, Atlantic white livestock hides, or manure. Newly intro- cedars, and bald cypresses grew in duced tropical plants, such as oranges, swampy lowlands. Loblolly and other pines occupied poor or sandy soils. only flourished in the artificial environ- Farther inland in the Piedmont, ments of greenhouses. American chestnuts and a variety of Both natives and newcomers took care oaks, poplars, and hickories dominated to protect desirable plants. Indian people the forests. Shrubs, berry bushes, sedges, practiced rituals respecting plant spirits; and grasses grew on forest margins, colonists used laws to protect white oaks meadows, swamps, and other sunny and other economically valuable trees clearings opened by flooding, windfalls, from overcutting. Other native plants or fires. Some of these fires occurred nat- were cultivated in colonial gardens, such urally or by accident; others were delib- as poison ivy, which was prized for its erately set to clear underbrush and drive shiny leaves. But the most significant game during group hunts. impact on regional vegetation patterns By 1775, colonists had cut and burned as were the new uses for established crops much as 30 percent of the Coastal Plain such as tobacco and the introduction of forests. Tidewater bog iron furnaces also exotic, Old World field crops. We still do consumed increasing quantities of not fully understand the ecological wood. Farther inland, Piedmont forests effects of field agriculture. But, as men- also began falling to the axes of settlers tioned earlier, tobacco cultivation quick- clearing lands for farms, firewood, fenc- ly used up soil fertility, requiring frequent ing, and charcoal to fuel their new iron moves to new and ever-larger expanses Tubal Furnace, Virginia works at Virginia’s Tubal Furnace and of land. Abandoned farmsteads and other locales. Ironically, slaves forced to fields created a messy, depleted physical clear-cut old-growth trees to fuel the landscape that encouraged the growth of Tubal Furnace created the huge tangled weeds and pests. And contemporary expanse of snarled undergrowth south of descriptions remark on the increasing the Rapidan River that later entangled murkiness of many regional rivers and contending Union and Confederate streams, affirming that ground-clearing armies at the battles of Chancellorsville caused growing amounts of sediment to (fought in early May, 1863) and the pour into regional rivers. Wilderness (fought in the same place As for diet, Indian people ate shellfish and one year later). crafted their shells into beads and other Because of the rapid loss of open space ornaments. The first European colonists and the sixty or so species of exotic Old also depended on shellfish for subsis- World plants brought in by settlers, some tence. At first, they even adopted shell native species declined in number. Many beads (known as wampum, peake, or of the new species were deliberately roanoke) as their currency, until enough

64 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION of their own coinage was available. Shell wasteful harvests of fish stocks in the heaps and other archeological evidence Rappahannock River. By the 1700s, confirm what the earliest colonial written seafood became more of a supplement records document: the presence of ex- than a staple in the colonists’ diet, as tensive oyster beds in Chesapeake Bay domestic animals were their chief food waters. Crabs, shrimp, hard and soft source. Still, commercial fishing for herring clams, and other shellfish were also and shad began in the 1760s and 1770s. abundant. At first, people collected most Colonial chroniclers noted the various shellfish from shallow waters. Later, they species of snakes, frogs, toads, salaman- used metal tongs mounted on long ders, lizards, and turtles residing in the wooden poles, which enabled them to region today. Observers were most exploit oyster beds in deeper waters. But impressed by venomous reptiles, such as despite these harvesting activities, nei- the eastern rattlesnakes and copper- ther group had the technology nor the heads in the Piedmont and the eastern desire to exhaust the riches of Chesa- cottonmouths along the Coastal Plain. peake Bay shellfish communities during Indians regarded these reptiles with this period of contact and colonization. respect. Colonists treated them as eco- Those trying to exploit the Chesapeake nomically useless pests and killed them Bay region’s natural environment faced when they ventured into settled areas. significant challenges. Early European Turtles, such as freshwater common chroniclers wrote of the clouds of mos- snapping turtles and saltwater northern quitoes and flies that rose over Bay diamondback terrapins, were hunted for shores in warmer months, and they their flesh, shells, and eggs. Free ranging chronicled the struggles of farmers with pigs and other animals introduced by the many kinds of worms, beetles, and colonists were avid hunters of snakes. other insects that preyed on their garden Still, contemporary evidence suggests plants and field crops. These writers also that most populations of snakes and other complained of the fleas, lice, and other cold blooded animals were not signifi- small insects that infested their homes, cantly disturbed by people in these years. clothes, and bodies. Early attempts to put Both archeological evidence and colo- insects to economic uses met with mixed nial writings affirm the presence of great success. Beekeepers successfully extract- flocks of herons, ducks, geese, and other ed honey from hives, but attempts to migratory waterfowl in Chesapeake Bay raise silkworms on mulberry trees failed. waters. Least sandpipers, common terns, Indians and settlers used nets, traps, and other shorebirds flourished on Bay spears, and hooked lines to catch numer- beaches. In the forests and fields of the ous types of fish–deepwater fish such as Coastal Plain and Piedmont, pigeons, striped bass, shad, and herring; smaller songbirds, birds of prey, scavengers, and saltwater fish such as smelts and eels; many other kinds of birds made their and freshwater fish such as