University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
STUDY ON THE INVOLVEMENT OF CHILDREN IN SURFACE MINING
IN MPOHOR WASSA EAST DISTRICT, WESTERN REGION, GHANA
BY FLORENCE AYISIANNOR
(10000196)
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD
OF M.PHEL SOCIAL WORK DEGREE University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
397925 LI he University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this report is my original work, and where other persons' ideas
have been utilised, these have been duly acknowledged. My supervisors have been
Dr. Ellen Bortei-Doku Aryeetey, of the Centre for Social Policy Study (CSPS),
University of Ghana (UG) and Dr. Kofi Ohene Konadu of the Social Work
Department. However, I am solely responsible for the contents of this study
FLORENCE AYISIANNOR
(STUDENT) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
ACCEPTANCE
Accepted by the Faculty of Social Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of M. Phil Social Work degree
*
DR. ELLEN BORTEI-DOKU ARYEETEY DR. KOFI OHENE KONADU
(PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR) (SUPERVISOR) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my husband Nii Kwatei Quartey who has always been there for me, my boss, Mr. Sylvester Kyei-Gyamfi for his support and countless help, and
to my parents Rev. Dr. Kennedy Obiri Annor and Mrs. Beatrice Obiri Annor for
their love and support. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Finally a chapter is over, thank God. My deepest appreciation goes to my supervisors, Dr. Ellen Bortei-Doku Aryeetey and Dr. Ohene Konadu for their guidance towards the successful completion of this work. My heartfelt thanks go to my former Director, Mr. Peter Eduful and all my colleagues at the office for their support.
I am thankful to all the children and adults I interacted with in Mpohor, whose input formed the basis of this work. To my Field Assistants I say Thank you guys for the wonderful work done. I would also like to acknowledge the hospitality granted me by the staff of the Mpohor East District Assembly during the data collection. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Pa8e
Title Page *
Declaration
Acceptance iii
Dedication i y
Acknowledgement v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xiii
List of Acronyms
Abstract IItf ^ (pi )*}i Chapter 1 Background ^
1.1 Problem Statement 2
1.2 Objectives of the Study 3
1.3 Research Questions 3
1.4 Rationale of Study 4
1.5 Conceptual Framework 4
Chapter 2 Literature Review 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Nature of Child Labour in Small Scale Mining 9
2.3 Involvement of Children in Surface Mining in Ghana 11
2.4 Economic Importance of Small-Scale Mining 13
2.5 Roles and Tasks of Child Workers in Mining 14
2.6 Gender Aspects 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Title Page
2.7 Effects of Mining on Children 17
2.7.1 Health 18
2.7.2 Education 20
2.7.3 Leisure and Recreation 23
2.7.4 Environment and Social Impact 23
2.8 Causes of Child Labour in Mining 24
2.8.1 Demand for Labour 24
2.8.2 Poverty 24
2.8.3 Family Size 25
Chapter 3 Methodology 26
3.1 Profile of Study Area 26
3.1.1 Demography 28
3.1.2 Economic Activity 29
3.2 Sampling Procedure 29
3.2.1 Selection of Study Area 29
3.2.2 Study Population 30
3.2.3 Target Population 30
3.2.4 Sampling Frame 30
3.2.5 Selection of Respondents 31
3.2.6 Training of Field Assistants 31
3.3 Source and Type of Data 32
3.3.1 Observation 32
3.3.2 Key informant Interviews 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Title Page
3.3.3 Child Interviews 33
3.3.4 Focus Group Discussion 34
3.3.5 Questionnaire 34
3.4 Limitations of the Study 34
3.5 Data Handling 35
3.6 Organisation of Report 35
3.7 Operational Definitions 36
Chapter 4 Discussion of Findings 38
4.1 Demographic Information and Living Conditions of Children 38
4.1.2 Age and Sex Distribution of Children 38
4.1.3 Ethnicity 39
4.1.4 Education Background of Children 40
4.1.5. Place of Birth 43
4.1.6 Current Place of Residence 44
4.1.7 Reasons for Moving 45
4.1.8 Person the Child Lives With at Time of Study 46
4.1.9 Main Occupation of the Person Child Live With 46
4.1.10 Sleeping Arrangements 47
4.1.11 Type of Meals Available to Children 49
4.1.12 Sleeping Materials 51
4.1.13 Condition of Roof of Building 51
4.1.14 Type of Health Facility Used 52
viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Title Page
4.1.15 Water and Sanitation 53
4.2 Involvement in Mining Activities 55
4.2.1 Involvement in any Labour Activities
for the Last Six Months 56
4.2.2 Involvement of Children in Mining Activities in the
Past Six Months 56
4.2.3 Age at Which the Children Got Involved
In Mining Activities 56
4.2.4 Education Level of Working Children 57
4.2.5 Reasons for Dropping out of School 58
4.2.6 Reasons for Involvement in Mining Activities 58
4.2.7 The Mining Process at Mpohor 60
4.2.8 Roles of Children in the Mining Process 63
4.3 Conditions of Work of Children Involved in Mining 64
4.3.1 Time Schedules for Work 64
4.3.2 Satisfaction with Time Schedule 65
4.3.3 Recruitment and Payment of Children 66
4.3.4 Satisfaction with pay and how it is spent 67
4.3.5 Break in between work 68
4.3.6 Duration of Break 68
4.3.7 Reasons for children working 69
4.4 Effect of the Mining Activities on Children 70
4.4.1 Dangers Associated with Roles 71
4.4.2 Exposure to Injuries 71
ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Title Page
4.4.3 Exposure to Mercury 72
4.4.4 Effect on Education 73
4.4.5 Effect on Health 75
4.5 Legal and Institutional Framework to
Prevent Child Labour in Mining 80
4.5.1 Legal Framework to Protect Children in Mining 80
4.5.2 Institutional Framework to Prevent Child Labour in Mining 82
4.5.3 Programmes Undertaken Within the Community
to Reduce the Involvement of Children in Mining Activities 86
Chapter 5 Conclusions and Recommendations 88
5.1 Conclusions 89
5.2 Recommendation 90
Bibliography 92
Appendix A 95
Appendix B 109
x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
LIST OF TABLES
Title Page
Table 2.1: Population Distribution of the
Mpohor Wassa East District 28
Table 4.1: Age distribution of children 39
Table 4.2: Ethnicity of Children 40
Table 4.3: Level of Education of Children 41
Table 4.4: Reasons for not Being in School 42
Table 4.5: Current Place of Residence of Children 44
Table 4.6: Reasons for Moving Given by Children 45
Table 4.7: Main Occupation of the Person Child Live With 47
Table 4.8: Person(s) with Whom Children Share a Room 49
Table 4.9 Number of Meals Per Day 50
Table 4.10: Age at Which Children Started Engagement
in Surface Mining Activities With Regard to Sex 57
Table 4.11: Public and Private Schools (Year 2005) 60
Table 4.12: Tasks Performed by Children with Regard to Sex 63
Table 4.13 Times for Starting Work 64
Table 4.14 Average Earnings per day by Children in Mining 66
Table 4.15: Responses of children regarding duration for breaks 69
Table 4.16: Main Reasons for Working 68
Table 4.17: Description of Work by Children 70
Table 4.18 Use of Mercury by Children 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Title Pa8e
Table 4.19 Effect of Mining Work on Education 74
Table 4.20 Explain your answer above 75
Table 4.21 Types of injuries suffered by children 76
Table 4.22: Top Ten Diseases in Mpohor Wassa East Districts in 2005 77
Table 4.23: Effect of mining chemicals on the health of child miners 77
Table 4.24: Children’s opinion of effects chemicals 78
Table 4.24 Type of Sensitization Programme by Organizer(s) 86
Table 4.25: Satisfaction with Frequency of sensitization Programmes 87
xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
LIST OF FIGURES
Title Page
Fig 1.1: Factors Affecting the Involvement and
Withdrawal of Children in Mining 8
Fig 3.1: Mpohor Wassa East District Map 27
Fig.4,1 Place of Birth 43
Fig.4.2 Percentage Distribution of Persons
Sharing Room with Child 48
Fig.4.3 Sleeping Materials 51
Fig. 4.4 Type of Health Facility Used By Children 52
Fig. 4.5 Main Source of Water 54
Fig. 4.6 Type of Toilet Facility Used 55
Fig.4.7: Satisfaction with Time of work: 65
Fig. 4.8 Percentage distribution of children allowed break 68
Fig. 4.9 Examples of Injuries Suffered By Children 72
xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
LIST OF ACRONYMS
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
ASIA DEV Asia Development and Economic News
BECE Basis Education Certificate Exams
BOPP Benso Oil Palm Plantation
CHRAJ Commission for Human Rights and Administrative Justice
CSO Civil Society Organizations
CSPS Centre for Social Policy Study
DA District Assembly
DCLMC District Child Labour Monitoring Committees
DHD District Health Directorate
DHMT District Health Management Team
DOC Department of Children
DOWSU Domestic Violence and Victims Support Unit
DSW Department of Social Welfare
GCLS Ghana Child Labour Survey
GH<£ Ghana Cedis
GHS Ghana Health Service
GLSS Ghana Living Standard Survey
GSS Ghana Statistical Service
ILO International Labour Organisation
IPEC International Programme for the Elimination of Child labour
JHS Junior High School
xiv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
KVIP Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit
LD Labour Department
LEAP Livelihood Enhancement Against Poverty
MDAs Ministries, Departments and Agencies
MESW Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare
MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey
MINERCOL State Mining Company of Colombia Ltd,
MWEDA Mpohor Wassa East District Assembly
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
NHIS National Health Insurance Scheme
NSCECL National Steering Committee for the Elimination of Child
Labour
NSPS National Social Protection Strategy
RCC Regional Coordinating Councils
SGL Satellite Goldfields Limited
SHS Senior High School
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
UG University of Ghana
UNCRC United Nation’s Convention on the Rights of the Child
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
WFFC World Fit For Children
WVI World Vision International University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
ABSTRACT
This report provides an insight into the involvement of children in surface mining activities. It endeavors to throw more light on the roles played by children in surface mining and the dangers faced by such children and the long term effect on their education and health.
The objectives of the study were to examine the living conditions of children in the study area, roles assigned to children in mining activities; the working conditions of such children; the effects of involvement mining on children; programmes undertaken by government agencies and child focus NGOs in the Mpohor Wassa
East District Assembly (MWEDA) to address involvement of children in mining.
The study also provides information on what can be done to reduce involvement of children in mining in the study area.
The data for the study was collected from the Mpohor in the MWEDA in the
Western Region of Ghana and is based on interviews with 100 children; 58 boys and 42 girls. Three focus group discussions were held; one for children and two for adults. The study employed basic and simple statistical tools to analyse the data.
Bivariate analysis is the main analytical tool used.
One of the key findings of the study is 32% of the children interviewed were engaged in surface mining at the time of the study, suggesting that, for every three children in the study area, one is in involved in surface mining a situation which is
xvi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
very alarming. The study revealed a higher involvement of boys, 19 than girls, and
13. Education profile of the children engaged in mining activities shows that 23 of
out of 32 children are in school as compared to 61 out of 68 children not engaged in
surface mining activities.
A major recommendation of the study is the need for programmes targeting parents’ economic background to be pursued by relevant agencies to reduce their dependence on the income brought in by children. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) Convention 182 on Worst Forms of
Child Labour, which Ghana has ratified, prohibits the use of children in mines and quarries. However, it is a common sight to see children carry loads of stones alongside their parents. It is estimated that, over 246 million children globally are engaged in child labour and nearly 70 per cent (171 million) of these children work in hazardous conditions. These include working in mines, working with chemicals and pesticides in agriculture or with dangerous machinery (UNICEF, 2007). A report: Background Document for Eliminating Child Labour in Mining and
Quarrying gives a global estimate of about 1 million children involved in mining activities (ELO/EPEC 2005). Even though this may be small when compared to the global estimate, the level of risks and hazards that these children are exposed to are very high and detrimental to their well-being.
In Ghana, a study commissioned by ILO’s International Programme for the
Elimination of Child labour (IPEC )and conducted by the Ghana Statistical Service
(GSS), in 2001; Ghana Child Labour Survey (GCLS), estimated the population of children between ages 5-17 in Ghana to be 6,361,111, and out of this number,
2,474,545 (39%) were engaged in some form of economic activity. The 2001 GCLS also established that 1,273,294 Ghanaian children are engaged in child labour from which 242,074 children participate in hazardous forms of child labour such as mining.
Children, by the virtue of their nature, are not emotionally, physically or socially mature enough to deal with complex issues associated with labour. Children are supposed to be nurtured and cared for to ensure they have the necessary skills to
1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
survive in society. The practice of child labour drives children at an early stage to deal with situations for which they are ill equipped. Children involved in labour lack bargaining skills and may not be able to determine situations that are dangerous to their health and development. As such child labourers grow up not having any special skills as adults; thus they will not earn a suitable living in the future making them a burden to society (ILO, 2003).
The above consequences of child labour call for urgent action to be taken to curb the situation. The thrust of this study was to gather information and present a true picture of the various activities being performed by children in the small-scale surface Gold mining industry. The study was undertaken in the Mporhor Wassa
East District (MWED) to ascertain the role performed by children in the mining process and it subsequent effect.
1.1 Problem Statement
Emerging reports from the media and organisations working with children show that children continue to be involved in mining activities despite its prohibition by article 32 of the United Nation’s Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) and Sections 12, 87 and 91 of the Ghana Children’s Act, 1998 (Act 560). However, there is not much empirical information on the role children play in mining and the subsequent consequences to their development in Ghana. It is, therefore, important to carry out research that will bring to the fore a true picture of the situation to inform policies and programmes of child related organizations.
2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1.2 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are to find out:
• The living conditions of children in the study area;
• Roles assigned to children in mining activities;
• The working conditions of such children;
• Effects of involvement mining on children;
• Programmes undertaken to address involvement of children in mining; and
• Suggest ways in which the involvement of children in mining could be
minimized.
1.3 Research Questions
Apparendy, most of the reports concerning child labour in mines, disturbing as they are, have been very scant and speculative. However the phenomenon still raises the following questions:
• What roles are being played by children in mining activities?
• What are the ages of the children involved?
• In what capacity are such children involved?
• Are such children attending school?
• Are they being exploited?
• What has been the institutional and/or community response to the issue?
