This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 66—1772 ECKER, Louis Gene, 1933- THE STATUS AND PROJECTION OF A TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM IN POWER TECHNOLOGY.

The Ohio State University, Fh.D., 1965 Education, teacher training

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan THE STATUS AMD PROJECTION OP A TEACHER EDUCATION

PROGRAM IN PONER TECHNOLOGY

DISSERTATION Presented In Partial Fulfillm ent of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy In the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By Louis Gene Eeker, B.S., M.A.

******

The Ohio State University 1965

Approved by

A d v ise r Department of Education ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The researcher would like to take this opportunity to express his sincere appreciation to the many people who have made a significant contribution to his total educational experience, to those who extended wise counsel and encourage­ ment, and to those who provided guidance and personal support during the entire period of his doctoral study.

The opinions of several hundred people have been reported in this study. The contributions of those who participated either knowingly or unknowingly are greatly appreciated. It is the hope of the investigator that the contents of this report w ill provide a basis from which con­ tinued re-evaluation of the power phase of the industrial arts teacher education curriculum can evolve.

To Dr. Robert W. Haws, who has served as the major adviser during the period of doctoral preparation, the w riter would like to express his most sincere thanks and appreciation for the wise counsel and personal concern which has been shown. Also, a heart felt "thanks” is extended to other members of the faculty who served as advisers, namely,

Drs. Robert M. Reese, Andrew H. Hendrickson, and Earl W.

A n d e rso n .

ii The three years of service as a casual member of the

industrial arts staff in the Department of Education at The

Ohio State University have proven to be most stim ulating and

rewarding. This opportunity to serve in a joint capacity with other members of the faculty and staff has indeed been

very beneficial.

Finally, words cannot express my sincere gratitude

and appreciation to my wife, Sue, for the numerous sacri­

fices which she has made throughout this endeavor. To her is pledged the assurance that a "normal'1 family life w ill

once again prevail.

iii VITA

October 10, 1933 Born - Culvern, Indiana

1953 . . • Instructor in U.S. Army Carpentry School at Ft. Ieonard Wood, Missouri

1958 B.S., Ball State University, Muncie, In d ia n a

1958-59 . Graduate Assistant, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana

1959 . . . M.A., Ball State University, Muncie, In d ia n a

1959-62 . Instructor In Garden City and Livonia, M ic h ig a n

1962-65 . Assistant Instructor, Department of Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Industrial Arts Education, Professor Robert W. Haws

Minor Fields: Adult Education, Professor Andrew H. Hendrickson

High Education, Professor Earl W. Anderson

Trade and Industrial Education, Professor R o b e rt M. R eese

Iv CONTENTS

C h a p te r Page

I. NATURE OP THE DISSERTATION...... 1

An Overview ...... 1 Background. Inform ation ...... 4 D evelopm ent o f th e Problem ...... 7 Design of the Study ...... 19 Significance of the S tu d y ...... 24

II. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...... 26 A Review of Research Studies ...... 26 Related Literature ...... 41 T ex tbooks ...... 60 State Curriculum Guides ...... 65 Derivation of the Curriculum ...... V> Derivation of the Course Content ...... 89 Philosophical Postitions Regarding Curriculum Development ...... 95 A National C urriculum ...... 99 General Objectives of the Program ...... 101 A Program for the Future ...... 106 Summary ...... 109 I I I . THE STATUS OF THE POWER MECHANICS PROGRAM . . . 114

The Preliminary Survey ...... 115 Background of Respondents and Institutions . . 116 Industrial Work Experience ...... 126 D efinition of Power Mechanics ...... 128 General Objectives of Industrial Arts .... 131 Formal Course T itles ...... 133 Textbooks and References ...... 137 M ajor I n s t r u c t i o n a l U n its ...... 141 Laboratory A ctivities ...... 147 Derivation of Course Content ...... 152 A National Curriculum ...... 159 Bases for Content Organization ...... 161 Teaching Techniques and Procedures ...... 164 Interdisciplinary Relationships ...... 164 State Curriculum Guides ...... 169 State Certification Regulations ...... 170 S u m m a r y ...... 176

V CONTENTS (Contd.) Chapter Page

IV . A PROPOSED PROGRAM IN POWER TECHNOLOGY...... 182

Power T ech n o lo g y D e f i n e d ...... 182 An Educational Philosophy ...... 185 Course Objectives ...... 188 A Proposed Program ...... 189 The Identification*::of P rinciples ...... 214 The Implementation of Research and Experimentation Experience ...... 220 Curriculum Im plications ...... 223 Social and Economic Implications ...... 227 Summary ...... 235

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .... 238

S u m m a r y ...... 238 Conclusions ...... 241 Recommendations ...... 251

APPENDIXES ~

A. PRELIMINARY SURVEY L E T T E R ...... 256 B. RETURN POSTAL CARD SENT WITH PRELIMINARY SURVEY LETTER ...... 258 C . INITIAL AND FOLLOW-UP LETTER ATTACHED TO QUESTIONNAIRE...... 260 D. SURVEY IBSTRUMENT ...... 263 E . MEMBERS OF THE JURY OF EXPERTS...... 271 F . PARTICIPANTS AND FREQUENCY OF RESPONSE...... 273 G. LEVEL OF PROBABILITY BETWEEN OBSERVED AND EXPECTED FREQUENCIES ON OPINION QUESTIONS . . 2 8 l

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY...... » ...... 286

vi TABLES Table Page

1. Philosophical Positions Affecting Curriculum Development ...... 9

2. Change from Muscular to Mechanical Power in the United States—-1880 to i 9 6 0...... 49 3. A Comparison of the Traditional and Progressive P r o g r a m s ...... 96 4. Results of the Preliminary Survey ...... 115

5. Professorial Rank of Research Participants . . . 117 6. Years of College or University Teaching E x p e r i e n c e ...... 118

7. Regularly Scheduled Class Contact Teaching Hours Per W eek ...... 119 8. Per Cent of Yearly Teaching Load in Power M e c h a n i c s ...... 120