trout, bass, homes. Colonists seeking meat for their and pickerel. Both peoples also valued tables and feathers for their beds used the large runs of shad and other fish that nets, traps, and muzzle loading shotguns spawned in freshwater streams in the to take large numbers of waterfowl. spring. Many settlers converted dugout Farther inland, Piedmont farmers hunted log canoes into fishing vessels with sails. partridges, wild turkeys, and other game Many Indians, for their part, adopted the birds. Grain from farm fields and the shallow draft sailing ships with plank many fruit and nut-bearing trees planted hulls and the metal ship furnishings by colonists may have helped increase introduced by colonials. As with the the numbers of passenger pigeons, shellfish, neither natives nor newcomers which lived in vast flocks in the region. had the technology or the desire to dev- Many large and small mammals lived in astate Bay fish stocks during this period. the region during this period of contact Even so, by 1680, Virginian legislators felt and colonization. Porpoises and other compelled to enact a law preventing sea mammals swam regularly into

An Ecology of People and Place 65 Chesapeake Bay. Indians and colonists domesticated plants and animals to the hunted and trapped beavers, muskrats, region and deliberately tried to extermi- otters, and other furry mammals. Farther nate wolves, panthers, and other native inland, both peoples frequently used animals considered dangerous or both- dogs to help them hunt the white-tailed ersome. Although few native species deer, black bear, raccoon, elk, wildcat, completely disappeared from the region woodland American bison, and other in this period, those that remained animals for flesh and fur. Powhatan and shared a vastly transformed environ- other Coastal Plain people regarded rab- ment, one containing new land forms bits as a holy animal and refrained from and uses as well as imported life forms. hunting them, but colonists had no such reservations. THE CULTURAL Settlers introduced horses, sheep, cattle, LANDSCAPES OF pigs, and other domestic animals to the region. Although some were penned, CONTACT AND many ranged freely on unfenced lands. COLONIZATION Free ranging animals tended to feed on acorns, nuts, and other forest products Ⅺ PEOPLING PLACES that colonists called mast. These animals The population of the region changed as also broke into unfenced or untended never before in the period of contact gardens and fields. The bobcats, and colonization. The territories of cougars, and wolves that preyed on Coastal Plain chiefdoms rose, grew, and these animals were viewed as pests. shrank with their leaders’ changing for- Colonial governments sponsored exter- tunes. Further inland, war and disease mination campaigns and offered boun- caused entire Piedmont native commu- ties for animals killed, resulting in the nities to disappear or move elsewhere. virtual extinction of these creatures in European invasion significantly quick- settled portions of the tidewater area by ened the pace of demographic change. 1750. Game also began to grow scarce as New diseases such as smallpox ravaged population grew and forests shrank. Indian communities. Warriors armed Alarmed, provincial legislators began with guns fought with their Indian and declaring certain seasons off limits for European enemies in wars, suffering hunting. Farther inland, hunters had all heavy losses in lives and lands. Indian but eradicated woodland American population throughout the region may bison from Piedmont forests by 1775. have declined by as much as 90 percent Overall, the archeological, geological, between 1500 and 1650, from an esti- and archival evidence suggests that mated peak of 24,000 in 1500 to less than native species, having adapted to local 2,400 by 1650. conditions over several thousand years, By contrast, the combined population of continued to live in the region’s waters, English colonists and enslaved Africans wetlands, and forests. Indians only intro- rose from zero to nearly 13,000 in the duced exotic domesticated plants such same period. Beginning in 1607, colonial as corn, beans, squash, and tobacco in population in the region doubled every small clearings that had been slashed twenty years. It rose to 380,000 in 1750. and burned out of the forest. Until driven Total colonial population in the away or restricted to small reservations, Chesapeake Bay area reached 700,000 in they also continued to deliberately burn 1775. More than a third of this number other portions of woodland during sea- were Africans, mostly enslaved. Although sonal game drives to create the clear, English settlers still made up the majority open park-like forest floors recorded by of the region’s population in this period, impressed colonial chroniclers. The the number of Scots-Irish and German colonists cut, burned, plowed, and immigrants grew significantly in the fenced ever larger tracts of land as they decades after 1775. introduced new species of wild and

66 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION Indians of several nations were the Many Chesapeake Bay native people, region’s sole inhabitants in 1500. This sit- then, were driven into exile. But those uation had changed dramatically by who were not had to adopt new cultural 1775. By 1650, the Coastal Plain nations practices to better resist European inva- had lost many people to war and disease. sion and, eventually, adjust to life on Those who remained were restricted to small reservations surrounded by new- small tracts around their traditional core comers from Europe and Africa. These communities. Farther inland, most abo- newcomers also adopted new cultural riginal Piedmont populations were patterns, adjusting old customs and forced to move away, or were scattered beliefs to fit new realities. This nearness or destroyed during these same years. To to foreign cultures affected everyone. the north, Susquehannock immigrants Native people struggling to survive often erected their towns on the banks of the created new identities that set them lower Susquehanna River, in and around apart from neighbors and