• What is the way forward?
This study, therefore, seeks to find answers to these questions so as to make the necessary interventions where needed.
3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1.4 Rationale of Study The rationale of this study is to discover the roles being played by children in the
small-scale mining industry and the effects of these roles on their development. The
study will serve as a resource tool for future references and studies and also provide
information that will enhance a broader understanding of conditions and challenges
of children in the study area for practical policy and programs interventions.
1.5 Conceptual Framework
It is recognized that children need special protection because of their susceptibility
to exploitations. This has not, however, prevented children from suffering as a
consequence of decisions made and attitudes shown by adult of which they have
litde or no power. The UNCRC defines the child as any person below the age of 18.
The Children’s Act of Ghana also adopted the same definition for a child.
Underlined in these documents is the call for measures to be put in place by the
State for the adequate protection of children to ensure their development and
survival. Thus, children have the right to free compulsory basic education and basic
health and adequate skills for development. They are also to be protected to
guarantee their survival and effective participation in issues that affect their wellbeing.
ILO Briefing Notes on child labour, 2003 revealed that children involved in child
labour tend to suffer from:
• Musculoskeletal injuries from repetitive and forceful movements and lifting
and carrying heavy loads;
4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
• Heat exhaustion and high levels of sun exposure, which can result in skin
cancer;
• Injuries from cutting tools, ranging from minor cuts to severing of body
parts;
• Snake and insect bites and skin abrasions;
• Poisoning and long-term health problems from using or being exposed to
chemicals;
• Long working hours; and
• Stress
This study examined the involvement of children in surface mining activities as being influenced by Pull and Push Variables. The Push Variables are those that drive children to be involved mining activities. These include: the level of education of parents/guardians, the occupation of parents/guardians, the marital status of parents/guardians, the size of the family and the urgent need to get rich quickly by the children in the mining community. The Pull Variables in this study refers to the existence of a mining site in the community that draw children who have been made vulnerable by the push variables to engaged in mining activities to ensure their survival. These variables as strong as they may be are interface by external variables which may minimize or increase the strength of the pull or push variable.
These include the protective environment that exist within the community either, the quality of education, health and social services. The family or community perception about the involvement of children in labour activities may influence whether their children are involved in the mining process or not. If there is a strong belief or it have become a normal practice for children to be a source of income for
5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
the family, then it will be easy for children to be pushed into mining and the opposite may also hold.
However the effectiveness of government machinery and community efforts in ending the involvement of the children in mining activities, the number and types of development programmes/projects undertaken by both public and private organizations to protect children from involvement in mining gives children the opportunity to escape or be withdrawn from labour and integrated back into the community or the family. This presupposes that for children to be protected from labour in the mines, both public and the private sectors needs to work together for effective implementation of national laws and policies.
Children are often prompted to work by their parents. According to one study, parents represent 62 percent of the source of induction into employment. Children make their own decisions to work only 8 percent of the time (Syed et al. 1991). In developing countries children are seen as properties of the family and are expected in difficult circumstances to contribute their quota to the family income. (UNICEF,
1997)
Studies indicate that education, for instance, can influence the parents’ decisions in enrolling their children in school. Thus, the higher the educational level of parents, the more likely their children will attend school and stay out of the labour market
(UNICEF, 2000). A person’s occupational and economic status also has a direct bearing on his/her decision to send their children to school. Decisions taken by most parents in the midst of financial difficulties often discriminate against children University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
as children from poor household are three times more likely to be involved in child labour than those from rich households (MICS, 2006).
The conceptual framework of this study therefore explores issues relating to the conditions in the community and the family the push or pull children into mining, the nature of the economic activity in the area and protective environment in place in the community to ensure that children are protected from being engagement in mining. The relationship between the Push, Pull and Intermediate Factors to be investigated in this study is illustrated below in Figure 1.1.
7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Fig 1.1: Factors Affecting the Involvement and Withdrawal of Children in
Mining
EXTERNAL VARIABLES Protective environment Quality Education Quality Health Care Quality Social Welfare Family /Community Perception on children’s involvement in labour
PULL VARIABLE PUSH VARIABLE
Economic Background of parents/guardians EXISTENCE OF MINING Children in Mining Educational Background SITES WITHIN THE N------H of Parents/guardian COMMUNITY Marital Status of Guardian Size of family Need/urge to get rich quickly
■EXIST STRATEGIES-
PUBLLC PRIVATE Laws and policies Preventive actions by Effectiveness of with NGOs and the drawal and integration community members programmes Effective Monitoring visits to collaboration with communities public agencies By laws put in place byDA
Source: Designed by Author University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Many of the problems related to small-scale mining and, particularly, child labour in mining are linked to the fact that mining activities often take place in the informal sector and in remote areas. Coupled with the mobility of the mining operations, this makes it a difficult sub-sector to bring under administrative control in terms of occupational health, environmental protection and tax collection. In addition, the use of child labour in mining is strongly linked to the poverty that reigns in the remote mining districts where other forms of occupations are hard to find. Much of this informal, small-scale mining is isolated from the mainstream of economic development, which, in turn, contributes to its legal isolation, and prevents it from becoming a recognized economic activity with wide benefits to the people concerned.
2.2 Natnre of Child Labour in Small Scale Mining
Small-scale mining is an important reality in various regions of the world, including
Africa, Asia-Pacific, South and Central America, and Europe. The ILO estimates a global work force of thirteen million workers exist in small-scale mining activities around the world. Child labour in the mining sector is mainly associated with small scale mines in the informal sector. Due to the sub-sector’s remoteness, informal character and mobility, the number of children involved in mining activities is difficult to measure. However, the ILO estimates that nearly one million children from 5 to 17 years of age work in mines (ILO, 2005). Despite their small size, low productivity and simple equipment, small scale mines often contribute significantly to national economies. Informal mining refers to unregulated mining activities
9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
often operated by family members or close relatives without any license or formal permission. “The more remote and more informal a small-scale mining activity, the more likely children are to be involved" (ILO, 1999).
Studies conducted on child labour in mining have revealed some characteristics of small-scale mining that are recurrent around the world and influence the involvement of children in mining activities. These factors include: the use of labour intensive processes that calls for the use of children in order to cut the cost of labour, low levels of occupational safety and health protection which pose extreme risks to children working in mines, and low qualifications required of personnel at all levels of the operation which allows children with no background experience to be employed. Other factors include inefficiency in exploitation and processing of minerals that lead to low production and create a situation where families feel forced to employ their children to increase the family income (ILO-IPEC, 2004).
Insufficient knowledge or concern about the environmental hazards common in the mining areas by concession owners has led to the exposure of children to environmental, social and health hazards such as mercury poisoning.
In Africa, threats from a large number of regional and local conflicts and war influence the small-scale mining sub-sector. High value “conflict minerals” in war zones are often plundered and the mining sector is spread-out in an uncontrolled way. Extremely weak governments and a high degree of corruption and apathy also typify Africa. Child labour in mining is more recent in Africa, particularly where great numbers of AIDS orphans are concerned. Traditionally in African families, the extended family was a very good security institution for taking care of orphans
(ILO, 2004).
10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Today, the disintegration of the traditional extended family coupled with a growing number of orphans is forcing many children to take care of themselves. Children are attracted by small-scale mining operations (especially in central and southern
African mining countries where there are a great number of AIDS orphans) as the work provides them with their basic needs (ibid).
2.3 Involvement of Children in Surface Mining in Ghana
An Evaluation of the World Bank Group’s Activities in the Extractive Industries has estimated that the small scale mining sector employs up to 100,000 people which may include children. According to the report, the sector employs much more labour than large-scale mining companies making it a force to reckon with.
The study also says that, the sector is most likely to outlive large-scale mining due to the inexpensive nature of extracting ore and the potential for exploitative labour.
By absorbing large amounts of unskilled labor, they become valuable socio economic safety valves in a context of permanently high unemployment within mining communities (World Bank, 2003).
In Ghana, even though the exact number of children involved in small scale mining is unknown, there is evidence that children are involved in mining activities. The
2001 GCLS established that, 1,273,294 were engaged in child labour from which
242,074 children were engaged in hazardous child labour which includes mining.
In a study field visits to small scale mining sites in Western and Eastern Regions in
2006 by the Department of Children (DOC) on the roles of children in the small scale mining process, children cited reasons such as: the need to support the household income, paying for education, and the means of making a living as the motivating factors for their involvement in small scale mining (DOC 2006).
11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
In a Centre for Social Policy Studies (CSPS) of the University of Ghana (UG) study on girls in mining and quarrying in Ghana, it was discovered that girls work in a wide range of activities related to the whole production line of small scale mining and quarrying. They are involved in such basic tasks as cooking and cleaning as well as extraction of underground and surface ore. They also work in transporting the ore, its separation and subsequent metal production. According to the study
52.7% of the girls were still in school at the time of the study, while 38.2 % have abounded school for various reasons. For the children in this study the most prominent reason why they are engaged in mining is poverty, which is the need to supplement the family income. These children work six day a week (40%) and receive between 2.00 to 20.00 Ghana cedis a day (CSPS, 2007).
The main reason why children are involving themselves in mining activities is the inability of their parents to give them the basic necessities of life. For most children this means they are forced ore expected by their families to contribute to the household income or do the contribution on their own efforts (DOC, 2006). In the
CSPS study most children engaged in mining are doing so to supplement the family income, these children at the end of the day hand over the money they make to the head of house hold or save it, they are less likely to use the money for health care service. For this reason children do not seek medical help when needed as they are perceived as expensive (CSPS, 2007).
12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2.4 Economic Importance of Small-Scale Mining
In the countries where small-scale mining exists, its economic and social impacts are often important. In Nepal, for example, most of the mines are small-scale, but they make a substantial contribution to the economy and the social development of the nation (Aryal, B.R. et at. 2005). In Tanzania, gold and diamonds are exploited in small-scale mines which make up the largest contribution to the mineral exports
(Mwami, J.A.; Sanga, A.J.; Nyoni, J. 2002).
In Bolivia, mining is one of the important economic activities and corresponds to about 40% of the country’s foreign currency income. Thirty-two percent of the mining exports and 85% of the total employment generated by the sector come from mining cooperatives and other small-scale mines, which are sustained by the participation of all family members, including children and adolescents (UNICEF,
2003).
In Ghana, fingers obtained from the Minerals Commission (2002) revealed that over the past ten years, the mining sector has been a significant contributor to both formal and informal employment in the country. Up to 1995, the sector accounted for 20 % of formal sector employment with large-scale mining companies employing about 20,000 people, and the small-scale artisanal mining sector accounting for more than three times that number. According to the World Bank (2003) the small scale mining sector provides jobs to communities and families, and contributed 166,000 ounces of gold out of 2,336,000 in 2001 for export in the World market
13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2.5 Roles and Tasks of Child Workers in Mining
A study on the involvement of children in cocoa farming activities revealed that it is common to find children doing the same tasks as adults and sometimes receiving less pay for the same kind of work done (DOC 2005). According to the study children are involved in all aspect of the cocoa production process. The same pattern is seen in children in the mining sector. Children are working in a wide range of activities related to the whole production line of small-scale mining. They cover tasks from cooking and cleaning to the extraction of ore underground and on the surface, its transport and separation and subsequent metal production. Children are often required to do the same work as adult workers in a mining-related environment and in the household. They are also more likely to be paid less than the agreed upon before the start of work (DOC, 2006).
A study of 14 children in small-scale mining in Sibutad, Zamboanga del Norte,
Philippines revealed children are involved from the beginning of the mining process to the finish. Thus, children are involved in the digging of mud or rocks for crushing, carrying of mud or rocks to crushing sites, crushing of stones and processing to remove ore for refinement (Estrella-Gust, D.P. 1998). A study by
Mwami, J.A. et el. in 2002 on the involvement of children in Tanzania numerated the following tasks as those performed by children:
• • preparing and provisioning of food for the miners;
• • washing clothes;
• • working in the household;
• • selling food;
• • fetching drinking water and food to the worksite;
14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
attending in bars and restaurants; fetching fire wood; and cleaning of bars, restaurants, houses University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
• .,r ? 2.6 Gender Aspects I . ■ \ ■ The proportion of boys and girls working in mining activities is sometimes similar.
In Nepal, for example, where an estimated 32,000 children work in stone quarrying, girls and boys make up about 50% each. These girls and boys perform the same kind of work at the quarrying sites, but the work burden for girls is often bigger because in addition to the work in the mines, girls also do housework (Aryal,
B.R. et al 2005). Additionally, the considerable numbers of girls who are involved in various activities related to small-scale mining around the world have the added problem of more likely being the targets of abuse, such as sexual exploitation.
According to ELO, majority of the children working in informal gold-mining communities are boys. However, among the working children who are below the age of 13, the number of girls is larger than the number of boys. The reasons why girls start working earlier may be related to the type of work they undertake. As mentioned above, girls are often working in the household and/or in services related to the mining activities, which is work that is often accepted and even expected by their parents (ILO-IPEC. 2004).
In a sample of child labourers in small-scale mines in Colombia, more than half were males (61%). It is interesting to note, though, that while the majority of children are between 14-17 years of age (37.7%), the greatest concentration among the girls was between 8-11 years of age (33.4%) (ILO-IPEC&MINECOL, 2001). In some mining communities, on the other hand, mining is considered an activity for men, and, thus, there are fewer girls involved in child labour in the mining sector as compared to boys. According to a study of three mining sites in Tanzania, 19.7% of the child labourers are girls while 80.3% are boys. This imbalance is also explained
16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
by the "efforts by the district government to prohibit girls at the mining sites due to the fact that most of them were engaged in prostitution while they were there”
(Mwami, J.A.; Sanga, A.J.; Nyoni, J. 2002).
In the CSPS study on girls in mining and quarrying in Ghana, girls were not much involved in heavy duty work such as digging, soil cracking and grinding. Carrying of mud and stones to the sieving sites was the most predominant activity of girls in the mining areas studied. Only small proportions were involved in panning, mixing and refining activities and the other activities (CSPS 2007)
A clear example of this aspect is found in the study in Colombia. The study showed that despite the time the Colombian children spend in different mining activities, almost 60% received no payment, 6% are paid in kind and 34% are paid in money.
