Phd DISSERTATION

SCHOOL COUNCIL POLICY IN THE PUNJAB: A STUDY IN PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION IN PUBLIC POLICY-MAKING

PhD DISSERTATION

Submitted by

Rafaqat Islam Reg. No. NDU-GPP-Ph.D-09/F-006

Supervisor Dr. Sarfraz Hussain Ansari

Department of Government & Public Policy Faculty of Contemporary Studies National Defence University Islamabad

2015

SCHOOL COUNCIL POLICY IN THE PUNJAB PROVINCE: A STUDY IN PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION IN PUBLIC POLICY MAKING

PhD DISSERTATION

Submitted by

Rafaqat Islam NDU-GPP-Ph.D-09/F-006

This Dissertation is submitted to National Defence University,Islamabad in partial fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Government & Public Policy

Department of Government & Public Policy Faculty of Contemporary Studies National Defence University Islamabad 2015

Certificate of Completion

It is hereby recommended that the dissertation submitted by Mr. Rafaqat

Islam titled ‘School Council Policy in the Punjab Province: A Study in

Problem Identification in Public Policy-Making’ has been accepted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD in the discipline of Government & Public Policy.

______Dr. Sarfraz Hussain Ansari Supervisor

______

External Examiner

Countersigned By

______Controller of Examinations Head of the Department

Supervisor’s Declaration

This is to certify that PhD dissertation submitted by Mr. Rafaqat Islam titled ‘School Council Policy in the Punjab: A Study in Problem

Identification in Public Policy-Making’ is supervised by me, and is submitted to meet the requirements of PhD degree.

Date: ______Dr Sarfraz Hussain Ansari Supervisor

Student’s Declaration

I hereby declare that the thesis submitted by me titled ‘School Council

Policy in the Punjab Province: A Study in Problem Identification in

Public Policy-Making’ is based on my own research work and has not been submitted to any other institution for any other degree.

Date: ______Mr. Rafaqat Islam PhD Scholar

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE Table of Contents iv Abstract v Acknowledgments vi List of Tables viii List of Figures ix List of Maps x Maps xi Abbreviations and Acronyms xiii Chapter-1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 School Management Committees (SMCs): Improper 13 Identification of Educational Problem Chapter-3 The Post-Independence Indigenous Attempts at Education 34 Policy-Making Chapter-4 Post-1951 Internal and External Politics: Their Impact on 70 Education Policy-Making Chapter-5 School Councils as a Major Tool for Reforms of Elementary 96 Education Chapter-6 Education Sector Reforms 2002 Onward: Concerted Efforts at 128 Problem Identification Chapter-7 Teacher: The Pivot of Basic Education Reforms 176

Conclusion and Recommendations 193

Bibliography 196

ABSTRACT

Since the decade of 1980s, a school reform movement, pedaled by the World Bank (and associate donors) has emphasized the importance of community participation in school management. In 1994, the Punjab Province of Pakistan was given a World Bank loan for education reform under the government’s Social Action Programme (SAP), on the condition that community participation in school management would be ensured. The Punjab government ordered formation of school management committees (SMCs) in all primary/elementary level schools with numerous oversight functions, such as increasing enrolment, reducing/eliminating dropouts, controlling teachers’ absenteeism/ensuring their attendance, supervising that teachers’ instructions were imparted properly etc. The SMCs, however, did not make much difference to improve the low education indicators of the Province. Yet the international donors have stuck to their condition of SMCs ever since the SAP (of 1994), and have continued to press for making the SMCs viable, providing generously in later credit approvals (well into 2010s), for SMCs to take root. This study argues that under the 1994 World Bank conditionality, overemphasis on the SMCs as a panacea for education ills was somewhat misplaced. It was not a proper identification of problem in education policy-making. Education policy-making in Pakistan, properly done during 1947-51, depended on active political support for education sector. The political leadership, with the help of experts, evolved a vision of educating ‘whole-man’, i.e. emphasizing man’s physical, biological and moral-spiritual aspects. It identified the teacher to be the agency for materialization of such vision. The 1994 interest on the part of political leadership evidenced the existence of political support (though quite lukewarm), but without emphasizing the education vision and the pivotal role of the teacher in contradiction to the World Bank backed ambitious role of SMCs. Indeed, creation of effective SMCs, particularly in vast rural areas, was itself a problem. Starting with 1994, the Punjab Government experimented with several types of structures that school management committees could take: Who should be the members of SMCs? Who to head; school head, a teacher or a parent, whose ward is in the school, or who else? Similarly, functions to be performed by SMCs had to be changed several times. At the top of all, district education bureaucracy did not show much interest in SMCs. The 2014 report titled, ‘Review of Implementation of School Council Policy’, found that majority of the district education officials could not recall the procedure which was to be followed for reconstitution of school councils as per the 2013 revised policy. With such indifference towards SMCs on the part of district education bureaucracy responsible for formation of SMCs, reform of the education sector through SMCs cannot be achieved. Similarly, assessing contribution of SMCs to educational reform, the Punjab government’s recent document, titled ‘Punjab School Education Sector Plan 2013- 2017’, characterizes the SMCs as a low success area. The same document further holds that in a few instances of successful community involvement strong leadership from schools was a major factor. This view supports the contention of the present study that overemphasis since 1994 on SMCs as a panacea represents a questionable identification of the education problem. The real problem consisted of since 1951 in the lack of effective political support to the education sector in contradiction to enthusiastic support among policy-makers exhibited during 1947- 1951 educational conferences and subsequent work by committees established under those conferences. It was around the year 2000 that Punjab’s political leadership showed visible commitment to education sector, and the matters affecting teachers received more attention. Also, by 2000, donors began to show more positive attitude towards teachers, the pivotal roles to be played by them and finding ways and means to build teachers’ capacity to play their role. As such, the last chapter of the study supports adoption of measures to restore the place of the teacher, who would also promote the idea of SMCs, which at present needs cultivation and nourishment. Keywords: Education Policy Making, School Education, School Management Committees (SMCs) / School Councils (SCO), Punjab Province

Acknowledgments

First and foremost, my utmost gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. Sarfraz

Hussain Ansari, Assistant Professor. His support and encouragement I will never forget. He has been my inspiration, whenever I faced any challenge. My first step in this journey towards PhD degree was, no doubt, thrust upon me by Dr. Ansari. I owe a lot to him, so caring, concerned and thoughtful supervisor that he is.

My special thanks to Dr. Syed Bashir Hussain, Head of The Department,

Government & Public Policy, who has provided us an environment exceptionally conducive for research. His guidance and help have always been available to all students. His passionate persuasions about my coursework and research never let me relax in this journey.

I am thankful to Dr. Ch Islam Siddique, the Director Public Instructions,

Elementary Education, Punjab, who has been a great facilitator during my prolonged and frequent study visits to different districts, towns and schools. I express my gratitude to the officers of School Education Department working at Secretariat, District and

Tehsil levels, head teachers, teachers, parents and community members who willingly participated in my research discussions and provided their valuable input. My sincere thanks are due to Mr Muhammad Hanif Khattak, Ex-Executive District Officer

(Education) Attock and Mr Akram Zia, District Education Officer, Elementary

Education Jhelum, who were so generously providing me time and rendezvous for clarifications and interpretive interviews. Their comments, administrative and personal support cleared away so many obstacles for me.

Finally, I thank my parents and siblings whose prayers, love and support have always been with me. I would never be able to express my indebtedness and gratitude to my parents, whose prayers served as invisible hands to move the wheels of my life to a meaningful and productive direction. I thank my wife Shaheen Akhtar, who faced the ordeals and kept me free from domestic obligations for such a long period. Without her patience and sacrifice this journey would have not been possible. At the end let me make an apology to my daughters Laiba and Maimoona and son Inamullah who have been eagerly waiting for completion of my PhD that had denied them outing opportunities on weekends. May Allah keep all of them under His infinite mercy. Ameen.

Rafaqat Islam

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LIST OF TABLES

Table - 2.1 Categories of Participants of the Pakistan Educational 37 Conference Held in 1947

Table - 3.1 Average Total Expenditure per Primary School for Selected 81 Years

Table - 3.2 Allocation/Utilization of Funds in Five Year Plans 83

Table - 5.1 Responsibilities of the Key District Level officers after 136 Devolution

Table - 5.2 Year- wise Distribution of Books 163

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure - 2.1 Structure of National Institute of Teachers’ Training 51

Figure - 5.1 Structure of Governance – Pre & Post Devolution 136

Figure - 5.2 CPD Framework 145

LIST OF MAPS

MAP – 1 Division-wise Map of Punjab xi

MAP – 2 District-wise Map of Punjab xii

Map – 1: DIVISION-WISE MAP OF PUNJAB

Map- 2: District-Wise Map of Punjab, Pakistan

xii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ADB - Asian Development Bank ADP - Annual Development Plan AEO - Assistant Education Officer ADP - Annual Development Plan ADPI - Additional Director(ate) of Public Instruction AG - Auditor General AJ&K - Azad Jammu & Kasmir BFM - Basic Foundation Module CBOs - Community Based Organizations C&W - Communication and Works Department CEC - Civil Engineering Cell CIDA - Canadian International Development Agency CPD - Continuous Professional Development CPDF - Continuous Professional Development Framework CRDC - Curriculum Research and Development Center CSP - Civil Service of Pakistan CTSC - Cluster Training and Support Centre DC - Deputy Commissioner DCA - Development Credit Agreement DCO - District Coordination Officer DED - District Education Department DEO - District Education Officer DFID - Department for International Development DLI - Disbursement Linked Indicator DMO - District Monitoring Officer DOE - Department of Education DS - Deputy Secretary DPI - Director (ate) of Public Instruction DSD - Directorate of Staff Development DTE - District Teacher Educator

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DTSCs - District Training & Support Centers ECOSOC - Economic and Social Council EDO - Executive District Officer EFA - Education for All EMIS - Education Management Information System ESR - Education Sector Reform ESRAP - Education Sector Reforms Assistance Program ESTC - Elementary School Teacher Certificate FANA - Federally Administered Northern Areas FATA - Federally Administered Tribal Areas FTI - Fast Track Initiative GER - Gross Enrollment Rate GOP - Government of Pakistan GCET - Government College for Elementary Teachers ICT - Islamabad Capital Territory ICR - Implementation Completion Report - IDA - International Development Association IER - Institute of Education & Research IMF - International Monetary Fund I-PRSP - Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper IRM - Institute of Rural Management JICA - Japan International Cooperation Agency JCO - Junior Commissioned Officer LC - Learning Coordinator LG&RD - Local Government & Rural Development Department LQT - Least Qualified Teacher LT - Lead Trainer LTE - Lead Teacher Educator MDGs - Millennium Development Goals M&E - Monitoring and Evaluation

xiv

MIS - Management Information System MOE - Ministry of Education MOU - Memorandum of Understanding MSU - Multi-Donor Support Unit MTR - Mid-Term Review NBCT - National Bureau of Curriculum and Textbooks NGO - Non-Governmental Organization NEC - National Equipment Center NER - Net Enrollment Rate NICE - National Institute for Communication through Education NLC - National Logistic Cell NORAD - Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation NPA - National Plan of Action NRB - National Reconstruction Bureau PEAS - Punjab Education Assessment System PEC - Punjab Examination Commission PEDPC - Punjab Education Development Policy Credit P&D - Planning and Development PAD - Project Appraisal Document PC-1 - Planning Commission Proforma Number I PEEC - Provincial Education Extension Center PEF - Punjab Education Foundation PESRP - Punjab Education Sector Reforms Project PEU - Primary Education Unit PIHS - Pakistan Integrated Household Survey PITE - Punjab Institute of Teacher Education PPP - Public Private Partnership PSR - Project Status Report PST - Primary School Teacher PTA - Parent Teacher Association

PTB - Punjab Textbook Board PTC - Primary Teacher Certificate PTEPDP - Pakistan Teacher Education & Professional Development Program RSP - Rural Support Programme SAP - Social Action Programme SAPP 1 - Social Action Program Project 1 SAPP II - Second Social Action Program Project II SC - School Council SCCBP - School Council Capacity Building Project SCMP - School Council Mobilization Program SDEO - Sub-Divisional Education Officer SDPI - Sustainable Development Policy Institute SDR - Special Drawing Rights SED - School Education Department SMC - School Management Committee SNE - Schedule of New Expenditures SRC - School Repair Committee SST - Secondary School Teachers SVT - Senior Vernacular Teacher TA - Technical Assistance TDC - Test Development Centre TOs - Training Outposts TPV - Third Party Validation TRCs - Training & Resource Centres UNDP - United Nations Development Program UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

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UNICEF - United Nations International Children's Emergency USAID - United States Agency for International Development WDR - World Development Report

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Chapter-1 Introduction

1.1 Statement of the Problem

Pakistan came into existence in 1947, as a result of partition of the then British

India into two dominions namely, Pakistan and India. Pakistan had two wings, one in the

East of India the other in the West of India, with a distance of some one thousand miles between the two wings. The partition gave rise to several problems, including those of migration from one to the other country and then thorny problems of division of assets and flow of river waters essential for irrigation under a huge network of man-made canals. Disputes regarding accession of territories were acute and productive of enmity between the neighbours. Pakistan survived for two decades and half, and owing to internal follies and external aggressions, it eventually suffered dismemberment in 1971.

The Western wing retained the original name, Pakistan and the Eastern wing became

Bangladesh. Before the dismemberment in 1971, Western wing flourished on the economic front. Economic conditions in the post-1971 Pakistan further improved inspite of setbacks of unplanned nationalization of private industries and banks, etc. Pakistan’s per capita income improved from US $ 115.73 in mid-1960s to $ 494.585 in mid-1990s.

However, social indicators, particularly in education, were not commensurate with relatively better economic conditions. Issues of equity were also becoming serious.

Internationally, the country was under pressure to alleviate the conditions of education.

The country’s political leadership came forward, somewhat in haste, to start a Social

Action Programme with international loans from World Bank and other international donors. The multinational funding was made / promised on the condition that certain

notions pedaled by World Bank in education management would be followed as a good practice. This involved the adoption of community participation in school management in the form of School Management Committees (SMCs) or School-Based Management

(SBM), or simply School Councils (SCs). This method of school management was being promoted by the World Bank since the decade of 1980’s. The Government of Punjab, to fulfill the condition for international loan, ordered the formation of SMCs. Through a notification, it laid down functions of SMCs. They were to enjoy an overwhelming status with the provincial government, which sought to undertake several studies and measures to make SMCs as effective as possible. The donors also attached great importance to

SMCs, taking them as a sort of panacea for educational ills in the country. SMCs were envisaged to set right all aspects of school governance, including teachers’ absenteeism, classroom teaching, school vandalism, school finances, teacher shortages, enrolment issues, and student outcomes. However, the outcomes of the SMCs innovation have, so far, not been encouraging.

The operation of Social Action Program (SAP) during 1994-97, with SMCs in place, did not improve education indicators. Indeed, Human Development in South Asia

(1998) recorded that adult literacy rate in Pakistan was hovering around 38% (50% for males and 24% for females). 37% of the boys and 55% of the girls in the primary school age-population were out of school. More than half of the children dropped out of school before completing the fifth grade. The average mean years of schooling was 1.9 years, compared to 3.9 years for developing countries.

1.2 Research Question

Looking at the poor functioning of the SAP the question is whether the educational policy problem was properly identified. Quite often, definition of policy problem is faulty, which aims at only treating symptoms of the problem, while the real problem gets misunderstood. Education problems in the countries that came into existence after World War II need to be studied in the context of their creation — the process whereby they became independent/were created. This is particularly true in the case of Pakistan, which came into existence on the bases of an ideology adumbrated by a poet-philosopher, Iqbal, and a political struggle waged by a leader of impeccable integrity, Jinnah. The following paragraphs set out a conceptual framework for analyzing education policy-making in Pakistan.

1.3 Conceptual Framework

Any attempt to study Pakistan’s education policy problems has to make a reference to history of the country’s creation. Indeed, views of an important consultant on educational reform in Pakistan reinforce this stand. In his discussion of ‘Rising to the

Challenge’ of ‘universal education reforms’ in Pakistan, Michael Barber posits four requirements for success:1 sustained political will and courage, a clear narrative of reform, a coherent strategy and enhanced capacity to implement reforms. In the view of the present study, the first two are the most important of the four in that the last two represent second order technical aspects for the matrialisation of the first order aspects, namely, the contents of the narrative of reform.2

1 Michael Barber (2010). “Education Reform in Pakistan: This Time It’s Going To Be Different”, Washington, D.C. Brookings Institution, pp.1-15. 2 Ibid., p. 1-15.

Among first two aspects, Barber looks at courageous political leadership as

essential for sustained education reforms in Pakistan (Emphasis added). The other

requirement, “A Narrative of Reform” is even more interesting. The case for education

reform in Barber’s words “goes much deeper… It raises the question of identity for

individuals and for society as a whole… In unfolding the bases of narrative of reform,

Barber lists three things:3

i. “The political entity, Pakistan created in 1947 with all its accomplishments and challenges”; ii. “The remarkable civilizations which have risen and fallen in the lands now called Pakistan”; and iii. “Islam, a religion that has brought to the world great art, spectacular scientific advancement and remarkable literature and history. To its adherents, it [Islam] has also brought insights into how life should be lived” (Emphasis added).4

Baber concludes: “It should surely be possible to weave for Pakistan, from these

three strands, an inspiring narrative of Pakistan’s future and place in the world”.5 The

conclusion for this study from Baber’s discussion is that political leadership and

aspirations born of history are crucially important in defining Pakistan’s education

policy problems.

Taking into account the role of leadership in promoting education sector and

outcome envisaged from educational activity, four important points of time/periods may

be identified with regard to education policy-making in Pakistan, viz:

3 Ibid. p.8. 4 Ibid. p.8. 5 Ibid. p.8.

a. The period from late-1947 to early 1950s;

b. The period from mid-1950s to early 1990s;

c. The period from mid-1990s to 2005;

d. Overlapping with (3) above, the period from 2005 onward.

Central to the topic of the present study is the decade of 1990s, when the idea of

School Management Committees (SMCs) was adopted in Pakistan as ‘the Best

Practice’, on the behest of donors and believed to be panacea for educational ills.6 The decade of 1990s is the main theme but the decades preceding the decade of 1990s carry importance in two different ways. The initial period 1949-51 represents some solid work on education policy in terms of articulating an educational vision and exploring means for realization of the same. The decades between 1955 and 1990, on the other hand, are the ones wherein performance in the education sector remained dismal. These were decades of “rhetoric without action on education”7, clamouring for fundamental changes in the education sector.

Some more details regarding the four specified period are under:-

i. During the period 1947 to early 1950s, there was great enthusiasm among

political representatives for enhancing educational facilities in the country and for

articulating an education vision. The enthusiasm was demonstrated in planning

and holding a mammoth conference in December 1947. The conference, under the

chairmanship of the Minister for Education, unanimously articulated a vision of

education that envisaged education of the ‘whole man’. Such vision took man’s

6 Explained more fully in Chapter-4. 7 Akhtar Hassan Khan. (1997). “Education in Pakistan: Fifty Years of Neglect”. The Pakistan Development Review, 36:4, Part-II, p. 647.

nature to comprise physical, biological and spiritual-moral aspects, and the task of

education was conceived as one of providing for all these aspects. To achieve

such vision, role of the teacher was stipulated to be pivotal. The teacher was to be

properly selected, carefully trained and amply incentivised.8

ii. The second period is a long one stretching from mid-1950s to early 1990s. The

early enthusiasm among political leaders to promote education under an

articulated educational vision began to suffer erosion by the mid 1950s. The

erosion started with the demise of top leadership of the country, first with the

death of the founder of Pakistan in 1948 and then with the assassination of the

first Prime Minister in 1951. The consequent internal political instability was

accelerated by external pressures, presenting threats to national survival.9 In the

circumstances, Pakistan’s post-1951 leadership accepted defence and economic

aid and development advisory experts from the capitalist world, particularly the

United State of America, in the context of post-1945 Cold War. The external

factor in education resulted in over-emphasis on producing human resource for

economic development and under-emphasis on moral and spiritual aspects of

human life. The idea of the education of ‘whole man’, encompassing physical,

biological and moral-spiritual aspects came to lose importance. This, irrespective

8 Government of Pakistan, (1948). Proceedings of the First Meeting of Advisory Board of Education for Pakistan Held at Karachi from 7th to 9th June,1948.Karach: Ministry of Interior, Education Division, p. 20. 9 Ayesha Jalal, (1990). The State of Martial Rule: The Origins of Pakistan's Political Economy of Defence. New York. Cambridge University Press, p. 241.

of the lip service for cause of education sector through reports of

commissions/committees for the sector’s uplift.10

iii. Education planning fell to foreign economic development experts.11 Even so,

political support for better arrangements for education sector remained

intermittent and fatally fickle. There were spurs at several moments in the history

of the country, which kept the interest in education alive. But most such

intermittent political initiatives proved a lip service, a fact that was manifested in

very low budgetary provisions for long periods for the education sector. All

regimes, whether civilian or military, democratic or authoritarian, showed

temporary enthusiasm for lifting the education sector to great heights, but such

enthusiasm died down after a while and the sector, on the whole, remained

grievously neglected after 1950s. The situation manifested itself in low education

indicators, e.g., low enrolment ratio, high dropout rate, low completion rate at the

primary/elementary level.

iv. The third period may be taken to begin with 1990s, wherein, the much celebrated

initiative in the shape of Social Action Programme (SAP) was taken to resuscitate

the education sector. The SAP did not properly identify the educational policy

problem. Emphasis was put on statistics in terms of school under-enrolment,

dropouts, teachers’ absenteeism, etc.12 The effort at resuscitation was based on the

10 Such reports/policies titled: Report on the Commission on National Education: January-August 1959 (1959), Government of Pakistan, Karachi: Ministry of Education; National Education Policy and Implementation Programme 1979 (1979) and Government of Pakistan. Islamabad: Ministry of Education. 11 George F. Gant Annals (1954). “The Ford Foundation Programme for Pakistan”, American Annals of Academy of Social Sciences, p. 150. 12 Government of Pakistan. (1994) Memorandum for the Pakistan Consortium 1994-95. Islamabad: Planning Commission and Government of Punjab. (1999) Social Action Programme: Primary School Component. Punjab Community Schools Project - Draft PC-1 Proforma, Lahore: Planning and Development Department. pp. 1-9

donors-driven idea of school management committees/councils, as a panacea for

education reform.13 The Punjab government, in 1994, accepted the donors’

conditionality and put in place School Management Committees (SMCs) in the

hope of bringing about education reform in the country. However, various reports

on the functioning of SMCs established by Punjab government were not

encouraging ones, yet the donors continued to accord priority to them, providing

generously for their promotion in later credit approvals, well into 2010s.14

v. The fourth period may be taken to begin with the beginning of the 21st century,

when a military takeover occurred and the new Chief Executive promised far-

reaching reforms in governance and in the education sector. Donors seemed to

favour and became ready to help in education reforms. Two things were

noteworthy (i) support for education sector by the political leadership and (ii)

recognition on the part of the donors of vital role of the teacher in improving the

education sector. It may be said that hence forward, steps began to be taken for

proper definition of the problem—interest of the political leadership in education

sector and, inter alia, measures to give importance to the teacher as pivot for

education reform.

This study argues that the education sector in the country characteristically lacked consistent and effective support from policy-makers from mid-1950s onwards and suffered erosion of educational vision, particularly the pivotal role of teacher in the national educational endeavours. However, political leaders showed more serious

13 Ibid. p.10. 14 World Bank (2011). Project Paper on a Proposed Additional Credit to the Islamic Republic of Pakistan for the Punjab Education Sector Project, Report No. 59122-PK p. 3 and p. 15.

support for education by the beginning of 21st century. Also, donors began to realize, by mid-2000s, the pivotal role of the teacher in education reform15. With such realization among political leaders and donors, there are efforts afoot towards a proper definition of the educational problem in Pakistan, namely, the recognition of pivotal role of the teacher. External donors, it must be noted, have given relatively more attention, than hitherto, to raise status of the teacher. Indeed, the government became very active in the training of teachers. However, more needs to be done with regard to the content of such training and restoring the status of the teacher.16

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The study pursued the following objectives:-

a. To describe and analyze the educational vision articulated just after the

independence of the county in 1947.

b. To discuss the gradual erosion of political support for education, and also the

erosion of educational vision that was evolved during the initial years of the

country.

c. To examine the context of introduction of school management committees as

a major tool in educational reforms undertaken since mid-1990s.

d. To analyse the functioning of SMCs, indicating their strengths and

weaknesses till the end of the 20th century through Implementation

15 UNESCO & USAID (2006) Situation Analysis of teacher Education: Towards a Strategic Framework for Teacher Education and Professional Development, Islamabad. Also see UNESCO & USAID (2006) Strategic Framework for Teacher Education and Professional Development. 16 Subject of this Study’s Chapter 6 ‘Teacher: The Pivot of Basic Education Reform’.

Completion Reports by donors and various studies undertaken by the

Government on the performance and further improvement of SMCs.

e. To examine the policy initiatives under renewed political support at the

beginning of the 21st century and steps to proper problem identification,

particularly recognition of the role of teacher in the educational process and

need for teacher’s capacity building and provision of incentives.

f. To present appropriate solution, i.e. pivotal role of teacher, knowing that

SMCs need cultivation and nourishment through the cooperation / work of

teachers.

1.5 Methodology and Sources

The study uses qualitative methods mainly archival material, Government

Policies, statutes, reports, etc, on education and related sectors. A large body of information is contained in the feasibility studies conducted by international donors,

Implementation Completion Reports prepared by creditor agencies. Also active are such international agencies as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), etc.

Comparative literature from UNESCO is quite tremendous and the agency has been generous in publishing a large number of individual country studies on Pakistan. Studies conducted under the auspices of the United States of America, particularly those related to education, have been great help.

Usually, there are two considerations with regard to documents to be used in research, consideration regarding authenticity and consideration regarding errors/biases.

In the matter of authenticity, there need not be any questions. Most of the documents

used in the study have come from international agencies of the United Nations

Organisation (UNO) and the national/provincial governments in Pakistan. Now-a-days, most of the international documents are available on the internet. Government documents were always published with care, were available to public, in public libraries and in the records of concerned ministries/departments. All official documents bear proper publication seals.

As to errors of facts in the documents, they can be easily spotted when accounts of common themes are coming, as in our study, from a number of sources including books, articles and, above all, the national and international documents/reports in general and on education in particular. As to errors of judgment/biases, etc., they are likely to be there in public policy/planning as a matter of course. This is so because all types of documents relevant to the present study are policy/planning documents. They have been produced, each one of them, with certain objectives in view. To be of some worth, they must adhere to some canons of reasoning, but whatever their objectivity otherwise, would be pressed in the service of that reasoning.

Documents, whether national or international in origin, can change their stances/emphases even on the same topic, over time. This is because, as policy documents, their reasoning can change owing to new evidence, coming of new laws, owing to new ideas/views/theories/frameworks, etc. Therefore, errors of judgment/bias are supposed to be there in documents. An important function of the study is to comment on the bias to establish its own worth. In the present study, to assess judgments, statements of bias, etc. in the documents used motives of authors of reports under then prevalent regimes have been pointed out/analysed. Similarly, in the case of

documents from international agencies, the present study looks in Western theoretical biases as well as biases being generated because of globalism.

1.6 Organisation of the Study

Apart from introduction and conclusion, the study is organized into seven chapters. Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter. Chapter 2 deals with school management committees (SMCs), as they have been reviewed for in the context of educational problems in Pakistan. The emphasis of the chapter is on the point that the notion of

SMCs does not properly indentify the problem (s) that beset (s) the education sector in

Pakistan. Chapter 3 sets out indigenous ideas basic to education policy. It discusses the conference mode in which education policy was made and emphasizes the fact that such policy took into account the culture of the country with due emphasis on modern science and technology. Chapter 4 shows displacement of the values contained and developed in

Chapter 3. It points out the weaknesses of the education system that had developed during the period 1951 – 1988.

Chapter 5 deals with the major tool, SMCs, to rectify the situation as was developed by early 1990s. The Social Action Program (SAP) was mainly based on the feasibility of

SMCs. Performance of SMCs is discussed and effort has been made to demonstrate that

SMCs were not the proper definition of the problem.

Chapter 6 is devoted to post SAP reforms that began in the year 2002. By that time, some maturity has been achieved in defining that problem, particularly in attracting the political support. Chapter 7 makes teacher as the pivot of education reforms and arguments are adduced in that behalf. Finally, the study culminates on conclusion and recommendations.

Chapter-2

Review of Liter Performance of School Management Committees (SMCs):

This chapter deals with School Management Committees (SMCs), envisaged to set right all aspects of school governance, including teachers’ absenteeism, classroom teaching, school vandalism, school finances, teacher shortages, enrolment issues, and student outcomes. This seems to be an unusually tall order for SMCs. The fact is that policy problem has not been properly identified. A large portion of the chapter reviews a number of studies to show how the reform effort missed the proper identification of the problem.

Just after three months of her independence in August 1947, Pakistan’s Federal

Government held a high-powered conference to frame educational policy for the country. The conference appointed a number of committees on various issues relating to education and also assigned tasks to Provincial governments relating to educational policies suitable for their provinces.17 In 1948, the committees and the provincial governments submitted their reports which were considered by the conference and decided upon.18 The Punjab government submitted a detailed report and, in the case of teacher training, it offered its own facilities for use by provinces where such facilities were lacking.

17 Government of Pakistan Ministry of Interior (Education Division), Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference held at Karachi from 27th November to 1st December 1947. pp.13-44. 18 Government of Pakistan, Proceedings of the First Meeting of Advisory Board of Education for Pakistan Held at Karachi from 7th to 9th June,1948. pp 1-9

The conference participants, the various committees and the Provincial governments had very high aspirations to eliminate illiteracy from the country, promote civic, moral education, and enhance technological status, thus, hoping to put the country on the path to prosperity and well-being.19

The initial impetus could not be maintained owing, partly, to teething problems of a country, which had sought separation from an hitherto unwilling majority, co- inhabitants of British India. After the new country, Pakistan, came into being, her constituent provinces, especially Punjab, witnessed friction in the top leadership and consequent problem of ill-governance.20 The Punjab province and the country as a whole did not achieve progress comparable with the neighbouring countries in the field of education.

There seems to have been no dearth of initiatives in the form of studies and policies regarding education. Apart from the 1947 initiative, there was a conference in

1951, a national commission on education in 1959, a report on the state of education in

1969, major educational policies announced in 1970, 1972, 1979, 1992, 1998, a reform programme in 2001-05, and another educational policy in 2009.21

There have been other reports and major initiatives to enhance educational indicators, with the help of such donors as the Ford Foundation, agencies of the United

19 Ibid. p.10. 20 Ayesha Jalal (1990). The State of Martial Rule: The Origins of Pakistan's Political Economy of Defence. New York. Cambridge University Press p.80. Owing to friction among ministers, the Punjab ministry and the legislature were dissolved in 1951; the same year saw assassination of Pakistan’s Prime Minister. Owing to religious conflict and consequent violence, Martial Law was imposed in the Punjab capital, Lahore, in 1953, and in the same year, another Prime Minister of the country was removed. See M. Rafique Afzal, Political Parties in Pakistan 1047-1958, Vol.I; 4th ed. Islamabad: National Institue of Historical and Cultural Research, Quaid-i-Azam University, 2002, pp.95-105. 21 Kaiser Bangali (1999). History of Educational Policy Making and Planning in Pakistan: Working Paper Series # 40 (Islamabad: Sustainable Development Policy Institute). Also see M. Hameed-ur-Rehman and Salima Moosa Sadruddin Sewani, “Critical Analysis of the Educational Policies of Pakistan”. Dialogue; Vol. VIII, No. 3 (2013), P.247-260.

States of America involved in International development, the Commonwealth

Association, United Nations agencies such as the World Bank, UNESCO & UNICEF, and such bilateral donors as Japan and several European countries.22

Pakistan initially set its goal to achieve universal primary education by 1960s, but it failed, revised the goal several times but achievement is not yet in sight.23 One of the major initiatives for the reform of primary/elementary education, pedaled by World

Bank (and associate donors), was taken up in 1994.24 This consisted in the establishment of School Management Committees (SMCs).25 It was based on the notion of devolution in education, also known as School-Based Management (SBM).26

The formation of SMCs in 1994 was required by the donors, and Pakistan

Government along with Provincial governments, pinned their hopes upon it for better achievement in the elementary education sector. Punjab Education Department adopted the idea and made frequent changes in the structures and functions of SMCs in order to maximize their effectiveness.27 By 2000, SMCs were reconstituted and renamed as

School Councils (SCs). The reconstitution particularly changed the composition and headship of the Council from parent to school head teacher.28 For a time the change led to confusion, compounding the already existing confusion in other areas, e.g.

22 Government of Pakistan (2006). Directory of Donors Assistance for Pakistan’s Education, Islamabad: Ministry of Education, 3. 23 Government of Pakistan. Pakistan Economic Survey 2013-14. Islamabad: Finance Division, p.xi. Current literacy rate is 60 percent. Completion/Survival Rate Grade-I to V is 50 Percent. Ibid. p.151 24 Government of the Punjab, Education Department Notification No. SO(SAP)2-2/94 dated 26 September, 1994, regarding Constitution of Committees to implement SAPP. 25 Ibid. 26 Ibid. 27 Government of the Punjab, Education Department, notification No.S.O (A-I)7-21/81dated 6th August, 1995 for Frogh-e-Taleem Fund Setting Up of School Management Committees. 28 Ibid.

formulation of School-Based Action Plans.29 As a response to such issues and confusions, the Punjab Government decided to announce a more comprehensive ‘School

Council Policy 2007’.30 It covered primary schools (grade1-5), elementary schools

(grades 1-8), Mosque schools and Maktabs. It was enforced for grades 1-5, as a panacea to treat several ills observed in the elementary education subsector. Amendments to the

2007 document were made in 2013.31 Baseline studies and several studies on the performance of School Councils (SCs) have been conducted and it seems that efforts are likely to continue to promote and strengthen SCs as a major reform measure in the elementary education sector.32 The available literature, however, points to substantial under performance of the school councils in carrying out their mandate.