newcomers. present day Lancaster County, Penn- Formerly independent nations on the sylvania. Farther south and east, English Potomac and Eastern Shores, for exam- colonists and enslaved Africans quickly ple, merged together during the 1600s to moved outward from colonial centers form more unified communities today such as Jamestown. By the mid-1600s, known as the Piscataways and the many lived on farmsteads on easily culti- Nanticokes. And both they and other vated stretches of riverbank in the Indians in the region integrated Coastal Plain. As mentioned above, European dress, technology, religions, much of the English population and and other foreign introductions into their nearly all Africans remained in the cultures. Coastal Plain throughout the period. In Indians, Europeans, and Africans also the later decades of the period, tens of came more and more to consider them- thousands of German and Scots-Irish selves and each other as distinct races. immigrants settled in the Piedmont area. Free, enslaved, and indentured people distinguished themselves from one Ⅺ CREATION OF SOCIAL another, while rich merchants and farm- INSTITUTIONS ers claimed the privileges and respect accorded nobility in their mother coun- Although archeologists and scholars dis- tries. In the Piedmont region, many agree about their identity and social immigrants from Scotland and Ireland development, most agree that the Indian established what scholars refer to as a cultures of the region were already expe- backwoods cultural identity, which was riencing dramatic cultural change by closely tied to an emerging frontier 1607, nearly a century after the first ethos. In contrast, the tidewater society Europeans traveled into Chesapeake Bay. was dominated by the same kinds of As mentioned earlier, Susquehannocks Englishmen as those ruling the home fleeing Iroquois enemies and seeking country. And whatever their race, class, new lands near rich resources moved or caste, people in particular provinces south onto the Piedmont lands of the began to form provincial identities. Shenks Ferry people by 1575. Farther Eventually, all became Americans. south, members of what archeologists call the Potomac Creek culture evidently The social lives of all Chesapeake Bay pressed eastwards, for reasons still people centered on the family. Indian unknown, down the Potomac and Rap- families tended to be large groups of kin pahannock Rivers onto the Coastal Plain, tracing relations back many generations. where they became known as Potomacs, These were linked to other families and Rappahannocks, and Nanticokes. And communities by bonds of marriage and everywhere, Indian communities came alliance. By contrast, colonial families together in new combinations and devel- generally consisted of a single set of oped new cultural identities. spouses, their children, and a few other relatives, all living in a single household.

The Cultural Landscapes of Contact and Colonization 67 Both natives and newcomers hoped for traditional beliefs. Indians and Africans many children. Children shared house- were not the only people whose spiritual hold chores, and a large number assured traditions were challenged by change in that the family would continue, as many this period; members of different of those born did not live to reach maturity. Christian denominations found them- selves at odds with one another as well. Both Indians and colonists divided labor Political changes in the home country along gender lines. Although particularly resulted in struggles pitting Catholic, talented women could rise to leadership Anglican, and Puritan colonists against positions in both societies, men usually one another. And the Great Awakening dominated public life. Women took care challenged the authority of established of domestic responsibilities and played Protestant denominations. This religious prominent roles in religious life, food revival, as mentioned, swept across the processing, and marketing. Men’s first region in the mid- to late 1700s. Ministers responsibility was to protect the commu- preached what became known as New nity from harm, but they also hunted Light doctrines, promoting social equal- game and performed heavy labor. Both ity in the eyes of God. This reflected and colonial men and women did farmwork, stimulated desires for freedom that but only women cultivated planting found expression when the War for fields in native communities. Although Independence broke out in 1775. colonial women could and did own property, customs limiting their right to As with the Indians, European and vote resulted in legal codes favoring African families saw to the education of men. Indian law focused on matters of younger children. For further study, concern to families and communities, churches or church societies operated and it allowed both men and women to schools of higher learning, such as the College of William and voice their concerns and interests. College of William and Mary, which Mary, Virginia was opened in Williamsburg, Virginia in Ⅺ EXPRESSING CULTURAL 1693. These schools educated the chil- VALUES dren of colonial elites and small num- bers of Indian converts. All Chesapeake Bay Indian societies believed in a Great Spirit, in the presence Indian people in the region made many of a spiritual essence in all matter, and in objects to represent the spiritual powers an afterlife. Each honored these beliefs underlying their beliefs. These included with their own rituals, ceremonies, and masks and regalia, carved posts, charms, traditions. Organized priesthoods drew tobacco pipes, and line drawings cut members from influential families. These into or painted on rocks, cliffs, and boul- priests ran religious ceremonies in ders. Coastal Plain priests managed tem- Coastal Plain chiefdoms. Piedmont peo- ples, shrines, dancing grounds, and ple, in contrast, followed the guidance of group burial sites. Piedmont people wor- individual medicine men and women shiped on town dance grounds, in the blessed by visions. Indian families over- houses of chiefs, and at hidden, sacred saw the education of their young and the places at rapids, caves, and other loca- assimilation of adopted war captives, for- tions they regarded as passages to the eign spouses, and other outsiders. spirit world. Piedmont families buried their dead individually or in cemetery Protestant ministers and Catholic priests enclosures. They marked graves with urged Indian people to convert to wooden posts, offerings, and mementos. Christianity. Although most native people who chose to remain in their homelands Colonists also left cultural imprints on did convert, many also continued to the landscape of this period. Protestant practice their traditional religions. Exiled and Catholic settlers marked many of from home and isolated from their coun- their settlements with the spires of frame, tryfolk, enslaved and free Africans also brick, or stone churches. Most were nar- did what they could to maintain their row structures containing rows of pews