9. Tenure of Program Offering in Power Mechanics . . 121

10. Per Cent of Regularly Scheduled Teaching Time Devoted to Formal Instruction ...... 123

11. Number of Quarter Hours of Undergraduate and Graduate Credits Completed in Power Mechanics . 124

12. Frequency, Length, and Evaluation of Manufactur­ ing Schools Attended by Respondents ...... 125

13. D esirability of Industrial Work Experience in the Preparation of Power Mechanics Teachers . . 127

14. Power Mechanics Defined ...... 128

15. Clarification of Term inology ...... 129 16. Need for Program Change—Traditional Toward Progressive ...... 130 vii TABLES (Contd.) Table Page

17. Degree of Emphasis Placed on General Objectives of Industrial Arts Education Ranked In Order o f Im p o rta n ce ...... 132

18. Number, Frequency and Percentage of Courses Pertaining to Instruction in Power Mechanics . 134

19. Quarter Hours of Credit Provided in Power M e c h a n ic s ...... 135

20. Formal Course Titles Containing the Terms Power, Power Mechanics, and/or Transportation Ranked in Order of Frequency ...... 136

21. General Textbooks and Reference M aterials Used In Power Mechanics Classes by Author and Title Ranked In Order of Frequency ...... 137

22. Specialized Textbooks Used in Courses Entitled Power, Power Mechanics or Power and Trans­ portation by Author, Title, and Frequency . . . 139 j 23. Major Instructional Units Included in the Power Mechanics Program Ranked in Order of I m p o r t a n c e ...... 142

24. Degree of Emphasis Placed on Selected Major Instructional Units Ranked in Order of Mean S c o r e ...... 144

2 5 . Fluid Power as an Instructional Unit in Power M e c h a n ic s ...... 147

26. Major Instructional Units Requiring Student Envoivement in Laboratory A ctivity Ranked in Order of Frequency ...... 148

27. Degree of Emphasis Placed on Selected Laboratory Experiences Ranked in Order of Mean Score . . . 150

28. Adaptability of Content to Laboratory Situation as a Criteria for Content Selection ...... 151

viii TABLES (Contd.)

T able Page

2 9 . Adaptability of Specific Instructional Units to Meaningful Laboratory Experiences ...... 152

3 0 . Desirable Behavior Change as a Basis for Content Derivation ...... 153 3 1 . Analysis Technique as a Basis for Determining Course Content ...... 155 32. Socioeconomic Analysis of Technology Versus Job or Trade Analysis as a Basis for Content D e r i v a t i o n ...... 156

3 3 . An Analysis of Life*s A ctivities as a Basis for Content Derivation ...... 157 34. Interest Basis for Content Selection ...... 158

3 5 . National Standards for Course Content ...... 159

3 6 . National Standards for Course Content in Power M echanics ...... 161

3 7 . Degree of Reliance Placed on Various Bases for Content Organization Ranked in Order of Importance ...... 162

38. Organization of Content by Operational Systems 163

3 9 . Degree of Emphasis Placed on Selected Teaching Techniques and Procedures Ranked in Order o f Im p o rta n ce ...... 165 40. Relationship of the Physical and Mathematical Sciences to the Preparation of Power Mechanics T e a c h e rs ...... 167 4 1 . Content of Power Mechanics Based on Operational Fundamentals and Scientific Principles .... 168 CVJ

• Titles, Inclusive Pages, and Sources of State Curriculum Guides Pertaining to Power M e c h a n i c s ...... 171 i x TABLES (C o n td .) T ab le Page 43. State Certification Regulations Requiring Instruction in Power Mechanics as Prepar­ ation for Industrial Arts T eachers ...... 173 44. Industrial Arts Certirication Regulations in Selected States ...... 174 45* Cost of Various Energy S ources ...... 228 46. Energy Use and Economic G row th ...... 229

47* Energy Consumption and Person Incom e ...... 230 48. Energy Use and National Incom e ...... 231

49. The Changing Picture of Energy U s e ...... 233

50. Future Economic Growth and Energy N eeds ...... 234

x CHAPTER I

NATURE OP THE DISSERTATION

This chapter of the dissertation is intended to amplify the title by informing the reader of what the study is about, how it was conducted, and why it was important or necessary that this research be completed.

An Overview The research described herein is concerned with answering two fundamental questions: First, ”what is the nature of that phase of the industrial arts teacher education curriculum designed to prepare teachers with a technical background in power or power mechanics?" Second, this research study has endeavored to answer the question: "what should be the nature of laboratory courses in power or power mechanics at the teacher education level?" Major emphasis in this phase of the report has been placed on (1) the development of a technical content outline for each of the major sources of power, (2) the listing of major instruc­ tional units, and (3) the identification of the fundamental principles (operational and scientific) which should be t a u g h t . 2

The basis for collecting data relative to the first problem was a descriptive survey directed to each of the teacher education institutions in the United States which presently provide a laboratory program in power or power mechanics as a part of the industrial arts teacher education curriculum., Because of the lack of an accurate listing of institutions which offer such a program, a preliminary survey was used to specifically identify these institutions as well as the person responsible for teaching this program.

The survey instrument used in this research study has been designed to collect normative data and opinions regarding the following major topics: (1) background informa­ tion concerning respondents and institutional offering;

(2) general objectives, (3) teaching techniques and proced­ ures, (4) formal course titles, (5) textbooks, (6) major instructional units included, (7) nature of the laboratory activities, (8) bases for content organization, (9) deriva­ tion of course content, (10) state certification regula­ tions, (11) state curriculum guides, and (12) interdisciplin­ ary relationships. A copy of the instrument was critically reviewed by a "jury of experts" composed of educators who have written a textbook or published an article in a profes­ sional journal on this topic (Appendix E). Students enrolled in Education 450 (power) also evaluated the instrument in 3 terras of the criteria established by Good and Scates (1954,

P , 6 1 5 ) .1 Part two of this research study has attempted to project a program in power technology at the teacher educa­ tion level which is consistent with the findings of part one yet reflective of future trends and developments. Major emphasis has been placed on the identification of the funda­ mental concepts and principles appropriate to each of the major instructional units. Specific examples showing how the concept of "research and experimentation" can be imple­ mented into the program have been cited. Hi is portion of the research project may be considered as being philosophi­ cal in nature.