There are important differences between boys and girls, though: “while 40% of the boys are paid in money, 29.3% of the girls receive this type of income” (ILO/IPEC
& MINERCOL. 2001, p 51). However, the proportion of both boys and girls that are not paid decreases with the age.
2.7 Effects of Mining on Children
Children’s involvement in labour has adverse effects on their general development.
Due to the hard nature of the work involved, they may suffer physical as well as emotion consequences. Mining activities tend to also have environmental and social effects on children
17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2.7.1 Health The ILO has classified mining as one of the three most dangerous occupations to
work in along with agriculture and construction. Child labourers in mining are at
risk of being killed, severely injured, or suffering serious work-related health
problems. Many of the injuries and health problems may result in permanent
disability. Some health problems may not become apparent until the child worker is
an adult. Because their bodies and minds are growing and developing, child
labourers have an even greater risk of being injured or falling ill than adult workers.
Some children start working in mines at an early age, often alongside their older
family members. Like adults, they can face many kinds of dangers to their own
safety and health from working in such environments, but the effects of injuries and
ill-health on children can be even greater than those on adults. Children may not realize the dangers they face because of their lack of emotional as well as physical
maturity and general work experience. They may be under pressure to work harder
than they are physically capable of doing. Children in mining stand the chance of
suffering from back pain, cuts and abrasions, spinal injuries from carrying heavy loads, and falling. They are also at risk of noise pollution as a consequence of staying to close to cracking machines and blasting of rocks. Such children are also exposed to mercury poisoning as result of amalgamation (DOC 2006).
In gold mining, children are exposed to mercury often used in an indiscriminate way. In the traditional gold mining site of Mollehuaca, Peru, many young mineworkers show mercury contamination in their blood and hair. In a study from
1996, the average mercury concentration in the workplaces was almost eight times higher than the maximum established by Peruvian law (0.01 mg/m3). The study
18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
revealed in Mollehuaca, over 90% of the population was aware of the risks of mine work to their health, but the children consider they have a responsibility to help sustain the family (Martinez-Castilla, Z, 1999). Workers exposed to mercury can be poisoned resulting in gastrointestinal, hepatic and renal damage, and/or suffer long-term health effects which include permanent damage to the nervous system
(Dreisbach, R, 1987)
Small scale mining activities are mostly done in remote and inhospitable environments where there is poor sanitation and no access to clean drinking water, and it is necessary to work long hours in the open with little protection from the sun
(ILO, 2004). Moreover, there are often no first aid or medical facilities nearby to help stem the effects of any injuries that do occur.
According to ILO, in cases where the mining activities occur underground, children must winch down long vertical shafts on single ropes, crawl along tunnels not much wider than their body and work in cramped conditions in poor air quality (ILO,
2004). Children in underground mines face specific dangers such as tunnel collapses or rock falls and excessive inhalation of dust which may result in chronic breathing problems and eventually in lung diseases (DOC, 2006). Mines are hostile environments and working in them is dangerous, especially for children.
A study in Nepal shows that out of 220 children working in mines; almost 40% do not go to a health centre when they get sick. One reason for this may be the distance to the hospital or health centre from the place of residence; it was found that 61% of the child labourers had to walk more than 45 minutes to reach the nearest hospital or health centre (Martinez-Castilla, Z. 1999).
19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
In a study of some mining sites in Tanzania, some of the most common health hazards affecting the children (diarrhea and dysentery) can be attributed to their living conditions since the major source of water is a river where people bathe and wash which makes the drinking water unsafe. In addition, the alluvial sediments that contain mercury contaminate the water resources in the villages is an environmental problem that could cause debilitating health problems for the whole village population (Mwami, J.A.; Sanga, A.J.; Nyoni, J. 2002).
2.7.2 Education
A study undertaken on family level determinants of schooling in Africa has revealed that household per capita income or wealth has a positive association with greater demand for education or educational attainment (Montgomery, Koume and
Oliver, 1995). According to the study, children from rich homes have a greater tendency than those from poor families to be enrolled and complete school because of financial reasons.
According to Appleton et al (1990) and Lloyd and Blanc (1996), poor children are less likely to be enrolled and complete school because even when their families have the conviction to have them well educated, their weak financial position will not allow for this education. Family income or wealth is therefore a key variable that explains differences in education, educational opportunities and attainment between families. In Ghana a recent study has revealed that 83% of children aged
5-14 involved in labour as being in school however, what attention needs to focus on should be the attendance and quality participation of these children in school.
20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Small-scale mining districts often suffer from high school dropouts because of the work required of children. Families face a dilemma of their children’s earning versus learning. Miners can seldom afford education and children are sent to work because the children’s contribution is perceived to be essential for family survival.
Non-existent or difficult access to good and adequate education, especially secondary education, is also common and children with no access to education have little alternative but to enter the labour market. Studies across Africa have shown that, poverty as the main reason for primary school dropouts. In Tanzania,
16% of the children drop out of school due to a lack of resources and because their families could not provide for their educational needs. Furthermore, almost 70% of the children working in the mines were forced to stop their studies even if they were only in primary school as it was a way to raise money for their educational expenses (Mwami, J.A.; Sanga, A.J.; Nyoni, J. 2002).
Primary schools in mining areas were characterized by poor facilities, such as lack of classrooms, desks, textbooks and other necessary teaching equipment. In addition, not many of the children had access to secondary education. Thirteen percent of the children working at the three mining sites had completed their primary education but were not selected to join governmental secondary schools. In one village, between 1990 and 1997 only two students were admitted to secondary school which was discouraging for the children and parents. Indeed, discussions with the children revealed that they were forced into working in the mines because of the lack of alternatives and opportunities for further training. In addition, the
21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
nature of the primary education does not equip the pupils in the mining areas with skills that are direcdy useful to them when finishing their primary education (ibid).
In Nepal, the majority of children who work in mines begin before the age of 14 and 11% start before 8 years of age. This illustrates that during the age of the children’s primary to lower secondary education, they are already working. Either they combine the work with school, or they have completely dropped out of school.
On the other hand, poverty and lack of facilities are not the only reasons why parents send their children to work instead of school. The fact that child labour is often considered part of the socialization process results in a high prevalence of child labour instead of schooling in many countries ((Aryal, B.R.etal. 2005).
In developing countries, parents tend to consider their children as economic assets.
Children are expected to work to supplement the family income and also do household chores (UNICEF 1997). For example, according to ILO, mining
Columbia is an old activity inherited from one generation to the next, where the son leams the only work his father has known and the only one in the family’s history. A majority of the family-run mines have been configured by their own working dynamics which have structured social and cultural patterns and legitimized the division of work based on age and gender which leads, in turn, to accepting the presence of children in the mines. The well-rooted traditions tend to consolidate values that justify and rationalize the formative value that parents attribute to child labour in the mines. In this context, it is interesting to note that out of 1,341 boys and girls working in small-scale mining in Colombia, over 85% say that their own families have trained them for the mining work (ILO-IPEC & MINERCOL. 2001). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2.7.3 Leisure and Recreation The concept of free time and recreation is almost absent from the daily lives of the children working in mining. When interviewing child labourers working in mines in Colombia about leisure time activities, some answered that they did homework, went to work at the mine, helped in domestic chores or went to look for work. The children who dedicated their leisure time to more "playful” activities said that in their free time they watched television, rode bicycles, played with toy cars, or played soccer or basketball. Interesting to note is that the girls associated the concept of free time with domestic tasks (ILO-IPEC, 2005.)
2.7.4 Environment and Social Impact
Apart from the hazards and risks linked to the mining activities, children in mining are also exposed to a mining environment with extreme and harsh living conditions and degraded value systems. In addition, social problems such as prostitution and gambling can be linked to small-scale mining areas particularly in times when significant finds or harvests are made which create a “gold-rush" (ILO-IPEC, 2003/
These gold-rush situations are characterized by rapid migration creating unstable communities which are prone to conflict. Typical of these communities is an extremely unstable, unsafe, and unsetded social situation with nearly no social infrastructure for children. Research has shown that in cases where indigenous communities face pressure from outside migration for the particular purpose of small-scale mining in their areas, conflict may arise as a result of violent dashes between the parties. For instance, it was report in Odumase in the Adanse West
District Assembly that as a result of such clashes, schools were closed for two weeks (DOC 2006).
23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2.8 Causes of Child Labour in Mining
2.8.1 Demand for Labour At the macro-level small-scale mining has certainly not reached its full potential with regards to output. The productivity of small-scale mines is lower than it could be (ILO/IPEC & MINERCOL. 2001). Among other things, the economic hardship is due to the use of primitive technologies and the fact that miners cannot always operate throughout the year. The need for cheap labour and unqualified labourers for that matter allow children to be easily employed in the sector and this may be seen as socialization process for the children (ibid).
2.8.2 Poverty
Poverty is one of the main contributors to child labour. In a study of children in
Cocoa farming activities, poverty was explained to be the main reason for children to engage in child labour. This was mentioned both by parents and children in interviews and focus group discussions (DOC, 2005). The situation is not different in mining where children are expected to work to help their parents provide for their families and their survival. In Colombia, poverty related reasons were the main causes for children’s participation in mining activities. The family’s difficult economic situation was the primary reason that most of the children (47.3%) resorted to working in the mines, and a requirement to help with household expenses was the second reason (ILO/IPEC & MINERCOL, 2001).
24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2.8.3 Family Size
Family size also appears to play a role in girls' education. A study in Thailand found that family size influences educational attainment; children of either sex from small families have better educational opportunities (Lloyd and Gage-Brandon,
1994). According to the Thailand study, all other factors being equal (income, religion, residence, parents' educational attainment and parents' ambitions for their children) in families with four or fewer children, 31 percent went to upper secondary school. In families with more than four children, only 14 percent went to upper secondary school. (This is equivalent to the SHS level in Ghana).
25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
The study was undertaken in Mpohor, a mining community in the Western
Region. The District is also endowed with gold deposits that are being mined in small scale.
3.1 Profile of Study Area
The MWED is one of the fourteen administrative districts in the Western Region located at the South Eastern end of the region. The District was carved out of the
Wassa West, Ahanta West and Shama Ahanta Districts in 1998. The district capital is Daboase. The District covers an area of 1195 square kilometers of which,
85,000 hectares is used as cultivable land. It is situated within a low-lying area with most of the district lying less than 150 meters above sea level. The vegetation is largely of the variation found in the tropical rainforest. Fig. B shows the map of the
MWED.
26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Fig 3.1: Mpohor Wassa East District Map
Source: Mpofaor Wassa East District Medium Term Development Plan (2001-2006)
27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.1.1 Demography The population of Mpohor Wassa East District, according to the 2000 Population
Census is made of 50.6% male and 49.4% female. Table 2.1 indicates that children less than fifteen years old (0-14) account for 40.9% of the population compared with the national figure of 45.0%. In addition, the economically active population, or the potential work force, (15-64) years accounts for 55.9% while those above 65 years make 3.2% of the population.
Table 2.1: Population Distribution of the Mpohor Wassa East District
Age Males Females Total composition Number % Number % Number %
0-5 7,396 7.2 7,024 6.8 14,420 14
6-11 10,422 10.1 8,319 8.1 18,741 18.2
12-14 5,253 5.1 3,708 3.6 8,961 8.7
15-64 27,179 26.4 30,369 29.5 57,548 55.9
Above 65 1,853 1.8 1,441 1.4 3,294 3.2
Total 52,103 50,861 102,964
Source: Mpohor Wassa East District Medium Term Development Plan (2001-2006)
From Table 2.1, it can be seen that the 15-64 age group dominate the population within the district which suggests a vast reserve of human resources to drive the development of the district forward. Perhaps equally important is the feet that 6-14 years represent about 27 % of the population a source of children for child labour activities.
28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.1.2 Economic Activity The Mpohor Wassa East District is dominated by agriculture as about 75 percent of the total population is involved in both subsistence and large-scale agricultural production. The sector comprises crops, livestock, logging and fisheries. Crop farming is done by small holding farmers with an average farm size of about one acre per farmer. The predominant cash crops are cocoa and oil palm with some small quantity of coffee. Cocoa is produced in small holding farms while oil palm is cultivated on a large scale industrial plantation by Benso Oil Palm Plantation
(BOPP). In addition, the existence of mineral rich rocks in the district has attracted both large and small mining companies. Besides the large scale mining company,
Satellite Goldfields Limited (SGL) in Akyempim, there are lot of small-scale mining activities covering about 25 areas between Mpohor, Daboase, Sekyere
Krobo and Atieku. There are rich stocks of virtually untapped natural resources, which reveal the great potential for the mining industry in the district (MWEDA,
2006).
3.2 Sampling Procedure
This section of the report gives information about the sampling procedure used for the study. Details such as selection of the study area, the target and study population, sampling frame, selection of respondents and the training of field assistant have been provided in this section
3.2.1 Selection of Study Area
The study took place in MWED. The area was deliberately selected based on the fact that gold is mined in small scale holdings and the District Assembly (DA) also has identified the involvement of children in mining as being one of the causes of
29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
school dropout. However, since it was not possible to study all key locations where
mining activities were taking place, with the assistance of the DA, Mpohor Wassa
Township was selected for the study.
3.2.2 Study Population
Children are the main focus of the study. The study targeted children so as to
understand their situations, circumstances that influence their involvement or non
involvement in mining activities and their knowledge on child’s rights issues. For
the purpose of this study, the definition of a child as stated in the Act 560 was used; thus any person below the age of 18 years was considered a child.
3.2.3 Target Population
In undertaking a study like this, various categories of respondents were needed to provide different information regarding the causes, activities, characteristics, working conditions and consequences of child labour in the mining sector. Because
of this, the sampling frame included children, teachers, local leaders, concession
owners and officers from the DA.
3.2.4 Sampling Frame
The main goal of the study was to find out the role of children in mining and the subsequent effect on their well-being in general. In order to achieve this aim, it was necessary to find out the magnitude of the problem within the community. To achieve this, households were the main sampling frame for the study in the community, and only one child was interviewed per household.
30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.2.5 Selection of Respondents
The study selected children using a household sampling method. The study area was split into four sections to ensure that the sample was representative of the town.
From every duster, twenty-five (25) children were selected to represent that section.
A child was then selected from every third household for face to face interview.
This implies that only one child was selected from a household. A sample size of
100 children was the basis for the data analysis.