68 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION divided by a central aisle. Ministers and priests ran the services from altars and speaking platforms at the end of this aisle; baptismal fonts were generally on the side of the building. The steeples at the tops of the buildings held crosses, and these steeples housed bells rung to call congregations to worship. Those liv- ing in or near settlements buried their dead in graveyards next to places of wor- ship. Plantation and farm families in remote locations tended to bury family members and slaves in separate grave- yards on their property (see Figure 25). Today, we can see the beliefs, values, and traditions of the colonists of this period most visibly in their churches, graves, Figure 25: Memorial Landscape: Family grave plot at Wye House, Maryland, 1998. (Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service) and college campuses. Chesapeake colonists also supported Europeans managed to seize control of more secular cultural institutions as time the region by the third quarter of the sev- went on. Many settlers expressed them- enteenth century. selves through what we now call folk Provincial governors and their lieu- painting and carving. Theater first came tenants were appointed or approved by to the colonies when Scottish merchant the Crown. They were advised by coun- William Levingston opened the first play- cils made up of influential colonists. house in Williamsburg in 1717. Limited Each province had a legislature, whose by the region’s lack of suitably trained members were periodically elected by actors, Levingston solved the problem by property owning freemen who repre- offering indentures to actors and sented voting districts such as counties actresses willing to bring British theater and parishes. This legislature was respon- skills to the colonies. sible for enacting laws and raising rev- enues to pay the governor’s salary and Ⅺ SHAPING THE POLITICAL cover other costs of government. During this period, provincial legislators–all LANDSCAPE men–did not extend voting rights to Coastal Plain Indian societies were ruled Indians, Africans, Jews, indentured ser- by chiefs born to leadership. Farther vants, or their wives and most other colo- inland, Piedmont communities chose nial women. Some people supported the chiefs according to their abilities and concept of autocratic rule by hereditary merit. Whatever system was used, all nobilities. Others favored opening gov- Chesapeake Bay Indian people relied on ernment to all people of proven ability consensus to make decisions throughout regardless of background. People were this period. Community members further divided by differences in class, responded cooperatively to problems religion, locality, ethnicity, and opinion. and opportunities, working collectively Tensions between such groups flared up whenever possible to shape their politi- often, but open violence of the type cal landscape. But the shape of this polit- briefly acted out in Bacon’s Rebellion ical landscape changed dramatically did not become widespread until the through contact with Europeans. Revolutionary War broke out in 1775. Europeans used a complex political sys- tem that balanced inherited leadership positions with leaders appointed for their abilities to lead. Effectively using this sys- tem combining prerogative and skill,

The Cultural Landscapes of Contact and Colonization 69 Ⅺ DEVELOPING THE The colonists also grew and processed CHESAPEAKE ECONOMY tobacco in increasing quantities. Tobacco became the export item that Indian economies centered on hunting, moved the colonial economy beyond fishing, foraging, and cultivating gardens basic subsistence. Used as a medium of at the beginning of this period. Deer, exchange in the cash-starved region, bear, and other animals provided meat tobacco was shipped overseas, and its and fat for food, bone and sinew for value was returned in the forms of manu- tools, and skin for clothing and shelter. factured goods, slaves, and other Fish, shellfish, wildfowl, wild berries and imports. Many Coastal Plain planters nuts, corn, beans, and squash appeared soon started buying and selling goods, on menus in season. Since they depend- thus becoming merchants. Merchants ed mostly on resources available at cer- traded imported items for the timber tain times and locations, Indian people being cut and milled in the Piedmont. periodically moved from place to place They soon began building ships, docks, to harvest economically important min- and warehouses in ports along navigable erals, plants, and animals. Although stretches of Chesapeake Bay waterways. some long distance trade occurred, most This trade became so important to the Chesapeake Bay people depended on region’s economy that the Crown’s efforts local systems of production and to regulate it played a major role in con- exchange. vincing many Chesapeake Bay colonists In early contacts with Europeans, Indians to resist extension of royal authority in began participating in an exchange the region. economy in which they traded furs, food, and information for metal tools, Ⅺ EXPANDING SCIENCE AND glass beads, cloth and woolen textiles, and other manufactured goods. Pressing TECHNOLOGY ever