It is believed that this research is of significance for the following reasons: (1) it has provided a basis for further refinement of the content and design of this pro­ gram; (2) it has endeavored to show inconsistencies which exist as a result of the various philosophical orientations which teacher educators have with regard to curriculum development; (3) it has attempted to identify the relation­ ships which exist between the field of inquiry and other instructional programs; (4) it is considered to be of assistance in expanding knowledge £%. the field of Inquiry; \

“Slote to the Reader: The footnoting technique used throughout this document is in accordance with the American Psychological A ssociation^ (1957* P« 28) Publication M anual. (5) it has provided information relative to curriculum development which is presently taking place at the local and state levels; and ( 6) it has pointed out ways in which future research can contribute to the organization of content.

Background Information

During the early part of the 1930*s a somewhat broadened view was taken of the industrial arts curriculum. In so far as the w riter can determine A Prospectus for Indus­ tria l Arts (Ohio, 1934, P« 8 3), sponsored jointly by the

Ohio Education Association and the Department of Education at The Ohio State University, was the first publication to advocate any deviation from the traditional program evolv­ ing around the service aspects of the automotive industry.

One segment of this publication outlines the subject matter of "transportation" as including the study of automotives as well as other vehicles which have had an influence on our civilization. These vehicles included aircraft, motor­ cycles, tractors, steam power and locomotives.

Since this original document was published in 1934* a series of approximately 25 researc&t reports in the form of

Masterss theses and doctoral dissertations have been written, developing the concept of power, power and transportation, or some aspect thereof. In sane instances this research has been directed toward one phase of this program such as land or air transportation. Nearly two-thirds of this research was conducted here at The Ohio State University under the guidance of Professor Warner. Although this research has stressed the latter concept, its influence can readily be seen in the newly emerging programs of power or power mechanics.

At the Columbus Convention of the American Indus­ tria l Arts Association, The Curriculum to Reflect Technol­ ogy (Warner et a l., 19^7) was launched. Portions of this publication devoted to the "power division" and the "trans­ portation division" were w ritten by Lisack and Kleintzes, respectively. The latter author was later highly successful

in promoting the power and transportation concept in the teacher education institutions and public schools in the state of New York. Generally speaking, this is the only state in the nation which has consistently developed this type of program as a part of the industrial arts curriculum. Recently the teacher educators in New York state have made seme rather significant advances with regard to development of new equipment which is specifically oriented toward the power mechanics program. Their soon-to-be-published cur­ riculum guide in Power Technology indicates a trend away from the power and transportation concept.

Since the early i 9 6 08s considerable emphasis has been placed on stim ulating and promoting programs which have 6 been termed power or power mechanics. Risher ( 196OA, p. 46), writing in Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, states:

Power mechanics is becoming an identifiable instructional area. As it develops, greater emphasis w ill be brought to bear concerning the belief that there is more content to industrial arts than tool usage, m aterial shaping, and project making. . . . Of the several areas of interpreted industry previously neglected or ignored, the development o f th e a r e a o f MECHANICAL POWER, i t s s o u r c e s , development, utilization, control, transmission, and future prospects—gives greatest promise of providing an understanding of mechanized industry from the standpoint of past industrial develop­ ment, information about today*s machines, and a foundation for understanding expected mechanical developments. S in c e i 960, five textbooks and approximately 30 articles have been published, each containing the term

"power,” "power technology," or "power mechanics" in the title . These publications in part reflect the tremendous emphasis which is presently being placed on the development of this program. Each of these articles and textbooks w ill be critically reviewed in Chapter III.

Thus one can obtain a perspective of the three pro­ grams which presently exist In this phase of the industrial arts curriculum. The earliest program views the Instruc­ tional content as evolving around the maintenance and repair of the products produced by the automotive industry. Hie second program expands the breadth of study under the title of power and transportation with major areas of Instruction including land, sea and air transportation. The study of land transportation is concerned primarily with a study of the automotive industry. Presently, there is a predominant emphasis on curriculum development in power, power tech­ nology or power mechanics. The latter program is conceived as being introductory or exploratory in nature which does not lessen the importance of specialized automotive program offering with vocational or pre-vocational intent. Each of the above described programs may be found in various teacher education institutions throughout the nation. Difficulty arises from the fact that all teacher, educators do not clearly distinguish one program from another. Uiis is in part due to the fact there are sim ilarities in the content of the different programs. Although the concept of power is in a rather embryonic state of development, it seems appropriate at this time to systematically research this t o p i c .

Development of the Problem

The topics included in this portion of the proposal w ill attempt to more clearly delineate the nature of the problem being researched. Discussion w ill evolve around the philosophical positions which appear to exist with respect to curriculum development, the theoretical basis for the study, basic assumptions, a precise statement of the problem, major objectives to be attained, lim itations, delim itations, and definition of terminology. Philosophical positions

A variety of philosophical positions exists in the

industrial arts teaching profession concerning curriculum development which can be traced back to earlier historical events. These philosophical positions must be recognized if

one is to system atically organize the subject matter content

in any of the several programs included in the total cur- riculum. The extreme philosophical positions are perhaps

best understood when plotted on a continuum and examined in terms of leaders, purpose, source of content, subject matter

areas, methods, and instructional media. In Table 1 the w riter has attempted to graphically

describe the two extreme philosophical positions with regard

to curriculum development in industrial arts education. A brief examination of this table reveals that the traditional

approach is basically derived from the trade and industrial

education program which accounts for the vocational orienta­

tion. It may be concluded most Industrial arts educators

take a position somewhere between these two extreme positions. Failure to recognize the diversity of philosophical

positions which directly affect curriculum development

would tend to confound the data collected and thereby Inval­

idate the conclusions drawn. An attempt has been made to

Indicate the influence of these positions on the responses

derived from the participants involved in the survey. TABLE 1

PHILOSOPHICAL POSITIONS AFFECTING CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Philosophical Positions Categories Traditional T echno lo gy

Leaders Fryklund, Friese, Bonser, Warner, Olson, Silvius, London, Hornbake, Maley, et al. e t a l .