The very formation of SMCs was a command performance. The donor funded

Social Action Program (SAP) undertaken by Pakistan Government for the years 1994-97 required the participation of parents and community to bring about qualitative improvement in education. Community/parental direct involvement in the school management was, thus, introduced as a policy strategy. The Primary Education component of SAP made community participation mandatory, and the Punjab provincial government ordered, through a notification, the establishment of School Management

29 Report of Government Of Punjab, School Education Department, Program Monitoring & Implementation Unit on Punjab Education Sector Reform Programme, 2009, p.7 30 Government of the Punjab (2007). School Council Policy 2007 for Government Masjid. Maktab, Primary and Middle School. (Urdu) Lahore: Punjab Education Sector Reform Programme (PESRP). 31 Government of the Punjab (2013). Revised School Council Policy 2007 for Government Masjid. Maktab, Primary and Middle School. (Urdu) Lahore: Punjab Education Sector Reform Programme (PESRP). 32 Government of Punjab (2014). Review of Implementation of School Council Policy 2013. School Education Department(PMIU): in collaboration with Cambridge Education, (a private organization doing consultancy work in the field of education) p.5

Committees (SMCs).33 The SMCs could participate in identification and selection of potential school sites. They could also take part in selection and hiring of teachers.

Further, they could aid in supervision of schools, performance of teachers, repair and maintenance, and protection from any harm to school buildings.34

However, a study in 1998, by Shaikh Rafi Khan and others, contended that education presented a complicated case of participation and collective action. This was so because the direct benefits of school education did not accrue to all community members. Many living in a locality could not be said to form a stable community, and they might not have much of an interest left in the education system once their children had graduated. The authors suggested that the most interested parents should be on school committees since they had most at stake.35

By 2001, Education Sector Reforms Assistance Program (ESRAP) was introduced in a vigorous effort to decentralize education, recognizing it as an integral component of the general framework of Devolution of Power announced in August

2000. The devolution measures gave new life to the concept of SMCs/SCs. Power was devolved to districts and lower administrative units and there was a great emphasis put on community involvement in education service delivery.36 With the promulgation of

Punjab Local Government Ordinance in 2001, the government again notified formation of School Councils as legal entities, which were mandated to oversee school functioning and enhancing education quality. Membership of the councils included, inter alia, retired

33 Government of the Punjab, Education Department Notification No. SO(SAP)2-2/94 dated 26 September, 1994, regarding Constitution of Committees to implement SAP. 34 Ibid. 35 Shahrukh Rafi Khan (2003). “Participation Via Collective Action in Government and NGO Schools in Pakistan”, Development in Practice, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp.361-376. 36 Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, Education Sector Reforms, Action Plan, 2001-02 – 2005-06, pp66-67

public officials. However, the councils were not able to function as envisaged, partly because the devolution itself lost momentum.37

In 2007, the Punjab Government approved its new School Council Policy (2007) for Masjid, Maktab, Primary and Middle Schools in the province. The policy was introduced to improve quality of education and provision of educational facilities in schools. The policy suggested minimum 7 and maximum 15 members for the council and composition of councils included members in three well-defined categories i.e. parents, teachers and general. It was proposed that the parents should have more than 50 per cent of the Council membership. The remaining seats were to be filled by general members and only one seat was specified for teachers. Initially, the policy proposed that the seat of chairperson should be filled-in by the parents’ member. However, this arrangement was opposed by the teachers and head teachers. Later on, in July 2008 the

Government, through a notification, amended the policy and announced that the School

Council would be headed by the head teacher instead of member of the parent category.

But School Councils, thought to be a major instrument for quality education under the

2007 Policy, did not work as visualized. School Council represented one solution to the problem of quality in education. There were other issues which were not properly attended to, e.g. teachers’ qualification, training, pay, etc.

Report of a UNESCO-financed seminar in 2003 carried the title, “Country

Report on Decentralization of Education System in Pakistan: Policies and Strategies.”38

The study presented by Dawood Shah at the seminar indicated that, despite the

37 Government of Punjab. The Punjab Local Government Ordinance, 2001(iii of 2001) Promulgated on 2 August, 2001. 38 Dawood Shah (2003). Country report on Decentralization of Education system in Pakistan: Policies and Strategies, academy of Education Planning and management, Government of Pakistan.

continuous and systemic efforts for community participation, SMCs had insignificant role. Under the Devolution the decision making at district level tended to be centralized.

The district governments disregarded the community involvement in construction and repair of school buildings. They resorted to bringing in contractors and vendors on their own discretion, thus, restricting and reducing the involvement of community to merely spectator level. The SMCs were often limited to collecting money for schools without playing any functional role. The seminar attributed the declining trend of SMCs participation in school management to district managements’ tendency for centralization of decision-making powers. The report also mentioned lack of training as a reason for less participation by School Councils.39

The Shah study assumes the vital importance of SCs and takes up the issue that they were being ignored. However, the matter of quality education needs to be seen in broader perspective of proper identification of policy problem in the education sector.

Mechanisms for school management mainly through School Councils alone cannot address the policy problem properly. Emphasis on SCs leaves out of consideration other vital aspects, e.g. the status of teacher in a Muslim cultural setting, and pay and service matters. The traditional respect for teacher needs to be enhanced and mobilized in the service of quality education.

Another 2003 study relating to the role of School Councils was titled,

‘Participation via Collective Action in Government and NGO Schools in Pakistan’.40

Based on a sample, in this article, Shahrukh Rafi highlighted the unsatisfactory performance of School Councils/Committees. The study disclosed that only two thirds

39 Ibid. 40 Shahrukh Rafi Khan (2003). “Participation Via Collective Action in Government and NGO Schools in Pakistan”, Development in Practice, Vol. 13, No. 4.

of the sampled schools had committees, although it was, then, mandatory for schools to have them. The government school committees did not have any representation of parents. However, parents had their representation in 9 percent of NGO school committees. SMCs in around four-fifth of the government schools rated their performance as ‘poor’.41 There were government’s claims of extensive training underway, but two fifth of respondents interviewed during the study denied that they had received any training. The study concluded that the outcomes did not reflect the expected results despite considerable activity on part of the public sector for implementing the policy of making SMCs effective and their training. There was no marked improvement in the quality of basic education.42 The author was of the opinion that the fundamental framework for involving the community in the educational process was in place and it had the capacity to offer a base on which a more useful edifice could be erected. However, the author looked at SMCs without much reference to existing organizational dynamics and grievances of the teaching community. Such a reference could have further exposed the futility of such imposed SMCs.

An essay titled ‘Education Sector Reforms in Pakistan: Demand Generation as an Alternative Recipe’ highlighted the importance of SMCs. Published in 2005, its authors, Mitchell, Salman and Irfan, contended that the results could be better and more sustainable, if they were generated through public demand and collective action. The authors favoured mobilization of SMCs in this connection. According to them:43

“SMCs provide a practical way forward for education in Pakistan in the

41 Ibid, p.373 42 Ibid, 43 Jonathan Mitchell, Salman Humayun and Irfan Muzaffar (2005). Education Sector Reforms in Pakistan: Demand Generation as an Alternative Recipe, Education Reform in Pakistan: Building for the Future, Woodrow Wilson International Centre for Scholarships, pp.107-122

form of informed demand and procedural engagement that can serve as an alternative or supplement to more traditional reform approaches. It [the article] outlines how citizen demand for delivery of quality education services, articulated through collective public action and processed through procedural engagement, provides a strategic entry point for sustainable reforms.”

However, the authors seem oblivious to the issues that citizen demand

‘articulated through collective public action’ and ‘processed through procedural engagement’, is easier said than done. Articulation will involve cultural and symbolic aspects with regard to objectives of education. As to procedures, they are often stable in

Pakistan, although they can be, and have been, changed by persons in control of government machinery. For example, procedures for decentralization of education delivery by local government created in 2001, were drastically changed in 2003.44 So the argument of acting according to proper procedures at the local government had been rendered problematic by the time the essay was published. According to an amendment in Punjab Local Government Ordinance, powers of the elected District Nazim were curtailed: the Chief Minister could suspend the local District Nazim, although he was to be an elected person.45 So, the measures which author proposed were only seemingly attractive. In fact, they overlooked the major cultural problems of articulation, and problem of political will. Indeed, the authors could not identify the problem.

A paper by Mazhar Siraj titled ‘Pro-Poor Participation Practices in Pakistan: An

Analysis of Typology of Community Participation in Social Action Program (1992-

44 Ibid. pp. 107-122 45 Government of Punjab. The Punjab Local Government Ordinance, 2001 (iii of 2001) Promulgated on 2 August, 2001.

2002)’46 presented in 2005, dwelt on the under performance on the part of SMCs. Siraj argued that community participation in primary education sector, mandated under the

Social Action Program, was confined to the lowest forms of participation, namely

‘manipulative’ and ‘passive’ forms.47 The manipulative nature of community participation was evident from the manner in which the SMCs had been created and the inability of the government to duly empower them. The establishment of the SMCs was generally based on official instructions and were taken as official orders for the school heads and administrators to be implemented as such. Minimal efforts were made to redress the grievances of the community or the parents after establishment of such committees.48 The passive nature of community participation was related to the former type. The constituent members of the SMCs had hardly any role in the administration as well as the finances of schools. Their involvement was discouraged by the headmasters, as they were possessive about their domains. In normal routine the headmasters, on receipt of official instructions to constitute SMCs, would nominate parent members in consultation with their staff. The parents, thus, nominated would thereon be obliged to be members of the SMC. Surprisingly, in certain cases, according to Siraj, even the District

Education Officer nominated the members and managed their affairs himself.49 Siraj assumes the “Vital” importance of SMCs, but does not probe into issues involved in the formation of such committees and functions they could perform in the context of

Pakistan’s educational woes.

46 Mazhar Siraj (2005). “Pro-Poor Participation Practices in Pakistan: An Analysis of Typology of Community Participation in Social Action Program (1992-2002). Paper presented at International Conference on Engaging Communities, August 14-17, 2005, Australia. 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 49 Ibid.

“Facilitating Communities in Demand Articulation for Quality Education”, authored by Omer and Sattar and published in 2005, seems to be a sequel to contribution by Mitchell, Salman and Irfan “Education Sector Reforms in Pakistan: Demand

Generation as an Alternative Recipe”.50 Omer and Sattar’s views can be facilitative for demand articulation by SMCs. They argue for broadening the membership of SCs to mobilize all those multiple stakeholders whose benefits are not so obvious. In their view, the idea of ‘stakeholders of education’ needs to be more inclusive. That is, the term stakeholders of education should not be confined only to those who are direct beneficiaries but also those who draw indirect benefits from the public education. The composition of SCs should be broadened, different categories of indirect beneficiaries such as opinion leaders, social activists and philanthropist individuals should be included, to enable the communities to articulate their demands for education at various levels of political stratification.51

As Omer and Sattar visualize, a local community can benefit from richer social capital when indirect beneficiaries of public education are taken into account. Omer and

Sattar view the problem of quality in elementary education as a problem in public education, one solution to which has to involve wider groups in community, not simply parents. Such a concept of public education is generative of discussion of broader issues relating to objectives of education at national and local levels and identification of policy problem accordingly. This means that problem of quality in education may not be solved simply by establishment of SMCs alone.

50 Mitchell, Salman and Irfan “Education Sector Reforms in Pakistan: Demand Generation as an Alternative Recipe” (Publisher etc) 51 Nadeem Omer and Adnan Sattar (2005). Facilitating Communities in Demand Articulation for Quality Education. Islamabad: ESRA/RTI.

Faryal Khan’s article, “School Management Councils: A Lever for Mobilizing

Social Capital in Rural Punjab, Pakistan”52, indeed, explores how effectively councils can function as an agent for mobilizing the human resource from amongst the rural social setups. The study highlights that such effectiveness is dependent on the SMCs ability to amicably consider the priorities of the populace by emphasizing their common interests and especially attending to the needs of the poor. SMCs should also endeavor to consider the opinions of such people in decision-making. Empirical evidence from the study suggests that, school councils that were established reproduced the orthodox male dominated social hierarchy by including only the male members from amongst the social selects. At the same time, the study notes the change for the good, i.e. the enlarged groups of participants that do not exclude the feminine or the under privileged population. That is, changes had occurred for the good of the community through mobilization of social capital that mainly came from the traditional elite. In the process, even veiled women came to participate for the good. The study indicates that ‘elite capture’ of institutions is not something universal in Pakistan, and that participation of the local elite can have positive result for schools.53 Faryal Khan’s study advocates for the interests of the marginalized, it also shows recognition of, and role for, the tradition and culture in bringing change in the society. This means that any institutional grafting should take culture, often local culture, into account.

52 Faryal Khan (2007). “School Management Councils: A Lever for Mobilizing Social Capital in Rural Punjab, Pakistan”. Prospects, Vol-XXXVII, No. 1, pp.57-79. 53 Ibid. pp.77.

Report of Nasira Habib’s study titled, “Understanding the Role of School

Councils: Situation Analysis of School Councils in Five Districts of Punjab”54 was published in 2010. It was an evaluative undertaking with a sample from five districts of the Punjab to ascertain whether the purpose and objectives of establishing School

Councils had been achieved or not. The study found that despite more than a decade of their existence, community participation and ownership of SCs was still at an embryonic stage. The SCs existed in form but their essence was lacking, separating the educators and the population they were catering for. The lack of community involvement in educational activities warranted a serious analysis of the factors behind the same.55 In view of the author, the idea of local governance of education could revolutionize the quality, contents and outcomes of education, if the local communities were involved in letter and spirit. But she rightly noted that creating such involvement was a time consuming process. It requires mobilization and organization to ensure participation. At the same time it involves, as she noted, a clear vision on the objectives and outcomes of education.56 However, clarity of vision on objectives and outcomes is a large problem and transcends the purview of school councils. It is a problem which touches the society as a whole and involves the public policy-making, i.e. interests and social forces going beyond a school council. This means that in efforts at reforms of the basic education through SMCs alone, the problem is not properly identified.

A report titled, “The State of School Councils in the Punjab”57, was published in

54 Habib, Nasira (2010). “Understanding the Role of School Councils: Situation Analysis of School Councils in Five Districts of Punjab” Khoj - Society for People’s Education, Lahore in partnership with Actionaid. 55 Ibid, p.29. 56 Ibid, p.36. 57 Kureshi, Ahmer (2010) (ed). The State of School Councils in the Punjab: A Baseline Study of community Participation in School Management, Programme Monitoring and Implementation Unit

2010. Sponsored by School Education Department, Punjab, it is subtitled “A Baseline

Study of Community Participation in School Management.” The report commented that a typical rural community in Pakistan was a mosaic of class and caste. If the concern with community participation was to ensure the participation of the poorest and the underprivileged, then, their involvement via school committees needed to be ensured. In this connection, the report raised the point that different areas of the country might require varied models of community participation and composition of school committees. There may, for example, be a case for representation of marginal groups in certain districts and area-specific approaches to ensuring female participation in school management instead of one-size-fits all model.58 This point seems to be of great interest to our study. Various models of School Councils mean recognition of variety in local tradition and space for consideration of cultural aspects. Indeed, educational process needs to take some large social objectives in view. All that would involve policy-making wherein identification of policy problem is vital as the first stage of such process.

Ahsan Rana’s study “Education Reform in Punjab: A Decentralized Governance

Framework for Government Schools”59 encompasses almost all issues in the discussion of SCs, when he concludes that SCs have been unsuccessful in delivering on their mandate, and then begins to discuss the reasons of the same as usually found in the literature. Such reasons are: (1) lack of interest from parents and local communities in effectively managing their schools; and (2) their lack of capacity. Rana notes the argument in the literature that playing a key role in school management requires a long-

(PMIU), German Development Cooperation (GAZ) and Management Education Department, Government of the Punjab, Lahore. 58 Ibid, pp.39-43 59 Rana, Muhammad Ahsan (2014). “Education Reform in Punjab: A Decentralised Governance Framework for Government Schools” Lahore Journal of policy Studies, vol.5, No.1.

term time commitment, that not many people in the local community are able to make that contribution in the school activity that is carried out during the day, when most parents are busy in their respective offices, shops or fields. Rana also argues that often local communities do not possess the necessary accounting and managerial skills to efficiently utilize school budgets and to effectively evaluate teachers’ performance.60

Rana agrees that SCs have by and large been unsuccessful in playing a significant role in reducing teachers’ absenteeism, in increasing their teaching effort and in increasing enrolment, but he finds it hard to agree that such non-success has anything to do at all with the lack of knowledge, commitment and/or capacity of local communities.

He brings evidence to show that households, especially mothers, have a reasonably good idea of how their children are faring in the school and how the school is doing.61 He concludes that local communities in rural and urban areas: (1) have a reasonably good understanding of the performance of various schools in the neighborhoods; (2) have an active interest in improvement in school education; and (3) have adequate capacity to play an important role in school management. He then asks how to explain the consistent failure of SCs across the province in delivering on their mandate.62

Rana thinks that explanation lies in power relations between the teacher and the local community.63

“The teacher is the service provider in this case and the local community the client, as their children study in government schools. In the current dispensation, the service provider is visibly more powerful than the client – a fact both parties fully appreciate.”

60 Ibid p.44 61 Ibid. 62 Ibid. 63 Ibid.

Rana takes the view that the teacher is more educated and has an income more stable than that of an average parent. He is part of the government hierarchy and ipso facto has privileged access to state protection and resources. He is frequently called upon to carry out various surveys and draws up lists (such as prospective beneficiaries of financial assistance) by the government, which places him at the giving end of the relationship. He is more mobile, as he often frequents district and sub-district headquarters for official duties. Most importantly, a teacher is part of several professional networks, which he can draw upon on need basis. Teacher associations are membership-based organizations and are vertically integrated at district and provincial levels. They support their members in any manner whatsoever. Almost all associations have linkages with political parties – yet another avenue to wield influence on policy.64

In Rana’s view, the school council is led by the Head Teachers, who convene the council meetings, maintain minute and accounts and interact with higher authorities on behalf of the Council. Practically, a community member of the council has no real control on human, physical or fiscal resources of the school. Therefore, in Rana’s view,

Councils have by and large failed in providing accountability in government schools.

For them, to become effective levers of control on school affairs, the power relations between the service provider and the client must be changed.65

Rana proposes the establishment of District Education Authorities “comprising institutional representation from key stakeholders and transfer of school management functions to elected SCs… to provide for client-led oversight of education providers

64 Ibid, p.45 65 Ibid.

without incurring additional costs and enlarging district bureaucracy.”66 However,

Rana’s suggestions raise a number of fundamental questions. An important one relates to education as a service, teachers as providers of service and parents as clients. There is a debate whether education is a public good and its provision is mandatory on public authorities or it is a service to clients/ consumers. Most of the educational policy-making in Pakistan assumes education to be a public good. The founder of Pakistan, Quaid-i-

Azam, on the occasion of Pakistan Educational Conference in 1947, said:67

“You know the importance of Education and the right type of education cannot be overemphasized. Under foreign rule for over a century, sufficient attention has not been paid to the education of our people and if we are to make real speedy and substantial progress, we must earnestly tackle this question and bring out educational policy and programme on the line suited to the genius of our people, consonant with our history and culture and having regard to the modern conditions and vast developments that have taken place all over the world.”

Similarly, almost thirty years later, the 1972-80 education policy document contains as objectives:68

a. Preserving, promoting and practicing the fundamental ideology of Pakistan,

so that it becomes embedded in the national as well as individual life.

b. Enhancing national unity, by highlighting cultural and social similarities in

the context of Islamic and Pakistani ideology through a deliberate application

of the educational system.

There is a great need to resolve the service versus public good problem, as this is at the very heart of educational policy-making. A problem is that it has not been stated in

66 Ibid, p.49. 67 Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference held at Karachi from 27th November to 1st December 1947, Government of Pakistan Ministry of Interior (Education Division) p.5. 68 Government of Pakistan (1972). The Education Policy 1972 -80. Karachi: Islamabad; Ministry of Education. p.1

clear terms so that those who tend to see education in Pakistan merely in terms of service could understand Pakistan’s situation accurately.

The School Council Policy was revised in 2013 and was pilot-implemented in five districts. Such implementation was reviewed and it was found that "for the most part of this [implementation] exercise was not carried out in the spirit in which it was intended."69 One of the reasons for this 'spirit-less' implementation "was the lack of time given to the districts and schools to accomplish this reconstitution." Review report notes that the very "question of what exactly was meant by 'reconstitution'70 became controversial. Apart from such controversies the School Council policy has not succeeded in making any demonstrable positive effect on student outcome.71

The lack of any visible success in resolving educational problems through the

School Council Policy means that the policy, in its present form, is still rudimentary and not capable of any solid contribution to school effectiveness and student achievement.

The present study seeks to elaborate an alternative perspective on the country’s educational problems.

The study takes the view that in educational policymaking or any public policy- making, for that matter, a basic and vital step is the definition of the policy problem.

Some authors have contrary views. They claim that “The grand challenge of educational reform in Pakistan will be implementation.”72 Authors of the article cite Michael Barber’s view about educational reform in Pakistan that “everyone he [Barber] spoke within

69 Cambridge Education (2014) Review of Implementation of School Council Policy 2013, p .ii 70 Ibid, p.15 71 Anila Channa (2011). Can School Decentralization Improve Learning? Autonomy, participation and student achievement in rural Pakistan. Working Paper Series, London School of Economics. p.25 72 “Mehnaz Aziz et. al. Education System Reform in Pakistan - Why, When and How? IZA Policy Paper No. 76 (2014), p.19. See, Also, Leslie A. Pal, (2001) Beyond Policy Analysis: Public Issue Management in Turbulent Times (Scarborough, Ontario: Nelson). “Chapter 3: Problem definition in Policy Analysis”, pp.93-125

Pakistan before initiating a reform project for education agreed that the problem was implementation.”73 In the view of the authors, “The problem in Pakistan’s educational system is not what needs to be done, but who will do it and how they will achieve their aims.”74

The view taken in this study is that “what needs to be done” is not that simple in a society where overwhelming majority professes the Muslim faith, has well-established norms of social conduct and, above all, the aspiration expressed at the time of independence to mould their public life according to their faith in the otherwise modernizing/secularizing world.75 The aspiration has given rise to a number of interpretations and all such interpretations play their active role leading to complexities in the country’s public life. As such, “what needs to be done” is problematic; it first needs to be properly defined.

Noting the complexity in defining a policy problem, this study introduces the public policy literature into the present topic. In that literature, implementation can be said to be a semi-terminal phase in the public policy process. The policy process comprises such phases/stages as problem definition, agenda setting, policy analysis, policy alternatives and choice, policy adoption, policy implementation, and evaluation/impact studies that succeed implementation in the policy process.76 Thus, the first vital stage in the policy process is problem identification, definition of the policy

73 Ibid., p.20. Also Sir Michael Barber “The good news from Pakistan: How a revolutionary new approach to education reform in Punjab shows the way forward for Pakistan and development aid everywhere” London: Reform, March 2013. 74 Aziz, et al. op.cit. p.19. 75 Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference held at Karachi from 27th November to 1st December 1947 (Education Division). 76 Various stages/phases in the policy-making process include: Problem identification/definition, agenda setting, policy formulation (proposed alternatives to resolve problems), policy adoption (Legislation), Implementation, and Evaluation. See James E. Anderson, Public Policy-making 6th Ed. Belmont (USA): Wadsworth, 2006, p.82.

problem.

The authors, Aziz and other, do heavily emphasize that major reforms are needed at the implementation stage. However, at one point, they come very close to this study’s contention that problem definition is problematic. Since the authors’ perspective is not particularly that of Public Policy it seems pertinent to reproduce the authors’ own words:77

“Interventions often have side-effects and raise unforeseen opposition. Well-intentioned reformers will need to recognize different types of political skills needed to manage the reform process, which will help them interpret the reactions their actions may generate and, thus, help them adapt their strategies. This will require: astute political analysis (assessing the intentions and potential actions of stakeholders), defining political strategies (an analysis of the effects of proposed interventions on the players, their power, their positions in response to the intervention, and the resulting public perception), executing these strategies, and adapting to unexpected responses.”

In the ideas stated in the quotation, the authors talk about most of the notions involved in the policy process without using the public policy terminology. For example, the notion of “side-effects” refers to what, in public policy language, is termed

“unintended effects”. Similarly, the authors’ notion of ‘interpreting the reactions of others’ refers to concept of “stakeholders” in the public policy terminology. Indeed, the authors do use a phrase ‘assessing the intentions and potential actions of stakeholders’.

As such, the authors’ views bring out the importance of various phases of public policy- making process. This study’s emphasis is on the initial and most vital phase, namely, definition/identification of the policy problem.

Conclusion

This chapter has reviewed the functioning of the SMCs that were established by

77 Aziz, et al. op.cit; p.

Government of Punjab in 1994 as a panacea for reforms in education. Such review reveals that SMCs could not bring any appreciable measure of betterment in the educational indicators. Ideas about policy-making process emphasise that identification/definition of policy problem is the first important step in policy-making and search for proper solution. In 1994, the Punjab Government, on the behest of World

Bank, established SMCs disregarding the sounder educational policies developed just after the independence of the country. The next chapter takes up the indigenous efforts at educational policy-making undertaken by educational conferences held in 1947 and 1948.

Chapter-3

The Post-Independence Education Policy-making: Articulating an Indigenous Vision

3.1 Vision of early policy-makers

The present study contends that formation of School Management Committees

(SMCs) on the advice of foreign donors, as a solution to education problems during the

1990s, missed to identify the problem properly. In the previous chapter, literature on the functions of SMCs in Pakistan was reviewed, pointing out that such SMCs could not bring about desired improvement in the education conditions. It was emphasised that solution contained in the formation of SMCs was a response to a misidentification of the problem. Proper identification of problems of education policy are always traceable to the history, culture, aspiration of a particular society, and that interest of public policy- makers is vital for that task. It is the interest among public leadership that can effectively mobilize resources for articulation of educational vision of a society. The present chapter is concerned with education policymaking at the inception of Pakistan and how an enthusiastic political leadership identified the problem in the articulation of an educational vision and identification of proper means for the materialisation of that vision.

The words “post-independence” and “indigenous” in the title of this chapter are important. They point to the fact that after August 1947 Pakistan was no longer a colony, it was independent and that the people inhabiting the country with a new name, Pakistan, possessed a culture different from the one that their British rulers possessed and partly

imposed on them.78 During the independence movement, the people re-asserted their culture; indeed, re-assertion of culture provided the basis for independence. They struggled for a separate and independent country on the basis of possessing a different culture, a mark of distinction from other groups living in the Indo-Pak Subcontinent and, therefore, entitled to a separate territory. Cultural distinction also provided a basis to mobilize people, to come together for demanding a separate territory.79 Culture, therefore, was seen to provide philosophy of education-both to base education on culture and to promote those aspects of culture which were perceived to have been eroded by living under an alien rule. So, there was an emphasis on preserving and promoting what was perceived as indigenous, along with the desire to acquire and develop useful modern technology, mainly through education.80

An eminent educationist has given some description of the method of education which prevailed in India under Muslim rule. According to him, education was not controlled by the state, though state was one of the greatest patrons of learning and education. Using modern terminology for medieval Muslim educational institutions,

Qureshi writes that the State subsidized education by founding universities and colleges and granting scholarships and stipends to deserving teachers and students.81 Every college was a pious foundation and the God-fearing people always considered it their

78 Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) is generally regarded as the person who first articulated the idea of separate entity for Muslims of British India. See Iqbal: Poet Philosopher of Pakistan ed. Muhammad Hafeez (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1971). Iqbal emphasis on culture as a basis for separate entity were first expressed in his “Presidential Address delivered at the Annual Session of the All India Muslim League at Allahabad on the 29th December, 1930, reproduced in Thoughts and reflection on Iqbal, ed. Syed Abdul Vahid (Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1964) Pp.161-194 79 Saleena Karim & Fazal Karim (ed) (2012). Did Quaid-i-Azam want to make Pakistan a Secular State? Lahore: Tolu-e-Islam Trust pp.12-13. 80 Government of Pakistan. (1947), Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference held at Karachi from 27th November to 1stDecember 1947. Karachi: Ministry of Interior, Education Division. 81 Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi (1975). Education in Pakistan: An Inquiry into Objectives and Achievements. Karachi: Ma’aref Ltd. p.25

duty to endow places of learning generously, even lavishly. These institutions charged no fees and the students, who flocked to their portals, were maintained throughout their educational career by colleges. They were given free boarding and lodging and were supplied with books without cost. Education was, thus, free and anyone who felt interested could obtain it. The attainment of knowledge and the dispensation thereof were regarded as acts of worship and there grew up a tradition in accordance with which even the wealthy and powerful found some time to teach. After the decline of their power in the Subcontinent, the Muslims, who had been in possession of large endowments for educational purposes, gradually lost most of them, because in many places, the British took over such foundations and spent the money on objects not covered by the terms of endowments. Muslim education was, thus, starved with coming of the imperialist British rule.

Importance of proper education for the envisaged new country was felt before the dawn of independence in 1947. A committee of educationists was appointed in 1946 to prepare an outline of the system of education which should be adopted in the new country, if it came into existence. In a meeting, the committee deliberated and found it

“necessary to impregnate the various disciplines with the philosophy and ideology of

Islam.”82

After independence, a conference with the title “The Pakistan Educational

Conference” was convened in November-December 1947. Participants in the conference were highly educated persons in the Western, mainly English tradition. At the same time, they belonged to Indian Muslim culture on the basis of which Muslims in the Indo-

Pak subcontinent were successful in carving out a separate territory for their national

82 Ibid, p.26

existence. The point is that the participants had comparative knowledge of both the

Western educational system and strengths, weaknesses and aspirations of the newly- born state within the system of United Nations Organization.83 While the persons participating in the 1947 Conference could be said to present/represent aspirations of their countrymen, they were aware of the international order then in existence and constraints and opportunities that the system offered.

Table 2.1 - Categories of Participants of the Pakistan Educational Conference Held in 1947 Sr Category Number, who attended 1 Federal Ministers 3 2 Provincial Ministers 7 3 Speaker Legislative Assembly 1 4 Members Legislative Assembly 4 5 Vice Chancellors 3 6 Directors Public Instruction/Superintendent Education 8 7 Secretaries to Government 3 8 Principals of Colleges/ Directors of Institutes 7 9 Deans/ Professors 6 10 Chairman Public Service Commission 1 11 Member Public Service Commission 1 12 Assistant Educational Advisors (Education Division) 3 13 Joint Secretary (Education Division) 1 14 Deputy Secretary (Education Division) 1 15 Education Officers (Education Division) 5 16 Retired Indian Education Service (IES) 1 17 Bishop 1 18 Secretary, Literary Society 1 19 President, Minority Community Organization 1 Source:Government of Pakistan (1947). Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference held at Karachi from 27th November to 1st December, 1974 Karachi: Ministry of Interior, Education Division, pp. 2-4.

83 The word aspiration has been emphasized to take note of the feelings of the Muslims in Pakistan. Indeed, one participant of 1947 Conference wrote a book in 1956, ‘The Pakistani Way of Life’. Three of the seven chapters of the book contain these headings: “Political Institutions and Aspirations”, “Economic Institutions and Aspirations” and “Religious Institutions and Aspirations” See Qureshi op.cit.

The Conference appointed a number of committees that worked on various aspects of their subjects and whose reports were presented in a plenary session of the conference.

The committees were as follows:-

a. Scientific Research and Technical Education Committee”

b. Adult Education Committee”

c. University Education Committee

d. The Primary and Secondary Education Committee”“”

e. Women’s Education Committee”

f. Committee for Scheduled Castes and Backward Classes Education”

g. Cultural Relations Committee”

Some of the committees also held joint meetings and presented their reports.

There were joint meetings reports:

a. Joint Meeting of the Committees on the University Education, Scientific

Research and Technical Education and Cultural Contacts”

b. Joint Meeting of the Committees on University Education, Women’s

Education and Primary and Secondary Education”

In a separate plenary session, the conference passed the following resolutions84:-

(1) An Inter-University Board of Pakistan to be established for coordination

among universities.”

(2) An Advisory Board of Education for Pakistan was to be founded to advise on

education matters.”

84 Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference held at Karachi from 27th November to 1st December 1947 Government of Pakistan Ministry of Interior (Education Division) p.43

(3) Urdu was recommended to be recognized as Lingua Franca of Pakistan.

(4) Teaching of Urdu to be made compulsory at school level and the stage of

its introduction in the primary schools to be left to the decision of the

provincial and state governments.”

(5) The use of multimedia in the shape of audio and video broadcasts may be

maximized.”

(6) A Pakistan Academy was to be formed for research.”

(7) The educational system of Pakistan was to be based on ideology, as

prescribed by Islam which highlighted among other attributes the virtues of

tolerance and fair play along with a concept of universal brotherhood.”

(8) Practice of religion by Muslims was to be ensured, while extending similar

facilities to followers of other religions to follow their respective faiths.”

(9) Physical training was to be mandatory at school level, while extra-

curricular activities like scouting, marching, shooting, hiking and

swimming be especially encouraged.”