It was realized during pre-testing of the study questionnaire that children below 8 years had difficulty sitting through the long interview session and understanding issues being discussed. For this reason, children below 8 years were not included in the final study.
3.2.6 Training of Field Assistants
Due to the volume of work involved in the administration of the questionnaire for the study, the study made use of four field assistants. The field assistants were given a day’s orientation on interview techniques with children and were also taken through the questionnaire in order to understand the rational of the study. All difficult terms used were explained to them. To avoid confusion in terms of translation, they were taken through the Twi translation of the questions to be asked in the field. In all, 100 questionnaires were sent out and completed at the end of the study.
31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.3 Source and Type of Data
In an attempt to collect the necessary information on the causes, nature and extent of children engagement in mining activities, both qualitative and quantitative data collection approaches were used. Quantitative data was collected from children who were selected for the study through face-to-face interviews by means of a questionnaire. The objective of eliciting quantitative data was essential in determining the magnitude of involvement in mining and revealing demographic characteristics, school enrolment, roles played by children in mining and the effect on the children. Qualitative data was sought to unearth those aspects of children involvement in mining which were not directly amenable to quantification, but which determined or influenced the evolution, development and sustenance of child labour. These included, among other things, social processes, relations, views, perceptions and philosophies of the members of the study area.
The study employed various research instruments in the collection of data. These included: reviewing the existing literature, key informant interviews, child interviews, focus group discussions, observation, and questionnaires. These were utilized to ensure a comprehensive view of the situation of children in the community and their subsequent involvement in surface mining activities.
3.3.1 Observation
Direct observation was done before the interview took place. In fact, this took place during the transect walks in different key locations in the township which provided a well-structured observation of various activities within the community and the mining sites. Aspects of child labour in the mines to be studied were also observed in the site visited. The observations included: activities performed by children,
32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
conditions under which children worked, the type of work they perform, and the types of hazards to which children were exposed to in the course of their work.
3.3.2 Key informant Interviews
This was another useful tool used by the Research Team. Once in the field, among the first people the Research Team met and talked to were administrative officers in the District Assembly (DA) which included the Planning Officer and the
Department of Social Welfare (DSW) District Officer, who provided information as to where the children could be found. Other key informants were the
Assemblyman and community leaders who brought in-depth knowledge on the situation of children in the community. Other informants included were teachers and community concession owners. Through these informants, the research team gained important information concerning the roles played by children in mining, and the causes and conditions in which the children worked. They were of great help, partly because of their knowledge of the area and partly because of their expertise in mining activities, the kinds of hazards children were likely to face and their knowledge of child affairs. Without the assistance given by key informants in the mining sector, the research would have been much more difficult.
3.3.3 Child Interviews
Children were obviously the heart of this study and because of this, great effort was made to interview children in households. The assemblyman who accompanied the research team facilitated the interviews with the children. This made it easier to converse with some of the children. In each household, a person below the age of
18 was interviewed. In each household visited the objectives of the study were
33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
explained to the parents and children and their consent was sought for the interview of the child is conducted.
3.3.4 Focus Group Discussions
This was a tool used after holding individual interviews with children in households. Three focused group interviews were conducted; one among children
(5 boys and 4 girls), one for teachers (4 male and 6 females) and one for other community members (11 males and 9 females) with a view of learning about their experiences in the community. This method also proved to be useful since the research team was able to gain significant insight into the causes, experiences, and reasons why children are working in the mine. The checklist of questions asked in die focus group discussions is attached in the Appendix B of this report.
3.3.5 Questionnaire
The study demanded both quantitative and qualitative data. Within this context, questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data. The purpose of the questionnaire was first to cross-check the information obtained from other sources, and secondly to find out the relationship between various social economic factors and the causes of child labour in the mining sector. Face-to-face interview was conducted with each child selected for the study.
3.4 Limitations of the Study
The problems encountered in the field can be generalized as methodological.
Given the small size of the samples drawn in the study area, it was difficult to make a generalization from the research findings. Because of this, the findings remain specific to the study areas. This means that in order to have a generalized picture of
34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
child labour in the mining sector, a more detailed study must be conducted which covers a wider geographical area where mining activities take place. Also, due to the tight work plan of the study as a result of logistical constraints, the research team was unable to verify their findings on, for instance, the long-term effects of the use of mercury on the health of children.
3.5 Data Handling
Data obtained from the field was coded and entered onto Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (SPSS), a computer program which assists in the processing collected statistical data, for analysis. Among the tools used are central tendencies such as percentages and proportions. Graphical tools such as bar charts and pie charts were used to illustrate certain trends and patterns observed in the data gathered. Cross-tabulation was also conducted between variables of interest to ascertain trends between operating variables from the study. Furthermore, relevant qualitative responses or statements gathered during focus group discussions were annotated to add more meaning to the analysis.
3.6 Organisation of Report
This report has been divided into five chapters. The first chapter is the introduction, comprising a background, problem statement, rational, conceptual framework and objectives of the study. Chapter two comprised the study methodology and sampling design while a review of relevant literature on the subject under study constitutes chapter three. The research findings are presented in chapter four followed by the conclusion and recommendations which form the final chapter of the report.
35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.7 Operational Definitions The following operational terms used in the report have been explained to facilitate understanding of certain issues discussed:
Child: Any person below 18 years
Adult: Any person who is 18 years or more
Household: A 'household' is a single person living alone or group of
people usually living together and who share common
catering and sleeping arrangements. This may not be
the same as a 'family', which only includes people who
are related; a household may include people who are
unrelated. For example, three unrelated persons who
live and cook meals together would not be considered
as family, but could be considered as one household.
Working Children: Children (below age 18) who are engaged in paid
work. This includes hawking in the markets or
engaging in fishing, quarrying, mining, fanning or any
other work that may be injurious and tend to affect the
development of the child.
Surface Mining This is a method of mining in which the top soil and
rock overlying the mineral deposit are removed
Push Variables: Are the variables that predispose children to be
involved in mining. These include the economic and
educational background of parents/guardians, marital
status of parent/ guardian, size of family, children’s
need to get rich quickly
36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
External Variables Are the conditions that must be present to lower the
effectiveness of thePush Variables, such as Protective
environment, quality of education, health care and
social services, and family/community perception on
the involvement of children in surface mining.
Poll Variables: Are variables that draw children into labour, such as
the location of a mining site in a town
Child Labour: According to the Children’s Act, any work that affects
the development, health, education and mental
wellbeing of a child is child labour.
Small Scale Mining: these are small mines equipped with a minimum number of fixed installations using semi-industrial or industrial methods to extract minerals bases on a primary discovery of a deposit.
37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER 4 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
This chapter of the report gives information on demography, living conditions, children’s involvement in mining activities and their condition of work, and the effects of mining activities on children. All tables and figures in this chapter except those with sources quoted are from the field work conducted from this study.
4.1 Demographic Information and Living Conditions of Children
In order to understand the context of this study, vital background information was collected from children. These include their age, sex, and ethnic background. The study also sought their place of residence, the person with whom they live, their relationship to that person and their educational backgrounds. The place of birth of respondents, current place of residence, migration information are looked at in this section of the report. Information of the type of water, health and toilet facilities by used by the children in the community is also discussed in this section. The total number of children sampled for the study is 100.
4.1.2 Age and sex distribution of children
The age distribution of the children sampled in the study is presented in Table 4.1.
The total number of children sampled for the study is 100; 58.0% males and 42.0% females.
38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 4.1: Age Distribution of Children
Age Male Female Total
Frequency percentage Frequency percentage Frequency Pcrcent
8 years 6 85.7 1 14.3 7 7.0
9 years 6 75 2 25 8 8.0
10 years 1 50 1 50 2 2.0
11 years 4 44.4 5 55.6 9 9.0
2 years 0 0 1 100 1 1.0
13 years 10 33.3 5 66.7 15 15.0
14 years 19 65.5 10 34.5 29 29.0
IS years 5 41.7 7 58.3 12 12.0
16 years 6 37.5 10 62.5 16 16.0
17 years 1 100 0 0 1 1.0
Total 58 58.0 42 42.0 100 100
The age pattern suggests that children 14 years old form the majority (29%) of the children sampled while 12 and 17 year olds were the least with 1.0% each.
4.1.3 Ethnicity
The ethnic background of the children in the study is shown in Table 4.2. From the table, Ahantas dominate with 33.0%, followed by the Wassa group with 27.0%.
Fantis constitutes 10.0%, while the Ga (1.0%) and Adangbe (1.0%) ethnic groups formed the least ethnic groups in the sampled population.
39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 4.2: Ethnicity of Children
Ethnicity Males Females Total
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Adangbe 0 0 1 100 1 1.0
Ahanta 17 51.1 16 48.9 33 33.0
Akwapim 0 0 4 100 4 4.0
Ashanti 1 14.3 6 85.7 7 7.0
Ewe 4 66.7 2 33.3 6 6.0
Fanti 9 90.0 1 10.0 10 10.0
Ga 0 0 1 100 1 1.0
Guan 4 100 0 0 4 4.0
Mole 2 100 0 0 2 2.0
Nzema 5 100 0 0 5 5.0
Wassa 16 59.3 11 40.7 27 27.0
Total 58 58.0 42 42.0 100 100.0
The ethnic making could be attributed to the fact that the study area is traditionally composed of Ahantas. The presence of other ethnic groups in the study area may indicate some migration trends of either the children or their parents to the study area.
4.1.4 Educational Background of Children
The 1992 Constitution provides children the right to education. This right is further reiterated by the Children's Act, 1998 (Act 560) which provides the legal framework for the full educational development of the child. Section 8 of the Act spells out the right of the child to education and any other necessities of life required for the
40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
child's educational development. The study sought to find the extent to which the children in the study are enjoying their right to education.
As is shown in Table 4.3, 84.0% of the children were attending school, and 14.0% were out of school at the time of the study. The data presented in Table 4.3 suggests that most of the children interviewed were attending school.
Table 4.3: Level of Education of Children
Current Males Females No. of Percent level of Children education frequency Percent Frequency Percent
No 1 50.0 1 50.0 2 2.0
Response
Primary 32 59.3 22 40.7 54 54.0
JHS 14 41.7 10 58.3 24 24.0
SHS 4 66.7 2 33.3 6 6.0
Out of 8 57.1 6 42.9 14 14.0 school
Total 59 59.0 41 41.0 100 100.0
From the table, a majority (54.0%) of the children was in Primary school and a significant proportion (24.0%) attended Junior High School (JSS). The proportion
41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
of children (of the total sample) who had never been to school at the time of the study was 2.0%. (2 children)
As a follow up to the question above, the children were asked to explain the reason for their not being in school at the time of the study. Table 4.4 lists a number of reasons given. Of the numbers (14) who were not attending school, 28.6% had accomplished some level of schooling (primary, JSS or SSS), 35.7% had dropped out of school, 14.3% had never been to school, and 21.4% were learning through an apprenticeship (Table 4.4).
Table 4.4: Reasons for not being in School
Reason for not Males Females No. of Percent being in school Children
frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Completed 3 75 1 25 4 28.6
Dropped Out 4 80 1 20 5 35.7
Never been to 2 100 0 2 14.3
School
Apprenticeship 1 33 2 67 3 21.4
Total 10 71 4 29 14 100.0
From Table 4.4, 35.7% explained that they dropped out, 28.6% had completed a terminal point of education, 21.4% were in various forms of apprenticeships, and
42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
14.3% indicated that they had never attended school. It can therefore, be said that the reasons why children were not in school are because they have completed or have dropped out of school.
4.1.5. Place of Birth
The information on place of birth as indicated in Figure 4.1 shows that the majority of the children sampled (52.0%) were bom at the place of interview. However,
21.0% were bom in another town/village in the district, while 10.0% in another district in the Region or other Region. A significant percentage of 17.0% did not know their place of birth.
0 In another town in this district Bln this town Din another district □ Don't know
From the above, it is evident that most children interviewed, thus 52, were bom in the study area. It is interesting to note that a significant percentage, 17.0%. do not know their place of birth.
43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4.1.6 Current Placc of Residence
Related to the issue of migration is the place of residence, which is a key measure of movement. Majority of the children (89%) surveyed said they live in the study area.
As indicated in Table 4.4, only 2 of the total number of children involved in the study said they lived in another District in the region, and one child said he was visiting a relative during the study period as presented in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Current Place of Residence of Children
Current place of residence No. of Children Percentage
In this town/village 89 89.0
In another town/village in this District 8 8.0
In another District in this Region 2 2.0
Other Region 1 1.0
Don't know 0 0.0
Total 100 100.0
During a focused group discussion with the children (Five boys and four girls), it was gathered that some children come to the community to spend the holiday or vacation with relatives and go back to their place of residence when school re opens. This perhaps may explain why a lot of the children interviewed were residents of the study area since the study was done while school was in session.
With 89.0% of all children residing in the place of interview, the study sought to ascertain whether children had always lived in this place of residence or moved from one community to another, and, if they moved, what is/are the reason(s) for the movement. Figures from the field indicates that 78% of respondents had always
44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
lived in the community (place of interview), and 22% had moved from other places into the community.
4.1.7 Reasons for Moving
To help understand the issues influencing the movement of children to the study area, the children who had migrated from another community to their current place of residence were questioned and they gave many reasons as to why they had moved from another community. A significant number (40%) of all children, had moved because of their need to make enough money for themselves, and 9.1% had moved to earn money to further their schooling. Other reasons given include: vacation (4.5%), assisting parents/guardian in farming activities (9.1%), and death of parents (9.1%), as shown in table 4.6.
Table 4.6: Reasons for Moving Given by Children
Reason for moving Frequency Percentage
To earn own income 3 13.6
To get money to farther education 2 9.1
Parents moved from previous abode 9 41.0
To assist parents/guardian in farming activities 2 9.1
Death of parents 2 9.1
Vacation/Visiting 1 4.5
For education purpose 2 9.1
Divorce/ Separation 1 4.5
Total 22 100.0
From Table 4.6 it appears that most children moved into the study area because
their parents have done so. In the group discussions, the push behind the move was
45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
given as the constant need for land in the production of cash crops is making land scarce in their former place of residence consequendy forcing parents to move to an area where they can gain access to land for farming purposes. As may be predicted, the children moved with their parents.
4.1.8 Person the Child Lives With at Time of Study
Eighty- two percent (82%) of the children talked to said they were living with both biological parents, 8% lived with only their mothers and 2% with only their fathers.