P urpose Training in the use Understanding of indus­ of tools, processes tria l technology and m aterials, skill dev elopment

S o u rce o f Trade or job analysis Industrial technology c o n te n t

C o n te n t D rafting, Woodworking Power, Transportation, a re a s Metalworking, Elec­ Communlc a t ions, Manu­ tricity, Graphic Arts, facturing, Construction, Autome chanics Research and Develop­ ment, Management, S e rv ic e

M ethod Four Steps—Prepara­ Problem Solving, Re­ tion, Presentation, search and Development, Application, and Experimentation, E v a lu a tio n Resource Research, Individual Planning

P r o je c t An end in itself Means to an end—a vehicle for learning

Theoretical basis It seems imperative than an enterprise as complex as curriculum development must be guided by some kind of con­ ceptual framework. In this regard, Bruner*s (i 960, p . 16) book entitled The Process of Education may serve this func­ tion in the design and writing of this research. His major hypothesis' states that “any subject can be taught effectively 10 in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development." This revolutionary concept has been rather widely accepted in the fields of science and mathematics.

It is the writer*s belief that the concepts of cur­ riculum development advocated by Bruner are appropriate to the field of industrial arts education. For example, Bruner

( i 9 6 0, p. 17) believes that "school curricula and methods should be geared to teaching fundamental ideas in whatever subject is taught." Understanding of these fundamental ideas or principles makes a field of inquiry more compre­ hensible. Four general claims can be made for teaching fundamental principles which Includes the following (Bruner,

I9 6 0 , p . 2 3 ) : " 1. . . . understanding fundamentals makes a sub­ ject more comprehensible.

2. . . . it insures that memory loss will not mean total loss, that which remains w ill permit us to reconstruct the details needed. A good theory is a vehicle not only for understanding a phenom­ enon now but also for remembering it tomorrow. 3. An understanding of fundamental principles and Ideas, . . . appears to be'the main road to adequate "transfer of training." 4. Emphasis on structure ahd principles in teach­ ing . , . allows one to narrow the gap between "advanced" knowledge and "elementary" knowledge. In essence, Bruner is saying that there is a logical structure which must be followed in curriculum development. This structure may be likened to a never ending spiral stair­ way evolving from simple to complex. The construction of 11 each step in the spiral stairway is based on the development and understanding of fundamental principles which facili­ tates the learning process and assists in reconstructing knowledge previously acquired.

Basic assumptions

The assumptions on which this research is based appear both simple and logical. These assumptions could be considered as a series of hypotheses although it is not the intent of the researcher to empirically test the validity of these constructs but rather to accept them as a basis from which this research can evolve. This foundation would h o ld t h a t — 1. The primary purpose of the educational system in

•'our great society" is that of acquainting children, youth, and adults with the true nature of our culture.

2. Man by nature is adept at intellectual reasoning, problem solving, creating and constructing with m aterials and energies provided by nature as well as man.

3. The ultimate goal of our technology is that of freeing man from the enslavement to materials thus allowing him to achieve higher purposes in life.

4. Technological advances of the western culture have been directly hinged to the creative development and utilization of a wide variety of power sources. 12 5. In the "American way of life" there is more than one way to attain skills and knowledge and among these the study of power technology may be considered as important in terms of a liberal education as much of what is advocated by the liberal arts.

It logically follows that if one accepts as the major purpose of industrial arts education the development of insight and understanding of industry, one aspect of this field of inquiry must endeavor to deal with the aspect of power as it is used and produced by industry.

Statement of the problem

The basic problem being researched in this study evolves out of the broad field of curriculum development or curriculum research. It has been confined to curriculum development in industrial arts teacher education and even more specifically to that phase of the teacher education pro­ gram which provides prospective industrial arts teachers with a technical background in power or power mechanics. The fundamental question which this research has endeavored, to answer is: "what is the nature of that phase of the teacher education program designed to prepare industrial arts teachers with a technical background in power as conceived by selected teacher educators who are actively involved in teaching in this program?" The portion of the research 13 summarized In Chapter III has attempted to answer this fundamental question.

Part two of this research study reported in Chapter

IV has endeavored to answer the question: "what should be the nature of that phase of the teacher education program which is designed to prepare public school teachers with a technical background in power?” Drawing from an analysis of what is, a program has been projected which is consistent with the theoretical basis advocated by Bruner. Judgments have been made concerning the logical structure of the sub­ ject matter content. Fundamental concepts and principles

(BIG IDEAS) have been identified under each major instruc­ tional unit. Appropriate laboratory activities designed to facilitate the teaching of each unit have been proposed.

Suggestions are offered as to how the concept "research and experimentation" can effectively be employed as an integral part of this program. In summary, this research has been designed to answer two pertinent yet fundamental questions: "what is and what should be the nature of that phase of the teacher education program designed to prepare industrial arts, teachers with a technical background in power technology?"

Major objectives The following major objectives have served as guide­ lines or focal points in the writing of this research report. 14 Attainment of these objectives should provide a basis for answering the previously stated questions.

1. To systematically review the literature pertinent to this study.

2. To identify the institutions which provide an instructional program in power or power mechanics throughout the United States as well as the teacher educator responsible for this program.

3. To examine various aspects of the teacher educa­ tion program in power mechanics such as: objectives, major instructional units, laboratory activities, etc., through the use of a survey Instrument.

4. To report and interpret the data derived from item number three.

5. To develop a proposed teacher education program in power technology which is consistent with the existing public school needs yet reflective of innovations.