(10) The selection of students be done as per their aptitude and they be

encouraged to follow the type of education for which they might be found

suitable. However, the principles and methods of selection needed careful

examination and the question was to be considered in detail by the

authorities.”

(11) Use of the words “Schedule Castes” - Resolved that the words “Schedule

Castes” used in the deliberation of the Conference had been used only in

the legal sense; but, otherwise, the conference recommended to the

Constituent Assembly that a more appropriate nomenclature signifying the

absence of any class distinctions in Pakistan be coined and adopted in the

new constitution.

(12) Adult Education

(i) Resolved that for the purpose of achieving a grade of general education,

the start would be taken with introduction of literacy in general and, if

possible, simultaneous reinforcement through audio video training aids

like radio and TV shows, slide shows, audio records and

documentaries.

(ii) The Central Advisory Board of Pakistan was to have a special section

dealing with the problems of Adult Education. Adult Education was to

be recognized as most important at the state and province levels and

they were to initiate in their domains early measures for the

introduction of mass literacy arenas.

(13) A Scheme was to be prepared by the Education Division of the Pakistan

Government for the establishment of a National Library and Museum.”

(14) Pakistan Central Government was required to establish a Historical

Records and Archives Commission.

(15) In order to organize and simulate Islamic research with a perspective of

highlighting the requirements of the contemporary times, a central institute

for Islamic Research was to be established.

(16) Introduction of free education till primary level and making it compulsory

for grade 5 was proposed, which would be gradually revised to grade 8.”

(17) Provincial and State Governments were to initiate suitable steps to ensure

proper training, and adequate salaries of teachers and the adoption of short-

term courses with a view to raising the large number of teachers required

for a system of compulsory education.”

(18) Various provincial and state educational departments of Pakistan should

compile statistical and informational data regarding the availability of

educational facilities, present on ground for female education in their

areas.”

(19) A Technical Education Council was to be established to advise the

Government of Pakistan on subjects related to the development of technical

education at different levels.”

(20) A Council of Scientific and Industrial Research was to be set up by the

Central Government with the objective of promoting, fostering, planning,

financing and supervising scientific and industrial research with a view to

utilizing the economic resources of the country to the fullest possible

extent.”

(21) Scheduled Castes Scholarships Scheme – Resolved that”

(i) The boys of all communities in Pakistan should study in common

schools but in view of stage backwardness and poverty of the

Scheduled Castes, special facilities in the nature of liberal fee

exemption and substantial stipends be provided to talented students to

enable them to acquire higher technical education.”

(ii) The scheme should, for the time being, be run by the Central

Government. The position should be reviewed when the constitution

of the dominion has been drawn up.”

(iii) A Scheduled Castes Scholarship Board was to be set up.”

(22) The Central Government of Pakistan was to make a detailed analysis of the

chances of educational improvement among the tribal society and

recommend ways and means for introducing free primary education, and

opening art, crafts and technical schools for the tribal people.”

(23) Pakistan was to apply for the membership of the UNESCO. A scheme for

the exchange of students and teachers between Pakistan and other countries

was to be immediately formulated by the Education Division of the

Ministry of Interior.”

The proceedings of the Conference with messages from Quaid-i-Azam

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the first head of the state, along with the establishment of several advisory committees, e.g. Pakistan Advisory Board of Education, Inter-

Universities Board, and further work thereof, represent the attempts at policy formulation in the education sector immediately after independence in August 1947. An analysis of the efforts made during the initial two years indicates that answers to several vital questions of educational policy were attempted.

3.2 Goals of Education

The Quaid-i-Azam’s message to the Conference stated the task before the conference and the educational goals of the country, saying:85

85 Ibid., p.5

“Under foreign rule for over a century, sufficient attention has not been paid to the education of our people and if we are to make a real, speedy and substantial progress we must earnestly tackle this question and bring our educational policy and programme on the line suited to the genius of the people, consonant with our history and culture and having regard to the modern conditions and vast developments that have taken place all over the world.”

As a recognized statesman of the time and a nationalist leader,86 who wanted to carve out a high place for his country, the Quaid-i-Azam added:87

“There is no doubt that the future of the State will and must greatly depend on the type of education we give to our children and the way in which we bring them up as future citizens of Pakistan. Education does not merely mean academic education. There is immediate and urgent need for giving scientific and technical education to our people in order to build up our future economic life and to see that our people take to science, commerce, trade, and, particularly, well-planned industries. We should not forget that we have to compete with the world which is moving very fast in this direction.”

For civic education, he reiterated:88

“At the same time, we have to build up the character of our future generation. We should try, by sound education, to instill into them the highest sense of honour, integrity, responsibility and selfless service to the nation. We have to see that they are fully qualified and equipped to play their part in the various branches of national life in a manner which will do honour to Pakistan.”

The Minister of Education summed up “the aims of education in a democratic society”, by quoting “a living authority on education”, namely, Bertrand Russell. Russell divided education into three provinces, in relation to three primary needs of man. First, humans need means for sustenance, which are appropriate to the shade of personality they have or intend to develop. For this education must provide vocational training, social grooming and spiritual channelization. This would enable people to be useful members of

86 Stanley Wolpert (1984). Jinnah of Pakistan, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 87 Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference held at Karachi from 27th November to 1st December 1947 Government of Pakistan Ministry of Interior (Education Division), p.5. 88 Ibid. p.6.

the society and make their livelihood as well. In plain words, they must aspire for “the good life”.89

The Minister attached the highest importance to the spiritual element. In his view, neglect of such elements (that had been emphasized) in contemporary education resulted in ruinous circumstances. He pointed out the aftermath of the two world wars and the wanton abundance of weapons of mass destruction, indeed, they had already brought home “the realization that unless the moral or spiritual growth of man keeps pace with the growth of science, he is doomed to utter extinction”.90

The Pakistan Educational Conference held at Karachi from 27th November to 1st

December 1947, unanimously decided that the educational system of Pakistan was to be based on ideology as prescribed by Islam which highlighted, among other attributes, the virtues of tolerance and fair play along with a concept of universal brotherhood. The

Conference was of the view that if education was to be in conformity with the needs and requirements of Pakistan, it must undergo a radical re-organization, and the re- organization should embrace the content as well as the spirit of education. The

Conference established an Advisory Board of Education to interact with the Federal and

Provincial governments to take stock of the situation and make recommendations. The federal and provincial governments submitted their situation analyses to the Advisory

Board for further elaboration and consideration of ways and means for education policy- making.91

89 Ibid. p.6. 90 Ibid. p.7. 91 Government of Pakistan. (n.d.) Proceedings of the First Meeting of the Advisory Board of Education for Pakistan, Held at Karachi From 7th to 9th June 1948, p.20

The Advisory Board for Education reiterated the view that Pakistan was a realization of the Muslims’ desire for a motherland, a country where they would be masters of their own destiny and would live freely as per their own aspirations. These aspirations naturally emitted from the teachings of Islam, the Board held, were not a set of dogmas or rituals. On the other hand,

“They constituted a philosophy of life, based on the conception of universal brotherhood, democracy, justice and equality. Islam does not accept any barrier between man and man. It discards all prejudices resulting from racialism or geographical nationalism. It takes a global view and is essentially cosmopolitan, universal and humanitarian in its approach.”92

The Muslim of Pakistan, the Board emphasized:

“Firmly believe that Islam has a great message for the world peace and that it is the destiny of this new-born State to convey it to the sick and sore humanity. For this, it must inculcate the true spirit of Islam among her own citizens and it is, therefore, imperative that so fundamental an activity as education which moulds the outlook and character of future citizens should be inspired by it.”93

In the opinion of the Board, the educational system of Pakistan was to inspire the students with a conviction about Pakistan that it will prosper, to be a beacon to the world based on the Islamic model of a tolerant and just state, sponsoring equality and equity.

The educational system was to have a social purpose and to discourage all parochial prejudices resulting in provincialism, sectarianism, etc.94

The Board further defined its conception of Islamic ideology, viz:95

a. All men are equal and have equal rights and equal obligations,

b. Humanity is one family.

92 Ibid. 93 Ibid. 94 Ibid. 95 Ibid.

3.3 Principal Means to Achieve Educational Goals

Such conception of Islamic ideology was envisaged to permeate Pakistan educational system through following five means:96

a. The personality of the teacher

b. Curriculum

c. Text-books

d. Visual aids

e. Educational broadcasts

The Board observed that the question of social purpose of education was bound up with the content and form of the educational system. The Board hoped that the new schools to be set up and the existing schools which were to be reformed, would aim at integrated, social and fundamental education which would produce well-balanced citizens, conscious of the spiritual and social purpose. The Board emphasized that all schools must revolve around the personality of the teacher. Therefore, it was essential to re-organize the training colleges and training schools, with a view to producing a new type of teacher who was qualified to inspire the school with the ideology of the country, both by precept and example, and also change the content and form of the schools.97

The Minister of Education approved of the idea of a committee, set up to go into the question of improving the quality and status as well as the sphere of activity of the teacher. This, in his view, re-affirmed the vital role, which teachers were to play in making education a dynamic reality. He reiterated that no scheme of educational re- organization could be a success unless, in the first instance, it accorded to the teacher the

96 Ibid. 97 Ibid.

status and prestige which were his due. In the final analysis, it was the teacher who had to instill into the minds of the students the meaning and significance of the basic concepts on which the educational system was to be based. The Minister hoped that the recommendations of a newly constituted committee would enable the country in improving the quality of the teacher who would be equipped with the necessary breadth of outlook and missionary zeal for his important task.98

Next to the personality of the teacher, the Board also considered the matters of curriculum, textbooks, educational films and educational broadcasting. The curriculum, in the Board’s view, was to reflect, in consonance with the requirements of modern education, the ideology defined by the Board. It was to include compulsory provision for

Civics, which was not to be a catalogue of Governmental hierarchy, but a lucid exposition of social ethics. It was to provide for the study of Muslim contribution to all branches of knowledge. The emphasis hitherto placed on British and European history was to shift to the history of Muslim countries, in particular, and Eastern countries, in general. At the same time, the curriculum was not to be rigid and the teachers were to have enough scope to adjust it according to the requirement of a given environment. The

Board emphasized that the need for the revision of the curriculum had arisen out of the need for a new type of school, based on learning through activity, conceived within the frame work of “fundamental education.”99

The textbook was to be used as a useful auxiliary by the teacher. It was to contain lessons, which were to bring out the essence of ideology in an intelligent way. In

98 Ibid. 99 Ibid, p.21.

the Board’s view, the effect of the text-book would be lost unless the teacher could induce himself and the students to imbibe their spirit in practice.100

The Board emphasized the use of educational films. However, the Board advised to take utmost care in the selection of foreign films and the production of educational films in Pakistan. The films were to be correlated to the spirit and content of education, so that visual education could serve as a useful hand maiden to the general educational schemes. For this purpose, a small Committee of Visual Education, consisting of teachers and officers of the Education Division of the Government of Pakistan, was to be set up in due course to ensure proper selection of educational films and themes.101

The Board recommended the use of educational broadcasting in the task of educational re-organization and development. However, in the Board’s view, the scheme of infusing any ideological conception in the educational system, would fail unless, apart from students, adults and parents were themselves not re-educated. Radio could be useful in this matter and, therefore, educational broadcasts were to become the concern of the Education Division of the Central Government; the Division was to ensure integration of broadcasts in the educational conception elaborated by the Board.102

3.4 Teacher as the Pivot of Education System

The Advisory Board recognized the teacher to be the most important single factor in the educative process. More than anything else, the quality of the teacher was to be raised for an all-round improvement of the educational system. The Board went so far as to say that if a steady stream of adequately qualified and properly trained teachers was ensured, nothing more needed to be done to revise the country’s educational system or to

100 Ibid. 101 Ibid. 102 Ibid.

raise the standard of education or to bring it in line with modern educational practices.103

It was emphatically pointed out that improvement of the status of teachers must precede the improvement in quality. In this connection, stiffening of requirements for entry into the profession was not seen to be sufficient by itself. Such action could keep out the unfit without attracting the requisite type of person. The real problem in the view of the

Advisory Board was raising the status of the profession. Notoriously, the teacher commanded a poor respect, entirely out of keeping with the dignity of his noble task. One of the reasons was that the teacher was, as a rule, low paid and was denied most of the material privileges, which people in the other professions enjoyed.104

In the Board’s view, the standards of requirements and terms of service of teachers were not only unsatisfactory and unattractive but differed widely from province to province, very often from place to place within the same province. A great deal would have been done towards the improvement of their quality, if teachers of various types were classified and requirements of education and training laid down for each. Their terms and conditions of service were to be standardized. The final recommendations of the Advisory Board in this behalf were to be published in the form of a “Uniform

Teachers’ Code in Pakistan”.105

The Advisory Board regarded the professional development of the teacher as something continuous. The Board recommended regular refresher courses of short duration, to be held by the Department of Public Instruction. The Department was to prepare a scheme, whereby, every teacher could attend such courses once in a period of six years or so. The period of attending the courses was to be treated on duty. ‘Night

103 Ibid, p.41. 104 Ibid. 105 Ibid.

classes’, ‘after-school-hours courses’ and ‘vacation-courses’ could also be planned to provide opportunities to teachers to add to their qualifications.106

The Board recommended that to provide incentives for improvement, definite objective in the form of promotions to first, second and third Masters and to inspectorial posts should be set before them. Such promotions, apart from privilege, were to invariably mean better emoluments. One prize post in every cadre was recommended and appointment to it was to be made by a special selection.107

The Advisory Board recommended exchange of groups of teachers with other countries for period of one to two years. Apart from cultural benefits, this could go a long way in widening the teachers’ mental horizon and experience.108

3.5 Teachers’ Education and Training

An important requirement to realize Board’s emphasis on the proper status of the teacher was proper training of the teacher. In the Board’s view, the degree of the success of any educational scheme depended on the rate at which the trained teachers were produced and the quality of the teachers. The problem of teachers’ training required immediate and careful consideration. It was a fundamental problem and required, on the one hand, the selection and training of a large number of teachers on most up-to-date lines and, on the other hand, the provision of short-term “in service” courses designed to bring up-to-date the professional training of the trained and other teachers already in teaching services. The re-education of the existing teachers in their professional training was essential. The previous training given to them was in accordance with the needs of the educational system henceforth to be replaced. The Pakistan Educational Conference

106 Ibid. 107 Ibid. 108 Ibid.

had decided to overhaul and replace the system with one suited to the needs and

aspirations of the new country. The provinces comprising Pakistan were on the whole

educationally the most backward areas in the pre-partition India. In the Board’s view, the

Central Government was to ascertain to the maximum their material and financial

resources, taking up the responsibility of research in education and the establishment of a

Model Teachers’ Training Institute supplemented by model Educational Research.109

Figure 2.1

National Institute of Teachers’ Training and Research in Education

Research Training of Teachers and Training in Physical Administrators Education

Refresher Regular Course for Lecturers and Training in Physical Course s School Teachers Teachers for Training Education Colleges and Schools

1. High School 2. Middle and Primary Schools 3. Primary Schools Rural *4. Pre-Primary Schools, including Nursery and Urban Schools Kindergarten Classes Schools 5. Special Primary Schools for the Handicapped 6. Primary Schools for Adults Education

Sources: Proceedings of the First Meeting of Advisory Board of Education for Pakistan, held at Karachi from 7th to 9th June 1948.

*In accordance with the resolution of the Pakistan Educational Conference, only Women teachers were to be allowed to take up this particular level of training.

109 Ibid. p.36.

The Board suggested the establishment of an Institute as follows:110

“In pursuit of excellence in education and, in future, aiding the task of teacher in such pursuit, the Board recommended the establishment of a Central Institute of Psychology. It also recommended that the Central Government was to take early steps in that behalf.”111

In the field of education, the Institute was to be called upon first to devise tests of general intelligence and educational attainments for the following purposes:112

a. To determine promotions from class to class.

b. To award merit scholarships.

c. To select scholars for advanced scientific, technical and professional courses.

The Institute was expected to evolve principles to give advice on the following matters after a thorough study of them from the psychological standpoints:113

a. To scrutinize the curriculum to eliminate what is useless and to suggest what

would be necessary for a full and harmonious development of personality.”

b. To advise syllabi for such special groups of children as physically

handicapped, backward or mentally retarded.”

c. To determine optimum conditions as regards the size, temperature,

ventilation, lighting etc, of school buildings and hours of work, sequence of

subjects, grouping of subjects and holidays, etc.”

d. To provide vocation guidance to those passing out of schools and colleges.”

The Board noted that research facilities in the field of Psychology were available in the Teachers’ Training College, Government College and Forman Christian College and other institutions of Lahore. The Board suggested that these institutions would

110 Ibid. p.38. 111 Ibid. pp.5-6. 112 Ibid. p.45. 113 Ibid.

prepare a coordinated scheme for psychological research, with due provision for its application to education and send it to the Central Government to examine with a view to exploring the possibility of a suitable grant for its implementation.114

3.6 Medium of Instruction

The Board gave considerable attention to the matter of language and education. It recommended that (i) the mother-tongue should be the medium of instruction at the primary stage; (ii) where Urdu was not the medium of instruction at the primary stage, the same was to be introduced as one of the compulsory subjects from the first class of the post-primary stage115; (iii) the question as to whether English should be one of the optional or compulsory subjects at the school stage should be decided by the Provincial

Governments concerned, and (iv) the question of the medium of instruction and the place of English at the University stage should be first discussed by the Inter-University Board.

Recommendations of the latter in that behalf were later to come up for consideration before the Advisory Board.116

The Minister of Education appreciated the Board’s approach to the problem of determining the medium of instruction in all stages of education. In his view, the approach had been eminently practicable and that recommendation that the mother- tongue be the medium of instructions in the school stages, was in consonance with public sentiment as well as sound educational theory. The place of English in the post-primary and post-matriculation stages of education needed to be determined with great care. The

114 Ibid. pp.5-6. 115 While Mr. Rajkumar Chakravarti did not agree with the part of the resolution and recorded his dissent, he realized the need for learning Urdu and was prepared to include it as one of the languages to be selected out of a compulsory language group. 116 Proceedings of the First Meeting of the Advisory Board of Education for Pakistan 1948, p.4.

Minister hoped that the recommendation of the Inter-University Board to whom the matter had been referred, would yield a satisfactory solution.117

3.7 Technical Education

The Pakistan Educational Conference, recognizing the problem of the speedy development of technical education in Pakistan, unanimously passed a resolution accommodating the establishment of a Council of Technical Education for Pakistan. This body was to have 28 members of which 8 were to be official and 20 non-official. The

Government of Pakistan, while fully accepting the urgent need for rectifying the existing deficiencies of technical education in Pakistan and for its balanced development, considered that the object of resolution passed by the Pakistan Educational Conference would be served equally well if a somewhat smaller but more compact body was appointed. The Government decided that the Council of Technical Education for Pakistan be composed of 15 members, 7 non-officials and 8 officials. Its functions were to be as follows:-118

a. To make recommendations to the Government of Pakistan regarding the

development of technical education at different levels and advancement of

technical education at all stages.

b. To estimate and document the present facilities of technical education in Pakistan

with special attention to facilities providing technical education at higher levels

and to make recommendations for their improvement in shortest possible time.

117 Ibid. p.7. 118 Ibid. p.13.

c. To draft an all-inclusive plan for the restructuring and improvement of technical

education on modernistic lines as per the needs and requirements of Pakistan and

its diverse population.

d. To formulate a five year plan for training of scholars in technical fields both in

land and overseas. Furthermore, make recommendations regarding the

implementation of the same.

3.8 Reiteration of Policy Goals in 1951

In July, 1951, the Minister convened, at Karachi, a conference of Provincial

Education Ministers, Vice-Chancellors of Universities and Directors of Public

Instruction, where it was unanimously decided that the Education Division in the Central

Government should prepare, in collaboration with provincial and state Governments, a comprehensive and integrated six-year development scheme, anchored on pragmatic and achievable goals in the diverse areas of education. The conference also approved the proforma which the Education Division had prepared as a basis for the formulation of schemes by the Central, Provincial and State Governments and the Universities. In July, the conference tasked Education Division to come up with a comprehensive plan.119

The Education Division of Government of Pakistan sent an “Immediate” communication to relevant provincial educational authorities and vice-chancellors of various universities on the subject: “Five Year Educational Development Plan”.120 Five years were extended to six years and the Six-Year plan may be considered as the most mature document on education policy in the initial years of the country.

119 Government of Pakistan, Education Division. Proceeding of the 1951 Conference, p.358. 120 Ibid., p.467.

The document “Six-Year National Plan of Educational Development for Pakistan

1951-57” reiterated the place of Islamic ideology in national education.121 It noted that

“By far the most important of the 1947 Conference recommendations related to the adoption of an educational ideology and a national language for Pakistan. Realizing that the prevailing system of education was defective in both its form and content and wholly out of tune with the genius of the people as well as the requirements of a modern democratic state, the Conference had urged that education should be inspired by Islamic ideology emphasizing among its many characteristics those of universal brotherhood, social justice and tolerance.”

Six-Year National Plan of Educational Development for Pakistan 1951-57 undertook a further rationale of its adumbration regarding an Islamic educational system.

It elaborated that the British policy of strict religious neutrality resulted, especially with reference to Muslims in British India, in “impoverished moral fiber of society.” The education so imparted was considered as “devoid of spiritual content, maimed and mutilated.”122 In their effort to backup their ideas from European educational tradition, the Advisory Board cited John Amos Comenius ‘(1592-1670)’s view of education as that of “the development of the whole man.”123 The concept of wholeness or integration implied a full development of the spiritual, mental and physical powers of the human being. Such a concept involves the adoption of a positive philosophy of life which, in the

Board’s view, was primarily determined by man’s religious outlook, his conception of his place in the universe and his relationship with the spirit pervading the universe. It seems that members of the Advisory Board were very up-to-date on international literature on education. An example of this is citing of M.V.C. Jeffrey’s book, Glaucon: An Inquiry

121 Ibid., p.357. 122 Ibid., p.359. 123 Comenius wanted to impart knowledge for whole man. He called it Pan Sophism. He set down 18 aphorisms. The first of such aphorisms was: “Universal knowledge, so far as it can be obtained by man, has as its objects, Good nature, and art” A Comparative Study of the Philosophies of John Amos Comenius and Maria Montessori on the Education of Children. Irene Lange Loyola University Chicago Theses and Dissertation Loyola Comenices.

into the Aims of Education. This book was published in 1951 in London and was quoted in the proceedings of the 1951 Conference.124 Jeffrey held: “The ends and means of education must be seen in relation to the ultimate problems of life—problems that concern the nature and destiny of man both as a member of historically developing society and as a being in the presence of eternity.”125 The Board pressed this view in its argument for Islamic ideology as basis for education.

Among other more contemporaneous literature on the subject, the Board cited the

Harvard Report: General Education in a Free Society, which said: “Our society, like any society, rests on common beliefs and a major task of education is to perpetuate them.”126

In the Board’s view, the Education Act of 1944 in Britain was animated by a re- affirmation of Christian values as it had made obligatory a daily act of worship or religious instruction in schools. And then the Board drew its conclusion from the history of the West: “Thus the wheel has come full circle and the West, after a century or two of secularism and materialism, is harking back to the need for a Christian orientation of its values.”127 Further evidence for the conclusion was adduced from the ideas of

Christopher Dawson, published in 1949. He said: “The catastrophes of the last thirty years are not only a sign of the bankruptcy of secular humanism, they only go to show that a completely secularized civilization is inhuman in the absolute sense—hostile to human life and irreconcilable with human nature itself.”128 Echoing the views of then

Minister for Education, the Board held that there was at hand a moral crisis of civilization. Pakistan’s response in this connection was:

124 M.V.C. Jeffrey (1951). Glaucon: An Inquiry into the Aims of Education London. p.359. 125 Ibid. p.359. 126 Ibid. p.361. 127 Ibid. p.361. 128 Christopher Dawson (1949) “Education and the Crisis of Christian Culture” (Name of Journal etc.)

“Its education is to be inspired by Islamic values, for these values constitute a valid and coherent philosophy pervading all aspects of life. On such a basis alone can it build a new social order and contribute to the peace and progress of the world. There can be no doubt that the task is stupendous. It calls for a radical transformation not only of the form and content of education, but of the prevailing ethos of parents, teachers, educational administrators and the general public.”129

The Central and Provincial Governments as well as the Universities were to engage in recasting the existing syllabi and curricula with a similar revision of the teachers’ training courses. The educational system was to correspond more or less closely to the ideological rationale of Pakistan.130

The 1951 Conference on education referred to the views of a 17th century theorist of education, namely Jan Comenius. Reference to Comenius’ view of ‘education of the whole man’ is highly meaningful in that it tells quite a lot about the views of the

Advisory Board. Comenius has been hailed as “Father of Modern Education” in Europe and, as he lived between 1592 and 1670, he could also be seen to present a bridge between the ‘modern’ and the ‘medieval’. The Advisory Board put a lot of emphasis on

Islam as a basis to national education and that implied emphasis on history of education among Muslims along with direct inspiration from Iqbal’s philosophy. Indeed, in a recent article, Sebastian Gunther has pointed to such connection. According to him, Comenius maintained “that education should aim, in particular, at equipping young people with a profound knowledge of the Holy Scriptures and religious duties—ideas that are major concepts in Islamic education also.”131 Comparing the views of Muslim education theorists with those of Comenius, Gunther says that pedagogy should make a quick,

129 Ibid. 130 Ibid. p.362. 131 Sebastian Gunther, “Be Masters in That You Teach and Continue to Learn; Medieval Muslim Thinkers on Educational Theory”. Comparative Education Review Vol. 50, No. 3 (2006), p.387.

palatable and thorough education possible which should imitate the natural phenomena.

Like Muslim theorists, Comenius emphasized that intellectual, spiritual, and emotional growths were all woven together. According to Gunther, such views were discussed most insightfully by Al-Ghazali and several of his predecessors and successors “in the rich tradition of Islamic educational theory.”132

Gunther goes even further, and in the interest of the present study, there is need to reproduce his view verbatim:

“I believe that medieval Muslim educators understood well the intimate relationship between knowledge, theoretical and practical wisdom, logical reasoning, ethics and aesthetics of learning, loving and caring, and spirituality. If modernity is willing to learn from the past and, as the great American educational reformer and pragmatic philosopher John Dewey (1859–1952) put it, ‘conceive education as the process of forming fundamental dispositions, intellectual and emotional, toward nature and fellow-men, we can be confident that we can recreate that which we seem to have lost and so restore our picture of an education system that gives credence to human development as a whole.”133

The 1948 Advisory Board’s emphasis on Islamic basis of national education very much implied a study of history of Muslim education. Study of educational past was deemed as important and useful on several counts. In particular, as Gunther has mentioned in detail, medieval Muslim scholars gave central place to ethics and aesthetics of learning. Ethical conduct of education was deemed essential to achieve success in learning. Instruction was seen only to impart knowledge of fact. More fundamentally, it was a teacher’s responsibility to inculcate enduring values, and desire of the good.

Moreover, Muslim education theorists emphasized passion for teaching and passionate desire for learning. Modesty, patience and passion for working with children were

132 Ibid, p.388. 133 Ibid. For Reference to Jim Garrison, Dewey and Eros: Wisdom and Desire in the Art of Teaching (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1997), Introduction, pp. xx.

deemed as indispensable qualities for those who undertook teaching. Teachers were to be knowledgeable persons, hardworking and with tremendous sense of care for their students. Teachers invariably adopted methods that were student-centred, making their lessons fully comprehensible to their students. Pedagogical adequacy was indispensable.

At the same time, teachers were to be virtuous people, possessing laudable character.134

After recounting such major features of Muslim education system in the past,

Gunther advances the view:135

“These are ideas of great appeal to the modern educator, since the ethical and emotional aspects of learning seem almost to be disappearing in our technologically defined, bureaucratic world. Similarly, today’s educators would benefit from re-emphasizing the idea that teaching is a caring profession”.

The Advisory Board was very much aware that a tremendous contribution could come from the philosophy of Allama Iqbal to the educational enterprise that the Board had recommended to the country. For this reason, the Board also recommended the establishment of Iqbal Academy for the study and dissemination of his philosophy.136

Iqbal once reasoned that in his work and his aim was to discover a universal social reconstruction. In such philosophical endeavour, he could not ignore a social system (i.e. Islam) which came to exist with the express objective of doing away with all the distinctions of caste, rank and race. Islam’s distinctive feature in Iqbal’s view was that it kept a watchful eye on the affairs of this world; it fostered a spirit of unworldliness so absolutely essential to man in his relations with his neighbours. In

134 Gunther, op. cit., p.389. 135 Ibid. 136 Government of Pakistan. (1948), Proceedings of the First Meeting of Advisory Board of Education for Pakistan Held at Karachi from 7th to 9th June,1948.Karach: Ministry of Interior, Education Division.

Iqbal’s view: “this was what Europe lacked and this was what she could still learn from us.”137

Iqbal’s views on God, Universe and Man are important and furnish a strong basis for a philosophy of education that extols man’s dignity and makes scientific endeavours part and parcel of man’s rise to spiritual heights. Iqbal agreed with Asharite School in

Muslim thought that the world is compounded of jawahir or atoms. Number of such atoms is not finite. Creative activity of God does not cease and for that matter, new atoms come into being. According to the Quran, “God adds to His creation what He wills.”138

The main point is that the universe is not something fixed. It is changing being formed and reformed.

Human personality is based on Iqbal’s idea of Khudi, individuality, ego; egos are atoms and universe is a valley of egos, each ego being a centre of consciousness. Ego possesses individuality and uniqueness. Iqbal says: “Through the entire gamut of being runs the gradually rising note of ego-hood until it reaches its perfection in man.”139

This is because there are different degrees of individuality depending upon consciousness. Man is conscious that his well-being depends upon his engagement with the world around him; in this engagement is the material of man’s own development. The more he engages with it, the more he develops his potentialities and, thus, partakes in the creative activity of the Maker of the universe.

137 Syed Abdul Vahid (1964). Thoughts and Reflections of Iqbal Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, pp.100- 101. 138 The Quran 35:1 139 Iqbal quoted in K.G. Sayyedain p.82

In his creativity, man re-shapes the matter and the universe. “He also has the capacity to build a much vaster world in the depths of his own inner being.”140 In that activity; man produces art, literature, philosophy and religion and, of course, science.

Iqbal wanted that “the relationship of man to Nature must be exploited in the interest not of the unrighteous desire but in the nobler interest of a free upward movement of spiritual life”.141 In this view of man, Iqbal’s philosophy provides guidance for education, both intellectual/scientific and moral. Man’s liberty implies that he could make mistake and learn from them. By trial and error, he can create scientific knowledge. Iqbal would have the teacher guide and let students make their own experiments and discoveries. In learning morals, Iqbal again emphasizes freedom. Iqbal’s view is:

“Goodness is not a matter of compulsion; it is the self’s free surrender to the moral ideal and arises out of willing cooperation of free egos.”142

The method involved in promoting would be that the schools arrange opportunities for students to have healthy social discourse and learn to practice give and take, thereby developing a sense of sacrifice.143

The Advisory Board of Education was very much aware of the ideas of Allama

Iqbal and their relevance to the educational enterprise in Pakistan. It was out of this reason that apart from Pakistan Academy, they also recommended the establishment of

Iqbal Academy.144

140 Ibid. 141 Ibid. 142 Ibid p.53. 143 Ibid pp. 54-55. 144 Government of Pakistan. (1948), Proceedings of the First Meeting of Advisory Board of Education for Pakistan Held at Karachi from 7th to 9th June,1948. Karachi: Ministry of Interior, Education Division. 144 Syed Abdul Vahid, (1964). Thoughts and Reflections of Iqbal, Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, pp.100- 101.

3.9 Post-1951 Deviationist Tendencies in Education Policy-making

After 1951, the country began to come under the influence of Western capitalist societies, particularly the United States of America (USA) in the interest of defence and economic aid. This led to foreign advice in planning and, thereby, education policies also went under the jurisdiction of economic planners.

In the matter of educational development in general, and primary education in particular, the First Five-Year Plan, used some of the major ideas and concepts, which had gone into the preparation of Six-Year Educational Plan. However, the Five-Year plans began to deviate from the priorities and spirit of the educational plan. The government had set up a Planning Board in 1952. The Ford Foundation from the United

States of America provided advisors, who helped Pakistan to set the Planning Board and then manned the Board to aid in preparing technically sound plans of development. That is, emphasis greatly shifted to economists rather than educationists. There has been a tradition in Planning Board (later Planning Commission) to do background studies for each sector. But, in the end, it was the economic approach (with various trends, e.g. functional inequality, human capital approach, basic needs approach, equity, etc) which dominated the planning and development thinking processes. In the next few pages, we discuss the rise of economic approaches and corresponding decline of educational philosophy.

The First Five-Year Plan noted that the country’s resources were too limited at the time, both in trained personnel and in money to meet all educational needs just as they were too limited to meet all needs in other areas of social and economic development. The planners, therefore, had to adopt priorities. The priorities were

designed, first, to obtain maximum results from the use of scarce resources; second, to ensure as perfect integration as possible of the educational plan with the general development plan; and, third to achieve equilibrium within the educational plan itself.