westward to new markets and sup- Chesapeake Bay Indian technology con- plies, the fur trade played a significant sisted primarily of stone, bone, shell, role in the changing economic fortunes horn, wood, clay, fiber, and unsmelted of Indians and those doing business with copper implements at the beginning of them. It continued to do so in later years, this period. They fashioned clay into as we will see in the next chapter. cooking and storage pots and tobacco Indians in the Chesapeake Bay region pipes. They spun milkweed and hemp grew dependent on trade with into cordage and knitted it into baskets Europeans in this period, but they lost and bags. They quarried stone from out- neither the ability nor the desire to feed, crops or gathered cobbles in streams, clothe, and shelter themselves. then chipped or ground them to fashion The English settlers also valued self suffi- hatchets, knives, scrapers, spearheads, ciency. To attain it, they quickly devel- and other tools that they tied, glued, or oped agricultural economies able to inserted into handles of wood, bone, or sustain their new colonies. At first they horn. Chipped stone projectile points adopted Indian crops. Then they used also tipped arrow shafts, while ground their growing numbers of slaves to clear stone hatchets cut down trees and enough land to grow wheat and other chipped charred wood from the hearts Old World grains. Their imported, free of logs hollowed out to fashion canoes. ranging pigs and cattle provided meat Europeans brought other forms of tech- and leather and ravaged unfenced nology to the region, ones based on Indian gardens. Horses and oxen drew smelted metal, glass, and spun fabric. plows and pulled wagons on new dirt Unlike Indians, who relied mostly on fire roads. Dammed Piedmont streams and and their own muscles for power, Coastal Plain winds and tidal waters colonists also harnessed the energies of powered grinding stones, pumps, press- wind, water, and domesticated animals. es, and hammers in the region’s mills. Indians adopted those aspects of

70 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION European technology that fit their needs changed temperature, humidity, and and tastes. Far from destroying their cul- groundwater levels, as well as by tures, this gradual adoption of aspects of increased erosion. River-borne sediments European technology helped native peo- and nutrients rose as the overall volumes ple adapt to the stresses of contact in this of dammed rivers fell. And nutrient-rich, period. slow moving or still water provided ideal breeding grounds for mosquitoes and Potters and other colonial artisans along other insects. These insects carried the Coastal Plain kept abreast of techno- malaria, yellow fever, and other diseases logical developments in Europe, and affecting people and other animals. And great changes also came from Europe to when these altered waters flowed into the interior. German and Scandinavian Chesapeake Bay, they changed condi- immigrants built log houses in the tions in spawning grounds, hatcheries, Piedmont that resembled those common shellfish beds, and other habitats. in their home countries. Piedmont immi- grants tended charcoal fired furnaces to Further inland, sediments washing into smelt iron ore quarried from nearby waterways from deforested lands gradu- mines. And, as noted, these immigrants ally made smaller rivers unnavigable. even improved on existing technologies. Early port towns, such as Bladensburg, Bladensburg , Immigrant artisans developed glassworks on the Anacostia River across from pre- Joppa Town and Port Tobacco, near exposed outcrops of sand, trans- sent-day Washington, D.C., Joppa Town Maryland formed smoothbore musket technology on the Gunpowder River above present- into the highly accurate long ranged day Baltimore, and, most notably, Port Pennsylvania long rifle, built sturdy Tobacco at the mouth of the lower Conestoga wagons from the region’s Potomac tributary of the same name, fell abundant wood and iron resources, into decline after silt filled their water- crafted cast iron plows, and produced ways and closed them to commerce. other implements using local materials Contact also resulted in the introduction to create tools adapted to cope with of many new species and the reduction American conditions. or disappearance of others. Mostly because Europeans valued the furs of Ⅺ TRANSFORMING THE certain animals highly and Indians ENVIRONMENT trapped these animals to sell them, the populations of these animals fell drasti- Most scholars agree that the first cen- cally. And because Old World domesti- turies of contact between Indians, cated animals such as pigs, cattle, and Europeans, and Africans resulted in the horses were allowed to forage freely in greatest environmental change in the forests and salt meadows, they altered region since the last Ice-Age. As men- environments and competed with native tioned earlier, ecological relationships in animals for food and shelter. As men- forest communities had long been main- tioned earlier, settlers in the region all tained by periodic burning, but this but eradicated wolves, panthers, and stopped when Indians were forced from other predators because they preyed on entire areas. Leaving unused woodlands these domestic animals. Accidents also unmanaged, Europeans cut all of the influenced the environment; uninten- trees from increasingly vast areas to cre- tionally introduced plants and animals ate planting grounds, mill lumber, and such as honeysuckle vines, blue grasses, produce charcoal. Norway rats, and domestic cats also The colonists’ actions resulted in the transformed regional ecologies. And, as exposure of formerly forest-covered soils mentioned, some scholars believe that and in new bodies of standing water the large amounts of fruit hanging on impounded behind mill dams. newly planted orchard trees in this peri- Conditions in these new miniature envi- od may have helped raise the population ronments differed from those surround- of passenger pigeons to unstable levels. ing them. They were characterized by Passing flocks of these birds were said to