Delimitations

This research proposal is conceived as residing within the broad field of curriculum development which involves a ll teacher education curricula. The teacher education curricu­ lum is further subdivided to include general, professional and specialized education. Within the realm of specialized education one finds a technical program offering desig ned to provide specific skills and knowledge needed to perform 15 successfully as industrial arts teachers in the public schools. One of the newly emerged branches of the technical program is concerned with an instructional program termed power, power technology, or power mechanics. This research w ill be primarily concerned with this phase of the total industrial arts teacher education program.

No attempt has been made to examine programs in auto mechanics or power and transportation. However, there are those teacher educators who do not make a clear distinction between these programs as is evidenced by the data reported in Chapter III. lim itations

This research has certain lim itations as do most extensive endeavors which are reflected in the nature of the problem, the objectives to be attained, and later in the methodology utilized in seeking data concerning this prob­ lem. These lim itations have Implications in terms of inter­ preting the findings. The following lim itations are herein acknowledged:

1. The writer readily acknowledges his bias with regard to the nature and direction which this phase of the industrial arts curriculum should pursue. Extreme care has been taken in the development of the survey instrument and interpreting of the data collected to insure that precon­ ceived ideas did not distort either the findings or the conclusions drawn as a result of this research. 16 2. The descriptive survey technique has many p it­ falls which have entrapped this novice researcher. The lim itations of this technique have been intensively studied, although, obviously not fully understood.

3. Perhaps the factor of time is the most serious lim itation to this study since one of the purposes is that of projecting a program. Such a program cannot be evaluated until it has been adopted and subjected to critical analysis by teachers in the field.

Definition of terms In any attempt to communicate either in w ritten or spoken word, there is ever present the problem of being mis­ understood. This problem tends to be magnified in a study where closely related terms are often used synonymously. In order to lessen the danger of being misunderstood and in an effort to facilitate the process of communication, certain fundamental terms which lend themselves to different inter­ pretation are defined as they w ill be used in this study.

Automechanics is a specialized program offering often included in the industrial arts curriculum which deals with the development of knowledge and skills related to the ser­ vice function of the automotive industry. This program should not be confused with the power program which is gen­ eral or exploratory in nature. 17 Curriculum is defined as an orderly arrangement of integrated subject m atter, activities, and experiences which students pursue for the attainment of a specific goal.

Curriculum research is defined by Whitney (1942, p. 340), as a rather generally agreed upon procedure and tech­ nique which lead to a better selection of socially valuable content m aterial, its functional organization, and its validation and verification in actual use.

Fluid power is a broad term defined as one which employs either hydraulic fluid, compressed air or gas as a media of fluid power generation which in turn is used to create mechanical energy.

Adams (1947* P* 26) defines a generalization as "a statement of the interdependency existing between phenomena or aspects of phenomena based on observation and experimental evidence. These statements may be observed sequential rela­ tionships or interdependencies between phenomena and man or society.11 Such statements shall be neither an unrelated factror a definition. In this study the terms generaliza­ tion and principle may be used interchangeably.

Hydraulics may be defined as a means of transm itting pressure or work through a noncompressible liquid to produce motion—either rotary or reciprocating.

An instructional unit is defined by Good (1945, p. 427) as (1) "topic, subject, or unit of work that engages the student*s efforts and attention in study or (2) an 18

Integrated comprehensive and significant activity or experi­ ence in which the student is assim ilating new knowledge or solving new problems.” Mechanical power relates to any form of power that affords a mechanical advantage over animal power. It may be an advantage ranging from a simple lever or wedge to a complex atomic reactor.

Mechanics pertains to the branch of applied science which treats the effect of force upon bodies and the motion they produce. Power mechanics is defined by Stephenson (1964, p. 1) as "a study of Energy Sources and Machines that Convert

Energy into Useful Work.” It may further be defined as a phase of the Industrial arts curriculum which deals with the principles and problems of developing, transm itting, using, and servicing the many forms of mechanical power as they are applied to the industrial and technological aspects of modern society. The terms power, power technology and power mechanics w ill be used interchangeably in this study. Power and transportation is a program in the indus­ trial arts curriculum which includes a study of the basic principles of construction, assembly, disassembly, operation and service of land, sea and air carriers as well as some of the technical, social, economic and political factors affected by man. 19 Prime movers are devices which transfer energy of one kind to that of another. Both internal and external combustion engines are good examples as well as wind and moving water. Solar energy may also be considered under this topic.

A principle as defined by Good (1945, p. 308) is a

"generalized statement through which otherwise unrelated data are systematized and interpreted."

Secondary movers are those devices which depend upon another source of power. An electric motor is an example of this classification.

Design of the Study The discussion which follows w ill endeavor to pro­ vide the reader with a w ritten and graphic description of the nature of the data sought, the research methodology used, methods of obtaining data, development of the survey instrument, identification of the sample, and procedures used in the analysis of the data.

Research methodology Often there is more than one way of achieving a desired objective and frequently a number of different approaches to a given question w ill produce better results than a single unitary approach. With this thought in mind, various research techniques have been employed in securing data to be included in this report. 20

Chapter II of this report is based on a kind of historical research which involves a systematic review of pertinent research studies and other related literature.

Major emphasis has been placed on a chronological analysis of this material in an effort to provide a historical per­ spective of the evolution of this program. No attempt has been made to employ external or internal criticism techniques to the documents reviewed.

The descriptive survey technique was employed to ascertain the status and opinions of selected teacher educa­ tors regarding various aspects of the power mechanics pro­ gram. The information attained from this survey has provided an overview of the total program as conceived by teacher educators actively involved in this program. The latter part of this research report may be clas­ sified as philosophical research in that an attempt has been made to answer the question—what should be? The determina­ tion of what is has provided some guidelines which have been used to support the proposed program.

Collectively the research methods employed in this study have been aimed at increasing our power to understand, organize and make predictions concerning the field of inquiry. An attempt has been made to determine the rela­ tionships which contribute to a systematic ordering of the phenomena involved. Methods of obtaining data

Several data gathering techniques were used in an effort to obtain an accurate description of the instructional content and laboratory activities involved in the power pro­ gram. Chapter IX contains the information derived from a review of the literature. Chapter III is devoted to an analysis of the data derived from the preliminary and des­ criptive survey. In addition to these methods, approximately fifty letters were sent to various sources requesting information and available literature.