Considering the field of education as whole, the planners selected the following order of priorities:145

a. To arrange for the training of teachers to bring to a minimum adequate standard of

the staffing of the existing universities, colleges, and schools, and to provide, at

the same standard, for the staffing of such new educational facilities as may be

opened during the Plan period and for facilities for research in educational

psychology, methods of teaching, curricula, etc.

b. To arrange for technical, vocational and commercial education in order to ensure

that qualified personnel would be available to meet the requirements for skilled

personnel of the general development plan.

c. To provide equipment, laboratories, buildings, research facilities, etc., to a

minimum adequate standard for the colleges and universities, in order that

suitable personnel may be available for responsible positions in all departments of

life, where the demands were continuously increasing with the increasing tempo

of development.

d. To bring existing schools to a minimum adequate standard in the matter of the

equipment and buildings, and to open new schools in areas which were relatively

backward.

145 The First Five Year Plan 1955-60. Government of Pakistan. National Planning Board, December 1957. p.544.

To summarize the priorities, it was felt necessary first, to consolidate, that is, to fill up the gaps and make up the qualitative deficiencies that existed in the existing educational structure and, secondly, having regard to the resources available, to make a modest expansion in the system. In addition, to meet existing need, it was to provide the conditions necessary for rapid expansion and development in the future. Educational objectives during the Plan period were stated to be:146

a. The enrichment of primary education and, in fact all education to make teaching

student-centered and based for Muslims on the teachings of Islam. Such

enrichment was to precede the efforts, economically unattainable in a short

period, for making primary education universal. The planners believed that free

compulsory primary education was indispensable to the democratic society and

economy but that a five-year period of re-orientation was necessary to prepare the

ground-work for its accomplishment, perhaps within 15 years thereafter.

b. Development of education at secondary and higher levels, focusing at the

leadership qualities and skills needed to execute developmental plans. Such

improvement required, chiefly, additions to the traditional liberal arts curricula of

technical and scientific subjects, the provision of specialized staff and laboratory

equipment, and strengthening and extension of professional and technical courses.

In discussing the primary education, the planners noted high regard of knowledge in Islam, and that its acquisition was duly enjoined on all men and women. The Maktabs were the smallest teaching units in Muslim India before the days of the British rule. Such units, many of them co-educational, had a religious bias. A good number of them were conducted in mosques. Perhaps of special significance was their emphasis upon the

146 Ibid. p.544

interests and aptitudes of the pupils. The individual child became, so to say, a school class in himself, working at his own pace. Having finished at the Maktab, the child could proceed to a Madrassa for cultural and professional education or to a guild for artisan or craft training. The planners held that such indigenous system, attuned to the local environment, continued to flourish until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, when under the British rule, government primary schools supplanted it.147

Taking cues from the 1947 and 1951 conferences, planners held that primary schools under the British rule divorced education from the children’s hereditary culture and environment. Almost exclusive emphasis of such schools was on reading, writing, and arithmetic. The teaching method was repetition and drill. Although in the early period, the system consisted of lower primary schools of three years’ duration and upper primary schools of another two years’ duration; it was later modified to a single four-year primary school programme. It was this somewhat sterile system that represented primary education at Independence, and no significant improvements were observed by planners in it since then.148

However, the Planning Board noted that it was highly desirable for local communities - villages and towns - to participate in the development of their primary schools. To them, it was clear from past experiences that educational taxes could be more readily collected, if the use to which they were put, could be observed by those who paid them. Many local communities, in their view, seemed to be in a position to arrange for voluntary labour in the interest of the local schools. The communities should receive advice and assistance from the Provinces in the form of building designs and supervision

147Ibid. p. 545. 148 Ibid.

of construction. Also, it was deemed possible for communities to provide some acres of productive land, the returns from which could be used to purchase books and teaching materials for the school.149

Again, speaking the language of the educational conferences, the planners observed that teachers’ salaries were low - as low as Rs.22 per month in certain regions.

Such low rates did not attract good applicants, and compelled teachers to find other employment to sustain themselves. Other employment often absorbed more time and interest than school duties and resulted in a high rate of absenteeism. The provinces, the planners held, should work towards an increase of teachers’ salaries to a reasonable minimum level. Without providing adequately trained and paid teachers, the extension of primary education would be hollow. It would also be uneconomic. The government was to control the quality of supplies and secure the benefits of centralized purchasing, wherever desirable. There was to be very close relationship between the development of primary education and the social reconstruction programmes, such as Village-Aid. After all, a major aim of this programme was to encourage the local support of education, including the construction of school buildings by villages and local bodies.150

The quality and content of primary school teaching was observed to be poor. The planners showed the remedy to lie in improved teacher education and supervision, development of improved curriculum materials, and enhancement of salaries. Provinces were advised to appoint specialized staff of curriculum experts to prepare learning materials with the assistance of experienced teachers. The materials - reading lessons, arithmetic lessons, and so on - were to be derived from the experiences and the needs of

149 Ibid. pp. 546-47. 150 Ibid. p.547.

students in their own communities. Physical exercises and education in diet and hygiene were to be included in the curricula. Children, it was emphasized, should be encouraged to express themselves creatively through arts and recreation. In this respect also there was to be close cooperation with social reconstruction programmes like Village-AID.151

Lessons in village schools were to be correlated with the objectives of such programmes.

The experts of Village-AID might be called upon to supply information which might be included in the curriculum material.152

In revising the curriculum and preparing learning materials, it was to be kept in mind that primary schools which had such narrow objectives, as merely the elimination of illiteracy or preparation for secondary schools, would no longer suffice. Although these goals were to be kept in view, the curriculum must not be impaired and distorted by giving them undue emphasis. The primary schools were to be chiefly concerned with the children and the healthy vigorous lives they should have in their home communities. The purpose of the primary school was to aid the child to grow in mind, body, and spirit and, thus, release his capabilities for a constructive life.153

3.10 Conclusion

After Pakistan’s independence, the policy-makers exhibited great political support for education. They assembled the eminent educationists and educational managers, who discussed major educational issues and indicated their solutions. A broad education vision was articulated.. In particular, education of ‘whole man’ was stressed. This meant that in education both spiritual-moral and biological-material aspects were to be promoted. However, after mid-1950s domestic instability and external danger and fiscal

151 Ibid 152 Ibid., p.547. 153 Ibid.

constraints led Pakistan to join military pacts for aid, and also accepted aid in economic planning. Education problems, thus, came to be identified in ad-hoc manner, mainly by bureaucrats with the help of foreign consultants and bilateral/multilateral donors. At the same time, there was erosion of the educational vision. The next chapter deals with erosion of the vision and subsumption of education of ‘whole man’ to the exigencies of planning for human resource for economic development.

Chapter-4

Post-1951 Internal and External Politics: Their Impact on Education Policymaking

This chapter roughly covers the period of 1951-88 and discusses altered national and international environment, different from the one in which educational policies were framed through the 1947 conference on education. Such alteration consisted in two aspects: first, the unstable political environment in the country, and secondly, survival threats from neighbours in the context of a bi-polar world order, one pole of which was led by a capitalist developed country namely, the United States of America (USA). The other pole was under the leadership of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The present chapter deals with internal instability, the external pressures and as a consequence

Pakistan’s educational aspirations undergoing substantial changes. The chapter also discusses centralized planning in the Punjab, and managerial and supervisory deficiencies.

4.1 The Internal Instability

1951 is a landmark year in that the first Prime Minister was assassinated, boding ill for political stability in the country. The decade witnessed the coming and going of six successive Prime Ministers within the span of next seven years. Two years before the decade could end; a Martial Law was imposed in 1958, abrogating the constitution promulgated only two years ago in 1956. In 1962, a new constitution was imposed by

General Ayub Khan, with protests from major political parties, as a harbinger of future threat to political stability, introduction of another Martial Law in 1969 and break-up of the country in 1971.

The hitherto province of East Pakistan arose as a new country named Bangladesh and the other province, West Pakistan, retained the name as Pakistan. ‘New’ Pakistan’s first government was led by a civilian head and gave a new constitution in 1973.

However, yet another Martial Law overthrew it in 1977, holding the constitution in abeyance. This Martial Law continued till 1985 and a civil government was installed under a greatly amended 1973 constitution. The new civilian government started with high hopes to transform the fate of the country and with particular emphasis on primary education.

Since 1985-86 was witness to renewed aspirations and enthusiasm among newly formed government, this chapter is devoted to taking a stock of whatever happened to public policy-making in general, and primary/elementary education in Punjab in particular, during the political instabilities/upheavals since 1951. The period is quite long, spread over three and a half decades. Also, it is the period wherein, from 1956 to 1970, there did not exist a province by the name of the Punjab. For these 15 years, the Punjab was part of a greater province - the province of West Pakistan - which also comprised the present three provinces as its constituent parts. Punjab was not a legal entity during 1955-

1970, and its public problems have a continuity and some of statistics have hitherto been reworked on the basis of pre-1955 territorial boundaries of the province.

Security Threats and Need for Aid and Arms

The security threat owed its origin to Pakistan’s very creation as a state, representing a dissociation from another bigger and very populous area, namely, India.

However till 1951, the threat seemed to have been managed by a meeting between

Pakistan’s Prime Minister and Indian Prime Minister in 1950, with the signing of a pact for the welfare of minorities on both sides.

The new government, after Liaquat’s demise in 1951, felt the threat and looked for arms for defence. Also, India occupied a large portion of Kashmir state, using forces.

Pakistan had a claim on it and supported the Muslims of Kashmir to make their own decision on the status of the territory. Thus, Kashmir became a bone of contention between the two countries and cause of several wars.154

The post-1951 political leadership in Pakistan went in search of arms and friends, who could help in the situation. The cold war order impelled Pakistan in the direction of the United States of America, both for aid and arms. Aid would come along with mainstream theories in the fields of social and economic development. The uncertainties at the centre were reflected in uncertainties in the provinces, particularly in the Punjab province. There, the Punjab Muslim League was plunged into an interminable intestine war.

Far from helping steady the state of affairs, Punjab was simply an arena for “rabid factionalism; bribery ... [was] rampant in every department”.155 Iftikhar Mamdot, the first

Chief Minister of the Province, was known to be under the influence of three top civil servants and the editor of a local Urdu newspaper - the Nawa-i-Waqt. His Finance

Minister, Mumtaz Daultana and the latter’s supporters in the provincial Muslim League and some other civil servants constituted the rival group. The political party, the assembly and the administration were all split. The result was that policies announced with great fanfare could not reach the stage of implementation.

154 Muhammad Ayub Khan (1967). Friends not Maters Oxford University Press, p.80 155 Ibid.81

4.2 Neglect of Education

Neglect of education occurred in two broad ways. First, owing to instability in internal politics as well as external contingencies, there was a decline in looking at education in a holistic manner, i.e. in the manner which would combine man’s both spiritual and physical aspects. Although policies continued to mention both aspects, in planning there was over-emphasis on economic development. Education tended to mean acquisition of skills useful for carrying out development of resources and related activities in trade and industrialization. The external factor was in some ways internalized by the country's development planners some of whom had lived under the British rule and imbibed Western ways of social and political life and others who, more recently, were educated in the West, particularly in the discipline of Economics and capitalist economic system. Most of the leadership of the country, including civil and military bureaucracy, was exposed to patterns of public life in territorial entities organized under the United Nations' world order, dominated mainly by economically developed capitalist

Western countries. Pakistan's development planners came to adopt western assumptions and built the Five-Year Plans, particularly role and purpose of education on such assumptions.

Secondly, there was neglect in the form of underfunding for education even when it had to mean acquisition of skills useful for economic activities in industry, trade, finance, mechanized agriculture, in a word, economic productivity.

4.3 Restricting the Meaning of Education

Restriction on the meaning of education occurred in the sense that instead of combining the spiritual/moral and physical/material aspects of man’s life, emphasis on

economic aspect only began to surface. Such emphasis occurred early in the 1950s when

Pakistan began to receive aid from the United States of America. During financial year

1953-54, there were a hundred US experts and advisors working in Pakistan under technical assistance programme.156 They gained a toehold in the administrative operations of the Pakistani state even before it had formally joined the South East Asia

Treaty Organization (1954) and Baghdad Pact (1954).

In April 1954, the Harvard Advisory Group began operations in Pakistan. They prepared the First Five-Year Plan. It was first made public in May 1956. It was revised in

April 1957 and eventually finalized in May 1958. The work of the Group “far exceeded simply advising as effectively functioning Pakistani staff.”157 The Plan’s five main objectives as summarized by Jalal were:158

a. To raise the national income by 20% during the plan period.

b. To improve the balance of payments.

c. To improve employment opportunities.

d. To expand social services.

e. To quickly increase the rate of development in East Pakistan and other less

developed regions in the country.

The American thinking, however, found articulation indigenously, particularly under Ayub Khan. In such articulation, there was some emphasis on Islamic culture to guide the aims of national education, but it was mainly as a ritual. Indeed, all commissions/ committees/ conferences on education in their attempts at setting the

156 Ayesha Jalal (1990). The State of Martial Rule: The Origins of Pakistan's Political Economy of Defence. New York. Cambridge University Press, p. 239. 157 George Rosen, Western Economists and Eastern Societies: Agents of Change in South Asia, 1950- 1970, (Oxford, 1985) quoted in Ibid, p.241. 158 Jalal (1990), p.cit. p.243.

country’s education right did take up Islamic theme whether in a genuine spirit (as in

1969 proposals) or as a ritual (as in 1959 report).

In appointing a commission on education in 1959, Ayub Khan desired that the educational system should have a key role in the conservation of the ideals that became the basis of the creation of Pakistan and it will continue to foster Pakistan’s unity and harmony to nurture its growth as a nation. In his view, the Muslims’ desire to establish their own identity and to be recognized as a nation, where they had the right to make their own decisions grew from within the Muslims of the subcontinent. It was for this reason that they made extra-ordinary efforts and strove for the creation of Pakistan. Ayub Khan then defined the Islamic way of life as consisting of:

“Those values which emanate from the concept of a universe governed by the principles of truth, justice, and benevolence, when human relationships are based on the ideal of universal brotherhood, and where all these are rooted deeply in religious belief. The moral and spiritual values of Islam combined with the freedom, integrity, and strength of Pakistan should be the ideology which inspires our education system.”159

The Commission was inaugurated by the President of Pakistan, General

Mohammad Ayub Khan, on January 5, 1959. Addressing the members of the

Commission on this occasion, the President stressed the requirement for a renewed organization and orientation of the present educational system in order to create a national educational system, which would be reflective of the national aspirations and spiritual values coupled with moral and cultural heritage. Simultaneously, the

Commission was to suggest to measures for making the best possible use of its available human and national wealth.160

159 Report of the Commission of National Education 1959, Introduction, p.11. 160 Report of the Commission of National Education 1959, Preface, p.1

In the view of the Commission on National Education, the guiding force and the motivational factor of Pakistan’s educational system should be the moral and spiritual etiquettes taught by Islam and these should be strengthened by an urge for the development in the fields of science and public service to produce enlightened citizens. In presenting them, the Commission attempted to remain “realistic” and to set targets which, it believed, could be achieved within the resources available to the country. The commission attempted to avoid discussion of the conflicting philosophic views on the nature of the educational process and the forms it should take. The commission claimed to be practical and unambiguous. It did recognize that at times a certain amount of generalization had been inevitable.161

However, avoiding philosophical discussion on the nature of the educational process was no service to a nation’s educational system. The Commission excused itself by saying:

“A major difficulty we have had to face lay in combining academic and in a sense theoretical advice to educators for long-term guidance with practical proposals to government for the correction of present weaknesses.”

The question, however, was how to recognize the “present weaknesses” without framing a vision; a worldview that would encompass the aspirations of the people involved.

Similar to ritualistic emphasis put by the Commission on culture and values the

Second Five Year Plan eulogized the role of education. It said:

“Upon education falls the supreme task of preserving the national ideals and building up the national character on strong foundation of faith, unity and discipline, without which no nation can aspire to greatness. The

161 Report of the Commission of National Education 1959, Introduction, p.13.

essential goals must be to provide an informed leadership, a responsible citizenry and trained manpower. It is through the advancement of education alone that these goals can be achieved.”

But the plan went on to make qualifications to the place of education in national life. It held that educational development was an intricate process. It was a process active at multiple layers. Any changes at one level affected other layers, necessitating changes in them as well. Thus, changes must be well coordinated. Furthermore resource constraints become more prominent when coordinated changes are required at multiple levels. All this necessitates more meticulous coordination and prioritizing. In the view of the plan:

“Unquestionably, the first emphasis must be on skills which are vital for development. High priority has, therefore, to be assigned to technical and vocational education, and to specialized training in the most essential specific activities.”162

The Plan dwelt on the quality and content of various types of education. In this connection, the economic planners found it an ardent task to prioritize. The choices are between a quality higher education involving exorbitant cost and time, and a quick fix involving selected content at lower costs. The choice has also to be made regarding enhancement of numbers or quality. These priorities have to be established according to the level and scope of education involved. The solution was that at initial levels, like primary and secondary, quantity and urgency should be the deciding factors. At higher levels and more specialized educational fields, the emphasis was to be on quality.163 That is primary education began to be considered of less importance.

It was stated that the teacher’s role in enhancing the educational standards at all levels cannot be over-emphasized. The planners desired that talented youth who have real

162 Ibid. 163 Ibid.

abilities to teach be selected by education departments. Furthermore, they may be trained and groomed to improvise simple materials and aids into useful tools for illustrating novel concepts and basic principles. In addition, the teachers must carry the true professional pride, dedication, honesty, fairness, patriotism and capacity to work hard.164

The planners entertained such lofty desires and did not realize that achieving such attributes was impossible without giving education a spiritual/moral basis and sufficiently raising the standard of the teacher.

4.4 The Underfunding of Education.

Fiscal and policy prejudices against primary education in favor of higher education, also resulted in “persistent and serious underfunding” of education in general and primary education in particular. Pakistan has never allocated as much as 2% of GNP to the education sector nor accorded it as much as an 8% share of total public expenditures. Most other Asian countries allocate 3-6% of GNP and 12-15% of total public expenditures to their education sectors.165

There was generally a squeeze on education due to the limitations of the resources. The only exception was the 1972-78 period, which was the non-plan or the rolling plan period, when the amount allocated was actually spent. The reason for it was that the party in power had its own team of Ministers who communicated well and the party had a clear majority in the parliament. However, an analysis of expenditure indicates that funds allocated to primary education were partly transferred to higher education. This happened when there was a shortfall in resources for education. Since

164 The Second Five-Year Plan 1960-65, Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission (June 1960), pp.343-344. 165 Primary Education in Pakistan Part-I Summary Conclusions and Recommendations (1986), Prepared for USAID/Pakistan and Government of Pakistan, Arlington: Development Associates, Inc. p.15.

Primary Education was perhaps the most silent or perhaps the least influential of all the subsectors of education, it bore the brunt of shortage of funds.166

The National Education Policy and Implementation Programme 1979 also confirmed that the most outstanding single factor in the under-development of primary education was the gross under-financing of this subsector. Pakistan devoted less than 2 percent of its GNP to education. Most countries in the region spent 4 to 5 percent of their

GNP on education. Total Government spending on education amounted to only Rs.54 per capita.167 The system had been grappling to meet the social demand for education within such low financial out lay. Primary education was only receiving 13.2 percent of the development resources in the education sector. This level of allocation was utterly inadequate to reach general mass of population.168 The National Education Policy of

1979 envisaged the development expenditure to increase from the then 13.2% to 32% annually during the next five years. Given the required financial resources, the policy proposed a development strategy involving provision of additional facilities for rural areas, improvement of internal efficiency of primary education, utilization of indigenous education arrangements and mobilization of community participation.169

Yet, during the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1978-83), whatever was allocated to education, only 53 percent of the same was spent. In the primary education subsector amount actually spent was even less: it was 46 percent of allocation. In the following

Five-Year Plan (1983-1988), the importance of primary education deteriorated still

166 Dr. P.A. Shami et al (2005). Professional Requirements of Education Managers under Devolution Plan, Islamabad: Academy of Educational Planning and Management., pp.122-123 167 Government of Pakistan (1979). National Education Policy and Implementation Programme 1979. Islamabad: .Ministry of Education, p.6 168 Ibid. 169 Ibid.

further. While actual spending was 88 percent of allocated amount with regard to education sector as a whole, in the case of primary education it was only 45 percent.170

A 1986 document, Primary Education in Pakistan discussed the possible provision by the system of a favorable learning environment and the achievement of a successful learning experience for the school child. The report revealed the paradox of impressive positive resources on the one hand and discouraging aggregate results on the other. The major blame according to the report, was to be placed on the fact of chronic underfunding. In the view of the report, the educational establishment knew much better how to teach and to bring about learning achievement than it had had the opportunity to demonstrate – due to lack of funds. While one of the problems was inadequately trained and inadequately performing teachers, for every such teacher there were scores of able, dedicated teachers battling against the heavy odds imposed on them by the system to make one of the world’s most difficult primary curricula, the basis for the meaningful learning experience. In view of the report, many succeeded but by far from the degree possible if they had adequate funds and facilities. The successful experiences of the adequately financed private and parastatal schools included in the report went to illustrate this.171

Expenditure on development of primary education was extremely low. The Table below gives the expenditure per primary school.

170 Government of Pakistan (1998). National Education Policy 1998-2010 (Islamabad: Ministry of Education), p. 126 171 Primary Education in Pakistan Part-I Summary Conclusions and Recommendations (1986), Prepared for USAID/Pakistan and Government of Pakistan, Arlington: Development Associates, Inc. p.7.

Table 3.1 - Average Total Expenditure per Primary School for Selected

Years

Exp. on Pr. No. of Primary Exp. per school Exp. per school Years Ed.(Rs. in Schools per year (Rs.) per month(Rs) Millions) 1947-48 22.0 8,413 1,307.50 108.90 1954-55 41.5 14,162 2.930.37 244.20 1959-60 60.2 17,901 3,362.94 280/24 1964-65 137.0 32,589 4,203.87 350.32 1969-70 196.8 41,290 4,766.28 397.19 1974-75 451.5 51,744 8.725.64 727.13 1979-80 1,604.4 57,220 28,039.14 2,336.59 1980-81 1,570.5 59,168 26,543.00 2,221.91 1981-82 1,820.5 61,117 29,778.90 2,281.15 1982-83 2,096.2 63,066 33,238.14 2,769.84 1983-84 2,706.9 73,228 36,965.36 3,080.44 1984-85 3,284.8 82,550 39,791.64 3,315.87 1985-86 4,051.7 86.142 47,035.13 3,919.90 Estimated Source Computed from: Economic Survey 1985-86; Also see, Mukhtar Ahmad Bhatti et al ‘Primary Education Improvement Desired (1986) Educational Development’. Series: 1, Islamabad: National Education Council, p. 43

In the late 1940s, average expenditure on our primary school was rupees 109 per month. Increase in such expenditure during the 1950s, 1960s and mid 1970s was, so to say, normal; it was very much less than Rupees one thousand. The expenditure tripled in the year 1979-1980 and then went on increasing. However, taking into account other economic indicators, such as inflation, etc, the increase was not that big, particularly in rural areas. Neglect of rural development in the national development plans and budgets appears to be a problem that constrained effective further progress in both education and national economic and social development in general. Neglect of rural areas and peoples appears to have been, for some time, an endemic problem, manifesting itself in more ways than in the lack of rural primary schools. It extended also to inadequacies in rural

social services such as primary health care and the lack of adequate investment in those kinds of agricultural and agro-industrial programs that could benefit the great majority of rural farm families who were either tenants or subsistence farmers, or farm laborers. Such rural families constituted over 90% of the country’s rural agriculture-oriented population which in turn, was more than 70% of the total national population.172

The Federal Education Minister admitted in 1986, the neglect of primary education in these words:

“We have neglected the primary education sector which should have been, I think, the primary concern of the national and of every Government that came into power. I have seen the figures which are disappointing. I have to say; to me it has been a “criminal neglect”. Criminal neglect, I repeat, because we have not been fair to our people, to our generations. We have lost one or two generations. If we had attended to this problem much earlier, I think Pakistan would have been in a much happier condition both in terms of literacy rate as well as economic growth.”173

On the eve of the termination of martial law, New Year’s Eve, December 31,

1985, Prime Minister Junejo announced a five-point program of national development two of which bore directly on the issues of Pakistan’s lagging primary education and literacy programmes. As to literacy the Prime Minister promised a mass campaign of great magnitude and speed, aiming to double the literacy rate in four years, involving the creation of some 100,000 “Literacy Centers”. As to education for development, primary education was accorded both in the December 31 statement, and many times later, the highest of priorities within the education sector, and a place among the top priorities for new investment across the entire spectrum of national development. The high yielding

172 Primary Education in Pakistan Part-I Summary Conclusions and Recommendations (1986), Prepared for USAID/Pakistan and Government of Pakistan, Arlington: Development Associates, Inc. pp.12-13. 173 Mukhtar Ahmad Bhatti et al. ‘Primary Education Improvement Desired (1986)’. Educational Development Series: 1, Islamabad: National Education Council, pp.v-vi

5% “IQRA” tax imposed on all imports was to be dedicated primarily to the literacy campaign and to primary education.

The Education Minister spoke about the importance of primary education which the new government attached to education:

“I assure you from the Government side that the Government of Mr. Muhammad Khan Junejo has rightly recognized the importance of education, particularly the primary education. We are generously providing funds. Just see the jump we have given in allocation of finances from 1.5% of GNP to 2.1%. So far as the resources are concerned I assure you that will not suffer on account of non-availability of money”.174

The Minister was emphatic that the government was serious regarding continuity of highest interest in education:

“As for political will and direction is concerned, I assure you that as long as I am here and even if I am not there, we have set the direction in a manner that nobody will be able to reverse the process. We must attend to our basic problems as the priority level deserves.”175

Underfunding is also indicated by an analysis of difference between budgetary allocations and actual expenditures with regard to five year plans of the country.

Table 3.2 - Allocation/Utilization of Funds in Five Year Plans

Five Year All Levels of Education Primary Education Plan Allocation Expenditure %age Allocation Expenditure %age (Rs in (Rs in Million) Million) I(1955-60) 304.93 197.96 65% 51.4 21.2 41% II(1960-65) 490.00 448.79 92% 78.00 18.8 24% III(1965-70) 1086.60 580.61 53% 67.51 24.74 37% IV(1970-78) 2998.14 3405.65 118% 473.93 443.76 93% V (1978-83) 10698.0 5643.5 53% 3049.7 1413.1 46% VI(1983-88) 18830.0 16606.02 88% 7000.0 3172.40 45% Source: National Education Policy, 1998-2010, p.126

174 Ibid. p.vi. 175 Ibid, pp.vi-vii

Till 1988, expenditure on education was around 2 percent of the GDP. More importantly utilization of funds lagged behind plan allocations, often because of financial constraints and education sector deemed as easy target for cuts. From the First through the Sixth Plan ending 1988, utilization of funds was substantially less than 50 percent except the non-plan period of 1970-78, particularly the period 1972-77, when a political party was active in its strategy for vote popularity alongwith patronage. During that period utilization stand at 93 percent of the allocation

4.5 The Centralized Educational Planning in the Punjab

Educational planning in the province was quite hierarchical. The Department of

Education in the province of Punjab was headed by a Minister who, normally, was not an educator, but a political officer and member of the Provincial Cabinet in charge of education matters. The administrative head of the education machinery and real Chief

Executive Officer was the Education Secretary, who was usually a member of the Civil

Service of Pakistan (CSP), corps of career administration. The Education Secretary was assisted by two Additional Secretaries: (1) Additional Secretary (Establishment) and (2)

Additional Secretary (Academic). Directly under the Additional Secretary for

Establishment were three Deputy Secretaries (DS) – for Schools, Planning and for

Establishment. Three Deputy Secretaries also assisted the Additional Secretary for

Academic Affairs. These were the Deputy Secretaries for General, Academic and

Technical. Each of the Deputy Secretaries had Under Secretaries or Section Officers with respective areas of responsibility. All these functionaries constituted the professional support staff of the Education Secretary.

When we look at duties and responsibilities of various functionaries, elected and / or appointed, we see that Education Minister has the responsibility regarding matters of policy. He represents the education department in the provincial assembly and conducts its business. Submission of cases to the Chief Minister and getting sanctions and approvals is his mandate. Efficient management and handling of the educational machinery in the province is the responsibility of the Education Secretary. He conducts all business at the provincial level. He is assisted by other secretarial administration. His major responsibilities were diverse and complex because of his position as the Chief

Executive of the Education Secretariat, the professional leader of all the Directorates,

Boards and Bureaus, and the political Head (representing the Governor) of the entire educational system in the province. Therefore, in the exercise of his responsibilities, the

Secretary was to equally allocate his time and energies proportionately to meet the three components of his responsibility:

a. Administrative Matters: Hold meetings to manage accounts, staffing,

development of infrastructure and policy formulation with the concerned

staff and other stake holders.

b. Professional Matters: Hold meetings to manage and resolve matters

regarding academics, infrastructure and maintenance with heads of

academic institutions including universities, colleges and schools.

c. Ceremonial Political Matter: Hold meetings to confer with higher officials

and attend various educational functions, e.g., opening/closing/launching

ceremonies on various projects, schemes, centers, etc., on education. He

meets secretaries of different other departments including the chief

secretary to resolve various issues.

4.6.1 Additional Education Secretaries

The Additional Education Secretary (Establishment) was responsible to oversee departmental affairs relating to schools, planning and internal secretariat services, including cases of promotion, move-overs, etc. In this task, he was assisted by Deputy

Secretaries for each of the above areas of responsibility. The Additional Education

Secretary (Academic) was in charge of general services (relating to complaints, policy implementation, coordination, pensions), academic affairs (universities, colleges, boards, etc.) and technical/special services, including foreign aid projects, physical education, scholarships, etc.

4.6.2 Deputy Secretary (Schools)

Responsible for matters relating to school education, non-gazetted schools and nationalized schools.

a. Under Secretary SE (School Education)

All matters of Class I and Class II (Grade 17 and above) officers of school

side, including forwarding of applications for employment in the country and

abroad.

b. Section Officers NG (Non-Gazetted Schools)

All matters pertaining to NG establishment of Directorates of Education,

including Secondary School Teachers (SST), Senior Vernacular Teachers

(SVC), Primary Teacher Certificate (PTC) and Elementary School Teacher

Certificate (ESTC); litigation work, student teacher’s ration relating to

primary.

c. Under Secretary NS (National Schools)

All matters relating to nationalized and provincialized schools and their

services; non-gazetted establishment of colleges and schools, and all matters

concerning non-gazetted field staff.

4.6.3 Deputy Secretary (Planning)

Responsible for planning, development, budget and accounts, inspection, and purchases the whole department of Education.

a. Section Officer (Planning)

Preparation of the Annual Development Plan (ADP); processing of

development with development working committees concerned; provision of

foreign exchange for scholarship; standardization of norms for buildings,

furniture and equipment for schools, colleges and technical education; matters

relating to purchase procedures.

b. Section Officer (Development)

Re-appropriation of A.D.P assessment of additional demand for unfunded and

short funded schemes; administrative approval in respect of development

schemes relating to general, technical and university education; matters

relating to minor work allocation; monitoring progress of development cases,

A.D.P. utilization review meetings with D.P.T/D.T.E/C&W Department;

economy measures regarding construction of buildings and efficient

utilization of existing resources; and references from Chief Minister’s

inspection team.

4.7 Deterioration in School Management/Inspection system

To the provincial structure so far described must be added the line directorates. In

Punjab, the Directorate was actually called the Directorate of Public Instruction (DPI).176

The downward hierarchy of school administration (for Classes I-XII) flowed from the

Department to Division, District, Tehsil/Sub Tehsil, Markaz, Union Council, and to the individual schools and classrooms. The province was composed of divisions, a division divided into districts which, in turn, were composed of tehsils and sub-tehsils (called markaz). A tehsil consists of some 7 to 10 markazs and a markaz is composed of a similar number of union councils. Some 7 to as many as 15 villages may compose a union council.177

In general, compliance and implementation of directives in the system imposed a heavy burden on administration in the form of excessive reporting and paper work. Time necessary for monitoring and supervisory functions to improve the quality of instruction and the service-delivery system was, thus, sacrificed. The multifarious tasks of administration required from key personnel at the district and tehsil levels also helped to explain why the quality of supervision was very low. The situation was exacerbated by excessive over load of schools that a DEO or SDEO was to supervise during the year.

This was an impossible task, given the other duties and functions required of these personnel.178

176 Robert E. Culbertson et al (1986). Primary Education in Pakistan Part-II, The Analysis. Columbia: Development Associate, Inc., p.134. 177 Ibid. 178 Robert E. Culbertson et al (1986). Primary Education in Pakistan, p.140.

The provision of facilities as a function of management also was depressingly inadequate. There was a critical shortage of schools, resulting in overcrowded classrooms, and lack of an environment conducive to effective teaching and learning - no furniture, inadequate instructional material, poor light and ventilation, and so forth. There was equally a shortage of teachers (especially women teachers) and more specifically trained teachers. Because of shortage of teachers, the common practice was a two-teacher scheme with often 30 pupils ranging from Grade I-V. The difficulties of providing instruction in such circumstances were less than desirable.179

4.8 Duties and Functions of District Education Officers and Staff

Probably the most beleaguered staff in the entire management structure have been the District Education Officers and the Sub-Division Education Officers or Assistant

Education Officers and their respective professional staff. They were swamped with extraneous administrative and academic responsibilities entrusted to them. To perform really well, a District Education officer had to be an all-round manager/administrator with wide knowledge and strong skills in educational planning and development, management and administration, budgetary and financial management, statistics and research, modern supervision and methods of teaching, public relations, social communication, diplomacy and negotiation. These qualifications should also be possessed by the deputies and assistants, though perhaps to a lesser degree. Few, of course, already possess all these skills. Further training and professional development of these officers needed to be conducted periodically to improve their performance.180

179 Ibid. 180 Ibid. p.144.

A typical day of a District Education Officer, while in the office, consisted of about an hour for signing and checking bills, another hour for supervision of work accomplished by the secretarial staff, an hour for discussion with Assistant District

Education Officers on problems and pedagogical issues, and an hour for attending telephone calls, two hours for attending to visitors and another hour for the dictation of letters and subsequent action needed to be taken as a result of correspondence received.