The rest of the children lived with other family relations such as grandparents (2%),
Aunties/Uncles (1%), and Cousins/siblings (3%). Three percent children indicated that they were living with unrelated family members or friends. From the above figures, it is clear that a majority of the children are living with their blood relations, particularly with their biological parents (both and single). However, more children lived only with their mothers than only with their fathers.
4.1.9 Main Occupation of the Person Child Live With
Information on the main occupation of head of households or guardian was collected from children as it is known to have a relationship in the involvement of children in labour activities. For instance parents involve in mining activities are likely to engage their children in the process. Table 4.7 indicates that 29% of heads of households are into surface mining, 27% in trading, 25% in farming, and 14% in teaching while 5% were unemployed.
46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 4.7: Main Occupation of the Person Child Live With
Occupation Frequency Percent
Snifacc Mining 29 29.0
Fanning 25 25.0
Trading 27 27.0
Teaching 14 14.0
Unemployed 5 5.0
Total 100 100.0
One of the main factors pushing children into labour is the economic background of parents and also the type of work the person the child live is engaged in. The poorer their economic background the more probable their children could be involved in labour activities. It can be deduced from the figures above that, most of persons child live with are working in the informal sector which sometimes are accompanied by irregular source of income. These situations make them vulnerable to shocks in the system and may influence the pushing of their children into labour.
4.1.10 Sleeping Arrangements
According to the Round Five of the Ghana Living Standard Survey, 2008 (GLSS), the average household size in the country is 4.0, while the average number of rooms per household is 1.8. This results in an average room density of 2.5 persons per room (GSS, 2008). According to the children in the study area, 44% sleep with more than three persons in a room, 35% sleep with two people, and 17% sleep with
47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
only one person in a room. Only a small portion of the children said they sleep alone in their private rooms (4%), as displayed in Fig 4.2.
Fie.4.2 Percentage Distribution of Persons Sharing Room with Child
0 Sleep alone
■ Sleeps with one person
□ Sleeps with two persons
□ Sleeps with three or more
A careful look at the figures from the study indicates that in the study area, more people share a room than the national average of 2.8. Such a situation may cause problems such as lack of privacy and space for children especially who have litde control in the households.
The study gathered information from children on whom they share their room with and it was revealed that about 49.0% sleep with relatives such as brothers, sisters, uncles and aunts, 35.4% with both parents, 9.4% with their mother only and 6.2% with their father only (Table 4.8).
48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 4.8: Person(s) with Whom Children Share a Room
Person(s) with whom children share a room No. of children Percentage
Both Parents 34 35.4
Siblings 38 39.6
Uncle/Ann ts 4 4.2
Mother only 9 9.4
Father only 6 6.2
Other relatives 5 5.2
Total 96 100.0
From Table 4.8 there is an indication that most children share a room with their parents or siblings or family relation. It is also clear that more children sleep with their mothers than fathers.
4.1.11 Type of Meals Available to Children
In a recent report by the GSS about 18% of children are underweight as a result of poor nutritional intake (MICS, 2006). This according the Ghana Health Service
(GHS), this does not help in the development of children into healthy adults. To get information of meals, children were asked to throw more light on how many times they eat in a day. In response, 29% said they eat twice a day, once, 17%, thrice
15%, more than trice 15%, as and when I want 15% and 9% said they eat when food is available as indicated on in Table 4.9. From the information obtained from the children, 45% children during the time of the study eat at least thrice a day.
49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 4.9 Number of Meals per Day
On the average, how many times in a day do you Frequency Percent cat?
Once 17 17.0
Twice 29 29.0
Thrice 15 15.0
More than three 15 15.0
As and when I want 15 15.0
When food is available 9 9.0
Total 100 100.0
For healthy development of children, the right amount of protein is needed, so children were inquired to give information on number of times they eat protein in their meals per day. Sixty seven percent replied once a day, 28% twice and 5% said none at all.
Children’s views on satisfaction with meals were also sought after and majority (49) responded yes while 40 % said no. the rest 11% did not know or did not respond to the question.
50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4.1.12 Sleeping Materials From Fig 4.3 below, 42% of the children slept on straw mats with 37% claiming to sleep on beds with mattresses. One out of five of the children slept on mattresses on the floor, and 1% used cardboard as their sleeping material.
Fig.4.3 Sleeping Materials
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
□ Straw mat □Cardboard ■ Bed with the Matress □ Matress on the floor
4.1.13 Condition of Roof of Bnilding
Most of the children (94%) captured in the study said that the roof of the building they sleep in does not leak, but the rest (6%) confirmed that their roofs leak. This indicates that most children can be protected from being wet any the time it rained.
51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4.1.14 Type of Health Facility Used
With regards to the type of health facility used, 46.0 % said they go to the Hospital
when they are sick. Twenty (20.0%) of the children indicated Health Post as their
choice, and 15.0% said they use the Herbalist. This was followed by 9.0% who said
(hey use the drug store while some of the children also resort to Religious/Sacred
Places to heal illnesses (5.0%), and 5% do not patronize any service when they are
sick, as shown in Fig. 4.4 below.
Fig. 4.4 Type of Health Facility Used Bv Children
Most of the children in the study attend the orthodox health facilities (66.0%). The facility most visited by children is the health post or medical clinic indicating some form of formal care when they are ill.
52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4.1.15 Water and Sanitation
The availability of safe water and proper waste disposal methods greatly affect the health and development of children. Inadequate sanitation and water provision can contribute to malnutrition, disease and even death in children.
Main Source of water
The provision of a safe water supply has been constrained by a number of factors, including low plant capacity, inadequate collaboration in the water sector and between various stakeholders, lack of funding and inability of communities to contribute to capital costs (DHS, 2003). About 40 percent of households in Ghana have access to pipe-borne water. Forty one percent use water from the well, and 16 percent depend on natural sources for drinking water while the remaining four percent of households have access to other sources like water tanker service, water vendor and sachet/bottled water and others (GSS, 2008)
Fig. 4.5 shows a larger number of children said they get their main source of drinking water from pipes (67%). Twenty eight percent stated hand dug wells fitted with pumps provided their water and 5% said their source is from Boreholes, as indicated in Fig.4.5. Indicating that, the main source of water is pipe borne. Figures from the study indicates that the number of households getting access to pipe borne water is 27 percent higher than the national average of 40 percent a situation that need to be commended as children are more likely to protected from water borne diseases.
53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Fig-4.5 Main Source of Water
H Pipe BBbore Hole O Hand Dugged Well with Pump
Toilet Facilities Used
According to the 2003 Demographic Health Survey, little progress has been made
in the provision of sanitation facilities across the country. Most households in
Ghana (42%) have traditional pit latrines, 26% have KVIP, and 11% have flush
toilets. 20% of 10 households have no toilet facility, and a lack of toilet facilities is
more common in the rural areas (31%) than urban areas (7%). As part of this study,
respondents were asked to give information on the type toilet facility they use, the
study found out that, the major type of toilet facilities used in this study is the
traditional pit latrine (41.0%) and as much as 53.0% children indicated that they did
not have any facility at home, 4.0% used KVIP and 2% use a water closet (Fig 4.6).
54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Fig. 4.6 Type of Toilet FadUtY-Uaed
□ East «No Facility OK VIP aTraditionnal Pit Latrine ■ Water Closet
4.2 Involvement in Mining Activities
Child labour is an issue which is a major global child rights violation, especially in poverty stricken areas. It takes many forms and occurs in different kinds of work such as: fishing; carrying heavy loads; working in manufacturing industries where chemicals are produced or used; and working in bars, hotels, and places of entertainment where a child may be at risk of sexual exploitation.
In view of the harmful effects of child labour, the government has instituted measures to protect children from the practice. Mining is physically demanding and involves a lot of stressful processes such as long periods of standing, stooping, bending, digging, carrying of heavy loads etc. This section provides insights into the roles played by children in the mining process and the conditions under which they performed these activities.
55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4.2.1 Involvement in any Labour Activities for the Last Six Months
Children are to be protected from economic exploitation and from work that may negatively on their education, health or social well-being. In Ghana, many children engage in economic activities in order to contribute to the family income. From the responses given by children in the study area, most of them (67%) declared they have been engaged in economic activities for the past six months while the remaining t (33%) said no to their involvement in labour activities within the last six months prior to the study.
For the 62 children who said they are engaged in economic activities, 53.0% said they sold or hawked goods at the market, 17.0% engaged in farming activities, while the rest mentioned chop bar operations (3.0%). It is interesting to note that most girls reported hawking /selling as their main involvement in economic activities while most boys reported being engaged in farming and mining activities.
4.2.2 Involvement of Children in Mining Activities in the Past Six Months
When asked if any of the children have been involved in mining for the past six months, 32 out of the 100 children confirmed their involvement.. This implies a substantial involvement of children in mining activities within the study area. The figure is on the high side as children are prohibited from involvement in mining classified as hazardous labour.
4.2.3 Age at Which the Children Got Involved In Mining Activities
Table 4.10 indicated that most children started working in the mines between the ages of 11-15 years. It is evident that more boys (19) than girls (13) are involved in mining activities, as shown in the table below.
56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 4,10: Age at Which Children Started Engagement in Surface Mining
Activities With Regard to Sex
Males Females No. of Age Percent Children Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
7 years 1 100 0 0 1 3.1
8 years 2 100 0 0 2 6.3
9 years 2 100 0 0 2 6.3
10 years 1 33 2 67 3 9.4
11 years 2 33 4 67 6 18.6
12 years 5 100 0 0 5 15.6
13 years 3 43 4 57 7 21.9 14 years 0 0 3 100 3 9.4
15 years 3 100 0 0 3 9.4
Total 19 59 13 41 32 100
One reason that may explain the high involvement of children ages 11-15 years is the fact that children who may have completed the basic level of education fall within this age bracket. With limited chances of joining secondary schools or vocational training, working at the mining sites may be considered the only available option. It is thus important to create more opportunities for primary school graduates.
4.2.4 Education Level of Working Children
Information on the level of education of children involved in mining was collected from every child interviewed. The purpose was to find out if working children were in school or not. The education profile of the children engaged in mining activities
57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
shows that 23 of out of 32 children are in school as compared to 61 out of 68 children not engaged in surface mining activities.
4.2.5 Reasons for Dropping out of School
The main response provided during the interviews with the children engaged in surface mining as to why they were not in school; was the inability of their families to pay school levies and provide them with other basic necessities for school (55.5%). Other reasons mentioned were: pregnancy (11.1%), lack of interest in school (11.1%), and the need to make money quickly (33.3%). Several reasons for dropping out of school by the children were also given in the focus group discussions and interviews with parents, key informants and the working children. The most prominent explanation was related to economic issues - mainly the inability of families to provide basic needs for their children. This is linked to children failing to complete their education and, hence, deciding to earn a living.
4.2.6 Reasons for Involvement inMining Activities
The economic status of the family was considered as the most important factor in explaining why children decided to work at the mining sites during focus group discussions with children and adults. Poor families were considered the most affected by this phenomenon. These families either had children who dropped out of school and decided to make a living by working at the mining sites, or children who worked in the mines on a part-time basis in an attempt to raise money to cover their schooling expenses. These include purchasing uniforms and exercise books and paying school levies and other contributions demanded at school.
It was also explained that some children decided to work at the mining site because they were attracted by the better life offered there than at home, their work in the mines assured them meals and the possibility of becoming rich one day. The value
58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
parents placed on a child’s contribution at home was also explored as a possible factor that encouraged children to work in the mines.
Another cause was revealed by teachers and children during key informant and focus group discussions. This was the presence of only one Senior High School
(SHS), in the Mpohor Township. According to the teachers since the town has only one SHS, the eight Junior High Schools (JHS) as indicated in Table 4.16 have to limit the number of students they present for the Basic Education Certificate Exams
(BECE). This leads to a back log of students who may repeat their final year. The number of years a student may repeat depends on improvement in his/her performance. In most cases only the best ten students are presented from each school. During the focus group discussion with children in the study area, some of them revealed that, the fact they have to repeat their final year twice is the reason they are involved in the mining activities. To such children since they are never going to be picked to write the BECE, they do not see why they should continue to waste their time if they can make money doing something else.
59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 4.11: Public and Private Schools (Ycar 2005)
Circuit Prc-School Primary Junior Secondary SSS
Public Private Public Private Public Private Public
Ateiku 18 3 16 5 8 3 0
Atobiase 12 0 18 4 9 1 0
Daboase 20 2 21 2 12 1 1
Mpohor 11 4 19 1 8 0 1
S/Krobo 13 3 15 2 7 0 0
Senchem 10 7 16 4 8 0 0
Sub Total 84 19 105 18 52 5 2
Total 103 123 S7 2
Source: Mpohor Wassa East District Medium erm Development plan(2001-
2006)
4.2.7 The Mining Process at Mpohor
Mining in Mpohor is done on the surface of the soil. The process involves crushing of the surface soils and grinding to facilitate the release of gold particles trapped in the soil. The typical mining process requires some basic machinery such as crashers. The main purpose of the grinders is to mill stones in the soil to release any gold particles trapped in the stones. And a site may contain 4 to 6 grinders.
60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
A grinding Machine at the site
The process begins with the digging of the soil (mud) believe to contain gold with pick axes and shovels. The soil is carried by women and children to the grinding site in pans. The mud is then ground into a paste which is then washed to remove the silt. The residue is then washed on a Velcro to trap the gold particles for panning to separating the gold particles from the sand. The gold particles are then amalgamated and burnt to get solid gold.
Observation at the site revealed that, children are also involved in the digging and ferrying of gold ore and mud from the pits and crushing the gold ore. They use the same tools such as pick axes, spades, shovel, sacks and pans as the adults. Tasks such as carrying gold ore and mud, panning, subject children to prolonged standing.
61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Residue ready to be washed on Velcro Residue being washed on Velcro
Gold Nuggets
62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4.2.8 Roles of Children in the Mining Process
From the interactions with the children, it was gathered that children involved in surface mining said they took part in all the tasks related to the gold mining activities.