03ie research has attempted to identify all industrial arts teacher educators who teach power or power mechanics via means of a preliminary survey. A survey Instrument was s e n t to 96 teacher educators to determine the kinds of edu­ cational experiences which they are providing prospective industrial arts teachers. Their opinions have also been solicited regarding various matters relating to the sys­ tematic ordering of this program.

Ins trum entatlon As previously stated, the survey Instrument was sent to selected teacher educators which contained questions relative to the following major topless (1) background

Information concerning the respondents and institutional offering, (2) general objectives; (3) teaching techniques ahd procedures, (4) formal course titles, (5) textbooks, 22

(6) major Instructional units, (7) nature of the laboratory activities, (8) bases for content organization, (9) deriva­ tion of course content, (10) state certification regulation,

(11) state curriculum guides, and (12) interdisciplinary relationships. These major divisions have been used to facilitate the organization of the content of Chapter III.

The procedure used in the development of items

included under each category is one of gleaning from the literature statements and ideas. In some instances the respondents have been asked to provide information which describes their program and in other cases they have been

asked to indicate their opinion. The instrument has in part been based on the assumption that recently published m aterials have to some degree influenced course content.

Preliminary survey One of the problems encountered in this research

evolved around the identification of institutions as well

as the appropriate personnel responsible for teaching labor­

atory courses in power or power mechanics. Wall*s (1964)

Industrial Teacher Education Directory, 1963-64 identifies

a specific person as teaching in this program in only forty- five of the two hundred and one Institutions listed. The

Directory of Colleges and Universities Offering Degrees in

Industrial Arts (AIM* 1963) contains a listing of two

hundred and twelve institutions excluding Canada and Puerto 23 Rico. Since there is a descrepancy in these two directories and no accurate means of determining the population of this

study, it was necessary to conduct a preliminary survey to identify more specifically the universe of this study.

A letter was drafted (Appendix A) briefly describing

the intent of this study. Included along with this letter was a return postal-card (Appendix B) which requested a

response to specific questions.

Study sample

The above described preliminary survey has provided

the basis for determining the population included in this

research. All of the institutions offering an instructional

program in power mechanics have been sent a survey instru­ ment with the exception of those who were unwilling to participate. The universe and the sample in this study may be considered as including the same population.

Analysis of data Descriptive statistics have been used to report the

reactions of the respondents to the various items included in the survey instrument. The measures used includes fre­

quencies or counts; relative frequencies or percentages;

ratings; and frequency distributions. In most Instances the statistical interpretation has been restricted to re­

porting frequencies, percentages, cumulative percentages, 24 cumulative score, order ranking, and measures of central

tendencies such as the mean, median, and mode. Chi square was used to determine the level of prob­ ability between the observed responses and expected frequen­

cies, on Questions No. 18 through 37* These questions pro­

vided the respondents with an opportunity to strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree with specific state­ ments (Appendix D). Hie observed responses were then grouped under two classifications of agree or disagree (Appendix G)

and compared with expected frequencies as determined by

chance variations. The value of chi square has been com­ puted to determine the level of probability between the

observed and expected frequencies. Only those items which

resulted in a value of chi square greater than the .05

level have been reported in Chapter III.

Significance of the Study The researcher has previously pointed out a variety

of ways in which this research may be considered significant.

The writings of Feirer (i 960), Bateson and Stern (1963),

O lso n ( 1963), Swanson, Face and Flug ( 1965) and Towers et a l. ( 1965) further emphasize the importance presently being attached to the field of curriculum development in industrial

arts education. This report has endeavored to examine many

of the problems and issues confronting the profession in .an 25 attempt to arrive at a tentative solution which may guide

future developments in the power mechanics program.

In summary, this research may be considered signifi­ cant for the following reasons: (1) It has attempted to pro­

vide a historical perspective of the evolution of the power mechanics program; (2) it has identified the primary basis

from which the power mechanics content has been drawn; (3)

it has sought to show the interrelationships which exist

between this program and other disciplines; (4) it has pro­ vided guidelines for curriculum development at the local and

state levels; (5) it has identified major operational and

scientific principles applicable to the program; and (6) it

has pointed out ways in which future research projects can

contribute to the further expansion of the body of knowledge

appropriate to the field of inquiry. The chapter which follows w ill provide the reader

with an overview of the major writings which have implica­ tions in the development of the power mechanics program.

Major emphasis has been placed on providing a historical

perspective of the evolution of this program. Various bases

of program and content derivation have also been examined. CHAPTER II

A REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE

The first four major sections of this chapter will be restricted to a discussion of research studies, related literature, textbooks, and curriculum guides which specifi­ cally pertain to the power, power and transportation or power mechanics program. In so far as possible, the sources cited under each of these headings have been organized in a chronological order in terms of the publication date. This should prove helpful in providing the reader with a histori­ cal perspective of the evolution of this phase of the indus­ tria l arts curriculum. The latter portion of this chapter involves a rather brief discussion of the various proposals advocated for the derivation of a curriculum or "body of knowledge" appropriate to industrial arts as well as the techniques used in deriv­ ing content. The concluding section pertains to an analysis of the general objectives which guide program planning.

A Review of Research Studies Tie major developments which have tended to crystalize the industrial arts power mechanics program as a major offering have taken place in the past five years. However, 26 27 the discussion which follows w ill endeavor to indicate that some rather significant developments with regard to this program took place approximately 30 years ago. In order to fully perceive the existing program it is necessary to under­ stand the sequence of events which have culminated in today's program. The following discussion of selected research

studies conducted at both the m aster's and doctoral levels should provide further insight.

A m ajority of the research studies to be discussed have been conducted at The Ohio State University under the guidance of Professor Warner. Many of these studies may be

considered to be a part of a larger body of "programtic

research" intended to explore the total breadth of the sub­

ject through a study of industrial technology. It is perhaps unfortunate that the authors of many of these studies

probably were not able to conceptualize the over arching

theme which is necessary for such a research project. Many

of these studies may be classified as resource research, while others are intent on the development of a course of

study appropriate to a laboratory program at the secondary

school level.