During tour days, time was spent mostly in inspectorial activities rather than the supervision of teaching and helping to resolve pedagogical matters.181

In the case of an SDEO, a lot of time was spent on signing bills and attending to arrears and advances, listening to complaints, trying to keep track of the teacher fund, and attending meetings. Not much supervision geared to improve the quality of teaching in schools was done. Administrative duties did not leave much time for school visitations, keyed to the supervision of the teaching process and pupil learning.182

During the year, the work for those entrusted with supervision and inspection followed a general pattern. April to June was devoted mainly to school start-up activities and office work, plus school visits which might be necessary during the period. From

July to September, schools were not in session so activities were generally of mixed nature. ADP budget and PC-1 preparation occupied much time. Teacher training programs were also scheduled during the period since children did not return to school until September.183

The period from October to December was supposed to be utilized for making surprise visits to schools. However, preparation of ADPs and SNEs (Schedule of New

181 Ibid. 182 Ibid. 183 Ibid, pp.144-145.

Expenditures), collection of statistical data, as well as organization of sport tournaments were major activities, consequently school visits were seldom made. January to March was usually the period for the required Annual Inspection. DEOs visited high schools, which almost always included primary and middle schools on the same campus. SDEOs visited primary and middle schools. During last quarter of the school calendar, giving examinations and testing for promotion were supposed to be conducted by these officials in all the schools under their jurisdiction. The annual inspection was probably the only type of supervision that DEOs and SDEOs strove to conduct with some degree of strict adherence. The reason for this was that even after 14 to 15 hours a day, the work never finished.184

The system presented a formidable challenge to all field supervisors. The primary schools were typically small, scattered in far-flung areas of difficult access and often headed and staffed by persons with little knowledge of either schools or classroom management. Because of the large number of schools in a given area, a field officer was frequently assigned a heavy supervisory workload that was impossible to carry out. Lack of transport facilities was a veritable problem. In far-flung areas, accommodation facilities for female supervisors were an added constraint. The implications of these for administration were obvious and serious.185

A study in mid-1970s by Mervyn W. Pritchard found that inspection system in

Pakistan laid emphasis on assessment and had a judicial rather than an advisory function.

Pritchard’s advice was that, a great deal needed to be done to help the teachers to devise more stimulating and active methods of learning by the children. The inspection/visit

184 Ibid, p.145. 185 Ibid, p.145.

could be an opportunity to arouse interest in new educational developments, discover talents and generally encourage the teaching staff to strive for greater achievements.186

The process of inspection during the 1970s, and before and after that, was largely concerned with assessment of the individual institution and the individual teacher. the concept of inspection in Pritchard’s view, could be broadened and used in an innovative manner. For example, the inspector could survey a group or sample of schools in a neighbourhood with a particular purpose in mind; the teaching of certain subjects at certain levels in the schools, the use of audio-visual aids, the language difficulties of children, or school community relationships. In other words, the services of the inspectors could be used for investigating problems and assisting the administration to establish priorities of action. The findings of such surveys could be useful both to the policy-makers and to the inspectors in arranging in-service courses to enhance competency of the teachers.187 Such a work would help to change “the image of the inspector in the eyes of the teacher as an authoritarian figure and cast him in a more collaborative role.”188

The institution of a ‘Centre’ school had functioned in the education system for a long time. Small primary schools in a particular area were often grouped, where primary

Heads visited the Centre school for collection of salaries of their teachers, and for receiving circulars and instructions. Pritchard suggested that a person belonging to inspectorate, say, the Assistant Inspector in charge of the area could use the occasion for in-service training. Under the supervision of the Assistant Inspector, workshops and

186 Mervyn W. Pritchard (1975). Primary School Inspection in Pakistan, Paris: UNESCO., p.54 187 Ibid, pp. 54-55. 188 Ibid, p. 55.

seminars could be arranged for the teachers and it could become an effective local centre for the development of primary education.189

According to Pritchard, in many countries, there was a handbook or manual for inspectors which embodied some of the philosophy of inspection, offered guidance on the various duties of an inspector, and went into detail on the criteria to be used in evaluating the work of a school. Such a handbook had been found valuable both by newly appointed inspectors and by those who had become experienced. It was also useful to the Heads of schools in suggesting ways of organizing or evaluating the work of their schools and staff. In the Punjab such a handbook could be produced by a group of senior inspectors and other educationists drawn from the different educational institutions in the Province, for use in the school education system.190

A report in 1986 pointed out two important aspect of system of policy and planning:

1. Policy planning and program development were not based on an adequate

management information system, either at local or provincial levels. While, in the

province, some progress had been made towards an effective MIS, primary

education remained without an adequate data base for sound planning and

program and project elaboration. Such a data base needed to be begun at the

village school level, be effectively operated and controlled at an initial

administrative level no higher than the village council.191 But such was not the

case at time

189 Ibid, pp. 55-56. 190 Ibid, p.56. In the absence of any handbook for inspectors in Pakistan’s inspectorial system, Pritchard researching into the system in mid-1970s reconstructed some features of the inspection process, based on notes of a more meticulous person among the school inspectors in the country. 191 Ibid, p.57. (1) Teaching of lessons is checked. Model lessons in all the subjects are given for the guidance of teachers. The teachers are asked to give lessons in the presence of the Inspecting Officer and

2. The report found that the form for the program and project identification system

and its procedural aspects were well understood and faithfully followed. But the

substance of the analytical aspects of the process was often weak. This could be

attributable in part to an inadequate MIS, but the need for improvement went

beyond that. The result of weakness was that project proposals, notably those

needing federal funding, reached Islamabad less than well prepared from a

professional content standpoint. Such weaknesses made it difficult for projects

proposals to succeed in getting to run the gamut of Federal level approvals.

Federal Ministry of Education could stop proposals. More seriously, Ministry of

Planning and Development contained professional staff of educationists sitting in

review over such proposals, with the power to approve or disapprove them.192

4.9 Conclusion

The period of 1951-1994 shows momentary heightening of political support for education exhibited in appointment of commissions/committees for the uplift of education. Such momentary bursts of interest did not lead to any worthwhile changes. On the other hand, education policy planning became part of planning for economic development under the guidance of foreign, usually American, consultants and national bureaucracy. Education greatly suffered the pains of underfunding. Moreover, Punjab educational policy planning was centralised in the provincial capital, District officers

necessary instructions are imparted to them whenever necessary. (2) Teaching programmes of the schools and the syllabuses to be followed are checked and necessary guidance and instructions are conveyed to the teachers on the spot, (3) Instructions and necessary guidance in preparing different audio-visual aids in teaching are given and their proper use during the teaching process is stressed. (4) Lessons and lectures are given on the subject of health and cleanliness and practical lessons in this respect are presented before the teachers and students.” 192 Primary Education in Pakistan Part-I Summary Conclusions and Recommendations (1986), Prepared for USAID/Pakistan and Government of Pakistan, Arlington: Development Associates, Inc. pp.4-5.

were over-burdened and, therefore, management and supervision suffered accordingly.

All this led to deterioration in educational indicators and search for measures to reform the same. The major reform measure adopted on the behest of World Bank was the establishment of school management committees (SMCs), as a panacea for educational ills. This theme is taken up in the next chapter.

Chapter-5

School Councils as a Major Tool for Reform of Elementary

Education

5.1 Origin of SMCs

This chapter covers the period 1994-2002. In this period, School Councils were established as a major tool for reforming elementary education. The chapter traces the worldwide status of this reform tool, the unusual importance given to it by donor agencies like the World Bank etc. It then deals with SMCs as introduced in the Punjab and assesses their role in the province, discussing the up-to-date study, which was done in

2014.

The subject of school councils has several other usually interchangeable names such as School-based Management, Site-based Management, School Management

Committees, School Management and Community Participation, School Management

Councils, Decentralized Management of Education etc. A Google search under these seven captions showed millions of entries in case of each one. Even if there are overlapping mentions of the seven inter-related subjects, the number of scholarly articles is astoundingly large and attests to the importance of the umbrella subject namely the

School Councils/School-based Management Committees. A similar search with the caption “evaluation of school-based management” produced a list of 15 million scholarly items which, yet again, establishes the importance of the subject worldwide.

One is tempted to mention a few titles to give a flavour of topics of studies, carried out in various parts of the world. Two dissertations dealing with school-based

management in Canada are titled: “Involvement to Engagement: Community Education

Practices in a Suburban Elementary School and an Inner City Community School”

(2008)193, and “A School Council’s Influence on Community Involvement in a

Saskatchewan Community” (2010).194 Both the theses used qualitative methods. Four dissertations completed in various universities of the United States of America bear the title: “The Role of School Advisory Council in School Improvement: A Case Study in

Policy Interpretation” (1994);195 “Parents’ and Teachers’ Belief About Parental

Involvement in Schooling” (2007);196 “The Parent Participation Discourse of a

Community School: Diverse Ideas and Perceptions About Educational Partnership at an

Inner City Community School” (2009);197 “Community Involvement in Rural Schools of the Leicester and Sandy Mush Communities [Carolina], (2011)198, and “The Influence of

Parent and Community Involvement on Local School Councils in Massachusetts”

(2009).199

193 Amandt, Ted. (2008). Involvement to Engagement: Community Education Practices in a Suburban Elementary School and an Inner City Community School”, M. Sc thesis submitted in the University of Saskatchewan. 194 Preston, Jane Pauline, (July 2010). “A School Council’s Influence On Community Involvement in a Saskatchewan Community”, Ph.D thesis submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research, University of Saskatchewan 195 French, Paige Vereen, (1994). The Roles of School Advisory Councils in School Improvement: A Case Study in Policy Interpretation. Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership, University of North Florida, College of Education. 196 Haack, Mary Kelly, (2007). Parents’ and Teachers’ Beliefs about Parental Involvement in Schooling. Ph.D dissertation presented to the Faculty of The Graduate College at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln. 197 Elizabeth, Alice, (2009). “The Parent Participation Discourse of a Community School: Diverse Ideas and Perceptions about Educational Partnership at an Inner City.” A Ph.D thesis submitted in the University of Minnesota 198 Patricia Duckett Brown, (2011). Community Involvement In Rural Schools: A Case Study Of The Schools Of The Leicester And Sandy Mush Communities. Dissertation presented to the faculty of the Graduate School of Western Carolina University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education. 199 Stein, Leslie B. (2009) “The Influence of Parent and Community Involvement on Local School Councils in Massachusetts”, Ph.D dissertation presented in the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts Amhers.

An edited book pertaining to a European country, Netherlands is titled as

Educational Decentralization (2006).200 A dissertation pertaining to Indonesia completed at an Australian university bears the title: “A Study of the Implementation of School-

Based Management in Flores Primary Schools in Indonesia” (2008).201 Some scholarly/semi-scholarly studies pertaining to school councils bear the titles: “Can School

Decentralization Improve Learning? Autonomy, Participation and Student Achievement in Rural Pakistan” (2011)202 done at London School of Economics and “Improving

Decision-Making Systems for Decentralized Primary Education Delivery in Pakistan”

(2007),203 a doctoral dissertation completed at Pardee Rand Graduate School.

Evaluation Studies related to the functioning of School Councils are, of course, in millions. Title of an edited book that seeks to look at the global situation is: “Educational

Restructuring in the Context of Globalization and National Policy” (2001).204 Apart from scholarly evaluation studies on the functioning of School Councils, the World Bank has undertaken extensive evaluation on the subject of School-Based Management, publishing implementation reports and working papers on more than fifty countries of the world.

200 Bjork, Christopher [ed.] (2006). Educational Decentralization: Asian Experiences and Conceptual Contribution. New York: Springer. 201 Bandur, Agustinus (2008). “A Study of the Implementation of School-Based Management in Flores Primary Schools in Indonesia”, A Doctor of Philosophy thesis submitted in The University of Newcastle, Australia. 202 Channa, Anila. (2011). “Can School Decentralization Improve Learning?: Autonomy, Participation and Student Achievement in Rural Pakistan” Working Paper Series, No.11-115, London: LSE, Department of International Development (ID), United Kingdom. 203 Malik, Mohammed Rehan. (2007) “Improving Decision-making Systems for Decentralized Primary Education Delivery in Pakistan”, Ph.D thesis in Public Policy Analysis, submitted in Pardee RAND Graduate School. 204 Holge Daun. (2002). Educational Restructuring in the Context of Globalization and National Policy (Reference Books in International Education).Newyork: Routledge.

One title in such literature is “Decentralized Decision-Making in Schools: The Theory and Evidence on School-Based Management” (2009).205

Practice of SMCs started in the USA during 1960s and quickly spread to

Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Latin America, several countries in Africa and Asia.

The theory is that desirable educational achievements can be achieved through educational devolution/community participation etc. This is what seems to come out of much of the literature with some mixed results as well.

School based management has been appreciated a lot during the past few decades.206 The appreciation stems from the fact that SBM happens to be much more economical, as compared to other bureaucratic means. It increases accountability of all the stakeholders and brings about an all-round improvement in teaching-learning process.

It also empowers the end-users of the educational system who are the parents and the students to take stock of the situation. The World Bank has brought out several reports on the subject of SMCs. Some of them are titled:

1. Decentralization in Developing Countries: A Review of Recent Experience, 1983.

2. Decentralization in Education: An Economic Perspective, 1989.

3. Decentralization of Education: Politics and Consensus, 1996.

4. Rethinking Decentralization in Developing Countries, 1998.

5. Do Community-Managed Schools Work? An Evaluation of El Salvador’s

EDUCO Program, 1998.

205 Felipe Barrera-Osorio et al, (2009). “Decentralized Decision-Making in Schools: The Theory and Evidence on School-Based Management”, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. 206 Ibid. pp.5-6.

6. School-based Management: Reconceptualising to Improve Learning Outcomes,

1999.

7. Community Based (and Driven) Development: A Critical Review, 2003.

8. Devolution in Pakistan: Overview of the ADB, DFID & World Bank Study, 2004.

9. Education Decentralization and Accountability Relationships in Latin America,

2004.

10. A Comparative Analysis of School-based Management in Central America, 2006

11. Impact Evaluation for School-Based Management Reform, 2007.

12. The Performance of Decentralized School Systems: Evidence from Fey Algeria in

Venezuela, 2009

13. Decentralized Decision-Making in Schools: The Theory and Evidence on School-

Based Management, 2009.

14. Implementation of School-Based Management in Indonesia, 2012.

5.2 Notion of Community Participation in Pakistan

Educationists in Pakistan were aware of community participation in education particularly at the primary level. In its report, the 1959-Commission on Education propounded that “more the villagers or other local communities are involved in and responsible for the operation and upkeep of primary school, the more they will feel a sense of proprietorship of it being their school and the more importance they will attach to education and the necessity for their children taking full benefit from it.”207 Further, the commission thought it would be beyond the resources of government to find the money for all the costs involved in implementing compulsory education. The commission

207 Government of Pakistan 1959. Report of the commission on National Education: January – August 1959, Karachi: Ministry of Education pp. 178-179

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opined that a considerable part of the effort would have to be made by local communities.208

According to Educational Policy 1972-80, issued by the Government of Pakistan,

Education Councils were to be set up at the national, provincial, district and institutional levels. Such councils were to assist in the formulation and evaluation of education policies and practices, consultation and policy planning. The councils were to be composed of elected legislators from the national and provincial assemblies, members of municipal and other local bodies’ representatives from different strata of society, who are interested in education-related matters, faculty members and pupils from educational institutions and persons from different government departments.209 The task of these councils was to discover and manage modern educational technology and techniques along with required resources for various forms of education related activities.210

Whatever councils were established under the policy “were all but defunct by 1974.”211

The 1992 Education Policy emphasized that the programme of universal primary education was to be made successful by the community and its representative bodies at village level or Mohallah level in cities and towns by actively participating.212

The greatest flip to school councils was given by donors, particularly the World

Bank, which saw establishment of school councils as a reform measure in the better delivery of educational services. The Government Pakistan became aware of global and

208 Ibid. 209 Government of Pakistan (1972). New Education Policy 1972-80. Islamabad: Ministry of Education, pp.39-40 210 Ibid 211 Jones, Dawn E. and Rodney W.Jones (1980). “Education Policy Developments in Pakistan: Quest for a National Programme” in Manzooruddin Ahmed’s Contemporary Pakistan Politics, Economy and Society, Karachi: Royal Book Company. pp. 252-269 212 Government of Pakistan (1992). Education Policy 1992. Islamabad: Ministry of Education, p.18

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national pressure regarding unsatisfactory performance in social indicators.213 The first government of Nawaz Sharif (1991-93) and the second government of Benazir Bhutto

(1993-1997) particularly started looking for resources to improve the social indicators. A

Social Action Programme was launched in 1994, which was to be partly funded by international donors under the leadership of the World Bank. The loan project was known as Social Action Programme Project (SAPP).214

Donors insisted on community participation in the management of the schools.

Agreeing to the demand, the Punjab government ordered the formation of School

Management Committees with the following composition:-

a. Head teacher to be member/secretary of the Committee

b. Teachers (Maximum three)

c. Concerned Learning Coordinator

d. Parents’ Representatives

e. Three notables of the village/Mohalla, including councilor, if he belongs

to the same area where the school is located.

f. Retired Persons (Maximum three)

School Management Committees were to perform the following functions:-215

1. Increasing enrolment and motivating parents to send their children to schools.

2. Reducing and ultimately eliminating drop-outs.

3. Managing various school affairs.

4. Controlling teachers’ absenteeism and ensuring their attendance.

213 Nasim, Muhammad.(2000). Dilemmas of Destiny: Domestic and Global Challenges. Lahore: Vanguard, pp.138-139 214 Ibid 215 Government of Punjab, Education Department Notification No. SO (SAP) 2-2/94 dated 26 September, 1994, regarding Constitution of Committees to implement SAPP

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5. Supervising teachers so that instructions are imparted properly.

6. To arrange funds for school to make it self-supporting.

7. To utilize allocated budget.

8. To organize various activities in the school (educational, co-curricular or

social).

9. Regular academic supervision of the teachers at least to see that they are

teaching regularly.

10. To provide teachers, needed for the school from locally available funds.

11. To motivate educated community members to visit school and help in

organizing instructions and other activities during their free time, thus,

rendering a social service without any honoraria.

12. To provide residential accommodation or any other incentive to attract good

teachers.

13. To protect school property from any damage and ensure its repair and

maintenance.

The project involved a lot of construction work to build new schools and repair the old ones. The donors thought community participation an essential for the repair work as well. So Repair Committees were created. The composition of SRCs was the same as in the case of SMCs. They had to perform the functions of both annual routine repair and special repairs whenever required.216

According to a clause in the SAPP-I agreement, the donors were to carryout evaluation of the implementation of the project by a Supervision Mission of the World

Bank. Such evaluation made in 1995 is given as an Annexure under the caption Aide-

216 Ibid.

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Memoire, contributed by the October 1995 Supervision Mission of the World Bank. The

Aide-Memoire discusses the “outstanding project implementation issues and their post- project implementation.”217 The Aide-Memoire noted the lapses in the execution of the

Project. Particular emphasis was on the importance of SMCs to solve the education problems in the Punjab.

The supervision mission observed a host of unattended problems during schools visits; including: (i) schools in gross disrepair and lacking in basic facilities of functional hand pumps and latrines; (ii) unhygienic conditions despite the generous provision of conservancy staff; (iii) lack of educational materials and non-availability of even a minimal amount of money under non-salary budget to procure stationary, chalk and other items; (iv) little evidence of receipt in schools of the all important teacher guides (said to have been distributed a year ago) or of the use of teaching kits; (v) absent teachers; (vi) schools located in depressions with stagnant water within and outside the school; (vii) lack of evidence of regular supervisory visits and few entries in the school logbooks on problems identified and solutions indicated; (viii) lack of awareness of supervisors and education managers about their key job requirements or any sense of priority among the tasks to be performed by them; (ix) field officials travel restricted to no more than four days a month accompanied by inadequate TA/DA budget; (x) unneeded provision of new classrooms; (xi) few active Schools Management Committees and scanty evidence of an active community role in school affairs; (xii) significant number of vacancies among

AEOs' and LC’s positions; and (xiii) usable classroom space full of broken furniture (a phenomenon much in evidence in Pakistani schools). The Mission noted that much more

217World Bank.(1997). Implementation Completion Report of Islamic Republic of Pakistan Third Primary Education Project, p.34.

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needed to be done by field officials to apprise themselves of the accumulating and unaddressed or under-addressed problems of rural schools.

The issues and deficiencies pointed out were regarded as “unmistakable indicators of an ineffective monitoring and management approach at various hierarchical levels.

Lack of incentives for good work and absence of an effective system of accountability, in the Mission’s view, enabled the staff to get away with a mediocre performance.”218 The

Mission was given to understand that local political interventions in day-to-day affairs of schools contributed elements of insecurity among staff willing to work and tended to protect inefficient and unwilling staff members and teachers.219 The Mission opined that empowerment of local communities in all school oversight functions was the real answer to many of these problems.

In discussing the component, “Teacher Training and Development” the Aide-

Memoire noted that the master training program for the training of learning coordinators in the use of integrated materials was inadequate in content, duration and methodology.

As a result, the LCs did not possess the necessary training skills to further train the teachers in off-the-classroom situation or support them in the classrooms.220 To catch up with the heavy backlog of primary teachers, who had undergone no training in the use of integrated materials or the teacher guides associated with them, the Mission urged the

Education Department to revive and effectively monitor the practice of setting aside the monthly pay day for the training of teachers in Center Schools.221

218 Ibid, p.37. 219 Ibid, p.37. 220 Ibid, p.38. 221 Ibid, pp.38-39. ‘The Central School’ concept is one in which the head of the designated Central School draws the pay of teachers whose schools are affiliated with the Central School. Teachers gather to collect monthly pay and interact with one another on educational subjects.

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Communication/Demand Generation component was interrupted with the change of government in the province. Planned activities and initiatives on improving participation rates did not seem to have made much progress. The full implementation of the Compulsory Primary Education Act was also delayed. The Mission emphasized that the already agreed proposal on the recruitment and deployment of 3000 teams of community motivators needed to be implemented to mobilize community involvement in enhancing primary school participation and retention rates.

The Aide-Memoire again emphasized the need for School Management

Committees (SMCs). In the view of the Mission, the overall record of their performance, particularly in increasing and sustaining enrollments was not encouraging. Evidence suggested that: (i) the composition of SMCs needed a major review to increase the number of main stake-holders namely the parents; (ii) interaction of SMCs with the field education officials was weak or under-defined and they had no direct access to allocated resources for school maintenance and procurement of materials; and (iii) the SMCs needed training and intermediation through local NGOs/CBOs. Where such intermediating bodies were not available, the Government of Punjab was urged to catalyze them. And then came the all important pronouncement:222

“With all emphasis at its command, the Mission suggests that Government of Punjab should go all out in making SMCs active through intermediation and training, empowerment and enhanced involvement.”

According to Education Policy (1998-2010), selected management functions in elementary education were to be entrusted to the lower levels, which may include the schools themselves, the local communities, district management, non-government

222 Ibid, p.40

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organizations at lower level and other agencies to manage the educational issues in more efficient ways.

5.3 Lessons Learnt from SAPP-I and SAPP-II Reform Agenda

A survey conducted jointly by Punjab Education Department and Multi-Donor

Support Unit found that during the period of SAPP-I, ulterior motives and political considerations at different stages remained dominant enough to impede the reform progress. The ability to implement the plan remained wanting and the stakeholders mostly kept themselves at bay. Thus, learning from the SAPP-I experience, the formulation of SAPP-II, covering the period 1997-2002, displayed a core transition towards emphasizing the following areas:223

a. Focusing on quality.

b. Improving governance and increasing transparency.

c. Decentralizing and streamlining management and shifting control to

community.

d. Encouraging provision of services by NGOs and the private sector.

e. Improving monitoring and evaluation and the value and timeliness of

feedback.

f. Adding to level of effort, but addressing sustainability.

g. Building political will in the society.

h. Developing a strategy for each sub-programme.

223 Survey Report of the School Management Committees, Department of Education, Government of Punjab and Multi-Donor Support Unit (1998), pp.1-2.

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5.4 Community Participation as a Key Strategy in SAPP-II

According to the survey, there was an increasing consensus throughout the social sectors that the participation of household and communities in the planning and implementation of development efforts would enhance the impact of such efforts and increase their sustainability. The need to decentralize and streamline management and shifting control to community was also highlighted as one of the major lessons, emerged from SAPP-I. Community participation was seen at the core of SAPP-II. One important cross-sectoral objective was to enhance community and beneficiary involvement.

Moreover, shifting focus to the provision of quality services, the fact that improving quality would require increasing efficiency was also recognized. This, in turn, involved enhancing the incentives for service provisions for improved performance. This was to be achieved through decentralization of the control of services towards the stakeholders.224

In sum, the experience of SAPP-I emphasized the need of going beyond the education

Line Department and several other official agencies, to the community for improving quality, expanding access, establishing ownership, promoting sustainability, improving monitoring, etc.

Mobilizing the communities to become partners in improving delivery of services, enhancing access and promoting quality was seen as one of the main strategic thrusts of the SAPP-II reform agenda. The design for community participation in the education sector was constructed on institutionalizing the interaction between the community and school through the establishment of the School Management Communities (SMCs).225

224 World Bank, “Implementation Completion Report – Pakistan: Social Action Program Project”, Report No.18043, Credit 2593-PK, June 1998, p.2. 225 Ibid, pp.2-3.

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Addressing the constraints in the realization of the Social Action Programme, and responding to the increasing lack of people’s confidence in the capacity of the government to solely finance, manage and deliver basic social services, the provincial government made community participation as a central mainstay in its reform agenda for the elementary education and incorporated a well-designed and developed strategy for community involvement in this sector.

The major objectives defined by the Department of Education for the SMC initiative were as follows:226

a. To involve the local community in the financial matters of the school

education development.

b. To get the assistance of the local community for improvement in the local

affairs of the schools.

c. To transfer the system for procurement of required goods, works, services for

the schools to the local level.

d. To resolve the difficulties of students and teachers at the local level.

e. To promote mutual cooperation among the local community, parents and

teachers.

f. To mobilize support of various groups at the local level for eradication of

illiteracy and improvement in the quality of education.

g. To achieve the best results, by creating awareness about the principle of

“consultation and self-help” at the local level.

226 Government of the Punjab, (1988). Survey Report of the School Management Committee. Lahore: Department of Education.

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According to the survey, in the successive years of SAPP-I, the Government grappled with the implementation issues and constraints, clarifying and defining the concept and role of the SMCs and improving the design and modalities for implementation. The refined model that emerged to coincide with the commencement of

SAPP II had the following distinct features: 9-member committee composed of a balanced mix of the teachers (3), parents (3), local influentials /social workers (3); nomination of parents and local influentials to be through a community consensus process or through elections (the implication here is that the community not the

Department of Education would determine who would represent the community on the

SMC); provision of government funds on the basis of established norms per class for procurement of instructional materials per classroom for repair and maintenance, transfer of government funds in the SMC accounts to be operated by the SMC chairperson and one community/parent representative as co-signatory; promoting female participation, especially through the “parent” category of membership, however, no explicit provision was indicated by the government for ensuring representation of women; training of SMCs and of line department field staff in community mobilization and for specific functions and responsibilities of community members; and development and distribution of SMC manual and guidelines for procurement. In addition to such elements, the role of the

SMCs was enhanced to embrace quality and access related functions,227 namely ones listed below:-

1. Increase enrolment by motivating parents to send their children to school.

2. Decrease and ultimately eliminate dropouts.

227 Survey Report of the School Management Committee, Department of Education, Government of Punjab and Multi-Donor Support Unit (1998), p.5.

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3. Ensure regular attendance of the teachers and report their continuous absence

and poor performance to the concerned officers.

4. Create an environment in the school which will facilitate the teachers in

adopting activity-based teaching techniques.

5. Assist teachers in curricular and extra-curricular activities.

6. Use the resources raised from the community (funds, goods and equipment,

labour etc) for the improvement of school.

7. Arrange free accommodation and security for teachers (especially non-local

teachers).

8. Prevent the school building, goods, and equipment from misuse and

encroachment.

9. Look for solutions to the problems of the teachers, students and parents so that

there is no obstruction in the educational activities.

10. Facilitate better relationship between the community and other institutions

(Government and non-government) for resolution of issues related to the

school.

11. Promote better and peaceful environment in the community for

Universalization of education, so that parents are encouraged to send their

children, especially girls, to school.

12. Hold rallies, meetings and other activities in the school on national festivals/

days to emphasize importance of education.

13. Provide cooperation for the implementation of the Compulsory Primary

Education Act.

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14. Strive for children’s character building.

15. Utilizing government funds for local procurement of educational materials

and furniture.

16. Utilize government funds for repair and maintenance through local

contracting and procurement.

5.6 Financial Responsibility

Every committee was to open two accounts; one account and its cash register were to be for the funds, received from the government. Such funds were to be called

Public Fund and were to be liable to internal department audit. The other account and its cash register were to be for funds received from non-government sources and were called

Private Fund. The public fund was to be operated by two signatories (i) the Head or

Senior Teacher; and (ii) either a parent member or a local notable member as co- signatory.228 a. Use of Public Fund

Funds provided by the government will be deposited in the SMCs Public Fund

Account in a scheduled national bank. This will include grant-in-aid and other funds. The government funds will only be used for specified purposes. Activities started with these funds will be supervised by the members of the SMC. A report of expenditures will be provided by the SMC to the AEO/DEO as prescribed by DoE. b. Use of Private Fund

The fund will be utilized for school facilities improvement and for needs of students as determined by the SMC and will consist of the following account:-

228 Ibid, p.6

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a. Education Promotion Fund

b. Donations received from the community

c. Other funds not received from the government

5.7 Tenure of SMCs

The SMCs have tenure of 2 years, starting from the day of the issuance of the notification. At the end of the 2 year term, the community would have the opportunity to nominate/elect new members for the parent and notable category, or nominate/re-elect members for a second term based on their first term’s performance.229

5.8 Revamping of SMCs

According to the survey, the Department of Education took certain precautionary steps and re-visited different aspects of the SMCs’ initiatives in order to address weaknesses rising in the implementation phase. A briefing for the Chief Minister of

Punjab was arranged by the Department of Education in August 1997 and a decision was made to revamp SMCs in the entire province. The Deputy Commissioners were to carry out this province-wide SMC, re-vamping exercise and ascertain/verify the status of

SMCs.

The Deputy Commissioners’ field teams were tasked (i) to conduct an independent confirmation exercise about the existence of the SMCs by checking their composition and (ii) the verification of the signatory and co-signatory of the accounts.

The re-vamping exercise was started throughout the Punjab in August 1997 and completed in March 1998. This large scale drive was further propelled by the

Government’s apprehensions regarding the possibilities of ill-governance, misuse and

229 Ibid.

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inefficient utilization of SMC funds and about the lack of transparency and stakeholders’ participation. Subsequently, the DCs were required to conduct a physical field check of all 47,371 SMCs during a period of 6-7 months and the deviations were to be reported to the Department of Education. The transfer of funds to SMCs was made conditional to a validation certification to be issued by the Deputy Commissioner. The exercise took a lot of time, effort and resources, but it was an indicative of the Government’s commitment to improve the governance, operational and systemic facets of the SMC initiative. As a result of the re-vamping exercise, the Department of Education took certain corrective measures and re-constituted SMCs, where necessary, according to the laid down categorization of members, as follows:-

a. Head Teacher Chairperson

b. Senior Teacher Secretary

c. Teacher Treasurer

d. 3-Representatives of Parents Member

e. 3-Notables/Social Workers Member

5.9 Donors’ Evaluation: Limited Achievements under SMCs Regime

A major objective of SAPP-II, namely, “Encouraging NGO and private sector participation in the delivery of social services”, was rated ‘Marginally Satisfactory’.

While the Participatory Development Program (PDP) was the major vehicle for encouraging the support of civil society to improve the delivery and quality of social services, other processes were carried out to promote private sector and community participation in social service delivery. The Punjab Government ordered the formation of

SMCs in all primary/elementary schools. Also NGOs were involved in the delivery of

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educational services.230

SAP/SAPP failed to achieve its objectives of improving the delivery and quality of social services, as demonstrated by the poor outcomes and continued poor delivery of publicly provided social services. In education, primary enrollment levels, as indicated by PIHS data, remained flat from 1998-99 to 2001-02, growing by just one percentage point, from 71% to 72%. The gross enrollment rate (GER) for girls remained constant at 61%, while for boys it increased from 80% to 83%. However, the gap between urban- rural enrolment was found to be narrowing down, with rural GER increasing from 63% to

66%, and urban GER decreasing from 94% to 91%. The net enrollment rate (NER) at the primary level for both rural areas and girls increased by one percentage point, but fell by the same margin for urban areas and boys, thus, keeping the national NER at its 1998-99 level of 42%. Similarly, NER for the middle level of education remained constant at

16%, the same as in 1998/99.231

Indeed, the PDP component proved to be a non-viable mechanism to foster community and NGO participation, mainly due to design problems. The PDP was an initiative imposed by donors with half-hearted support at the provincial level, stemming largely from concerns about providing grants to NGOs from borrowed funds.