Table 4.12: Tasks Performed by Children with Regard to Sex
Males Females No. of Task Percent Children frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Canying of mad (gold ore) 6 46 7 54 13 40
Washing of sediments 11 79 3 21 14 44
Wheeling of left-over 2 40 3 60 5 16 residues for gold
Total 19 59 13 41 32 100
Table 4.12 shows that 13 children are involved in the carrying of mud containing gold ore to the crushing site. Fourteen (14) took part in the washing out of sediments while 5 were engaged in the wheeling of residue to get the gold dust.
From Table 4.12, it is seen that children are more involved in the carrying of mud and washing of sediments. These activities are strenuous as they are physically demanding. In the site visited the digging site was about 50 meters from the grinding site, however the terrain was uneven and slippery; making it very difficult for this carrying the mud. Those doing the washing of sediments have to stand long
63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
hours in the sun and in the mudding pools used to washed the sediments. This exposure to the sun can have adverse effect on the health of the children involved
4.3 Conditions of Work of Children Involved in Mining
4.3.1 Time Schedules for Work
The children were asked to provide information on time schedules for mining activities such as starting and finishing time and whether they considered the working time appropriate, suitable or otherwise. This was to help determine whether or not the work in mining affect them. From the interactions with the community, it was found working hours are not regulated and there are no regular time limits. Work normally ends at sunset or else there will not be enough light to work.
Table 4.13 Times for Starting Work Times for starting Work Frequency Percent
After school everyday 12 37.5
On vacation 3 9.4
On weekends 7 21.9
During school hoars in time of financial need 5 15.6
In the morning 5 15.6
Total 32 100
From table 4.13, 37.5% of children reported after school as their normal time of work. This was followed by on weekends 21.9%, next were in the morning and during school hours in time of need with 15.6% each and lasdy on vacation with
9.4%.
64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The children were also asked to give information on how long they have to work
each day. In response, 17 out of 32 children indicated 2-4 hours per day as the number of hours that they work. Eight out of thirty-two said they work between 5 -
7 hours with 7 children quoting more than 7 hours per day. From the figures above
it can be said that a significant number of children are working very long hours on
the job and this can affect their health, education and development.
4.3.2 Satisfaction with Time Schednle
With regards to the time schedule, 60% of the children said they are satisfied with the time of work, and 40% feel dissatisfied with the time schedule for work, as presented in Fig. 4.7 below.
Fig.4.7: Satisfaction with Time of work:
^^_40% Not satisfied
Q Not Satisfied
I ■ Satisfied j l
From Fig. 4.7, most children said they are satisfied with the time of work.
According to the children, their payment is not related to the hours they work but
65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
on their ability to complete a task. For instance, the children, who carry loads of gold ore to the Crushing Site, are paid by how much they are able to carry.
4.3.3 Recruitment and Payment of Children
In the focus group discussions, it was determined that recruitment for work in the mines are mostly negotiated by children themselves (18 out of 32) while the other
14 children indicated they received the work because their parent or guardian arranged it for them.
In terms of payment, 87.5% the children said they are paid at the end of the day while 12.5% said they are paid on weekend depending on the agreement made with the employer.
Table 4.14 Average Earnings per day by Children in Mining
Bow much do you earn on the Frequency Percent average a day?
No Response 9 28.1
1.00-3.00GH* 2 6.2
4.00-6.00 GHt 6 18.8
7.00-9.00 GHt 9 28.1
10.00 GHt- and above 6 18.8
Total 32 100.0
With regards to earnings, children revealed that they can make about GH GH 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mining earn between 7.00-9.00 Ghana Cedis a day, this is immediately followed by those who receive 4.00-6.00 and above 10.00 Ghana Cedis (18.8 % each) a day. A little above 6.0% indicated that they received 1.00-3.00 Ghana Cedis a day as indicated in table 4.14. Interaction with teachers however revealed that because of die money the children earn from the mining activities, they tend to be disrespectful as they know they earn more than them; this may bring in friction between teachers and students. 4.3.4 Satisfaction with Pay and how it is Spent When asked if working children were satisfied with their pay, most of them, 72% said they were while the other 18% replied they were not. For those who were not satisfied with pay the two main reasons given are employers not paying the agreed price for work done by the children and the untimely payments. The quest for money was revealed by children in the focus group discussion to be the main driving force for working in the mining sector. The children reported that their earnings, though meager, are essential as they are expected by their parents and guardians to support the family. Children narrated that it was important for them to support their families due to the fact that their families could not raise sufficient money to provide the basic needs. Children were also forced to use their incomes on school supplies such as books; levies and stationary as their families do not have the resources. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.5 Break in Between Work Mining is a very strenuous activity which involves a lot of physical labour. Thus, in the course of work, there is the need for time to be set aside for breaks or relaxation, especially for children who assist in mining activities. A high percentage (97.0%) of the children in this study said they were allowed break in-between work. Only 3.0% mentioned otherwise (Fig 4.8). Fig. 4.8 Percentage distribntion of children allowed break Data in fig. 4.8 indicate that most children have some form of break in-between work in the mines. 4.3.6 Duration of Break In this study, time allowed for breaks varies according to the responses given in Table 4.18. 47.1% of the children say their break usually takes between 21-30 minutes, 23.5% estimated the rest time above 30 minutes and the rest (29.4%) said the time for rest is below 20 minutes (Table 4.15). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.15: Responses of Children Regarding Duration for Breaks Response Number Percent 1- 10 minatcs 2 11.8 11-20 minutes 3 17.6 21-30 minatcs 8 47.1 More than 30 minatcs 4 23.5 Total 17 100.0 4.3.7 Reasons for Children Working The quest for money was reported by a good number of interviewed to be the main driving force for working in the mining sector. Children in the sample conceded that their earnings, though meager, are essential as they are expected by their parents and guardians to support the family (56.2%). Children narrated that it was important for them to support their families due to the fact that their families could not raise sufficient money to provide the basic needs. About 19% of the children said they needed to work in order to help pay their school fees and school related expenses. A little above 15% explained they are working because they want to be economically independent while the remaining 9.4% said they work to get money to buy things when they needed them as indicated in Table 4.16 Table 4.16: Main Reasons for Working Reasons for Working Frequency Percent Supplement family income 18 56.2 To be economically independent 5 15.6 Help Pay school fees 6 18.8 To help me buy things when I need them 3 9.4 Total 32 100.0 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Working Children revealed during focus group discussions that their incomes are used to subsidize die household income. Furthermore, it was observed that the money was also spent for buying school items. The patterns of use for the resources earned thus varied among different Working groups. For instance, children in school spent their earned incomes for educational purposes. 4.4 Effect of the Mining Activities on Children Mine work is a very difficult especially when the method of extraction is labour intensive as being done in the study area. The long hours and the labour involved are disproportional to the income generated. For one to earn more therefore, very long hours are needed. To find out the effect of the participation of children in surface mining, their opinion on the nature of the work being done was sought and their responses are illustrated in Table 4.17. Table 4.17: Description of Work by Children Description of work Frequency Percent Difficult 11 34.4 Dangerous 8 25 Easy 5 15.6 Acceptable 8 25 Total 32 100 Quiet a number (34.4%) of the children spoken to say their work was difficult, 25% each said it is either dangerous or acceptable while the reaming 15% said it was easy. From Table 4.17 majority (59.4%) of the children confirmed that the work was clearly beyond what they world consider normal. This what a child said in a 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh focus group discussion “we know this not the work for children, but it because we do not have any choice that is why we force ourselves to do this work. ” 4.4.1 Dangers Associated with Roles When asked if there are any dangers associated with the kind of work they perform, most of the children (82%) said “Yes" while the other 18% said “No”. For the 82% of the children who answered “Yes” to the existence of dangers associated with the work they do, it was reported that there are no protective measures to ensure their safety. Concession owners countered this claim by informing us that young children are not allowed to cany gold ore because it is too heavy for them. In addition, they also prohibit children from digging gold ore since it is a very difficult task which should be performed by adults. 4.4.2 Exposure to Injuries The engagement of children in mining activities exposes them to harm and injuries, putting their physical and psychological safety in danger. Exposing children to any form of harm is a violation of their rights. Children found to be engaged in mining activities were asked if they face any injury in the course of their work; 87.5% of children said yes while 12.5% said no. Asked to give examples of injuries they have suffered most of them mentioned tripping while carrying loads, 42.5%; insect bites ,15.5 %; cuts by sharp tools, 12.5%; and cuts from stonesl0.0%, their responses are in Figure 4.9 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig. 4.9 Examples of Ininries Suffered By Children ® Tripping • Insect Biles O Cues By Sharp Objects O Bxecas Noise______ 0% 50% 100% 4.4.3 Exposure to Mercury The final process in gold mining is the amalgamation process. The process involves the use of Mercury for binding together the gold particle to separate from the sand. It was gathered that this process is mainly performed by adults, but interviews with the children revealed that in cases where they wheel the residues for gold, they are required to buy their own mercury and do the amalgamation themselves. A little above thirty-seven (37.5%) of the children involved in surface mining said they have been using mercury to amalgamate gold. Table 4.18 Use of Mercury by Children Use Mercury Frequency Percent No Response 3 9.4 Yes 12 37.5 No 9 28.1 Don't Know 4 25.0 Total 32 100.0 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The children also informed the interviewer that they do not wear any protective gear while amalgamating. It was noted that adults also do not use any protective clothing either. During an interaction with the District Health Directorate (DHD), it was revealed they have not done any tests in the areas of whether people have traces of mercury in their system, but they have been undertaking a community sensitization programme on the treatment of infectious diseases in the study community. As Amalgamation shed at the Site 4.4.4 Effect on Education In an effort to find out if children’s involvement in mining is having a negative effect on their education. Table 4.19 indicates that more than half of the children believe that their involvement in mining activities has a negative effect on their education, but the remaining 46.9% said no. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.19 Effect of Mining Work on Education do you think the work you do Frequency Percent is affecting your education Yes 17 53 No 15 47 Total 32 100.0 For most children engaged in mining, their participation is having a toll on their education. As a follow up children were asked to explain the effects of their involvement in mining activities on their education. Their responses are displayed in Table 4.20 and these range from sleeping during classes 18.8%, lost of concentration 18.8% and cannot complete home work 15.6% for those who responded yes. For those who said no, they explained that their involvement help pay for school levies, 15.6%, buying things for school, 12.5% and chop money for school, 18.8% as indicated in Table 4.20. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.20 Explain your answer above Effects on education Frequency Valid Percent Cannot complete homework 5 15.6 Lots of concentration 6 18.8 Sleep during class lessons 6 18.8 Help pay school levies 5 15.6 I can buy things for school 4 12.4 I get money to buy food for school 6 18.8 Total 32 100 These explanations given by the children go a long way to affect the quality of education they receive, such children likely not to perform well in school even though they may attend classes regularly. Interaction with children showed that for the children attending school their involvement in mining helps pay for their school levies and school materials. To them it helps them to attend school. From the focus group with a cross section of teachers, it was revealed that even though the children involve in mining activities do attend school, their attendance is not regular and in some case the children only stay till the fourth period. This according to them does not help the children. They also reported of die difficulty faced by the school authorities in getting children back to school after the vacation since children are working in the mines. 4.5.5 Effect on Health Asked if they think their involvement in mining activities is having any effect on their health, half the children in mining said the mining activities are having a tool on their health. According to them, the hard nature of the work gives those 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ailments such as: malaria; 27.percent, back injuries, 26 percent and injuries from cutting tools; 15.3% among others as illustrated in Table 4.21. Table 4.21 Types of injuries suffered by children Type of Injury Frequency Percent Back Injuries 8 26.2 Headaches 4 12.8 Cuts from Tools 5 15.3 Malaria 9 27.1 Insects Bites and Skin Abrasions 3 8.9 Exposure to Sunshine 3 9.7 Total 32 100 An interaction with the District Health Management Team (DHMT) revealed that they have not investigated the effect the involvement in surface mining. However Table 4.22 gives an idea of the top ten disease report in the district in 2005. On top is Malaria followed by Acute Respiratory Infection etc. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.22: Top Ten Diseases in Mpohor Wassa East Districts in 2005 Disease Number of episodes 1. Malaria 15,213 2. Acute Respiratory Infection 2 3,281 3. Skin diseases and ulcers 2,316 4. Diarrhoea diseases 1,926 5. Home/Occupational accidents 1,487 6. Rheumatic Fains 1,244 7. Intestinal worms 776 8. Anaemia 533 9. Malaria in pregnancy 357 10. Gynaecological disorders 323 As part of the questions asked to find out the effect the involvement of children in mining has of the health of children, they asked to give their opinion the effect of the chemicals they use on their health. To this 50% said no, 28% said yes, the rest 21.9% did not know or did not respond as shown in Table 4.23. Table 4.23: Effect of Mining Chemicals on the Health of Child Miners Do you think your exposure to the chemicals has Frequency Percent affected your health? No Response 3 9.4 Yes 9 28.1 No 16 50.0 Don’t Know 4 12.5 Total 32 100.0 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As a follow up, those who said the chemicals have an effect on their health were also asked to give some of the effects, 45.4% fell sick sometimes, 27.3% said that they feel weak, 13.6% did not know or had any response to give as displayed in Table 4.24 Table 4.24: Children’s Opinion of Effects Chemicals If yes in what way has it Frequency Percent affected your health? no response 3 13.6 I feel sick sometimes 5 45.4 I fed weak 6 27.3 don't know 3 13.6 Total 22 100.0 From Table 4.24 above, it can be said the majority of the children believe the mercury is having effect on their health, but the mystery is that they are not using any protective clothing. Even though the study could not test for sign of mercury poison in the children, there is evidence that long exposure to mercury and have adverse effect on the health of a person. Some of the side effects of long exposure to mercury listed in 1987 Lange Medical Hand Handbook of Poisoning are gastrointestinal, hepatic and renal damage, and/or suffer long-term health effects which include permanent damage to the nervous system (Dreisbach, R, 1987). 