The following discussion w ill be restricted to a

brief review and summarization of those research studies

which contain the terms power, transportation, or power mechanics in the title . A few studies w ill also be mentioned 28 which pertain exclusively to the automotive field. Although each of the programs signified by these terms may be associ­

ated with different types of programs, there is considerable

overlapping when one examines the program content as w ill be Indicated by the data contained in Chapter III.

The research studies relating to the industrial arts

teacher education programs are rather lim ited. With the

exception of the studies conducted by Kleintzes (1947 )»

Sanders (1959)# and Allen (1963)# most of the studies des­ cribed herein are aimed at developing a secondary school

program. It could be assumed that there is a degree of

relationship if one accepts the premise that "teachers

teach as they were taught." The first documented evidence of the use of the term

power mechanics came with Bowers1 (1937) M aster's thesis entitled A Course of Study in General Power Mechanics for

the Secondary Schools. This proposed course of study advo­

cated teaching for an understanding of power development and utilization as a significant factor in the progress of our industrial society. Major instructional units included a

study of simple machines; wind, water, and steam as a source

of power; automobile and airplane operation; and electrical

power including generation, transmission and utilization. The evolution of the transportation concept advocated

earlier in the Prospectus (Ohio, 1934) is reflected in

Hartman's (1937) thesis entitled A Study of Air Transportation 29 for Junior High Industrial Arts Programs. This author

(Hartman, 1937 » P- 102) recommended an exploratory program to include—

1. A study of model airplane building.

2. A study of aerodynamics in a simple form.

3. A study of airplane operation.

4. A study of aviation occupations.

The author8s undergraduate training in aeronautical engineer­ ing is readily recognized throughout this thesis.

Crow8s (1938) thesis entitled Power: As Content for

Industrial Arts is an example of the resource research approach to curriculum development. His basic plea is for an industrial arts program which "is prim arily concerned with society in an industrial setting." Content in this pro­ gram includes (1) the historical development and early uses of power; (2) power development and measurement; (3) power transmission methods including the mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical; and (4) the social and economic factors involved in the application of power.

This early study (Crow, 1938, p. 153) states that "a study of power in the industrial arts program makes pos­ sible a closer correlation with the science and physics departments of the school. ..." The basic forms of energy were classified into five major groups: "thermal, mechanical, electrical, chemical, and biological." These classifica­ tions appear to have been drawn from an analysis of 30 scientific programs. This proposal correlates with the "applied science approach" to curriculum development dis­ cussed later in this chapter. It should also be noted that these energy classifications are sim ilar to those advocated by Kleintzes in the Curriculum to Reflect Technology

(Warner et a l., 19^7)• laboratory activities advocated in this proposed pro­ gram were not restricted to servicing power units such as the automobile. Opportunities were to be included involving research and investigational methods of study. Major units of study Included wind, water, steam engines and turbines, and small gasoline engines. These early studies recognized the study of power,

power mechanics or transportation as an integral part of the industrial arts offering. Essentially, this research has accepted the Bonser (1930) philosophy which advocates the

socioeconomic analysis of industry to determine content.

Each of these studies were concerned with various sources of power development and utilization, generation, transmission

as well as the historical evolution of the sources studied. Robertson0s (1940) thesis entitled The Automobile;

Its Development Manufacture, Uses and Effect with Implica­

tion for Industrial Arts was also completed prior to World

War II. The purpose of this study was to determine the

possible content application of the automobile to an indus­

trial arts laboratory program. The major units discussed 31 included (1) the historical development of transportation,

(2) production, (3) personnel, (4) cultural influences, and

(5) principles of operation. Laboratory activities included experimentation, model construction and simple repair.

Although the title of this study is restricted to automo­ tives, the content analysis and activities tend to be related to the transportation concept.

Master’s theses limited to a study of specific aspect of the automotive program were completed by Carney (1938),

Snyder (1940), and H ill (1950). Carney®s study explored specifically the topic of automobile electricity. Snyder’s

thesis was on ear buret ion while H ill wrote on Visual Aids for Auto Science.

The literature reflects very little progress being made in this field until after World War II. The predominant

concept of this era evolved around the study of transporta­

tion as an industrial arts laboratory course. The use of the

term transportation made allowances for a broader approach

in the selection of content. Previously, the instructional programs had tended to be pre-vocationally or vocationally

oriented for the most part.

Wooden (1946), Julian (1948), and Burns (19^9) each authored Master’s thesis at The Ohio State University in the

latter part of the 1940®s on the topic of aviation. These

studies were concerned with the adaptation of various aspects 32 of the aviation industry to a secondary school laboratory

program in industrial arts. Kleintzes (1947) completed an analysis of the trans­ portation program as a direct outgrowth of the Curriculum to

Reflect Technology (Warner et al., 1947)* His thesis en­

titled A Transportation Program in Industrial Arts was aimed at developing content m aterial for a transportation program which was later Initiated and further developed at the State

Teachers College at Oswego, New York. Kleintzes (1947, p. 1)

proposed a study of land, water, and air transportation

under eight basic units which include (1) course and shop

organization, (2) construction of projects, (3) carriers,

power sources, (4) carriers, power transmission, (5) car­

riers, design construction and control, (6) air transporta­

tion, (7) land transportation, and (8) marine transportation.

Kleintzes (1947* P» 2) described the content in each of the trains port ation units in the following manner.

Air transportation includes experiences and study in meteorology, navigation, aerodynamics, flight control, airport construction and operation, and other technics related to aviation.

Land transportation includes traffic control, signaling, engineering and other aspects of rail­ roading; pipelines and conveyor systems; highway bridge and tunnel design and construction; traffic control and highway safety.

Marine transportation involves inland waterway systems, ports, and habor facilities, aids to investigation, sailing and other aspects of marine enterprise. 33 As is indicated by this description of content, this program has intentionally excluded a study of the source of power appropriate to each of these areas of transportation.