Implementation of PDP was also hampered by delays in selecting the NGOs. In most cases, the selection process was delayed for long periods of time at the provincial level, often reaching the national level two years, following the initial grant request. Complaints about the lack of transparency in the selection process added to delays at the national

230 World Bank.(2003).Implementation Completion Report, for a Second Social Action Program Project. Human Development Sector Unit, South Asia Region, p.9. 231 Ibid.

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level, leading to a virtual stalemate in implementation of this component.232

Although SMCs/PTAs were established, progress in achieving their stated objectives was limited. This was partly because communities were not seen as key partners in the process and partly because of an under-estimation of the time required to foster, consolidate and institutionalize community participation and to scale-up successful strategies and approaches for community mobilization. Donors made a concerted effort for the introduction of community participation, particularly with assistance from NGOs, in the primary/elementary education sector. The World Bank financed a study published as Report No.14960-PK in June 1996, hoping that the idea would take root in Pakistan.233

Given the urgency for providing education of high enough quality to the satisfaction of parents, the study saw solution in forming partnership among government, parents, teachers, the private sector and NGOs. “Such partnership could expand service delivery capacity, each partner contributing according to its comparative advantage.”234 The study concluded that community participation in education might take different forms, depending on the characteristics of the community. For example, in rural areas, there may exist a sense of community, but it has to be ascertained. In urban areas, participation may be even harder to implement. The study concludes that there is a spectrum of

“appropriate involvement” according to the capacity of the community to organize.235

The study mainly focused on how community and NGO assistance could come together to provide new schools in the interest of expanding education in the country. The study also gives attention to reforming the existing schools. The original emphasis of

232 Ibid. 233World Bank (1996). Pakistan Improving Basic Education: Community Participation, System Accountability, and Efficiency. Report No. 14960-PAK, June 6, 1996, p. 234 Ibid, p.i 235 Ibid, p.28.

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donors was reforming the school achievement through school based management, involving local community as users of educational services. By analogy, it may be said that the community participation in school management reform could take several forms.

Indeed, some empirical evidence points to that.236 A team of education managers in the country assisted by specialists reached to a similar conclusion. For example, the team agreed that there was a great need to reconsider one of the functions which had been assigned to SMCs, from their inception in 1994. This function related to measurement of the quality of learning of students through SMCs. The participants agreed that such function was difficult task expected of the committees. The difficulty was the greatest in rural areas, where a large number of parents were illiterate themselves.237

5.10 Mixed Results of Most Recent Attempts to Reinvigorate SMCs

The Government of Punjab on the behest of donors continued to bring refinements in the organization of SCs. An important measure was taken in 2013. A revised School Councils Policy was notified in 2013 to be piloted in 50% of schools

(totaling 2864) in five districts of Punjab (Attock, Chiniot, Jhelum, Lodhran &

Sargodha). The revised policy included the following changes to the constitution and procedures of school councils:238

1. The number of members was increased from 7 – 15 (under the 2008 policy) to 9 –

17 (under the revised policy).

236 Faryal Khan, (2007). “School Management Councils: A Lever for Mobilizing Social Capital in Rural Punjab, Pakistan”. Prospects, Vol-XXXVII, No. 1, pp.57-79. 237 National Workshop on Community-Based Committees: The Experiences and Way Forward. (2007) Bhurban: Pearl Continental Hotel, (May, 2007) 238 Cambridge Education (2014). “Review of Implementation of School Council Policy in Punjab”. Cambridge P.3

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2. Eligibility for school council membership was widened to encompass extended

family relations of children in the school, and local individuals “possessing some

technical and vocational background … with capacity to influence the local

community for good.” Additional guidance was given regarding gender balance

of school council membership in boys’ and girls’ schools.

3. The general body of the school council is to be convened twice yearly in the

presence of district education officials.

4. District education administration is to keep up-to-date records of the membership

of school councils in the required format, and submit them quarterly to PMIU

where a quarterly meeting will be held in this connection.

5. The amount payable by school councils to temporary teachers is increased from

Rs.1500 to Rs.2500 per month; temporary teachers should be qualified at least to

FA/F.Sc level.

6. Provision of Rs.300 is made for expenditure on refreshments for school council

meetings.

7. Guidelines are given regarding financial procedures.

The new policy provided that measures for enhancing the capacity of the members of SMCs were to be undertaken. This was done under establishment of the

School Councils Mobilisation Programme (SCMP). A TPV of the School Council

Capacity Building Programme strongly recommended that the messages of the capacity programme needed to be constantly reinforced through follow-up and mentoring to all school council members.239 As a result of deliberations amongst PMIU and donors/development partners, an innovative approach to school council capacity building

239 Ibid.

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through ICT was proposed. The services of a call centre, Abacus Consulting, were hired to design and operate a programme of calling and texting school council members on their mobile phones on a monthly basis to deliver capacity building messages. The messages were developed in the form of interactive scripts, each covering an aspect of school council activity, and seeking to connect with each and every member in order to raise their awareness regarding their roles and responsibilities, and how to carry them out.

The calls also aimed to provide members with guidance and information on how to reconstitute themselves in line with the revised school council policy, to answer their queries and complaints, and to incorporate their suggestions. The SCMP went on-stream on April 15, 2013 in 50% of the primary and middle schools in the five districts (Attock,

Chiniot, Jhelum, Lodhran and Sargodha) selected for the pilot of the revised School

Council Policy.

5.11 Reasons for the Review

The phased reconstitution of school councils and the implementation of the

School Council Mobilisation Programme was a DLI of PESRP II, under which there was a requirement for an independent annual third party review.240 PMIU engaged the services of Cambridge Education to undertake this review to meet the requirement for FY

2013/14.

During the specific review, it transpired that both the School Education

Department’s secretariat officials at Lahore as well as those in the field (i.e. those concerned with school education at the district and lower levels) have usually not shown sufficient concern with matters of school councils. For example, in 2013 some twenty

240Ibid, p.4.

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years after the serious attempt to have school councils (particularly at the elementary level), the AEOs were not clear as to the procedure of (re)constituting a school council, updation of database of school council members, what was involved in monitoring, what was the difference between school council meeting and general body meeting.

In a discussion with the review team, the district administration officials in all the five districts indicated that although they received and carried out SED’s directive to reconstitute School Councils under the School Council Policy 2013 within the given time frame, the majority (especially AEOs who were the main players in the reconstitution activity) could not recall the exact procedure which was to be followed for reconstitution of School Councils as per the revised policy 2013. The discussion also indicated that many of them had either not thoroughly read the Urdu booklet containing the policy and actions to be taken, or they had forgotten its contents over time.241

District officials reported that there was no mechanism for routinely updating the database of school council members, but that was done on an ad-hoc basis, whenever there was a change of membership. Officials also reported that no special mechanism existed and no specific time frame had been fixed for monitoring and documenting the performance of school councils except for the general monthly visits to schools for district administration officials (usually by AEOs and occasionally by DEOs).242

Performance tended to be monitored only in case of major issues, which required the attention of district administration higher up the chain. Otherwise, there was no mechanism for recording district officials’ observations on school council proceedings, or indeed, that they had been observed at all. Similarly, there was no regular mechanism for

241 Cambridge Education, (2014). Review of Implementation of School Council Policy 2013: Implementation of School Council Mobilization Programme (Final report) TA 34., pp.11-12. 242 Ibid, p.13.

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reporting to PMIU except for the check made by monitoring teams, i.e. MEAs as to whether or not meetings had been held. Above all, even if/when such reporting was to take place, monitoring would be pointless without an effective and proactive follow-up mechanism. This situation had a negative and undermining impact on the importance of school councils, and the seriousness with which they were taken, as demonstrated in the following comments given by one EDO (E) during the review conducted in 2013.243

“The performance of the SC is monitored during monthly visits to the schools by AEOs. It is general observation that the meetings of the SCs are not actually held because of the non-attendance of the SC members, who do not find time from their economic activities. Proceedings are written in the schools and sent to the SC members for signatures/thumb impressions, and sometimes in their absence are done in the schools. This is totally unfair. It has to be ensured that even if the signatures are to be got by sending the proceedings; these should at least be genuine.”

All of this led once again to the question of what exactly was meant by

‘reconstitution’. While the written instructions to the districts required that reconstitution should be carried out “according to the policy”, it did not spell out exactly what was meant by that, other than requiring that the numbers of school council members should be increased. The policy, on the other hand, required that for a school to be deemed

‘reconstituted’ a general body meeting needed to be called in the presence of the AEO, the membership should be openly elected during that meeting, and the new council notified under the signature of the AEO.244

Most head teachers (83%) and school council members (86%) stated that the AEO was not present at the general body meeting. However, there was confusion over what the members understood by a ‘general body meeting’. When asked how many general body meetings had been held since reconstitution, 65% of head teachers claimed that more than

243 Ibid. 244 Ibid, p.15.

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four had been held, with 44% of those claiming six meetings or more. From this it would seem that there might be some confusion between general body meetings and school council meetings.245

Anecdotal evidence indicated that a large number of selections were made on the requirement by the AEO for head teachers to fill any vacant positions and then to add two more names to the list of council members and, finally, to bring the notification to the

AEO office for signing. This view was strongly held in the district administrations and, follow-up interviews with head-teachers whose councils were deemed ‘not reconstituted’, revealed that advice had been given to simply add names to existing notification forms, with no need for further action. However, according to the findings of the survey team,

43% of head teachers interviewed indicated that selection had been made by some kind of general body meeting (but not in presence of the AEO) or community announcement.

Further 52% admitted that the selection had been made without wider community involvement. The chief reason for such short-circuiting seems to have been the lack of guidance given, together with extreme shortage of time.246

Was the revised policy implemented in ‘letter and spirit’? The review showed that while the policy implementation had, for the large part, been formally complied with in that the target school councils had mostly been reconstituted with the ‘correct’ number and categories of members, the outcome of the process had not been as originally intended. First, the design of the policy was agreed upon by SED/PMIU at provincial level (with support of development partners from World Bank and DFID) without involvement of those working at district and school levels. Taking the views of AEOs,

245 Ibid. 246 Ibid, pp.15-16

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head teachers and school council members could have brought forward some good ideas, particularly with regard to finding ways of attracting active and willing people to serve in the reconstituted councils. Opening up the membership to such people was, after all, the main point of reconstitution. But needed effort was not undertaken.247

Second, the haste with which the reconstitution process was conducted, resulting in more than 31% of schools reporting having had fewer than 3 days to complete the work, could not have yielded the results hoped for in terms of identifying suitable new people for the councils. An awareness campaign, highlighting the work of school councils and telling people how they could become school council members could have been effective. The review has shown that in most cases general body meetings were not called in the presence of the AEO, and follow-up interviews with head teachers indicated that in many cases the selection of new members was made either by the head teacher himself/herself, or together with existing school council. The driving force behind the time-table for reconstitution was the PESP-II DLI, which required the SCMP to be up and running by 15 April 2013.248

It so happened that date in question occurred at a time of political upheaval

(caused by imminent elections) with routine work being interrupted by frequent transfers of district officials. Key officials at PMIU were also being transferred at that time. The

Deputy Director Planning (responsible for setting the time-table for reconstitution) had been absent on training for the three months leading up to these events, and was himself transferred shortly afterwards. While it is accepted that DLIs must be imposed and adhered to, it seems that there is to be a balance drawn between meeting a DLI at all

247 Ibid, p.27 248 Ibid

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costs, and allowing the flexibility which may make the difference between effective and ineffective outcomes.249

In discussing the question it was unclear as to whether or not reconstitution required a complete disbandment of the councils and election of new ones (albeit probably comprising previous members as well as new ones) or whether two new members were simply to be added. Communications to EDOs and DMOs were not explicit on this. Above all, the element of time, with the 5 April deadline, was emphasized. This lack of clarity led to widespread short-circuiting of the intended process, and clearly pointed to the need for increased and interested ownership of senior officials, and for the speedy implementation of SED/PMIU’s planned communication strategy.250

The 2014 review by Cambridge Education (consultants) with regard to capacity building of members of School Council demonstrate two important points:-

a. The education officials, particularly education managers, concerned with affairs

of School Councils are not enthusiastic about the councils. Their knowledge of

procedures related to formation and functioning of the councils is still

fragmentary. They are not exhibiting a great concern with regard to the councils

and their members.

b. Members themselves are not clear about the procedures / functions of the

councils, even confused about the meanings of the general body meeting.

This means that after two decades of its operation, the idea of school councils was still in infancy and could not be relied upon to handle some of the important issues in

249 Ibid 250 Ibid

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school and education improvement.

Meanwhile, political will in the province to do something effective for the cause of education began to emerge. Sensing a positive political will, the Education Department prepared a report titled ‘Enhancing Student Learning’ published in 1999. An important aspect of the emphasis on enhancing student learning was teacher training. Under new proposals, head teachers were to be responsible for organizing in-school training; AEOs were to be the local training managers facilitating training events; teachers’ colleges

(GCETs) were to have a record of suitable trainers for different subjects and different phases of schooling, and were to lead workshops whenever requested by AEOs.

Concerned organizations from government, NGO and private sector, were to identify training needs, develop appropriate courses and materials, and train the Lead Trainers; and CEOs (of proposed educational authorities) were to ensure that their districts had annual training plans.251

The Test Development Centre (TDC), Lahore, had developed test items for Classes 3 and 5, and for Classes 6 to 8. The items developed in the six compulsory subjects for

Class 6 to 8 had been field-tested and selected items were to be included in the textbooks to be published in 1999.252 During 1998, training in testing and assessment techniques was provided to 5,000 head-teachers of Elementary Schools and each school received two sets of the support materials. Open learning materials for primary school teachers were then being developed for distribution to all schools in Punjab.253

251 Government of Punjab, (1999). Enhancing Student Learning: An Agenda for Change. Lahore: Punjab Education Department.p.13. The main initiatives planned and implemented for achieving quality in elementary education were with the help of the World Bank and other donor agencies particularly UNICEF and the Department for International Development, UK. p.3. 252 Ibid, p.15. 253 Ibid.

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Further, by providing funds to SMCs and enabling them to raise their own, additional funds, as well as allowing them control over how such money was to be spent, it was expected that there would soon be improvements in the physical conditions in schools. Other than the teacher, the main source of learning was the textbook. Textbooks were to be made available at low cost to children in Punjab, but for the parents of poorest children this cost sill remained a barrier to sending their children to school. The

Education Department had initiated an experimental scheme to provide free textbooks in three districts of Punjab.254 Most such measures were either planned or taken because

Political will was emerging in the Province. Such will was more fully expressed with the coming of the Punjab Education Sector Reform Program (PERSP), beginning with 2002 and has since then continued. The next chapter is devoted to fruitful reforms and some progress in proper identification of problems in the education sector.

Conclusion

During the period 1994-2002, both the Government of Punjab and donors made their efforts to put SMCs/SCs on the right track and attempted that they take root. The

Punjab Government experimented with several formal structures of the SMCs. SMCs headed by the headteacher; SMCs headed by a parent of ward in the school. The experimentation still continues. A Government document titled “Punjab School

Education Sector Plan, 2013-2017” admits that contribution of SMCs in alleviating undesirable educational conditions has been very marginal. On the other hand, the success cases attributed to SMCs owed a lot to the work of school teachers. At the same time, a new phenomenon was emerging, that of heightening of much more serious

254 Ibid, p.16.

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political support for education reforms. Under such political support, there was emphasis on the role of teacher, which could be considered as a good step forward for a better identification of the education policy problem. This theme is taken up in the next chapter along with other measures that could improve the education conditions.

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Chapter-6

Education Sector Reform 2002 Onward: Concerted Efforts at Problem Identification

6.1 ESR 2002 This Chapter deals with Education Sector Reform (ESR) 2002. A concerted effort has been made to reach at a workable problem definition in which “enhancement of teachers’ capacity/capability” is put at the top. Efforts for effective participation of the community is only one of the seven themes which have been taken up. The chapter traces the history of ESR, the donors’ enthusiasm regarding fusion of devolution with school council/community participation and assessment of various initiatives undertaken during the reform period.

Based on their theory and experience, World Bank, as the most significant of the donors to Pakistan, greatly emphasized the need for School Councils in reforming the education sector. Decision-makers in Pakistan accepted the approach. However, their ill- planned ways in implementing the approach indicate that they were not as enthusiastic with regard to the approach. Nor did they show any reasonable practical interest in the education sector in general and elementary/primary education in particular.

Replacement of the regime in October 1999 heralded a new era in the Pakistani national affairs. It brought changes in School Councils structure and functioning thereof.

The emphasis on school-based management through School Councils’ was being pursued under the 1998-2002 SAP II Project half-heartedly, when there occurred the long-awaited clarion call for devolution of power in the country. Chief of Army Staff, General Pervaiz

Musharraf, wrapped up the 1997 elected civilian government in October 1999, became

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Chief Executive of the country and set to ‘reform’ political and social institutions. He first announced his seven-point programme in October 1999 and then articulated

Devolution of Power Order, in August 2000. The devolution initiative was well received particularly among donors, who had come to believe that devolution to grassroots could ensure better delivery of social services including education.

Devolution was not supported by all provinces from December 1999 till January

2001. Bureaucrats were the main hurdle, as they could forestall their loss in form of diminished nuisance and reduced powers.255 Thus, the situation took an ironic turn as the bureaucrats who were meant to spearhead the process became the main impediments to it.

One pertinent example of such resistance to the idea was observed in the province of the

Punjab, which seemingly moved quicker than the evolving National Reconstruction

Bureau (NRB) in preparation of a road map for devolution. The governor of the province, who was from a military background,256 constituted a task force responsible for empowering and reforming institutions. The task force comprised people from different walks of life; these included ministers, local activists, bureaucrats and civil society representatives. They were given a heavy mandate to carry out reforms and to engage various government departments.257 The governor was able to marshal unwilling government servants to preempt the would-be problems of devolution and help the central government in planning for the change over at the National Reconstruction

Bureau.258 Volunteer groups from civil society also joined the government beaureaucrats

255 Bjork, Christopher [ed.] (2006). Educational Decentralization: Asian Experiences and Conceptual Contribution. New York: Springer. 256 Lieutenant General Khalid Maqbool, Retired 257 Baela Raza Jamil (2002). ‘Decentralization and Devolution: Educational Implications of the Praetorian Interpretation’ p-13-14. 258 Ibid, p.14.

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in order to assist in formulation of policies at the National Reconstruction Bureau. The effort produced a well-researched and debated document named, “Devolving the State: A

Model for Empowering the People” (2001).259 An intensive exercise was undertaken on

“Functional Devolution – Education” with implications for political and administrative decentralization. However, the Governor dragged his feet in implementing the recommendations of the report. In reality, the Punjab report was shelved, both by the

National Reconstruction Bureau (NRB) to which it was later sent and the provincial government, including the department of education.260

In brief, what was conceived with great enthusiasm was left to gather dust in the bureaucratic shelves. The true professionals and the members of the civil society were disappointed and resorted to labeling the government as opportunistic and thought the entire exercise was a scam to hoodwink the general public into believing in the devolution plan and pacify their opinion regarding the army rule.261

Although the report prepared by the Punjab Government in March 2000,

Devolving the State, which was a precursor to the Devolution Plan 2000, was shelved, many of its recommendations from the education chapter were incorporated into education sector reforms and the new decentralized structure was introduced, in an

259 The exercise covered comprehensively, a Conceptual Framework, District Government, Elections, Local Dispute Resolution, Police, Land Revenue Administration, Education, Health, Financing and Residuary functions of the State. It is pertinent to note that both the Governor and the focal person for the Devolution plan (Rana Qaisar) at the National Reconstruction Bureau (NRB) marginalized the Punjab provincial efforts. Details taken from Ibid, p.17. 260 Ibid. “Whilst the effort mobilized a wide cross-section of bureaucrats and civil society groups to become proactive on issues of governance and its remedies, the fact that the recommendations were not carried through reinforced the bureaucrats’ thinking that devolution was premature.” 261 Ibid. Another Think Tank which was formed for Education with four groups to address issues of quality and relevance in educations. The civil society participants at a national meeting of the new body, openly shared their reservations about initiatives, which were not translated into actions but seemed to address some other objectives (September 19, 2002).

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attempt to provide “Quality Education for All.”262 Some of the representatives who participated in the Punjab devolution exercise were co-opted to be members of the

National Education Advisory Board that had an influence on the governance structures and policy reforms. However, the bureaucrats who were responsible for implementation remained overtly/covertly resistant.263 Thus, compromising the process of devolution.

In the document titled ‘Education Sector Reforms: Action Plan 2001-05’, it was argued that educational management and administration were to be devolved from the

Center and Provinces to the District. The stance was that much of the action concerning education was in the districts, tehsils, and communities. Thus, the planning and decision- making of educational affairs were to take place at the site of execution. The devolution was to replace centralized system and remote planning by the people and learner- concerned governance. The newly conceived plan was to replace the existing system with a new arrangement, which was supposedly more objective, more logical and far more efficient.264 At the same time, the Federal Government undertook efforts to attract external aid to bring about comprehensive reforms in the education sector.

6.2 Education Sector Reforms in Pakistan

Pakistan under General Musharraf made a case for external funding of education in the country. This was mainly on the basis of a presentation made to a UNESCO high level group meeting on 29-30th October 2001 during General Conference on Education at

UNESCO Headquarters in Paris. This was followed up with presentations to the ECOSOC in New York in February 2002 and subsequently to the EFA Financing

262 Ibid. 263 Bjork, Christopher [ed.] (2006). Educational Decentralization: Asian Experiences and Conceptual Contribution. New York: Springer. 264 Education Sector Reforms: Action Plan 2001-05 Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, September 2002. p.v.

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meeting in April 2002 in Netherlands. Progress on EFA was discussed at all fora. The G-

8 Task Force on EFA had directly resulted in the Fast Track Initiative (FTI) in 2001.

Pakistan was listed as one of the 23 countries for FTI.265

In seeking to qualify for FTI help, Pakistan affirmed a paradigm shift in the development strategy and policy. The government of Pakistan insisted that it had realized that development of human resource was equally important, if not more important, than money and sustainable development. It was argued that given a poor quality human resource, it was not possible to achieve various developmental goals. The developmental strategy, even if formulated, cannot be implemented without enhancing the human resource. Resultantly a paradigm shift was envisaged and the government claimed to be directed towards the improved educational set-up to improve the human resource. This would also alleviate poverty by helping the poor to generate better incomes. The Ministry of Education had taken a close stock of implementation of Education Sector Reforms aimed at bringing improvement in all aspects of education.266

Education Sector Reforms 2001-2005 was an Action Plan of the Education Policy

1998-2010, which was claimed to have been designed through a national field-based consultative process. The participants of this consultative exercise included the Federal

Ministry of Education, Provincial Departments of Education, educationists, representatives of NGOs from all provinces as well as ICT, FATA, FANA and AJ&K.

Discourses on ESR were made with donors and all International EFA

Partners, within the sector wide framework at the Ministry of Education as well as with all Provincial Governments. The appraisal of the ESR was carried out by the World Bank

265 Directory of Donors’ Assistance for Pakistan’s Education Sector, Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education April 2006, p.3. 266 Ibid.

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in April 2002 through field visits of its staff to the provinces and had been included in the

Bank’s Country Assistance Strategy to support the Millennium Development and EFA

Goals. Missions from the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, UN agencies, CIDA,

DFID, JICA, NORAD, US AID, European Union, Islamic Development Bank, Save the

Children - UK, had all been interacting with the Ministry of Education and

Provincial Governments and evaluating the need for specific support to Education Sector

Reforms and EFA National Plan of Action (NPA).

The ESR, the government claimed, was completely integrated with applicable

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It was designed to achieve the subsector targets by 2005-06: (i) Literacy from 49 % in 2000-01 to 60 % by 2005-06, (ii)

Gross primary enrolment rate from 83 % to 100 %, (iii) Net primary enrolment rate from

66 % to 76 %, (iv) Middle school gross enrolment rate from 47.5 % to 55 %, (v)

Secondary school enrolment from 29.5 % to 40 %; and (vi) Higher education enrolment from 2.6 % to 5 % .267

Under this framework, the Second Punjab Education Development Policy Credit

(PEDPC-II) was approved to improve education sector performance. The World Bank in partnership with other donors supported the Punjab Government’s reform program. The government devolution plan bore good results in education as detailed below:268

1. Improved education governance through:

a. Ensuring more transparency in teacher selection and appointment. It was

augmented by a clear policy lines on the subject.

267 Directory of Donors’ Assistance for Pakistan’s Education Sector, Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education April 2006, pp.4-5. 268 Ibid. p.27

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b. School councils were put to better use by giving more weight to the

participants’ opinions.

c. Put in place a system to monitor and evaluate the progress.

2. The government devolution plan enhanced standards of education through:

a. Recruitment of better qualified and professional teachers.

b. The quality of textbooks and educational aids was improved.

c. Assessment regimes for learning were introduced.

3. The government devolution plan improved equity and provision of facilities

through:

a. Provision of free school books.

b. Exemption of tuition fees up to Matric.

c. Provision of scholarships.

d. Private-public partnership.

e. Allocation of more resources for maintenance and improvement of

buildings.

6.3 Punjab Education Sector Reforms Project (PERSP) Amalgamating Community Participation in Education with Devolution/ Decentralization to Local Government

Punjab took the lead and made a significant re-allocation of its public expenditures toward education.269 Such significant re-allocation towards education was a reflection of the greatly increased interest in education on the part of top political decision makers. The political will and interest in education was expressed in the slogan

PARHA LIKHA PUNJAB (roughly translated as ‘Educated Punjab’) on elementary

269 Situation Analysis of Teacher Education: Towards a Strategic Framework for teacher Education and Professional Development(2006), UNESCO, USAID/Pakistan, pp.11.

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education. The new emphasis was so much that the then Chief Minister almost came to be nicknamed as Parha Likha Punjab.270 The Provincial Government designed, ‘The

Punjab Education Sector Reform Program (PESRP)’ strategy for the period of 2003-

2006. Key pillars of the PESRP strategy were: (a) financial reforms for increasing public spending on education and ensure fiscal sustainability; (b) reforms aimed at strengthening devolution and improving the governance and fiduciary environment; and (c) reforms to improve quality and access to education service and governance of the sector. In the opinion of the World Bank staff, the education reforms in the Punjab were closely linked to the three Federal initiatives, the National ESR Program, National PRSP, and National

Devolution Plan.271

The Punjab government, thus, articulated a new vision in relation to devolution in the education sector:272

“The main objective of the exercise was to take the decision making involved at the Provincial Education Department down to the district and union council levels, where it involved the most affected stakeholders. Such a collaborative partnership among the people and the government was likely to bridge the wide chasm between the teachers and the taught.”

The devolution as was undertaken, changed the structure of governance. In the figure below, the old and the new broad structures have been compared.

270 Shehar Bano Khan, “Packaged Education”, Dawn Magazine, Sunday October 7, 2007. 271 World Bank (2004), “Programme Document for a Proposed Education Sector Adjustment Credit for the Government of Punjab Province. Report No.27528-PK, quoted in Ibid; p.12. 272 Task Force on Social Empowerment: Punjab 2000 & Special Secretary Schools, Government of Punjab, 2001.

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Figure 5.1: Structure of Governance – Pre & Post Devolution

Pre-Devolution Post–Devolution Classical Pyramid Flattening Federal Government

Provincial Government Federal

Province District

Division Sub-district/Tehsil

District Union Council Tehsil/Sub-district

Markaz Village/Neighborhood Councils

Union Council Citizen Community Boards PTAs/SMCs PTAs/SMCs/School Councils

Source: Baela Raza Jamil (2002) Decentralization and Devolution: Educational Implications of the Praetorian Interpretation, p-9.

The Devolution Plan-2000 gave the responsibility for delivery of education to local governments.273 As part of the comprehensive devolution reforms as mentioned in the Provincial Local Government Ordinance 2001, the district became the operational tier of governance rather than the province. The responsibility for planning, evaluating and supervising educational projects at district level came to the districts themselves. They also had administrative control over the emoluments and perks of the teachers and allied staff. The districts had the liberty to augment government allocations by generating their own resource. The head of the District Education Department was Executive District

273 Ayaz & Mirza (2011). ‘Implementation of Decentralization in Education in Pakistan: Framework, Status and the Way Forward’ Pp-154-155

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Officer (EDO). The devolution process started with the decentralization of responsibilities for school and college level education, but later the college level education, was removed from the list. The plan empowered the local community and the local educational management at the lowest level. They could now plan, manage, mobilize and utilize resources, implement their plans, monitor progress and do their own evaluation.274

6.4 Devolution of Administrative Powers in Education

The EDO Education was the new lynch pin in the system. He worked as per the needs and aspirations of the people of the district. In addition he was responsible for:275

a. Implementation of provincial policy by enforcing district education policy.

b. Preparation of expansion and improvement plans at district level.

c. Preparation of annual budget.

The new set-up, thus, formulated replaced the old set-up. The new set-up also generated a third tier of district civil servants and allied staff. All local staff reported to this tier and the provincial government was left with the job of training the head teachers, second tier teachers and allied staff. The table below sets down the responsibilities of key officers in education at the District level.276

274 Punjab Local Government Ordinance (2001). 275 Ibid, p.155. 276 Ibid, p.156.

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Table 5.1

Responsibilities of the Key District Level Officers after Devolution

Designation/ Responsibilities Institutions District Nazim  Play visionary and leadership role in educations as a chief executive of the district.  Transfer the officers of BPS-19 and above. District Council  Approve district level education policy and budget.  Submit policy through DCO and Zila Nazim. District  Work as an official head of the district. Coordination  Work as the principal account officer. Officer (DCO)  Work as an administrative head of the district education department.  Post and transfer employees of BPS 11 to 18 in education department. Executive General Responsibility District Officer  Assist DCO for the formulation of education policies. Education  Make arrangements for execution and implementation of the policy. (EDO)  Observe the rules of district education offices.  Provide efficient administration.  Submit and re-submit the proposals for the by-laws.  Issue standing orders.  Provide definite line of action. Specific Responsibilities  Implement district education policy.  Provide all sorts of district education data.  Exercise administrative control over the officers.  Guide and help the supervisory staff.  Keep an eye on the progress of education.  Work in the adjustment of officials below BPS-10 within the district.  Help in the organization of in service teacher training.  To ensure provision of conducive environment in schools.  Distribute funds and scholarships.  Recruit teachers and conduct examinations.  Inspect private schools and report inquiries.  Organize sports and promotion of AV Aids.

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6.5 Donors’ Enthusiasm at Devolution for Enhancing the Role of School Councils Donors were quite enthusiastic about the ‘Devolution of Power Ordinance 2000’, and its implementation through legislation, particularly, Local Government Ordinances coming into effect simultaneously in 2001 in the four provinces of the country. Functions of District Education Officers [DEOs] were tangibly defined through a study conducted on behalf of the donor agencies. Among others numerous responsibilities of DEOs were related to human resource management. Some of the important functions in this regard were:

a. Recruitment of Primary/Elementary Teachers

b. Maintenance of records

c. Promotions of teachers

d. Moves-over of teachers

e. Selection grade matters

DEO was empowered to transfer teaching and non-teaching staff up to BPS-16, within the district. He had the authority to transfer teachers from Elementary to

Secondary schools and from Secondary to Elementary schools with mutual consent up to BPS-16. He could sanction leave of the staff (upto BPS-16) upto 180 days except study leave and Ex-Pakistan leave. He could accord sanction of the pensions and grant

GP fund advances for employees of BPS-16 and below. He was charged with duty to prepare Annual Development Plan of Education Department at the District level and monitor their implementation after approval. He was, thus, to prepare development and non-development budget estimates. In the district education sector, he was to implement policies, directives and orders from the Government. A prime duty of DEO was to

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supervise Elementary and Primary schools in the district. For this purpose, he had under him Deputy/Assistant Education Officers. A very important function, from the point of view of donors, was to ensure proper functioning of School Councils.

The Donors made further suggestions for improving the Education delivery at the district level. The report from Donors emphasized that inter-district transfers be made with the consultation of concerned EDOs. In the interest of decentralization, the donors wanted more administrative and financial powers given to DEOs than they enjoyed at the time. They proposed creation of the post of Law Officer at the District level who should assist the EDO in the pursuit of court cases. In their view, one Law

Officer with the DCO was not enough. In this report, they noted that the Education

Department did not have the required strength of staff. They also recommended that for effective monitoring, the monitoring staff should be provided transport facility.

6.6 Assessment of Education Reform under PERSP: Steps Towards Proper Identification of Policy Problem On the part of the donors, the key pillars of reform consisted of:

a. Public finance reforms to increase public spending for education and

other pro-poor services, and to ensure fiscal sustainability;

b. Reform intended to strengthen devolution and improve the fiduciary

environment and governance; and,

c. Education sector reforms to improve quality, access and governance.277

Areas identified to be attended to, were:278

1. Enhancing Capacity/Capability of Teachers.

277 World Bank, Second “Education Sector Development Policy Credit” Credit Agreement C4046-PK, July 16, 2005 278 Ibid.

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2. Better Governance.

3. Making Basic Education affordable.

4. Textbook Reform.

5. Equitious Provision of School Facilities.

6. Effective Community Participation.

7. Evaluation of Learning.

The fact that capacity/capability of teachers was put at the top indicated that the stakeholders in education had begun to take proper steps in problem identification. Other items in the list also pointed to the situation in a similar way. Various initiatives to achieve such identified targets are explained in the succeeding paragraphs.