The Cultural Landscapes of Contact and Colonization 71 blot out the sun for hours at a time, until 1775, then, locally born Chesapeake resi- hunters slaughtered them to extinction a dents and new immigrants fought the century later. war as people who had grown apart from their mother countries and trans- Larger environmental shifts, such as the formed themselves into a new society. Little Ice-Age that lowered temperatures throughout the world in the second half of the 1700s, also affected ecological FURTHER INFORMATION relationships in ways that are still not clearly understood. Although greater Representative examples of the vast changes would occur in subsequent literature surveying Chesapeake Bay years, the beginnings of many transfor- life, culture, and history during this mations in the regional environment can period include the following: be traced to this period. David L. Ammerman and Philip D. Morgan, eds., Books about Early Ⅺ CHANGING ROLE OF THE America (1989). CHESAPEAKE IN THE Jacob Cooke, ed., Encyclopedia of the WORLD COMMUNITY North American Colonies (3 vols., 1993). Contact between Indians, Europeans, Wesley Frank Craven, The Southern and Africans in the Chesapeake Bay Colonies in the Seventeenth Century region opened a wider world than any of (1970). these groups had ever known. Each dis- covered people, practices, and possibili- Paul Metcalf, ed., Waters of Potowmack ties never imagined. And, forced to live (1982). together, all were transformed. Because James Henretta and Gregory Nobles, they needed to bend somewhat to sur- Evolution and Revolution (1987). vive in this new social setting, new W. Stitt Robinson, The Southern Colonial beliefs, customs, and identities emerged. Frontier,1607-1763 (1979). In the Chesapeake, these accommoda- tions created several new sorts of society. Ian K. Steele, The English Atlantic, 1675- One, centered on the Coastal Plain, was 1740 (1986). a slave-based economy of large and Key sources for Chesapeake Bay small tidewater plantations, rationalized cultural geography include these by a new ideology of race. Another was works: a new Piedmont backwoods culture that valued self reliance, innovation, and Lester J. Cappon, ed., Atlas of Early dominance over Indians, who were American History (1976). forced into isolated reservations in David J. Cuff, et al., eds., The Atlas of remote, barren lands and swamps. Pennsylvania (1989). At first the Chesapeake Coastal Plain was James E. DiLisio, Maryland, A Geography a frontier on the borders of Indian, (1983). European, and African worlds. Gradually, Donald W. Meinig, The Shaping of it combined elements of these worlds to America.Volume 1: Atlantic America, create a unique cultural identity. Tide- 1492-1800 (1986). water people built, sailed, and erected harbor facilities for oceangoing vessels Edward C. Papenfuse and Joseph M. capable of making an Atlantic crossing Coale, eds., The Hammond-Harwood in as little as six weeks. Such vessels per- House Atlas of Historical Maps of mitted the importing and exporting of Maryland,1608-1908 (1982). goods and ideas quickly and with rela- John R. Stilgoe, Common Landscape of tive ease. Farther west, the Piedmont America,1580 to 1845 (1982). became a frontier to this cosmopolitan Helen Hornbeck Tanner, ed., The Settling tidewater culture. When war broke out in of North America (1995).

72 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION Derek Thompson, et al., Atlas of General overviews of Indian life in Maryland (1977). the region may be found here: These are among the major Bruce G. Trigger, ed., Northeast (Vol. 15, ecological surveys: Handbook of North American Indians, (1978). Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside (1990). Wilcomb E. Washburn, ed., History of Indian-White Relations (Vol. 4, Hand- James P. Thomas, ed., Chesapeake book of North American Indians, 1988). (1986). David A. Zegers, ed., At the Crossroads: A More detailed information on Natural History of Southcentral Chesapeake Bay Native Americans Pennsylvania (1994). appears in these sources: Dennis C. Curry, Feast of the Dead (1999). Useful cultural landscape studies include the following: Frederic A. Gleach, Powhatan’s World and Colonial Virginia (1997). Michael Conzen, ed., The Making of the American Landscape (1990). Helen C. Rountree, The Powhatan Indians of Virginia (1989). Carville V. Earle, The Evolution of a Tidewater Settlement System (1975). ——-, Pocahontas’s People (1990). Jack Temple Kirby, Poquosson (1995). ——-, ed., Powhatan Foreign Relations, 1500-1722 (1993). Jerome H. Wood, Jr., Conestoga Crossroads (1979). ——-, and Thomas E. Davidson, Eastern Shore Indians of Virginia and Maryland These works are among the many (1998). histories of particular colonies: These are among the archeological Carol Ashe, Four Hundred Years of studies surveying the record of Virginia, 1584-1984: An Anthology contact in the region: (1985). Jay Custer, Prehistoric Cultures of Eastern Warren M. Billings, et al., Colonial Pennsylvania (1996:301-18). Virginia (1986). Richard J. Dent, Jr., Chesapeake Pre- Carl Bode, Maryland: A Bicentennial history (1995:259-85). History (1978). Robert S. Grumet, Historic Contact Robert J. Brugger, Maryland: A Middle (1995). Temperament,1634-1980 (1988). Barry C. Kent, Susquehanna’s Indians Suzanne Chapelle, et al., Maryland: A (1984). History of Its People (1986). Stephen R. Potter, Commoners,Tribute, Aubrey C. Land, Colonial Maryland: A and Chiefs (1993). History (1981). David B. Quinn, ed., Early Maryland in a These are among the substantial Wider World (1982). number of sources chronicling the archeology of colonial life: Richard L. Morton, Colonial Virginia (2 vols., 1960). John L. Cotter, Archeological Excavations at Jamestown,Virginia (1994). Edward C. Papenfuse, et al., Maryland: A New Guide to the Old Line State James Deetz, Flowerdew Hundred (1979). (1984). Morris L. Radoff, The Old Line State: A Thomas Davidson, Free Blacks on the History of Maryland (1971). Lower Eastern Shore of Maryland (1991). Emily J. Salmon, ed., A Hornbook of Virginia History (1983). Ivor Noël Hume, Martin’s Hundred (1982).