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Environmental Effect The effect of the mining activities on the environment was observed during the field work was very apparent. In the mining site visited the main source of water from their activity was a nearby stream. The stream serves as both a source and waste dump. As a result, the water has become stagnant due to the build-up of silt in the water. Also the digging of gold ore has resulted in deep pits that fill up with water every time it rains and these have become death traps to children and adults who may fell into them. These pits have become breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other insects. Another observation was the washing of mercury residues in the stream an action which may pollute aquatic life and humans as well. To find out what concession owners have been doing to reduce the effect of their work on the environment, they inform the research team that the Satellite Gold Limited (SGL) fill the pits after mining in that site is completed. Also, they said that community members do not use the stream in the site for any activity. 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5 Legal and Institutional Framework to Prevent Child Labour in Mining The UNCRC calls on state parties to put measures in place to protect children from exploitative labour. Ghana as the first signatory to the UNCRC has harmonized her laws and policies to be in line with the principles of the Convention to eliminate the involvement of children in labour including children in mining. 4.5.1 Legal Framework to Protect Children in Mining Ghana has in place comprehensive laws and policies to minimize the involvement of children in mining. This is evident in Article 28 of 1992 Constitution which guarantees the protection to children against exploitative labour. Thus the constitution set a legal tone for the protection of children in work that may affect their development. This right enshrined in the Constitution is re-enacted into law in Act 560 which criminalize any breach of the law. The Act gives a legal age of employment as 15 years and prohibits the involvement of children in mining activities among others. The Act is supplemented by the Child Rights Regulation 2002 (LI 1705), which gives guidelines to the District Labour officers and the Social Services Committee of the District Assemblies on how investigate child labour and provides sanctions for failure to comply with summons by them. 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Other relevant legal instruments indude the Criminal Code Amendment Act, 1998, (Act 554) which provide penalties for other criminal acts such as rape or physical abuse that may be perpetrated against children in the course of their work in the mines. In 2005, the Human Trafficking Act came into force to prevent, reduce and punish human trafficking as well as provide for the rehabilitation and reintegration of victims. This Act was necessary because although the Criminal Code establishes offences associated with the subject, these relate to the perpetrator rather than the victim whose rights have been violated. Added to the laws recendy is the Domestic Violence Act was passed into Law in 2007. This Act seeks to deal with violence within the domestic setting. The Domestic Violence Act seeks to provide victims of domestic violence with protection and occupational orders. Despite the existence of these laws to curtail the involvement of children in mining an assessment of the situation has revealed that their implementation are poor due to the weak capacity of institutions mandated to implement these laws (DOC, 2007) calling for more proactive measures to be put in place to endure a protective environment for children 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5.4 Institutional framework to Prevent Child Labour in Mining At the national level the Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare (MESW) has the overall responsibility regarding policies on labour in the country. The Labour Department under MESW is the implementing arm of the Ministry responsible for labour issues. In 2002 the Child labour Unit under the Labour Department in partnership with ILO/IPEC inaugurated a National Steering Committee for the Elimination of Child Labour (NSCECL) with the responsibility of overseeing a national drive to eliminate child labour in Ghana. The Committee brings together Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) with child related mandates to deliberate on how to work together to reduce child labour in the country. The committee also has membership from civil society and academia. In 2006 under the NSCECL, District Child Labour Monitoring Committees (DCLMC) has been established in 20 Districts in the country to monitor child labour at the district level. The aim is for the districts to establish community committees for monitoring of child labour at the community level. As at August 2008, there were 200 of such committees nationwide. A recent monitoring exercise by the Child Labour Unit has revealed tremendous reduction in the incidence of child labour in communities where the child labour committees exist (field interview with the Coordinator, NSCECL, MESW, July, 2008) Under the NSCECL, there is a Cocoa sub-committee that is focusing on the elimination of child labour in the cocoa industry. They have also established 110 district child protection teams in ten cocoa growing districts. Each district has established 10 community child protection teams making a total of 110. Even University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh though these committees were established by the cocoa sub-committee, their activities are not limited to labour in the cocoa sector alone but they are to monitor children’s involvement in labour activities and find ways of curbing them at then- own level. In 2009, the MESW through the Labour Unit has finalized a National Action Plan to eliminate child labour especially the worst forms by 2015. According to the coordinator of the Plan, it was prepared with inputs from various key stakeholders to ensure ownership and effective (Field interview with the Director, Labour Unit of MESW, July, 2010). Memoranda of understanding have also been signed with government and non-governmental stakeholders to ensure accountability and effective implementation of the plan (ibid), it is envisage that an effective implementation of the plan will contribute to the elimination of child labour in the county and for that matter that of the Mpohor township. To support these initiatives other MDAs such as DSW, DOC, Commission for Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ), Regional Coordinating Councils and DAs are also advocating for the rights and protection of children as stated within their mandated. For instance MESW has introduced programmes that are targeting vulnerable families to enable them take care of their children; a National Social Protection Strategy (NSPS) has been introduced to target and benefit the most vulnerable groups within the society. Programmes that form part of the strategy include the National Health Insurance Scheme, capitation grant, school feeding programme to ensure that all children are in school, and the new 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Livelihood Enhancement Against Poverty (LEAP) cash transfer programme (MESW, 2007) Complementing the work of the MDAs are the NGOs and the Civil Society Organizations. They work hand in hand with communities to advocate for the rights of children and also provide direct service to communities to ensure the survival and development of children. Even though it appears that a lot of programmes are being implemented to tackle the involvement of children in labour and for that matter in mining, in a report to the UN on the implementation of the declarations and Action Plan of the World Fit for Children, the document list the follow as factors that have impeded progress in this area: • Inadequate capacity and awareness of law enforcement institutions to enforce laws and put into practice policies concerning children • Limited co-operation between main child-focus agencies (both governmental and non-governmental) to partner and work on child protection issues • Inadequate finance, resources, facilities, and capacities of agencies, governmental departments and ministries responsible for activities and policies concerning the welfare, protection and development of children » Untimely release of funds to government agencies for activities and policies concerning the welfare, protection and development of children 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Inadequate human, material and technical resources of the principal agencies such as MOWAC, DSW, CHRAJ, DOVVSU, DOC and Civil Society Organisations to carry out their mandate • Lack of effective mechanisms for planning, implementation and monitoring programmes carried out by agencies responsible for the welfare of children • The existence and adherence to inimical and abusive socio-cultural practices • Lack of effective and disaggregated information management systems on children in the country • Lack of facilities for children in extremely difficult circumstances. From the challenges above it is evident that both government and non governmental institutions need a closer collaboration in other to create the enabling environment for children to develop to their full potential. The DA, community and the family which has the first responsibility for children should play their part to promote the welfare of children. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5.5 Programmes Undertaken Within the Community to Reduce the Involvement of Children in Mining Activities Sensitizations Programmes During a focus group discussion with community members to find out if there have been any programmes undertaken to reduce the incidence of children in mining in the community, it was revealed there have been sensitization programmes in various forms by World Vision International (WVI), the DOC, DSW and DA on the rights of children with emphasis on the effects of child labour on the development of children. Table 4.25 give the type of sensitization programme organized for the community and the agency responsible within the past 12 months preceding the study. Table 4.25 Type of Sensitization Programme by Organizer(s) Type of sensitization programme Organizer(s) Freqnency Talk on child labour issues MESW and DA 1 Puppetry shows DOC and DA 1 Durbar DA 1 However the community complained that such programmes are fax in-between and call for frequent visit by such organizations. During the focused group discussions, community members were asked if they are satisfied with the frequency of such sensitization programmes. Their responses are displayed in Table 4.25. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.26: Satisfaction with Frequency of sensitization Programmes Type of sensitization programme Satisfaction with Frequency of sensitization Programmes Yes No Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Talk on child labour issues 13 33 26 67 Puppetry shows 11 28 28 72 Durbar 13 33 26 67 Task Force for the Prevention of Child Labour It was further revealed that a Task Force for the prevention of child labour in the community has been set up with the support of the DA. According to the Assemblyman of the area, the task force has ordered concession owners not to employ children at their site especially when school is in session. However, an interaction with school authorities revealed that children sometimes do not attend school because of their engagement in mining activities. They complained that it sometimes take about two weeks before normal classes start at the beginning of every term, and a lot of effort is required on their part with the Task Force to get the children to stop work in order to go to school. 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter of die report throws light on the conclusion and recommendations deduced from the study. The study on the involvement of children in surface mining was undertaken in July 2007 in Mpohor, in the Mpohor Wassa East District, Western Region to find out the living conditions of children in the study area, their role in the mining process, the working condition of children and what is to be done to curtail the situation. On the whole, 32% of the children interviewed were engaged in surface mining at the time of the study, suggesting that, for every three children in the study area, one is in involved in surface mining a situation that is very alarming. The study revealed a higher involvement of boys, 19 than girls, and 13. Education profile of the children engaged in mining activities shows that 23 of out of 32 children are in school as compared to 61 out of 68 children not engaged in surface mining activities. The study also revealed that that children as young as 7 years take part in the mining process. 5.1 Conclusions It is said that children are the future of every nation but we should realise that they are the children of today. They need to be protected to ensure the full development of their potential and talent. This can only be achieved if practical measures are put in place at all levels of implementation to safeguard their rights. It is hoped that the recommendations made in this report will stimulate a positive response from all stakeholders in child’s rights promotion leading to a positive outcome for all children, especially those in the study area. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study, as was stated earlier, was motivated by the need to find the role children play in mining activities in the Mpohor Wassa. The study revealed that significant proportions of children below the age of 18 years are involved in different work activities in the surface mining sector at the time of the study, which is prohibited under the Children’s Act. It was also evident that the conditions under which the children work are detrimental to them as they work under direct sunshine for long hours in very hazardous conditions which predispose them to a number of health problems including exposure to mercury. At the time of study, most of the children talked to were attending school or have had completed school, indicating that despite the involvement of children in mining activities, parents still ensure that their children go to school. Some children, however, complained that the work they perform affects their schooling as they usually close from the mining sites tired. The most prominent explanation as to why children involve themselves in child labour is related to the economic status of the family, mainly the inability of parents to provide basic needs for their children. Children had to either drop out of school due to lack of or inadequate funds to support their education or had to work after school, on weekends and holidays to meet their educational expenses. Some children claimed that being made to repeat their final year of JHS is the reason they are engaged in surface mining activities children also had to work to support their families, and parents were noted to highly value the contributions made by the children. 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ensuring the health needs of children is an essential component for securing their survival and development. The findings revealed that parents/guardians provide health care for most children and the responses from the children also indicates that health facilities are within the proximity of their place of residence. The study has given an indication that that government have legal framework in place to prevent children from being engaged in mining activities, however, the main challenge is the effective implementation of these laws in the community as the organisatons responsible either lack the resources, capacity or are not collaborating effectively to tackle the situation. 2.4 Recommendation Although a lot of initiatives have been undertaken to create awareness on the human rights of children, it is evident from this study that more effort needs to be taken by the community to prevent children from being engaged in mining activities. There is an urgent need for the community to be educated on child rights issues in relation to the development milieu of children. To address the problem of child labour in these areas, possible interventions have been suggested, among them is raising the standard of living of the parents of working children by providing them with improved means of production and facilities which are essential to raise their standard of living. With higher incomes, it would not be unnecessary for children to work in the mines. There is also the option of expanding farming activities to include crops that are viable in the area as a possible means of increasing household incomes. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The following recommendations are suggested for consideration, in addition to those suggested in respect of the specific findings presented above: • There is a need for increased sensitization programmes on the negative effect on the involvement of children in surface mining activities on children targeting children, parent, site owners and traditional authorities. These should include information of the poisonous nature of mercury on the health of children and the population as a whole. • The Community Task Force which prevent children from being involved in mining should increase its monitoring visits to mining sites to ensure that site owners do not employ children for their activities • One of the reasons revealed by children as contributing towards their involvement in mining is the presence of only one SHS in the Mpohor Township, it therefore recommended that the DA put up at least one more SHS or Vocational school to enable more children realize their dream of continuing their education. • There is the need for a national data base on children’s involvement in mining activities for a comprehensive national programme of elimination; it is recommended that due to the limited scope of this study, a more comprehensive study be done in the country to better inform policy direction in reducing the involvement in surface mining activities, • There is also the need for MDAs responsible for the implementation of laws on child labour be well resourced and their capacity built to deliver on their mandate • Finally, effective collaboration is needed between both public and private stakeholders if the issue of child labour in the country could be reduced. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Alfa, S. Child labour in small-scale mines in Niger in Jennings, N.S. (ed.) 1999. Child labour in small-scale mining: Examples from Niger, Peru & Philippines. Geneva, ILO. 2. Appleton, S., P. Colier and P. Horsnell (1990): Gender: Education and Employment in Cote d’Ivoire Social Dimensions of Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa, Working Paper 8, The World Bank, Washington D. C. 3. Aryal, B.R. et al. 2005. Child labour in the mines of Nepal. Lainchuar, Kathmandu, Department of Mines and Geology (DMG). 4. Assembly Press, 1998, The Children’s Act, (Act 560). 5. Department of Children, 2007, Ghana's plus 5 Report on the Implementation of the World Fit for Children, MOWAC. 6. Department of Children, 2005, Report on the Roles on Children in the Cocoa Production Activities in Ghana. MOWAC. 7. Department of Children 2006, Report on Familiarization Tour in Small Scale Mining Communities. MOWAC (Unpublished). 8. Dreisbach, R. Handbook of Poisoning. Lange Medical Book, USA, 1987, 12th Ed., pp 238-242. 9. Estrella-Gust, D.P. 1998,Children in Small-scale mining: Sibutad, Zamboanga del Norte, Philippines Geneva, ILO. 10. Ghana Statistical Service, 2006 Multiple“ Indicator Cluster Survey". 11. Ghana Statistical Service, 2006 “Ghana Living Standard Survey, Round 5". 12. Ghana Statistical Service,2003. Child Labour Survey. 13. Glewwe, P. and J. Jacoby, 1994, ‘Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries: Evidence from Ghana 'Journal of Human Resources Vol. 29 No. 3. 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14. GOG/UNICEF 2002, "Situation Analysis of Children and Women in Ghana, Accra ". 15. ILO Briefing Notes 2003,"Situation of Child labourGeneva. 16. ILO. 1999.Social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva, p. 85. 17. ILO/1PEC & MINERCOL. 2001. The boys and girls who work in Colombia’s small-scale mining: Socio-cultural economic and legislative diagnosis. 18. ILO/IPEC & MINERCOL. 2001. The boys and girls who work in Colombia’s small-scale mining: Socio-cultural economic and legislative diagnosis, p. 51. 19. ILO/IPEC (2005). “Eliminating Child Labour in Mining and Quarrying, Backgrounds Document." Geneva. 20. ILO/IPEC-ILO/SECTOR. 2004. Action against child labour in small-scale mining & quarrying: A thematic evaluation. Geneva. 21.ILO-IPEC ASIADEV, 2003, In search for the pot of gold: A case study of the experiences of the ILO-IPEC Program on the Elimination of Child Labour in Small Mining Communities in the Province of Camarines Norte, Philippines. 22. ILO-IPEC. 2004. The informal gold mining sub-sector in Mongolia: A comprehensive sector based project to prevent and eliminate child labour and improve the situation of informal gold miners. 23. Ilon, L. and P. Moock. 1991. "School Attributes, Household Characteristics and Demand for Schooling: A Case Study of Rural Peru."International Review of Education 37, 4:429-452. 24. Lloyd, C. B. and Blanc, A. K., (1996): “Children’s Schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Fathers, Mothers and Others”, Population & Development Review Vol. 22 No. 2. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25. Lloyd, C. B. and Gage-Brandon, A. J. (1994):High Fertility and Children’s Schooling in Ghana: Sex Differentials in Parental Contribution and Educational Outcomes, Population Studies 48. 26. Martinez-Castilla, Z. Child labour in traditional mining: Mollehuaca, Peru. In Jennings, N.S. (ed.) 1999. Child labour in small-scale mining: Examples from Niger, Peru & Philippines. Geneva, ILO. 27. Mathrani S.(2003), “Evaluation of the World Bank Group's Activities In The Extractive Industries" Operations Evaluation Department, The World Bank, Washington D.C. 28. Ministry of Manpower, Youth and Employment (2007) National Social Protection Strategy, Accra. 29. Montgomery, M., Koume, A and R. Oliver (1995), The Tradeoff between the number of children and their schooling: Evidence from Cote d’Ivoire and Ghana, The Population Council Research Division Working Papers No. 85, The Population Council. 30. Mwami, J.A.; Sanga, A.J.; Nyoni, J. 2002. Child labour in mining: A rapid assessment, p. viii. Geneva, ILO. 31. Mwami, J.A.; Sanga, A.J.; Nyoni, J, 2002. Child labour in mining: A rapid assessment, p. viii. Geneva, ILO, p. 27. 32.Tienda, M. 1979. "Economic Activity of Children in Peru: Labor Force Behavior in Rural and Urban Contexts."Rural Sociology 44:370-391. 33. UNICEF (1997), State of the Worlds' Children Report: Child Labour, New York, USA. 34. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. 35. WORLD BANK 2003, Evaluation of the World Bank group's activities in the extractive industries. Background Paper: Ghana Country Case Study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix A UNIYEKSDOLQEIiilANA SOCIAL WORK DEPARTMENT STUDY ON THE INVOLVEMENT OF CHILDREN IN SURFACE MINING QUESTIONNAIRE FOR CHILDREN A. GENERAL INFORMATION IDENTIFICATION 1. Name of Respondent...... Dale...... 2. Sex I. Male 2. Female 4. Age [IN COMPLETED YEARS)...... 99. Don't Know 5. Which ethnic group do you belong to? 1. Ahanta 5. Ga 9. Mole 2. Fanti 6. Adangbe 10. Dagbani 3. Ashanti 7. Ewe 11. Nzema 4. Sehwi 8. Guan 12. Other [SPECIFY]...... 99. Don’t Know Where were you born7 1- In this town/village 4. 4 Greater Accra 9. Eastern 2. In another town/village in 5. Ashanti 10. Volta this District 6. Brong Ahafo 11 Northern 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. In another District in this 7. Western 12. Upper West Region 8. Central 13. Upper East 99. Don’t Know 14. Other (Specify)...... 7. Have you always lived in this current place of residence? I. Yes (GO TO Q 12] 2. No [GO TO Q 9] 99. Don't Know (GO TO Q 9] 8. How long have you lived there?...... 99. Don't Know 9. Where were you living before coming to this community? 1. Another town/village in this District 7. Central 2. Another District in this Region 8. Eastern 3. Greater Accra 9. Volta 4. Ashanti 10. Northern 5. BrongAhafo 11. Upper West 6. Western 12. Upper East 13. Other (Specify)...... 10. Who were you living with in the place you were before moving here? 1. Father only 2. Mother only 3. Both mother and father 4. Other (Specify)...... 11. Why did you move from where you were? 1. Parents arc unable to care for me 5. In order to take care of parents 2. To cam own income 6. Parental neglect 3. Single parent could not take 7. Parents moved from previous abode care of me with income 8. Other ISPECIFY]...... 4. To get money to further education 99. Don't Know 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12. Who do you live with in this community?. 13. What is the relationship between you and the person(s) you live with? 1. Child 2. Domestic helper 3. Labourer 4. Other [SPECIFY)...... 14. What is the main occupation of this person(s) in Q13? 99 Don't Know 15. Are you currently attending any school? 1. Yes |GO TO Q9) 2. No [GO TO Q2| NONSCHOOL-GOERS 16. Why are you not attending school? 1. Completed 5. Dropped out 2. Suspended by school 6. Never been to school (GO TO Q20| 3. Suspended by self 7. Apprenticeship 4 Other [SPECIFY]...... 17. What is your highest educational level/stage attained?...... 99. Don't Know 18. What arc your reasons for not attending school? [EXCEPT FOR RESPONSE I, GO TO Q20) 1. Lack of interest 5. Got pregnant 2. Lack of parental/family support 6. Got married 3. Lack of school facilities 7. Difficulty in paying fees 4. Withdrawn from school by parents 8. Other [SPECIFY|... 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19. Why are you nol interested in school? ii...... 20. Since you are not attending school, how do you spend your time? 1. Full time employment in the mines 2. Part time employment in the mines 3. Help parents in the farm 4. Self employed (SPECIFY]...... 4. Engagement in another type of employment 21. Have you ever thought of doing something else for your future? 1. Yes 2. No 22. If given the opportunity what would you pursue? 1. Learn a trade or enter into apprenticeship 2. Further education 3. Other [SPECIFY! ... 99. Don’t Know(GO TO SECTION C. EMPLOYMENT INFORMATION ON PAGE 5} SCHOOL-GOERS 23. What class are you currently? 24. Are you interested in schooling? I Yes 2 No 99. Don't Know 25. Explain your answer in Q9...... 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26. Would you describe your academic performance at school as, 1. Very Poor Excellent 4. Average 2. Poor 5. Good 3. Very poor 6. Other (SPECIFY]...... 27. What do you consider to be the causes of that performance?...... B. ROLES PLAYED BY CHILDREN IN MINING 1. Do you do any kind of work for you household? 1. Yes 2. No 2. Can you mention a few? 1. Help in the Kitchen 2. Sweep the Compound 3. Fetch water for the household 4. Help in farm work 5. Sell at the market 6. Take care of siblings 7. Nothing 8. Others 3. Have you been involved in any labour activities for the past 6 months? 4. Have you been involved in mining activities within the past 6 months? 1. Yes 2. No [GO TO SECTION E] 2. At what age did you start engaging in mining activities?...... 3. What activity(s) are you involved in mining process? a) ...... b) ...... c) ...... d ...... ) 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4. What specific role do you play in the above-mentioned activities? c) d) c) d).. 5. Are there dangers related to the role you play? 1. Yes 2. No 3.Don’t Know 6. Are there protective measures put in place for your safety?. l.Yes 2. No 3.Don't Know 7. Can you mention some protective used in the course of your work? a )...... b )...... c) ...... d )...... 8. Does your role in mining involve the use of sharp tools? 1. Yes 2. No 9. If yes can you mention a few? a).. b).. c) d).. 10. Does your role in mining involve the use of chemical? 1. Yes 2. No 11. If yes can you mention the chemical used? a)...... 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh b). c) d). 12. Are you given some form of training/orientation before handling lools/chemicals? I Yes 2. No 13. If yes, what kind of training/orientation are you given before you start handling tools/chemicals? What time does work usually start for you? How long do you work in a day? Are you satisfied with the time you start with farm work? 1. Yes 2. No Explain your answer in ...... What time does farm work usually end? 19 Are you satisfied with the time you end work? 1 Yes 2 No 20. Explain your answer in Q10...... 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21. On the whole, are you happy with your working conditions? 1. Yes 3. Some of the time 2. No 99. Don’t Know 22. Are their differences in the work done by children and adults? 1. Yes 2. No 99. Don’t Know 23. Do children and adults receive equal pay for the same work done? 1. Yes 2. No 99. Don’t Know 24. How would you describe your work? I. Difficult 2. Dangerous 3. Easy 4. Acceptable 5. Other [SPECIFY] 99. Don’t know 25. How are you rewarded for the work you do? 1. Pay to self 2. Boarding and lodging 3. Payment to parents 4. Other [SPECIFY]...... 26 Are you satisfied with the payment arrangements? Yes 2. No If paid, how often? 1 Daily 2. Weekly 3. Monthly 4. Quarterly 5. Yearly 6. Other [SPECIFY] 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28. How much do you earn from the work?...... 29. How do you find your pay? 1. Very good 2. Good 3. Average 4. Low 5. Very low 30. Explain your answer in Q29...... 31. Are both adults and Children paid for the same work down? 1. Yes 2. No 32. Have ever been sexually abused by anyone before while working? 1. Yes 2. No 33. If Yes in Q 32 did you report it 1. Yes 2. No 34. Are you allowed break in between your work schedule? 1. Yes 2. No 35 How long does such a break take?...... 36 Do you think the work you do is affecting your education? 1 Yes 2. No 3. Don’t Know 37. If yes to Q42 what are some of these effects? 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh c. HEALTH 1. Would you consider yourself physically healthy? 1 Yes 2. No 99. Don't Know 2. Give reasons for your answer in Q1...... 3. Have you ever been injured as a result of the work you do in mining? 1. Yes 2. No 99 Don't Know 4. If yes, explain type of injury...... 5. Do you know other working children who have also had similar injuries in the course of their work? 1. Yes 2. No 99. Don’t Know 6. If yes to Q5, indicate how many have been injured within the past six months?...... 99. Don’t Know 7. Where do you usually go to when you are sick (not a minor ailment)? 1. Health Post/Medical Clinic 4. Does not fall sick 7. Religious Sacred Place 2. Herbalist 5. Self-medication S. Home treatment 3. Drug-store. Pharmacy 6. Hospital 9 Other [SPECIFY]...... 8. Why this form or type of treatment? 1 Proximity advantage 5. Qualified health personnel unavailable at medical post 2. Has confidence in service 6 My parents take me there 3. Lack of suitable health facilities 7 Other [SPECIFY!...... 4. Can't afford cost of formal health service 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9. Who takes you there or gives you the home treatment? 1 Myself 2. Family relation 3. Elder Sibling 4. Mother/Father 5. Care-giver (unrelated to respondent) 6. Other [SPECIFY)...... 10. How long does it normally take you to get to the health-care provider? 1. Less than 15 minutes 3. 30 to 45 minutes 5. Over 1 hour 2. 15 to 30 minutes 4. 45 minutes to 1 hour 99. Don't know 11. How do you get to the health-care provider? 1. Walk 4. Boat 2. By vehicle 5. Other [SPECIFY)...... 3. By Bicycle 12. Who pays the health-care provider or for the medication? 1. Parents 4. NGO 8. Friends 2. Respondent 5. District Assembly 9. Other [SPECIFY]...... 3. Free service 6. Church/Religious Organisation 10. No payment 7. Relatives 99. Don’t Know 13. Whai health problem(s) do you suffer most? 1...... 2. 3 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14. What major health problem(s) have you suffered in the last 4 weeks? 1...... 2...... 3 ...... 15. If you use chemicals in mining do you think your exposure to the chemicals has affected your health? 1. Yes 2. No 3. Don’t Know 16. If yes in what way has it affected your health?...... 17. Do you think the role you play in mining activities has a negative effect on your health? 1. Yes 2. No 3. Don’t Know 18. Please explain your answer in Q17 19. On the average, how many times in a day do you eat? 1. Once 3 Thrice 5. As and when I want 2. Twice 4. More than three 6. When food is available 7. Other [SPECIFY] 21. How many times do you cat meals with protein (eg. meal, beans, fish, eggs)? 1. Every meal 4. Once a week 7. As and when available 2. Once a day 5 Twice a week 8, Occasionally [SPECIFY] 3 Twice a day 6. Thrice a week 9 Other [SPECIFY] 22. Are you happy with your meals? 1. Yes 2. No 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23. Give for your Q22. D. LIVING CONDITIONS Where do you normally sleep at night? (except for option 2 GO TO Q5) 1. Outside a room 4. In a Kiosk 7. any available space 2. Inside a room 5. In a car 8.0ther [SPECIFY].. 3. in front of a store in the Market 6. In an uncompleted building...... 2. Does the room have windows? 1. Yes 2. No 3. Does the roofleaks? 1. Yes No who do you share the room with? . How many people sleep the place where you sleep? What do you normally sleep on? 1. Bed 4. Plastic sheet 7. Bare floor 2. Mattress 5. Sack 8. Cardboard 3. Straw mat 6. Other [SPECIFY]...... 7. What is your main source of water? 1. Pipe-bome water 3. Bore hole/well 5. Water Tank 2. Stream/Spring Pond 4. Rainwater 6. Other [SPECIFY] What type of toilet facility do you have at home? 1 KVIP 3 Pit Latrine 5. Pan Latrine 2 Water Closet 4 . No facility 6. Other [SPECIFY] 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9. Do you use the public toilet facility? 1. Yes 2. No 10. How long does it normally lake you to get to the toilet facility? 1. Less than 5 minutes 3. 15 to 30 minutes 2. 5 to 15 minutes 99. Don’t Know 11. Where do you bathe? 1. Bathroom 3. Paying bath house 2. Nearby slteam/river 4. Other [SPECIFY] 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix B. CHECKLIST FOR FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS STUDY ON THE INVOLVEMENT OF CHILDREN IN SURFACE MINING 1. What is the major occupation of people in this community? 2. Are children involved in mining activities in the community? 3. What specific roles are played by children? 4. Why do children engage themselves in the mining activities? 5. Are children brought from other communities to take part in mining? 6. How are these children recruited? 7. What is the community’s attitude towards the involvement of children in mining? 8. Does the mining have any effect on children’s development? 9. Has there been any intervention by community/DA/ NGO to eliminate the involvement of children in mining? 10. Are there ways of solving the problem? 109