6.6.1 Enhancing Capacity/Capability of Teachers

As capacity of the teachers was identified as a prime target, lynchpin of the reform programme was Continuous Professional Development (CPD) developed by

Directorate of Staff Development (DSD) existed since 1960s. By 2004, it became an

‘Apex Body’ regarding professional training of several categories in the teaching profession, using the concept of Continuous Professional Development. Such categories include.279

a. Teachers

b. Head Teachers

c. District Teacher Educators, and

d. Trainers of Teachers

279 Quality Assurance of Teacher Training Report, Dec 2007.

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Vision of the DSD was “to develop a knowledgeable, committed, motivated, competent and ethically sound cadre of educational personnel.”280 The document,

‘Education Sector Reforms: Action Plan 2001-05’, published by Government of

Pakistan, Ministry of Education, in September 2002, recognized that training and expert support for quality education was an ever-rising demand. The support was needed to address the professional needs of head-teachers, teachers, learning co-coordinators, supervisors, and other district educational managers, on urgent basis. Inspite of existing training institutions functioning at district level (GCET / GECEs and other designated training outposts), there had been inadequate field based support for teachers and educational managers. The proposal was to establish 500 Resource Centers under the quality assurance component of the Education Sector Reform (ESR) and make functional the existing training outposts and education extension centers in a phased manner. DSD launched a programme for rehabilitation of existing Training Outposts

(TOs) and setting up new Training and Resource Centers (TRCs).281

6.6.2 Basic Foundation Module (BFM) for PSTs

A key document called Basic Foundation Module (BFM) was developed for the use of Lead Teacher Educators and District Teacher Educators for the training of primary school teachers (PSTs) in accordance with the CPD framework. The document was finalized in 2006. This is known as Basic Foundation Module (BFM). The document was an outcome of a series of workshops and consultations/dialogues among a number of stakeholders. The participant of the consultative process included officials

280 Education Sector Reforms: Action Plan 2001-05 Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, September 2002. pp.79-80. 281 Ibid.

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of District Education Departments, external services providers, representatives of the

NGOs, national and international experts, Officials in charge of District Training and

Support Centers (DTSCs), Principals of GCETs, and consultants provided/deputed by international donors. BFM encompasses key topics in six core subject areas being taught at the primary level, in the context of novel pedagogical skills that are required to be developed among all PSTs. The selection of the contents of BFM has been made in light of training need assessments for professional growth of the teachers done by Punjab

Institute of Teacher Education (PITE) and Institute of Education and Research (IER),

University of Punjab, Lahore. The committee of experts tasked for the development of material, developed several drafts of BFM, in view of the training needs of the teachers.

Another committee was assigned to review and refine the BFM.282

These committees continued their efforts for the finalization and improvement of the document throughout the years 2005 and 2006. Subsequently, a pilot testing of the module was carried out in two phases. The contents, format and pedagogical skills of the module were tested using 400 DTEs and 7000 teachers in the first phase.283 Basing on the feedback received from the participants of phase-1, lesson plans incorporated in the module were modified and standardized. In the 2nd phase, BFM content was further scaled up and tested in six selected districts of the Punjab. The experts from PITE, NGOs, and external service provider carefully evaluated the content of the module to determine its effectiveness and applicability to enhance classroom learning. A well defined system

282 Final Report on Quality Assurance of Teacher Training Programme (2007), conducted by Directorate of Staff Development Lahore, Punjab, Third Party Review and Assessment The World Bank, Islamabad p.17. The constructivist model of planning and implementing lessons is conducive to developing the critical and reflective thinking abilities of the students. BFM provides variety of teaching moments to teachers to take their students beyond the information given in the lesson. Questioning strategies, role- play, small and large group activities and homework are incorporated in the BFM to foster intelligent problem solving skills rather than mere rote learning. Each lesson ends with salient review questions. 283 Ibid, p.18.

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of gathering, analyzing and using credible and reliable data of pilot test, was developed to further improve the content of the module. The final document has now been used at all the DTSCs of the province. Model lesson plans for each of the six core subjects and connected skills inventory have been standardized. The activities aimed at CPD and being carried out at the district and school levels, have been designed and orientated to cultivate the needed pedagogical skills in all PSTs.284

284 Ibid.

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Figure 5.2: CPD Framework

CPD Framework

Improved Student Learning

Self Learning Professional/ Lifelong

learner Certification Short courses/PD Pay/Grade Licensing activity Structure Accreditatio

n Assessment/ ACRs Degree Awards Teacher Courses Quality Support Assurance & follow Standards Dist. up Govt. Follow Mentoriup Materiang Education/ ls Training Others Incentives & Distanc Accountability DSD e Edu. Edu PITE . GCE Dep Ts Coordinationtt. with key stakeholders Partnerships

Source: Directorate of Staff Development, Punjab: Continuous Professional Development Program (Revised Version 2015)

145

6.6.3 Training of Lead Teacher Educators (LTEs)

To put CPD into operation, a group of 220 Lead Teacher Educators was selected and prepared in three phases in 2006-2007. The aim was to train a core group of master trainers (6 per district). These master trainers were to train and mentor District Teacher

Educators who, in turn, were required to train, mentor and organize the training and support activities for all PSTs in their districts. The LTEs intensive training over 178 hours, included (i) class room instructions for 142 hours, about the DSD vision, Basic

Foundation Module, effective teaching and learning strategies at the Primary School level; (ii) after hours technical sessions and library study for 22 hours and (iii) pre- training reading preparation 14 hours. After a careful search, the City School Staff was selected as the External Service Provider, who conducted the training. The training of

Lead Teacher Educators comprised the following five main modules:285

(1) Mentors as change agents.

(2) Learning at Primary School Level.

(3) Effective Teaching and Learning strategies.

(4) Basic Foundation Module and its key concepts and;

(5) Training of DTEs.

The LTEs were provided opportunities for using and benefitting from computer and library resources in order to ensure better and meaningful class participation during instructional activities. LTEs were a selected group of subject specialists, working at various secondary and higher secondary schools, and GCETs of different districts.

Having undergone an intensive training, they became certified Lead Educators and

285 Ibid. p.15.

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started serving as part-time mentors of their DTEs. An amount of Rs.4000 per month was recommended by DSD as honorarium to be paid to LTEs in addition to their monthly emoluments. As noted above, these LTEs being subject specialists were expected to have subject matter expertise in Science, Mathematics, English, and Social

Sciences.286

The quality assurance section of DSD was monitoring the role and activities of the City School Staff, the external service provider. They had devised comprehensive feedback forms to implore opinions of the stakeholders regarding various dimensions of the training being provided and methodologies being used. They had also developed and used a comprehensive feedback questionnaire to ascertain the quality and effectiveness of training provided. A self-assessment proforma was used by the trainees.287

After 2002, policy making regarding teacher’s education and subsequent implementation underwent major changes in the Punjab. PESRP initiatives delineated and identified the three key decision makers of teacher education policy and spelled out their roles and responsibilities. These included the provincial Department of Education,

Directorate of Staff Development and District education Departments.288

6.6.4 Continuous Professional Development Framework (CPDF)

DSD took a lead during 2006 – 2007 to develop a conceptual framework for the continuous professional development of primary school teachers. The framework was based on the concept of schools clustering. The conceptual basis of the CPD was that quality of student learning outcomes was dependent upon quality of teachers, their ability to teach, inform and inspire the students. It was recognized that leading

286 Ibid. 287 Ibid. 288 Ibid, p.8

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educational thinkers had unanimously emphasized that the quality of the teacher was the most powerful predictor of learners’ performance. An inspiring teacher could persuade and encourage the learner to acquire, grasp, relate, evaluate knowledge and internalize so acquired knowledge as a powerful instrument for further action.289

6.6.5 Target Population for CPD

To accomplish the qualitative as well as quantitative objectives of PESRP, the

DSD was required to provide CPD programs to a large number of in-service teachers, who were employed throughout the province. The target population included 143,599

Primary School Teachers (PSTs), 66,671 Elementary School Teachers (ESTs), 83,440

Secondary School Teachers (SSTs), 11,096 Higher Secondary School Teachers, 64,000

Head Teachers/ Designates and 1,521 Staff of the District Education Departments.

Besides including a large numbers of teachers required to be inducted into sequential

CPD activities, the target population had different layers of complexity, including varying levels of pre-service preparation. Almost half of the primary school teachers having matriculation and 2 - 3 years pedagogical training, leading to PTC or CT, were labeled as least qualified teachers (LQTs). The LQTs were in dire need of the CPD -

Continuous Professional Development.290

A phased programme for the implementation of the CPD for Primary School

Teachers was developed by DSD. The programme included an exhaustive development of training materials benefitting from the research-based best practices; pilot testing and finalization of such training materials prior to their actual use at District and Cluster

Support Centres. Such training materials included Basic Foundation Module (BFM) that

289 Ibid, p.11. 290 Ibid, pp.11-12.

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consisted of selected topics in six subjects taught in the primary schools and their relevant pedagogical skills. Detailed modules for each subject area were developed and presented for pilot testing in six districts of the Punjab, namely; Lahore, Kasur,

Faisalabad, Gujrat, Rajanpur and Rahim Yar Khan.291

Owing to the large number of PSTs to be incorporated in the in-service education and support programme, 35 districts of the Punjab were divided into three groups for training in three phases.292

Phase I Phase II Phase III

(12 Districts) (13 Districts) (10 Districts)

Kasur Jehlum Chakwal

Okara Lahore Sialkot

Attock Layyah Bhakkar

Gujrat Multan Jhang

Faisalabad Narowal Toba Tek Sing

Rajanpur Khushab Vehari

Mianwali Sahiwal Lodhran

Sargodha Rawalpindi Bahawalnagar

Sheikhupura Pak Pattan D.G. Khan

Muzaffargarh Gujranwala Hafizabad

Rahim Yar Khan Khanewal

Mandi Bahauddin Bahawalpur

Nankana Sahib

291 Ibid. 292 Ibid, p.14.

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The first phase training was scheduled from 4 September to 7 October 2006.

65 Lead Teacher Educators were selected from 12 districts mentioned above and trained at Directorate of Staff Development (DSD) with active support from City School - the private service provider. These 65 trained LTEs, in turn provided training to 513 DTE, who were earlier trained at DSD from December 2005 to January 2006. In addition, they conducted training at DTSCs of their respective districts during December 2006 and trained 891 DTEs. These 1404 trained DTEs were then assigned the task of training more than 60,000 PSTs at their respective Cluster Training and Support Centers

(CTSCs). In the second phase, 76 LTEs from 13 districts listed above, underwent training at the DSD in December 2006. These LTEs imparted training to DTEs during

January – February 2007 in their districts. In summer 2007, the third phase of the training was organized that covered ten districts as shown in the table above.

6.6.6 Assessment of the CPD Initiative: Results not up to Expectations

Continuous Professional Development (CDP) did not come up to the required standards, when assessed in 2007. The conduct of the training programmes was not as expected, for instance, trainees in courses displayed poor participation, low enthusiasm in discussions and critiques of peer performances. Time management was poor on the part of the participants as well as the mentors. A large number of the participants required individual help for the utilization of computer and library resource materials.

Some of the theoretical components included in the training modules needed more explanation.293

293 Final Report on Quality Assurance of Teacher Training Programme (2007), conducted by Directorate of Staff Development Lahore, Third Party Review and Assessment The World Bank, Islamabad, pp.15- 16.

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Interviews with the heads of the DTSCs and site visit reports indicated that though the heads of DTSCs had a basic know-how of the CPD, its concept and design, but they lacked clarity about the expected role of any DTSC that the centre had to play in the development of teaching skills among the teachers of the district. They had no clarity about the role of the officials of the District Education Department in the development of CPD activities and their implementation in their respective districts.

Most of them suggested an active participation of district educators like EDOs, DMOs and DTEs in the DSD planning team294.

The District Steering Committees, comprising EDO (Education), DMO, DTEs,

RPMS and representatives of the DSD, were also required to be involved more actively in ascertaining the needs of the district and designing/developing appropriate activities to align them within the parameters of CPD.295

At the district education department level, the Quality assurance team noted a strong feeling about the lack of harmony and close collaboration between DED and

DSD. There was a very strong perception that the CPD was an initiative of DSD and

DED had no or very little role in its design and delivery. It was also felt that EDOs and

DMOs were also lacking motivation and clear view about their professional role in improving the quality of the teachers in their districts. The DSD was required to motivate the officials of the DED, ensuring their meaningful participation in design, execution and enhancement of the CPD framework.296

The close cooperation and teamwork between DSD and DED was deemed vital for the successful implementation of the teacher training module under CPD framework.

294 Ibid, p.7. 295 Ibid. 296 Ibid. p.8.

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This collaboration was needed not only for the implementation of CPD activities developed by DSD, but in developing and continuously refining the strategies of development and professional growth. The EDOs, DEOs, DDEOs and AEOs, that is all leading staff of the DEDs, needed to participate in the planning and programming of

CPD activities at the District and Cluster levels for the whole-hearted implementation of the initiatives designed by DSD.297

A team assessing the impact of CPD training highlighted certain problems faced by the DTEs, trained in a previous phase. The DTEs who had already gone to the field to mentor/train PSTs, had concerns about the execution of CPD vis-à-vis logistics support and their future employment in the department. Some of the clusters, where they were to work, involved long distances, as long as 40 kilometers, and without providing them any transport, in no way one could expect them to reach the schools on regular basis.298

a. DTSC Heads not clear about CPD Program

In assessing the role of CPD training, a researcher found that heads of DTSCs in all the eight districts sending their teachers to the first batch, were not very clear about the role of DTSC within the district. They were also not clear about their own role and responsibility as the DTSC heads. They knew about their drawing and disbursement powers over Centres’ budget. They had only basic information about the CPD, and generally referred it as refresher / training courses. They had undergone some orientation activities regarding their role, but they were not clear what coordination between DTSC and CTSC meant for and how would it be done. Moreover, they lacked

297 Ibid. 298 Ibid, pp.21-22.

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clarity about the participation of the district education department in realization of the

CPD.

DTSCs and CTSCs had a vital role to in the successful implementation of the

CPD model and the heads of these centers were to be instrumental in the process. DTSC heads offered some useful suggestions / opinions about the CPD model:299

(1) LTEs and DTEs are at the same service level, they should have been at

different levels.

(2) EDO and DMO feel left out of the whole process and are disinterested; they

should be made part of the CPD planning framework for their respective

districts and be made responsible for effective implementation and

monitoring.

(3) It would be good to get fresh individuals from the market and train as DTEs

rather than those from within the system, who are used to working in a

certain way that may not be desirable for the CPD

(4) Duration of DTEs training should have been longer; CPD trainings are like a

pyramid, where LTEs get the longest training followed by DTEs followed by

teachers.

(5) Teachers are not motivated and will not change their practices even after the

training.

(6) Amount provided for stationery under the DTEs training is less and must be

increased on a per head basis.

299 Ibid, pp.22-23.

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Similar suggestions/views came from EDOs and DMOs of various districts:300

i. CPD, a provincial initiative conceptualized, designed and implemented by

the DSD and had no role for the district government to play.

ii. EDOs needed capacities to plan/manage and needed to be empowered

enough to face political pressure.

iii. EDOs and DMOs were not having the broader view of the entire canvas of

teacher education within their district/province.

iv. Role of DTSC head and TE were not clear on how to support DTEs’ work.

v. DMOs were just carrying out the physical check/ of the presence/attendance

of DTEs/PSTs.

vi. Education officials need a professional career ladder.

vii. LTEs should have liberty to go beyond the BFM and if required, should be

able to improvise.

viii. DTEs needed a lot of motivation and support to be successful.

b. District Teachers Educators(DTEs): Their Critique of CPD & BFM

Discussions held with a number of DTEs revealed some important points that are as follows:301

(1) Level of BFM for DTEs needed to be higher.

(2) BFM for PSTs is the same as DTEs, except that for class 5 where the math

portion was missing in PSTs BFM.

(3) Focus on Science and ICT was required to be more.

300 Ibid, p.23. 301 Ibid, pp.24-25.

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(4) DTEs needed constant professional support, at least 1-day each month.

(5) Trainees were not informed in time, hence, lower participation.

(6) Activity based teaching required a more focused approach in school and that

could not be done in schools with single teachers.

(7) A module on multi-grade teaching was required, as most PSTs were

subjected to multi-grade teaching.

c. Views of Cluster Training and Support Centre (CTSC) Heads on CPD

Discussion with CTSC heads highlighted certain important issues that are as follows:302 (1) CTSC heads were school heads but they had never undergone any heads’

training; expecting them to run CTSCs without any formal/structured training

was unrealistic.

(2) As reported by one CTSC head in Bahawalpur, CTSC heads were not provided

with BFMs, so it was not justified to expect them to act as leaders for a particular

cluster.

(3) EDOs were heavily occupied with their administrative tasks and, thus, were not

involved with CPD.

(4) CTSC/DTSC heads were having no mandate to coordinate their work with

district officials.

(5) DTSC heads were not mandated to monitor trainings.

(6) At the CTSC level, there was no arrangement for monitoring/assessing teachers’

performance.

302 Ibid, p.25.

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d. PSTs Observed after Training: Weaknesses of CPD

In assessing the impact of CPD in PSTs training, it was found that out of 18

PSTs observed, only one carried out some lesson planning on a diary on a weekly basis; the other 17 PSTs did not plan their lessons in advance, although majority of them had undergone in-service training, prior to the training under CPD. All of them denied any need for advance formal planning of their lessons that too on papers and all said that they had lesson plans in their minds.303

The very traditional approach in the method of teaching was observed; teachers were found reading from the textbook and sometime making children to read out aloud.

They were found writing things on the blackboards that were copied by the children on their notebooks. There was no activity that could engage the children and help enhance their involvement or learning levels. The children were found sitting in the classrooms in typical style (with or without furniture) and there was no group activity or work.

Mainly focus was on rote learning, the teacher was reading a lesson and his students were repeating the same behind aloud. No teaching or learning aids were provided in the classrooms. Mostly charts purchased from the market were displayed and no other aids were either present in the classrooms or seen in the school. Though, the heads of a few of schools claimed that they had teaching kits in their schools, but failed to produce when asked to share. No teacher guides or supplementary reading material were seen.304

303 Ibid, p.26. Even the weekly diary plans that Asmat showed, were very general in content and did not coincide with the methodology that she was exposed to in the six-day training she had received in August of 2007 under DSD; there were no objectives set aside for any lesson or anticipated outcome; student- centered methodologies; no activities to support lesson delivery. 304 Ibid.

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6.6.7 Change in the Process of Hiring Teachers: Its critique

In a bid to bring efficiency and transparency experiment started under the

PERSP brought in recruitment policy in 2003-04. The key change was the process of hiring teachers (termed educator hired on non-permanent basis) on temporary contract rather than employing as permanent staff of the School Education Department.

Educators were being hired on school specific and non-transferable contracts for a period of five years. The minimum educational qualification requirement was increased, and it was decided that educators would be given annual increments, basing on their performance assessment. The salary was linked with performance for contract teachers, otherwise, in the regular system, the salary increments were being determined centrally.

In addition, district governments were empowered to carry out recruitment in their respective districts. From 2003 to 2006, a total of 49,361 educators were recruited in the province. While the policy changes resulted in a significant increase in appointments, it was observed that not all districts were following the agreed procedure, and the system of recruitment was not standardized across Punjab.

The government of Punjab notified a fresh recruitment policy in August 2008 for the induction of educators to bring conformity in the process of recruitment. According to new policy, 34,054 educators were to be recruited in the province in 2008-09. As before, the educators were to be hired on school specific contracts. The posts to be hired against included Elementary School Educators (ESEs), Senior Elementary School

Educators (SESEs) and Senior School Educator (SSEs). In an attempt to make the process as transparent as possible, the policy was very specific about the marks to be awarded to candidates against criteria such as length of the experience and

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qualifications. The marks for interview were reduced to maximum five which significantly impacted the discretion hitherto fore exercised by the authorities/ recruitment committee.

6.7 Better Governance: Better Delivery

In order to improve governance and ensure better service delivery, measures to build the capacity of the educational managers, establish monitoring and evaluation mechanism and institute third party validation were undertaken as under:-

6.7.1 Capacity Building of Education Managers

In the long run, the responsibility for monitoring, evaluation, and other management functions lies with local government staff of the education sector. It was, therefore, essential to improve managerial capacity of the District / Tehsil / Markaz level staff, through provision of necessary support in the form of logistics and human resource development. Thus, Government of Punjab designed a capacity building project, amounting to Rs. 530.8 million for the local governments in 2007. According to this project, education managers of the district governments were to be provided with logistical (vehicles etc), technical (computers etc) and managerial (training in educational management) support to help enhance their performance.

The training of district educational managers was contracted to the Government

College University (FCU), which designed, developed and imparted the training. The training module consisted of three certifications according to the level of educational managers; (i) Advanced Certification for Executive District Officers and District

Education Officers (DEOs); (ii) Mid-level Certification for Deputy District Education

Officers (DDEOs), and (iii) Basic Certification for Assistant Education Officers

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(AEOs). A total of 1800 officers were trained under the program in the first phase, with refresher courses to continue in phase II. In addition to courses in managerial skills

(organization, leadership, standard practices and personal management etc.), the district educational managers were imparted training in Communication and Information

Technology skills and in administrative and financial planning, budgeting etc. By the end of 2010, 9 batches of BS-19 and BS-18 educational mangers had completed their managerial training. The training modules for DDEOs and AEOs were also to be put in place.

6.7.2 Monitoring and Evaluation

The School Education Department, Government of Punjab, has established a comprehensive monitoring system school. The key components of this system are (i) an annual school census, (ii) the School Management Information System (SMIS) and (iii) a monthly monitoring system. At the apex of Monitoring and Evaluation system is the

Program Monitoring and Implementation Unit (PMIU) of the Government of Punjab.

The PMIU was established to supervise the implementation/execution of the educational reforms. The unit works in collaboration with the School Education Department,

Government of Punjab and operates as the policy and implementation wing of the

School Education Department. The PMIU regulates the data collection at the department and district levels, which is a key task as regards the monitoring and evaluation.

6.7.3 Institutional Structure

The office of the District Monitoring Officer (DMO) is the lynchpin of the monitoring system of the Government of Punjab. The DMO is based in the district, but reports to the PMIU. The DMO, in turn, supervises a field staff – the M&E Assistants

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(MEAs). The MEAs undertake regular visits to the field and collect data on facilities.

The Chief Minister’s Monitoring Force is a province-based entity that is responsible for the recruitment of MEAs. The CMMF was primarily established and is mandated to monitor the development schemes, initiated in the Punjab. The MEAs are generally

Junior Commissioned Officers (JCOs), retired from the Army, Air Force or Navy. They are being hired on contract for three years. The DMOs evaluate their performance at the end of the contract period. At present, 929 MEAs are working in various districts of the

Punjab. The duty areas of the MEAs are rotated on monthly basis that guards against

MEAs developing personal connection with staff of a particular area and, thus, reduces the likelihood of any collusion.

Although MEAs are now being assigned to monitor and report the performance of facilities of other departments, school monitoring remains their prime responsibility.

The MEAs are required to fill out a two-page form for monthly monitoring. This form verifies for the status/condition of basic facilities, teacher attendance and enrolment besides other things. The MEAs also perform the duties of enumerators for the SMIS once a year.

The data collected by the MEAs for monitoring purpose is entered into a programme at the district level and subsequently sent on to the PMIU every month for record and analysis. The SMIS data received at PMIU is in raw form that is entered, cleaned through a series of checks by PMIU and collated.

6.7.4 Third Party Valuations (TPVs)

Punjab Government has institutionalized third party validation exercises in order to cross check across the two databases and triangulation of data. Several TPV exercises

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have been carried out under the aegis of the Punjab Education Sector Reform Program since 2005 for (i) testing the validity of data on enrolment, (ii) appraising the quality of civil works, (iii) assessing the supply of furniture being carried out under the program for up-gradation of missing facilities, (iii) verifying the receipt of stipends, (iv) monitoring provision of free textbooks and (v) evaluating the impact of teacher training.

PMIU has made available all TPV reports.

6.7.5 Governance for Better Delivery

The monthly monitoring data is being used for developing a composite index that assigns weightage to different indicators in the monitoring forms. This index is used to rank performance of any district. Teacher’s absenteeism is the variable that is assigned maximum weightage in composite index. It is calculated as a function of total sanctioned teachers’ posts, and teachers present in schools during MEAs visits. Other variables include student enrolment and attendance gaps, the systematic provision of free textbooks, school cleanliness, visits by district education department officials, etc.

The index for district performance is worked out every month at the district level. The composite index so prepared is presented by the DMO to the District Review

Committee, in the monthly meeting chaired by the DCO, and attended by the EDO

Education and NLC representative. The Committee reviews the progress of the month, and decides on issues indicated through the index. The index is also helpful for comparing the performance of various districts. It helps the PMIU in provision of feedback to district authorities/governments in required areas and consequently, helps improve the provision of educational services. However, teacher’s absenteeism is the repeatedly highlighted issue for all districts. The M&E system helps identify specific

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individuals, whose absent themselves, and both PMIU and DMOs, provide lists of such teachers to the district authorities / governments for necessary remedial action. In case of repeated offenders, dismissal from service is being effected. The second key use of the monitoring data is to identify schools with missing facilities. List of such schools with details of required funds for facilities are provided to the District Development

Committees (DDCs). The DDC meets quarterly to decide the allocation of funds for various development schemes in the districts. The DDC is chaired by the DCO and attended by EDO Education, EDO Finance & Planning, District Accounts Officer and a representative of NLC.

6.8 Making Basic Education Affordable

Access to basic education can be made affordable by (a) Provision of Free

Textbooks, (b) Incentives to Reduce Dropouts, and (c) Cost-Effective Provision of

Education. The details are discussed as under:-

6.8.1 Provision of Free Textbooks

Expenditure on education was judged to be one of the key causes of low enrolment and high dropout rates in the province, when the PERSP reforms were being debated. The Punjab government’s response was to allow for free provision of textbooks for all grades from Katchi (or nursery) to Grade 10. The Government’s performance has been as follows:-

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Table 5.2: Year-Wise Distribution of Text Books

Qty of Free Textbooks Total Cost Academic Year (Million) (Million) 2004-05 12 394 2005-06 21 743 2006-07 25 823 2007-08 30 910 2008-09 30.8 904 2009-10 33.5 1731 2010-11 35.5 1800 2011-12 40.08 2200 2012-13 40.2 2200 2013-14 38.5 3000 Source: Punjab Education Sector Reform Programme (PESRP) http://www.persp.edu.pk/pages/free-Textbooks Retrieved June 22, 2015 6.8.2 Incentives to Reduce Dropouts / Enhance Literacy Support towards Parents

As part of the effort to reduce cost of education and, thus, to reduce dropout rates, which tend to be the highest for girls, the Government of Punjab instituted a stipend program for girl students of elementary schools in October 2003. The program covered all girls in grade 6-10 in 15 low literacy districts. The stipend, consisted of Rs.

200 per month, was paid quarterly through the postal service, which ensured delivery of money orders in the name of the girls students to their homes. By 2010 some 400,000 girl students benefited from the scheme.

The stipend programme was judged to be one of the more successful initiatives of the Punjab Government education reform program. The gross enrolment ratio for girls in middle school increased from 43 percent to 53 percent over the three years from 2003 to 2006, and in absolute terms enrolment increased by over 60 percent.

In agreement with donors (particularly, the World Bank), the government has started experiments/pilot studies to see how supplemental stipends can affect transition from grades 5 to grade 6 and from grade 8 to grade 9. A pilot activity of the

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supplemental stipend pilot project (Phase-I) was started in 68 selected schools from

April, 2013 for disbursement increased stipend. The incentive package for supplemental stipend Phase-I programme was to increase the stipend from Rs. 600 to Rs. 900 for girls in grades 6-8, and Rs. 600 to Rs. 1200 for girls in grades 9-10. For Phase-I, 68 schools were selected by World Bank across six tehsils (Darya Khan, Kallur Kot, Mankera,

Kasur, Kotradha Kishan, and Chunian) in two stipend districts i.e. Bakkhar and

Kasur.305

During FY 2014-15, another project of Supplemental Stipends Pilot Project

Phase-II was started to:

a. Increase school transitions of girls from primary schools to middle

schools and from middle schools to secondary schools.

b. Increase retention in grades 6-10. SSPP-II has been implemented in 18

tehsils of 6 districts, namely DG Khan, KotChuta and Tunsa in DG Khan,

Chaubara, Karor Lalisan and Layyah in Layyah; Dunya Pur, Karor Pacca

and Lodhran in Lodharan; Alipur, Jatoi and Muzaffargarh in

Muzaffargarh; Khanpur, Rahimyar Khan and Sadiqabad in Rahimyar

Khan; and Jampur, Rajanpur and Rojhan in Rajanpur. Under SSPP-II,

659 rural government schools in around 3600 villages have been

categorized into three groups (“Treatment I -143 Schools”, ‘Treatment II

– 155 schools’ and ‘Control-361 schools’).

The following increased incentive packages were offered to beneficiary girls in grades 6-10 in each of these groups:

Treatment I:

305 File:///C:/User/admin/Desktop/PERSP.htm Retrieved June 22, 2015

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c. Girls in grades 6-8 would receive Rs. 900 per quarter based on 80%

attendance.

d. Girls in grades 9-10 would receive Rs. 1200 per quarter based on 80%

attendance.

Treatment II:

e. Girls in grades 6-8 would receive Rs. 900 per quarter based on 80%

attendance.

f. Girls in grade 9-10 would receive Rs. 2400 upon progression to this

grade based on 80% attendance in the first quarter of the school year + Rs

1200 per quarter based on 80% attendance.

Control: Girls in grades 6-10 would receive Rs. 600 per quarter based on 80% attendance. This was same benefit structure as in the original stipends programme. 306

6.8.3 Cost-Effective Provision of Education - Restructuring of the Punjab Education

The growth in the number of private sector educational institutions from the mid

1990s promoted a reconsideration of public-private partnerships (PPPs) for the education sector in Punjab, with the Bank of Punjab acknowledging that the two could complement each other, instead of operating as rivals. This realization promoted the establishment of the Punjab Education Foundation (PEF) in 1991. Initially the PEF was constituted as a public sector entity, whose Board of Directors and Managing Director appointed by the Government of Punjab. The key responsibility of PEF was to provide loans and grants to non-profit entities wanting to set up educational institutions. From

306 Ibid.

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1991 to 2004, PEF was working as a limited monetary establishment and had not succeeded in energizing private sector investment in education.

In 2004, the Government of Punjab introduced legislation to reappoint the PEF as an autonomous body, with eight of its fifteen directors consisting of persons associated with NGOs, research institutions or private sector entities working in the education sector. The Chairperson of the Board is appointed from among the non- official Board members, and the Managing Director is now appointed by the Board. The restructured PEF has been given the mandate of providing financial assistance to private schools catering to low income households, with the specific provision that 75 percent of its resources would be earmarked for the support of low-cost private schools in disadvantaged areas.

6.9 Textbook Reform

The Punjab Textbook Board (PTBB) is an autonomous institution whose

Controlling Authority is the Governor of the Province. The Board is entirely self- financed, but is responsible for ensuring that textbooks developed in the province broadly follow the approved guidelines of the Government of Punjab, and are developed in accordance with the curriculum.

The Federal Government issued a new textbook policy in 2007, which introduced the concept of public-private partnership in textbook development. The policy, which was followed in all provinces including Punjab, recommended that a well regulated, competitive system of textbook development and publication should be put in place. Accordingly, the PTBB moved from an in-house writing and production process,

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to one where contracts for textbook development and publication were awarded through a policy of open competition.

Under the new policy, the PTBB asks publishers to register their intent to develop and publish textbooks for particular subjects. The PTBB then invites all such applicants to submit manuscripts for review and approval. In 2009, the PTBB received

83 manuscripts covering a range of subjects. These manuscripts were vetted by the

Provincial Review Committee (PRC) for review of textbooks, which includes two subject specialists, two teachers currently teaching grades for which books are being reviewed, one representative of the PTBB and a representative of the Nazariya-e-

Pakistan Trust, a private body which aims to uphold the principles of the ideology of

Pakistan in public life. The process of vetting is currently ongoing. Manuscripts approved by the PRC were sent to the National Review Committee (NRC) for final review and approval.

Once textbooks have been approved, and prescribed for the province, the PTBB intends to institute a system of textbook evaluation, in which books are field-tested for conformity with a set of criteria, with teachers, education specialists and students providing input on functionality of the textbook. Thus, textbook development has come to be responsive to a broad range of stakeholders.

6.10 Equitable Provision of Missing Facilities

On the subject of equitable provision of missing facilities the government of

Punjab has experimented to refine the measures it should adopt for provision of missing facilities. Initially the Punjab government carried out a limited survey to assess the state of infrastructure in public schools in 2003. District education managers were asked to

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submit lists of schools where specific civil works were needed. A set of district profiles were then prepared on the basis of the survey. The survey assessed the condition of the schools building, whether the school had essential facilities like a toilet, drinking water, a boundary wall, electricity, furniture and an adequate number of classrooms. The survey estimated that, to begin with, 118, 275 schemes would have to be implemented across Punjab at an estimated cost of Rs. 14.9 billion.

After completion of the mapping survey, the Government of Punjab, on the basic of cost estimates in the district profiles and keeping in mind implementation capacity issues, decided to allocate Rs. 15 billion over a period of three years for the provision of missing facilities in schools. For the First year (2003-04), a total 37,679 schemes were implemented in building repairs, new buildings construction, provision of electricity, drinking water, toilets, boundary walls, furniture and additional classrooms.

However, in the second year of implementation of the PERSP (2004-05), the criterion for provision of funds for missing facilities was changed. Funds were allocated based on ‘needs assessment’ (which was given a weightage of 70 percent in the final score) and the past performance of district authorities in facilities provision (which had a weightage of 30 percent). The total number of schemes implemented fell to Rs. 17,628 in 2004-05. And total expenditure on missing facilities provision was recorded at RS.