Further Information 73 ——-, Here Lies Virginia (1994a). Kathleen Brown, Good Wives, Nasty ——-, The Virginia Adventure (1994b). Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs (1996). William M. Kelso, Kingsmill Plantation, 1619-1800 (1984). Lois Green Carr, et al., eds., Colonial Chesapeake Society (1988). Dennis Pogue, King’s Reach and 17th- Century Plantation Life (1990). Dieter Cunz, The Maryland Germans (1948). Theodore R. Reinhart and Dennis J. Pogue, eds., The Archaeology of Seven- Isaac M. Fein, The Making of an teenth-Century Virginia (1993). American Jewish Community (1971) . Paul A. Shackel, et al., eds., Annapolis Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole, eds., Pasts (1998). Colonial British America (1984). David G. Shomette, Tidewater Time James Horn, Adapting to a New World Capsule (1995). (1994). C. Malcolm Watkins and Ivor Noël Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Hume, The “Poor Potter” of Yorktown Virginia: 1740-1790 (1982) . (1967). Terry G. Jordan and Matti Kaups, The American Backwoods Frontier (1989). Writings of early observers may be consulted here: Suzanne Lebsock, Virginia Women, 1600- 1945 (1987). Philip L. Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (3 vols., Roland C. McConnell, Three Hundred 1986). and Fifty Years (1985). Robert Beverly, The History and Present Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, State of Virginia (1947). American Freedom (1975). Warren M. Billings, ed., The Old James R. Perry, The Formation of a Society Dominion in the Seventeenth Century on Virginia’s Eastern Shore, 1615-1655 (1975). (1990). Melvin L. Brown, et al. Comments on the Vera F. Rollo, The Black Experience in Vegetation of Colonial Maryland Maryland (1980). (1987). Darrett B. and Anita H. Rutman, A Place Joseph and Nesta Ewan, eds., John in Time (2 vols., 1984). Bannister and His Natural History of Donald G. Shomette, Pirates on the Virginia,1678-1692 (1970). Chesapeake (1985). Wayne Franklin, Discoverers, Explorers, Daniel Blake Smith, Inside the Great Settlers (1979). House (1980). Clayton Colman Hall, ed., Narratives of James Morton Smith, ed., Seventeenth- Early Maryland,1633-1684 (1910). Century America (1959). Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Thad W. Tate and David L. Ammerman, Virginia (1964). eds., The Chesapeake in the Seven- Karen O. Kupperman, ed., Captain John teenth Century (1979). Smith (1988). Race relations and the impact of Lyon Gardiner Tyler, ed., Narratives of slavery are examined here: Early Virginia,1607-1625 (1907). Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone (1998). Major issues confronting colonial ——-, and Philip D. Morgan, eds., The society in the Chesapeake are Slave’s Economy (1991). addressed in these books: ——-, eds., Cultivation and Culture T. H. Breen, Tobacco Culture (1985). (1993)

74 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION T. H. Breen and Stephen Innes, “Myne Robert B. Harmon, Government and Owne Ground” (1980). Politics in Maryland (1990). Wesley Frank Craven, White, Red, and David William Jordan, Foundations of Black (1971). Representative Government in Mary- Ronald L. Lewis, Coal, Iron, and Slaves land,1632-1715 (1987). (1979). John Kukla, Political Institutions in Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, Virginia,1619-1660 (1989). American Freedom (1975). Aubry C. Land, et al., eds., Law, Society, Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint and Politics in Early Maryland (1977). (1997). Charles S. Syndor, Gentlemen Freeholders Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion (1952). (1978). Among the many studies addressing Mechal Sobel, The World They Made the causes of Revolution in the Chesa- Together (1987). peake region are the following: Alden T. Vaughan, ed., Roots of American Charles Albro Barker, The Background of Racism (1995). Revolution in Maryland (1940). William H. Williams, Slavery and Joseph Albert Ernst, Money and Politics Freedom in Delaware, 1639-1865 in America,1755-1775 (1973). (1996). Alice Hanson Jones, Wealth of a Nation Gilbert L. Wilson, An Introduction into the to Be (1980). History of Slavery in Prince George’s Edmund and Helen Morgan, The Stamp County (1991). Act Crisis (1963). These works offer summaries of Exemplary accounts of political lives cultural developments in the region: include these: Richard Beale Davis, Intellectual Life in Philip L. Barbour, The Three Worlds of the Colonial South, 1585-1763 (3 vols., Captain John Smith (1964). 1978). ——-, Pocahontas and Her World (1969). Helen Chappell, Chesapeake Book of the Dead (1999). Robert S. Tilton, Pocahontas: The Evo- lution of an American Narrative (1994). William H. Williams, The Garden of American Methodism (1984). Alden T. Vaughan, American Genesis: Captain John Smith and the Founding Works of historical fiction providing of Virginia (1975). insights available nowhere else Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Governor include these: and the Rebel (1957). John Barth, The Sot-Weed Factor (1960). Basic information on economic life Ebenezer Cooke, The Sot-Weed Factor during the period may be found (1708). here: Richard Harwood, ed., Talking Tidewater John J. McCusker and Russell R. Menard, (1996). The Economy of British America James A. Michener, Chesapeake (1978). (1991). Thomas Pynchon, Mason and Dixon Allan Kulikoff, Tobacco and Slaves (1997). (1986). Useful analyses of key aspects of Other key economic sources include colonial political life can be found in these: these volumes: Percy W. Bidwell and John I. Falconer, Jack P. Greene, The Quest for Power History of Agriculture in the Northern (1963). United States 1620-1860 (1925).

Further Information 75 Lois Green Carr, et al., Robert Cole’s These are among the many sources World (1991). on colonial architecture and Paul G. E. Clemens, The Atlantic Economy buildings: and Colonial Maryland’s Eastern Shore Pamela James Blumgart, At the Head of (1980). the Bay: A Cultural and Architectural Avery O. Craven, Soil Exhaustion as a History of Cecil County, Maryland Factor in the Agricultural History of (1995). Virginia and Maryland, 1606-1860 Michael Bourne, Historic Houses of Kent (1925). County (1998). James G. Gibb, The Archaeology of Wealth ——-, et al., Architecture and Change in (1996). the Chesapeake (1998). Lewis C. Gray, History of Agriculture in the Bernard L. Herman, Architecture and Southern United States to 1860 (1932). Rural Life in Central Delaware, 1700- Allan Kulikoff, Agrarian Origins of 1900 (1987). American Capitalism (1992). Gabrielle M. Lanier and Bernard L. Sally McGrath and Patricia McGuire, eds., Herman, Everyday Architecture of the The Money Crop (1992). Mid-Atlantic (1997). Gloria L. Main, Tobacco Colony (1983). Calder Loth, Virginia Landmarks of Black History (1995). Arthur Pierce Middleton, Tobacco Coast (1984). George W. McDaniel, Hearth and Home (1982). Edward C. Papenfuse, In Pursuit of Profit (1975). Marcia Miller and Orlando Ridout V, eds., Architecture in Annapolis (1998). Glenn Porter, ed., Regional Economic History of the Mid-Atlantic Area Since Susan G. Pearl, Prince George’s County 1700 (1976). African-American Heritage Survey (1996). Jacob M. Price, Capital and Credit in British Overseas Trade (1980). Dell Upton, ed., America’s Architectural Roots (1986a). John C. Rainbolt, From Prescription to Persuasion (1974). ——-, ed., Holy Things and Profane(1986b). James H. Soltow, The Economic Role of Williamsburg (1965). ——-, and John Michael Vlach, eds., Common Places (1986). Gregory A. Stiverson, Poverty in a Land of Plenty (1977). Donna Ware, Ann Arundel’s Legacy: The Historic Properties of Ann Arundel These are among the useful sources County (1990). on colonial technology: Christopher Weeks, ed., Where Land and Henry Glassie, Pattern in the Material Folk Water Intertwine: An Architectural Culture of the United States (1968). History of Talbot County, Maryland (1984a). Brooke O. Hindle, ed., America’s Wooden Age (1975). ——-, ed., Between the Nanticoke and the Choptank (1984b). Ross F. Holland, Jr., Maryland Lighthouses of the Chesapeake Bay: An Illustrated History (1997). Terry G. Jordan, American Log Buildings (1985). David G. Shomette, Shipwrecks on the Chesapeake (1982).

76 CHAPTER FIVE: CONTACT AND COLONIZATION