4645.5 million. The provision of missing facilities in schools is essentially the responsibility of the district governments. To facilitate the work of local governments, the Government of Punjab signed agreements with the district governments, in which the Terms of Partnership (TOPs) were clearly specified. Thereafter, funds were transferred to district governments for execution of missing facilities schemes. The

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provision of missing facilities was undertaken by the Works and Services Department of the respective district government for the first two years.

In the Third year of implementation of the PERSP, 2005-06, the criterion for allocation of funds across districts was once again changed, with district needs being given a weightage of 60 percent and the district government’s past performance, a weightage of 40 percent. The Punjab Government decided to take up the provision of missing facilities under a whole school approach, according to which once a school is prioritized for provision of facilities, all missing infrastructure in the school would be provided in one go.

6.11 Effective Community Participation

The concept of adding an element of community participation in school management first came to prominence in 1994 during the implementation of the Social

Action Program (SAP), a large-scale public sector human development program that was conceived and implemented through the decade of the 1990s. School Management

Committees (SMCs) and School Repair Committees (SRCs) were constituted for all primary and elementary schools. First under the 1994 Social Action Programme, the

SMCs were given the mandate of motivating parents in their communities to enroll, and keep children in school; monitor teachers attendance; and participate in management of financial and administrative affairs of the school amongst other things. SMCs remained largely ineffective and were reconstituted in 1998.

They were reconstituted once more, and re-named School Councils (SCs). As implementation of PERSP commenced in 2003-04, the issue of making SCs effective was raised once again, with the contention that community participation was essential to

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bring about much needed governance reform in education management. The guidelines for SC constitution were reviewed, and some of the key changes decided on were that parents would have at least 50 percent representation on the councils, and that the council would be chaired by a parent; in addition it was decided that SCs would have the authority to spend up to Rs. 400,000 on school development, although this expenditure would be reviewed by the Education Department, and would be subject to the financial control of the same.

6.12 Capacity Building of School Councils

It was recognized that the ineffectiveness of the councils was in large part attributable to the lack of local capacity, and the lack of mentoring the SCs. To address these concerns, a pilot project called the School Council Capacity Building Project

(SCCBP) was initiated in six districts in 2006-06, with 400 schools participating from each district. The SCCBP was implemented with the help of two NGOs, the National

Rural Support Program (NRSP) and the Punjab Rural Support Program (PRSP); and two capacity building models were tested. In Model-A, which was followed in five districts, school management itself became the responsibility of the RSPs, in addition to capacity building of the councils. Thus, while the district government continued to disburse salaries to its employees in Model-A Pilot School, it authorized the RSP concerned to rationalize staff as per school needs in addition to other management activities. RSPs were also asked to make recommendations to the district governments with regard to transfers of school staff, as well as disciplinary action. In Model-B, which was only followed in Chakwal, the school management remained the responsibility of the district government, while capacity building of the SCs was undertaken by the RSP. The

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capacity building of SCs was to be undertaken with the objective of empowering SCs such that they would contribute to the achievement of key PERSP goals, including increasing enrolment and checking the dropout rate, in addition to facilitating the provision of key school infrastructure. An important activity in this regard was to be the development of School Based Action Plan (SBAPs), for each school was selected by the selected school by the respective SC.

The SCCBP proceeded with the conduct of 4 and later 3 day trainings for upto 4

SC members, who were briefed on importance, structure, roles and responsibilities of the SCs, conductions of SC meeting, preparation of SBAPs, record keeping, monitoring and evaluation and effective communication and networking, including consultative dispute resolution mechanisms. The Institute of Rural Management (IRM) and the

University of Education assisted the RSPs in the development of training programs.

About a year after the commencement of the project, SCs began to finalize

SBAPs, using expertise of RSP engineers to estimate the costs of civil works. According to the agreed procedure under the SCCBP, the SBAPs were to be scrutinized by the

DEO Education, the concerned RSP and PMIU of PERSP, and upon approval, funds for implementation of the SBAPs were to be transferred to the bank account of the respective SC according to approved local government procedures. Although the procedure was supposed to be simple, it soon became apparent that district education offices were not clear about the rules and procedures, and fund transfers were not regular or predictable. As a response to this issue, the Government of Punjab decided to issue a School Council Policy 2007.

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6.13 School Council Policy

The SC policy required all government schools to from a 7 to 15 member council, comprising parents, teachers and other members of the community, who would be responsible for ensuring teachers increasing enrolment, by motivating parents to send their children to school, conducting co-curricular activities, taking measures to safeguard teachers/students’ rights, providing support in the distribution of free textbooks and stipends in the school, and taking measures to protect school buildings.

The Council was required to hold meeting at least once a month, prepare a School

Development Plan for the use of funds, and maintain certain records.

In addition to details of the rule and responsibilities of the SCs, the policy specified procedural details for the selection of members, financial expenditures and the monitoring mechanism. The policy also specified that under the Terms of Partnership signed between the Government of Punjab and district governments, districts governments transfer funds directly from their accounts to the commercial bank accounts of the SCs. In a move to encourage councils to undertake necessary small-scale projects without fear of excessive security, the expenditure made by SCs was taken out of the purview of Punjab Financial Rules, thereby, barring audit of SC expenditure under the government rules.

The funds released to SCs took place in two phases, with release based on the review of the respective SBAPs prepared by the SCs. According to the NRSP’s records,

Phase I of the programme witnessed the release of approximately Rs. 288.75 million to

1641 schools, while in the Second Phase, Rs. 233.14 million were released to 1528 schools. The SCCBP pilot project matured in June 2008, but the RSPs have continued to

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remain engaged with the reorganized SCs through the community organization functioning in the selected districts. Under the next phase of the SCCBP, 17,060 school councils received training in the current year, while another 20,494 school councils would be trained in 2010-2011 and another 19,000 in 2011-2012.

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6.14 Evaluating learning

Two important institutions have been established for this purpose namely;

Punjab Examination Commission (PEC) and Punjab Education Assessment System

(PEAS). PEC holds terminal examinations for grades 5 and 8. For some time in the past such examinations had ceased to be public examinations and it was felt that the same had contributed to deterioration in the standard of elementary/basic education. Holding of public examination through PEC has restored confidence in the educational process, contributing to quality education. The PEAS is an innovation, whereby, Punjab can find out how its students perform at national level and in the world at large. In the 2008 report on PEAS assessment in Science subjects indicated that Conceptual Understanding skills, especially in the sub area ‘Continuity of Life’ in Life Sciences and ‘Matter and its

Properties’ in Chemical Science and Scientific Investigation skills like ‘Energy’ in

Physical Sciences were weak for Grade-8 students in Punjab. Conceptual Understanding

Skills, especially in the areas of ‘Electricity and Magnetism’ in Physical Sciences and

‘Living Things’ in Life Sciences appeared to be strong for Grade-8 students in Punjab.

The analysis of performance in Social Studies revealed that understanding and application skills of students in the area of Economics and History were weak at 8th grade in Punjab. Knowledge level skills in the area of Economics and Civics were found to be strong for students at grade 8 level in Punjab.307 Comparison of groups based on language spoken at home shows that students who speak Siraiki at home had the highest achievement in Science (514) and Social Studies (554). Students with Punjabi home language had the lowest performance in Science and Social Studies.

307 Provincial Assessment Report (2008). Punjab Education Assessment (PEAS). School Education Department, Government of the Punjab.

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6.15 Conclusion

By the beginning of the 21st century, renewed enthusiasm among policy-makers in the Punjab province for the education sector was reflected in more funds and serious efforts at teacher capacity building. Simultaneously, the donors gave more recognition, than hitherto, to the importance of the teacher in educational reforms. Among areas identified for donor funding, enhancing capacity/capability of teachers was listed at the top. A number of reforms were carried out under continuous professional development for capacity building of teacher. But there is further need to raise the status of teacher.

Pivotal position of the teacher was deemed necessary by the 1947-51 educational policy of educating the ‘whole man’. Pivotal role of teacher rather than establishment of SMCs, thus, seems to be the proper identification of the education policy problem. This theme is further treated in the next chapter.

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Chapter-7

Teacher: The Pivot of Basic Education Reform

7.1 The Place of Teacher

This chapter emphasizes that it is the most feasible to make teacher as the pivot of basic education reform. It is based on the assumption that the teacher enjoys high respect in Muslim culture. Although the present day materialist considerations have made a dent in that esteem, yet there exists sufficient basis for respect for the teacher. It can be enhanced through such measures as pay increase, Teacher Award, etc. At the top, there must be enhancement of his capacity/capability for which infrastructure is in place and is being increased.

Among Muslims, education was free and teachers were supported either by the rulers or private munificence. It was considered as an act of piety to endow a college or a school and the state also used to put up buildings and endowed them with revenue free land or gave them grants. The teachers were given either grants of land or stipends.

These were not given as salaries for work done or expected. The teacher or the scholar was maintained or supported so that he might devote himself to his academic pursuits without being burdened with the need of working for a livelihood. The scholar was relieved of financial worries simply because he was a scholar, what he did with his time was his own concern; to teach, preach or devote himself to scholarly work. Teachers were mostly religious men, though some were teachers of practical subjects and a few were even non-Muslims, but all of them kept up the traditions of high integrity and moral responsibility. All their pupils were not Muslims, yet their studies were not

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divorced from religion and if there were non-Muslims, every effort was made to instill a strong sense of morality and public decency into them.308

Some teachers were not only men of profound scholarship but also eminent sufis and admitted some of their pupils as novices for spiritual training as well. All this created an atmosphere of spiritual and religious sanctity in the entire educational process. The teacher was the pivot of the entire system. It was he who taught and decided what to teach and how. The teacher depended upon the quality of his scholarship and teaching for his reputation and demanded no pecuniary return for his services. Society felt so indebted to him that it realized that his services could not be adequately compensated. Indeed, the notion was that if the services rendered by parents to their children could not be evaluated in money, how could, it was argued, one pay for the services of the teachers? The teacher also did not expect any worldly recompense; his teaching was an act of worship. It was because of this that the Muslim tradition also looked upon the teacher with great respect.309

7.2 Role of the Teacher

Even in modern westernized system of education, people hold that no other personality can have an influence more profound than that of a teacher. Students are deeply affected by the teacher's love and affection, his character, his competence, and his moral commitment. A popular teacher becomes a model for his students. The students try to follow their teacher in his manners, costumes, etiquette, style of conversation and his get up. He is their ideal. He can lead them anywhere. During their

308 Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, Education in Pakistan: An Inquiry into objectives and achievements Ishtiaq Karachi: Ma’aref Ltd, (1975), pp.239-240. 309 Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, Education in Pakistan: An Inquiry into objectives and achievements Karachi: Ma’aref Ltd, (1975), p.240.

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early education, students tend to determine their aims in life and their future plans, in consultation with their teachers.310

A teacher should consider it his duty to educate and train his students and should feel responsible for it. He should feel that his students have been entrusted to him and he should avoid any breach of the trust the society has reposed in him. He should be a sociable person with his roots in the society. People take the teacher to be an ideal personality, as their well-wisher and a sincere friend who cares for their children. He would actively participate in the social activities in a positive way. He would know the art of teaching with a deep insight into child psychology. He would always deal with the students in a just manner. He would not lose his self-control on mistakes his students may commit, and instead he should respect their feelings and ego, and should try to understand and resolve their difficulties with grace, while keeping his cool. He would be able to smile in the face of bitter criticism on his opinions, and would not feel ashamed or humiliated to accept his mistakes wholeheartedly.

7.3 Teachers as Pivot of Reform in Education

The overemphasis on SMCs as major tools of education reform is not tenable.

The more feasible idea is that role of teacher is more pivotal. Indeed, two researchers from the platform of Sustainable Development Policy Institute311 conclude their study of

‘Critical Issues in Education Policy’ by saying: "In any case, the experience of PTAs, laudable as it is, and while successful in some places, has in general failed to work

310 Ibid. 311 The Sustainable Development Policy Institute is a Pakistan-based organization and claims to provide the global sustainable development community with representation from Pakistan as well as South Asia as a whole. Its vision is to be a center of excellence on sustainable development policy research, capacity development and advocacy.

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because of parents’ lack of interest."312

However, parents' lack of interest needs to be analysed in the proper context, particularly in the context of problem identification in public policy-making. Parents, it seems, were assigned haphazard functions as members of school management committees. This is borne out by frequent changes in functions assigned to SMCs. For example, the 1994 circular establishing SMCs in schools assigned 13 functions to

SMCs, one of which was "Managing all the affairs of school". Another function was

"Supervision of the teachers that they are imparting classroom instruction properly."313

Given the level of literacy in the country, performance of these two functions is inconceivable with regard to large rural populace; it is difficult and practically out of place even in the case of educated city-dwellers as well. Instead of blaming parents for lack of interest and, thereby SMCs, the blame can more appropriately be put on policy- makers/ planners,314 who failed to analyse and identify the problem appropriately.315

When categorized, the roles of SMC particularly those given in the 1994 circular, encompass performing such functions as personnel and financial management, professional development of teachers and monitoring and evaluation. These are functions of the administrative and supervisory staff of District Education Department, which require specialized skills and adequate logistical support. These functions are not only beyond capacity and competency on SMCs, but also tend to overlap with the

312 A.H. Nayyar and Ahmad Salim (1992). A Citizens' Review of the National Education Policy 1988- 2010: Critical Issues in Education Policy Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI). p.40. 313 Government of The Punjab, Education Department, notification Number No. SO (SAP) 2-2/94, Constitution of Committees to Implement SAPP dated 26th Sept, 1994 314 Ibid. 315 A.H. Nayyar and Ahmad Salim (1992) A Citizens' Review of the National Education Policy 1988- 2010: Critical Issues in Education Policy, Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI). p.40.

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assigned duties of the officials of Education Department.316

Bareach is of the view that founding of SMC in the Punjab was not informed by empirical research on the problems affecting functioning of schools, history and mode of parent-teacher interaction, and appropriateness of such regulations as provided in the

Punjab Governments notification regarding SMCs. Inordinate delays in the financial support meted out to the SMC scheme in the education sector reforms had further eclipsed their relevance for playing effective role in improving functioning of schooling system.317 For example, Bareach notes that “as informed by focus group discussions and interviews with the officials, these functions may have the tendency to pre-dispose SMC working to misplaced demands and influences.” There was also an incongruity between the objectives specified in the notification and framing of procedures for achieving those objectives. Certain functions relating to monitoring and supervision of teachers had been specified for the SMCs in the notifications but amendments in rules had not been affected to delegate corresponding authority for carrying out those functions. These notifications only resulted in establishing a rudimentary participative structure of SMCs.

No wonder that, in the author’s view, the structural shortcomings had rendered SMCs as an ancillary of the official paraphernalia, community engagement being “reduced to a manipulative and passive participation.”318

When USAID started its Education Sector Reform Assistance (ESRA) for

Pakistan and eventually for provinces, the ESRA interventions for the strengthening of

SMCs designed a model to make things simpler and more empowering for SMCs. The

316 M. Dawood Bareach (2006). A Study on School Management Committee. p.4. 317 Ibid. p.6. 318 Ibid.

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model contained following characteristics:319

a. Proper community mobilization at the village/school level for identification of

willing/activist members.

b. Hands on training for the SMCs leading to the provision of missing basic

facilities in the schools.

c. Simple and transparent procedures of grants transfer to the SMCs and easily

verifiable system of documentation.

d. Linking SMCs with the Education Department and the District Government

through planning for school improvement grants.320

In elaborating the first point, Barech says that “proper community mobilisation at the village/school level” is very important. Indeed, this has been emphasized by many scholars studying the establishment and functioning of SMCs in Pakistan. For example, writing about SCs in Pakistan, Nasira Habib says that SMCs exist in their form but their essence is lacking. In her view, it is easier to erect the skeletons through a decree, but to infuse the spirit requires tireless efforts. She holds that the lack of people’s participation in the school councils warrants a serious analysis of the factors behind and also how to create such conditions that encourage and inspire people to come forward and contribute. “Their disinterest”, she says, “cannot be attributed to their lack of education or backwardness; it is also an outcome of their frustration of the way state machinery functions and the negligible socio-economic gains it yields for their children and the

319 Ibid, pp.6-7. 320 Ibid.

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households.”321

Community mobilization is, indeed, a serious business and requires a painstaking process. The sheer distrust of the people on the state machinery, in Habib’s view “makes the job of mobilization even more daunting. Social change cannot be brought about just by issuing notifications and producing documents of their existence.”322

Habib’s advice in 2010 was that the Department of Education:323

“needed to learn lessons from the failures it has generated continuously over the decades. Unless there is a home grown recipe for mobilization for social change and development no internationally introduced initiative can produce real players at the grassroots level.”

She concludes, “There is no denying that at the moment the Education

Department has neither the vision, nor the belief, nor have the capacities to achieve the objectives behind the formation of the SCs.”324 Partly, this was so because the idea of school councils did not emerge from the recommendations of the local education bureaucracy.325

In the case of Pakistan, teachers traditionally enjoy social respect. During early conferences on education, it was recognized that the teachers occupy a pivotal position in the educational system whose success or failure depends upon their quality and quantity. However, necessary good buildings and equipment might be, a school could only be an effective and live institution if its teachers are men and women of high intellectual caliber and sound moral character and were endowed with sympathy, insight

321 Nasira Habib (2010). Understanding the Role of School Councils (Situation Analysis of School Councils in Five Districts of Punjab).Lahore: Khoj – Society for People’s Education in Partnership with Actionaid,pp.29-30. 322Ibid. p.30. 323 Ibid. 324 Ibid. p.30. 325 A study on School Management Committee (2006) by M. Dawood Bareach, p.4

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and enthusiasm. Teaching was regarded more than an occupation; it was a vocation calling for a deep sense of personal responsibility.326

The early policy-makers appreciated that in the past the teacher commanded considerable respect and prestige; he was an honoured and influential member of society. Owing to a variety of causes mainly economic and social, the teacher came to find himself relegated off by what could be termed “superior services”. Such services carried prestige and money value.327

Owing to the rapid advances made in recent years in psychology and sociology, teaching has become a highly specialized subject with its own methodology. In a seminar organized by UNESCO at Ashbridge (England) in 1948, there was agreement among experts from 22 countries that some of the methods used in teacher training were defective. This was especially the case with teaching about child growth and development which, it was agreed, was “inert rather than functional”. Participation by prospective teachers in the activities of children rather than a mere textbook acquaintance with facts about child development was stressed.328

The Advisory Board on Education held that it was universally recognized that the teacher is the most important single factor in the educative process. More than anything else the quality of the teacher must be raised for an all-round improvement of the educational system. It could even be said that if a steady stream of adequately qualified and properly trained teachers was ensured, nothing more needed be done to

326 Proceedings of the Educational Conference held in Karachi on the 4th and 5th December 1951, p.383. 327 Ibid. 328 Ibid.

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revise educational system or to raise the standard of education or to bring it into line with modern educational practices.329

In discussing the teacher motivation, the 1979 educational policy document emphasized: “Teacher is pivot of the entire educational system.”330 The educational policy of 1998 spoke of the importance of the teacher. But the policy was criticized for verbosity and no substance. In the words of the critic “while the authors of the new draft have been able to put a lot of brick and mortar into the new scaffolding, the new structure is still shaky and unlikely to sustain shocks which have often reduced education to a shambles in the past. More importantly, the Policy has a body without a soul. Missing from it is the role of the teacher and concern for his/her welfare. There is, to be fair, some glib talk about the status of the teacher.” There was great need to enhance the status/prestige of primary school teachers in the society to promote their confidence and motivational level.331

In Pakistan, nearly 300 institutions in public and private sectors offer a variety of teachers’ education programmes ranging from certificate courses to PhD in education.332

This is quite impressive development. However, the system of teacher education suffered from stagnation. A closer look at the cross-cutting challenges in teacher education suggests that the field has mainly suffered in terms of ‘quality’ and

329 Advisory Board of Pakistan, p.41 (Appendix VII). 330 Proceeding of the Educational Conference National Education Policy and Implementation Programme 1979. P.97 331 Muhammad Nasim, (2001). Pakistan: Dilemmas of Destiny: Dilemmas and Global Challenges (Lahore: Vanguard) p.150. 332 USAID & UNESCO (2009). Directory of Teacher Education Institutions in Pakistan. USAID (2004). Pakistan teacher education and professional development programme (PTEPDP): Performance gap analysis and training needs assessment of teacher training institutes.

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‘relevance’.333 Various national surveys, studies and reports cite a range of problems that affected teacher performance and quality.334 Teachers’ education in Pakistan tends to over emphasize the structural and organizational issues, and there is a tendency to overlook the philosophical, conceptual and pedagogical underpinnings to teacher education practices. The Pakistani perspective on teachers’ learning and development stress upon the technical aspect of teaching profession, which involve subject knowledge and a fixed set of skills required to transfer that knowledge to students.

Teachers’ leaning in other critical domains such as personal, social and ethical, immensely emphasized in the international literature, receive little or no attention in

Pakistani context.335 Over several decades there is no evidence of serious effort by any government to address some of the critical questions concerning the relevance of the teacher education to improvement in the quality of education in schools.336

An important complaint with training system is that the teacher education in

Pakistan appears to be heavily influenced by the theories and assumptions that underpin the traditional transmission paradigm of teacher education and development, which regards teaching as an individually centered, culturally and socially neutral kind of activity aiming at the transmission of knowledge. Such situation is also termed

“technical” training or paradigm. The "technical paradigm” implies that the process of becoming a teacher is simply learning to teach. This view considers teaching as a

333 Takbir Ali (2011). “Understanding how Practices of Teacher Education in Pakistan Compare with the Popular Theories and Narrative of Reforms of Teacher Education in International Context”, International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol.1, No. 8, pp.208-209. 334 Butt, M.H and Shams, F. (2007). Final Report on Quality Assurance of Teacher Training Programs: Directorate of Staff Development & Punjab, World Bank & UNESCO, Islamabad. 335 Ali op.cit. 336 USAID op.cit. p.212.

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technical activity, and the role of the teacher as a technician is to equip himself or herself with the necessary knowledge and skills required by the teaching task.337

The emerging paradigms within teacher education and professional development such as - reflective practice and - inquiry- lifelong learning, view the teacher as an active agent in his or her own development.338 They are seemed to aim at developing inquiry attitude as well as practical skills in teachers. A teacher is expected to be aware of the origins and the consequences of his or her own decisions, actions, behaviours and the realities that might constraint such actions.

The growing body of research on teacher change and development, therefore suggest, that problems that complicate teacher’s work in the classroom do not exist in isolation; they are intricately interlinked. Teachers’ life and work are influenced by the choices and constraints of the larger society.339 This, inevitably requires diversifying teachers’ role in change by extending teachers’ work beyond the school into homes, communities and workplaces.

Takbir Ali attempts to understand how practices of teacher education in Pakistan compare with theories and narrative of system of teacher education in the international context. With regard to situation in Pakistan he discusses two important points. First relates to the contents of the training and second to the manner in which donor funded teacher training carried out. Regarding content, Takbir Ali comes to the conclusion that teachers’ education programmes in Pakistan need to focus on transforming teachers and teacher educators as ‘moral agents’, ‘constructivist pedagogues’ and ‘reflective practitioners’. This is how teachers’ learning from training programmes could get

337 Ibid. 338 Ibid, p.213. 339 Ibid

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translated into behaviours and actions in the classroom.340 This can be achieved by developing a comprehensive framework to be used as a national reference resource to seek guidance, direction and vision toward improving all problematic facets of teacher education system.341 Policies and subsequent Action Plans or Five Year Plans, while setting targets for reform in teacher education system should avoid a ‘wish list’ approach. They should provide a comprehensive policy framework with clearly defined, doable targets, set realistic timeline and specify concrete outcomes with clear identification of actions or strategies, required human and material resources, monitoring and evaluation procedures, accountability mechanism.342

There are criticisms of donor funded programmes as well. Most of them have focused on in-service teacher professional development as an approach to institutional capacity building. The donor funded projects have variously contributed to teacher education in Pakistan in general, female and rural teachers in particular.343 Despite proliferation of in-service training programmes through donor funded projects, there is an obvious lack of studies, particularly policy relevant studies, to determine the long term impact of donor funded projects on the quality of services contributing to teacher education. Critical overview of the existing literature suggests that most of the donor funded projects seem to have emphasized achieving quantitative targets rather than focusing on qualitative change in the services of teachers education.344

340 Takbir Ali (2011). “Understanding how Practices of Teacher Education in Pakistan Compare with the Popular Theories and Narrative of Reforms of Teacher Education in International Context”, International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol.1, No. 8, pp.217. 341 Ibid. 342 Ibid. 343 Ibid, p.211. 344 Ibid.

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A problem that these donor funded projects or programmes pose, is the length and the frequency of the trainings that they provide to the teachers and head teachers.

Research points at the ineffectiveness of one-shot workshops. However, it seems that the donor funded projects do not keep this in mind, when providing trainings, there does not seem to be a viable mechanism for institutionalization of programmes or innovation in teachers‘ in-service education. Recognizing this, the National Education Policy 2009 underscores the need for creation of a system for donor harmonization and improved coordination between development partners and government agencies.345 Search of solution to problems of content regarding teacher training is the most important task. In the case of Pakistan, it is not that uphill task. This is so because recommendations for teacher training made in the conferences on education in 1947, 1948 and 1951 could furnish very sound foundations for the purpose.

In the 1947 Conference on Pakistan’s education, it was resolved that the country’s education system should be based on Islam, particularly emphasizing brotherhood of mankind, peace, justice and tolerance. In this connection the first

Minister of Education affirmed the vital role which teachers had to play in making education a dynamic reality. In his view, scheme of educational re-organization could not be a success unless, in the first instance, it accorded to the teacher the status and prestige, which were his due. In the final analysis, it was the teacher who had to instill into the minds of the students the meaning and significance of the basic Islamic concepts on which the educational system was to be based. The Minister hoped that the recommendations made by the Advisory Board on Education would help to improve the

345 Ibid.

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quality of the teacher who would, thereby, be equipped with the necessary breadth of outlook and missionary zeal for his important task.

The Advisory Board, in its meeting in 1948, further held that a school must revolve around the personality of the teacher. It was essential to re-organize the training colleges with a view to creating a new type of teacher, who was qualified to inspire the school with the ideology of the country both by precept and example and also changing the hitherto colonialist contents and form of the schools. The Board recommended the

Central Government to set-up a model Teachers’ Training Institution. This institution was to have three faculties.

a. Faculty of Research in Education was to provide facilities for experiments and

research on all aspects of education, including psychological and sociological

problems connected with education.

b. Faculty of Training was to provide for three things:

(1) Regular courses in the training of teachers for all grades of educational

institutions, i.e. the pre-primary schools, including nursery and

kindergarten classes, primary schools, the middle, the high schools, etc.

The pr-primary schools were to be staffed with women teachers only.

(2) Training of lecturers and teachers for training colleges and schools.

(3) Training of educational administrators.

c. Faculty of Physical Education was to provide sound training for physical

instructors for schools and colleges.

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The proposed Teacher Training Institution was to be supplemented by the establishment of an Institute of Psychology with three main spheres of activity, namely Education,

Administration, and Industry. In the field of Education, the Institute was to devise tests of general intelligence and educational attainments.

The ideal of training ‘new type’ of teacher was not worked upon in letter and spirit. The country suffered owning to such lapse. The 21st century has seen renewed efforts at education sector reforms, the pivotal place of the teacher in such reforms and emphasis on teacher education and training. In 2002, Punjab Government established a separate University of Education with emphasis on Pre-service education for teachers.

Under Punjab Education Sector Reforms Program (PESRP), the Punjab Government’s

Directorate of Staff Development (DSD) became very active, launching its Continuous

Professional Development (CPD) program for teachers’ training. During the last decade or so, the University of Education (along with its campuses outside Lahore) and the

CPD set-up, have delivered pre-service and in serving training to thousands of teachers in the Punjab.

However, such training is criticized on the ground that it mainly follows the

“technical paradigm”. That is, it takes the role of teacher as a technician, whereby, the process of becoming a teacher simply involves equipping a person with the necessary knowledge and skills required by the teaching task. It is emphasized that globally teachers are being educated and trained for such roles as innovators, leaders, social reformers, emancipators, moral agents and catalyst for educational change and social justice.

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The emphasis on the teacher’s training as agent of change is linked with penetration of globalist ideas into education. Values asserted by globalizing process are contained in such of UN documents as Declaration of Universal Human Rights (1948) and Social and Economic Rights (1976) and other similar documents. Collectively, they contain emphasis on human rights, democracy, rule of law, rights of woman and child, poverty reduction, social justice, right to education and information, etc.

All such values seem to be universal, but they originate from a culture in which existence of a Creator is, at best, a bracketed one, i.e. the usual attitude that God does not exist, with some thought that he might exist. So, such values have a materialistic stamp and are out of step with the indigenous culture. In contradistinction, Pakistan can claim a culture based on faith in a Creator of the world with humankind and non-human inhabiting it. Pakistan possesses a philosopher, who dreamt of Pakistan as a separate country for Muslims of Sub-Continent and whose basis he had laid in his prose and poetical works, principally in the Asrar-i-Khudi (Secrets of the Self) 1915, Rumuz-i-

Bekhudi (Secrets of Selflessness) 1918 and Reconstruction of Religious Thought in

Islam 1932/34

The first book dealt with values and potential of the individual and the second one with reconciling the same with values and ethos of the community, concluding that a flourishing community was based on what he called “concentrated Individuals.” The third book is in prose in the English language in which Iqbal establishes the existence of

Allah SWT and then derives mankind’s social relations based on idea of Tauheed (Unity of God).The argument of basing the teacher’s education and training on indigenous sources is feasible on at least two counts. Firstly, teacher’s life and work are socially

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constructed and powerfully influenced by the values and constraints of the larger society. There is need for in-depth understanding of the socio-cultural philosophy that shapes the nation’s teachers education system, within which teachers learn, develop and work.

Secondly, Iqbal himself reasons that in his work, his aim was to discover a universal social reconstruction. In such endeavor, he found it philosophically impossible to ignore a social system (i.e. Islam) which came to exist with the express object of doing away with all the distinctions of caste, rank and race. While keeping a watchful eye on the affairs of this world, the Islamic system fostered a spirit of unworldliness so absolutely essential to man in his relations with his neighbors. In Iqbal’s view, this was what Europe lacked and this was what she could still learn from Islam. Ideas of Iqbal can become the sound foundation for teacher s’training in Pakistan.

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Conclusion and Recommendations

Policy formulation for education in Pakistan started early with the creation of the country. A conference was held on the subject from November 27 to December 1 in

1947. According to proceedings of the Conference, a large number of educationists and other experienced persons took part in the conference. Several resolutions to achieve high literacy, technical education, scholarships for the needy, etc; were passed. The

Conference emphasized that education system should cater to spiritual / moral and physical/material aspects of man’s life.

However, owing to problems of security and budgetary constraints, the post 1951 political leadership let itself to be drawn into the bi-polar contest between the Western capitalist world and the Russia led communist countries. In alliance with the capitalist world, Five-Year Plans in Pakistan put emphasis on education for human resource development. Even such emphasis was not followed consistently, because in any event of financial constraints education bore the brunt; the sector always spent lot less than budgetary allocations.

According to World Bank/UNDP’s Development Reports during 1990s,

Pakistan’s expenditure on education was highly incommensurate to its level of economic development; around 2% of its GDP as opposed to that of India’s around 4%, Iran’s around 5.5% and Sri Lanka’s around 3.5% of GDP.

The government launched what it called Social Action Program during 1994-98.

The Program was aided by international lenders. It was during this program that establishment of School Management Committees (SMCs) was made a condition for funding in the education sector. The Punjab province, through a notification, ordered the

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establishment of SMCs in all public sector schools. The funders have stuck to this condition ever since and in later credit approvals, have generously provided for SMCs to take root.

This study argues that the overemphasis on SMCs as a panacea for education reform tends to overlook the importance of problem identification in public policymaking. Problem identification in policy-making is quite problematic. Indeed, in the case of reforms regarding undesirable indicators in education in the Punjab, establishment of SMCs is not enough. In the case of education in Pakistan, and thereby in Punjab, there has been displacement of vision and absence of political support and by

1990s the two factors were responsible for the undesirable indictors in the education sector.

Political will that began to re-emerge by 1999 became more fully operational with the slogan ‘Parrha Likha Punjab’ ‘Educated Punjab’. During the implementation of

Punjab Education Sector Reform Program (PESRP), first emphasis was put on enhancing capacity/capability of teacher. This means that by the end of PESRP, a clearer understanding of problems in the education sector was emerging. Owing to donors’ priorities, interest in SCs has not lessened but at the same time, pivotal importance of teachers had come to be recognized. This, indeed, is important.

Recommendations

The Punjab Government claims to have taken a number of measures that include enhancing capacity/capability of teacher; better governance; making basic education affordable; textbook reform; equitious provision of such facilities; effective community participation, and evaluation of learning. In their efforts at reform the government has

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come around to recognizing the importance of the teacher. They claim to have and, actually, have taken steps in enhancing capacity/capability of teachers. A major further recommendation is to revisit the views and recommendations preferred in the educational conferences during the years 1947, 1948 and 1951. These conferences articulated a vision of education of the whole-man, a vision that would cater to both material and spiritual aspects of human life. That is more philosophically and elaborately stated in the teachings of Allama Iqbal. His views need to be disseminated and made basis of national system of education in Pakistan. Based on respect for the teacher in the culture of the country, the study supports measures to restore the place of the teacher, who would also promote the idea of SMCs which, at present, needs cultivation and nourishment.

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