Tierney *s (1949) thesis on Land Transportation in­ volved a study of pupil activities appropriate to programs in the public schools. Some two hundred trade magazines were examined in the selection of projects appropriate to the various levels including the full range of elementary and secondary school programs. Plans were accepted or rejected in accordance with specific criteria. This study tends to perpetuate the project approach to curriculum development which presently is not considered to be acceptable or appro­ priate to the field of inquiry.

Belton (1949) made a study of the contributions of transportation to our modern society through an examination of available literature. He concluded that since transpor­ tation directly affects the lives of all United States c iti­ zens, it constitutes a logical program offering.

Kemp (1950) made a historical study of Automotive

Transportation in the United States—1893-1950. Essentially, this study traced the historical evolution of the automobile in an effort to formulate criteria applicable to the devel­ opment of a curriculum in power and transportation for high school students. Kemp (1950, p. 100) made: the following 34 recommendations based on the evidence gathered:

1. All high school students who are physically and otherwise qualified, should be required to complete a course in driver education.

2. A course in automotive transportation should be offered to high school students as an integral part of the industrial education program. . . .

3. Certain aspects of the transportation program can and should be taught at the elementary school level.

This study tends to indicate the predominant automotive emphasis associated with the transportation program.

The purpose of Aikin's (1950) thesis entitled Air

Transportation; Content Analysis to Determine Curriculum

Emphasis for Industrial Arts was intended to project an air transportation program consistent with the socioeconomic structure, technology, the learning process, and the needs of Individuals. Content in this program was developed to include all basic aspects of aircraft engines, airports, and those principles concerned with operation, maintenance and manufacturing of the various types of aircraft. The organi­ zational procedure advocated in this study was primarily derived from Aikin*s personal experiences and knowledge gained from working ten years as a ground and flight instruc­ tor, technical and allied field instructor, aircraft main­ tenance, aircraft design and development, airport planning and control as well as other civilian and m ilitary experiences. 35

Studies by Aman (1951), Maxwell (1951 ) j Nave (1953), and McCall (1955) were lim ited to the development of a transportation program as a part of the secondary school Industrial arts program. Each of these studies concluded that a study of transportation was desirable at the secondary level. Aman emphasized the point that units of instruction as well as activities were best organized around procedures and processes rather than the traditional project approach.

He advised fellow teachers to broaden existing programs to include instruction evolving around each of the following: (1) two and four cycle internal combustion engines, (2) external combustion engines, (3) general aircraft, (4) gen­ eral automotives, (5) boats, (6) bicycles, (7) motorcycles, and (8) model construction and operation. Maxwell suggested instructional activity evolving around minor automobile repair, building and flying model airplanes, overhaul of gasoline engines, and building model ships. McCall found that few public school programs provided instruction in the broad field of transportation. Rudiger^ (1952) study at the University of Missouri entitled Educational Needs and Interests of People Concern­ ing the Selection, Operation, and Care of the Automobile, is not directly related to the research being reviewed. How­ ever, it illustrates again a changing concept which has been taking-place in the automotive programs. This author con- eludes that the major emphasis in non-vocational automotive

programs should be based upon the "safe and economical oper­ ation, proper care and maintenance, and intelligent selec­

tion of the automobile." This position tends to be con­

sistent with the consumer knowledge approach taken in the

power and transportation programs, although, the breadth of offering is lacking.

Kleintzes* (1953) dissertation involved a rather extensive study of industrial arts transportation in the

secondary schools to ascertain data concerning the activi­

ties and content included in these programs. A questionnaire was sent to teachers, parents, and secondary school pupils. The results of the survey were used in the development of

lists of "things a pupil should be able to do" and "things

a pupil should know." The areas of instruction included

were (1) automotives, (2) small gas engines, (3) bicycles

and motor scooters, (4) boats and boating, (5) aviation,

(6) projects and models, (7) model gas engines, and (8) other power plants.

A M aster's thesis by Sanders (1959) represents the second organized research project which specifically deals

with the topic of power and transportation at the teacher

education level. The content of this proposed program was

prim arily based on a study of small two and four cycle

engines and the automobile. His study revealed that there

was very little agreement among teacher educators 37 concerning the content to be included in this program.

K irkpatrickfs ( 1961) Master*s thesis, completed at the University of Missouri, entitled Suggested Units of

Instruction for the Power and 'Brans port at ion Area of the

General Shop, involved a review of various state curriculum

guides. A variety of industries were also requested to sub­ mit suggestions regarding the understandings which should be

developed in such a program. This information provided the basis for projecting a program.

A major portion of the research studies completed

between 1945 and i 960 have involved a study of some aspect

of the transportation program. It should be pointed out that one of the major reasons for the lack of general acceptance of this type of program has been a result of the fact that

no textbooks have been published thus far which revolve

around this theme. Therefore, those who organized their pro­

gram around the divisions of land, sea, and air transporta­

tion were forced to use resource m aterials which were not specifically designed for this type of program.

Wiseman (1961) developed A Proposed Course of Study

in Power Mechanics as a part of the requirements of the

Master*s degree. This proposed program was designed for

students with a science background in the eleventh and

twelfth grades of Bloomington High School in Illinois. It

was Intended to meet the needs of the gifted students as 38 well as those students whose scholastic achievement was above the fiftieth percentile rating in their respective class. Wiseman (1961, pp. 60-2) concluded:

1. Students of power mechanics should become acquainted with science principles as they apply to prime and secondary movers.

2. Students should acquire a general knowledge of the characteristics and uses of m aterials through research, analyses, experimentation and t e s t i n g .

3. More workers w ill be needed to provide increased services required by a higher standard of l i v i n g .

4. A study of Internal combustion engines of all types should be included in any course in ap­ plied power.

5. Power mechanics, from the standpoint of future employment, should place equally as much or more emphasis on non-automotive power ctevices.

6. Instruction in internal combustion engines should be confined to consumer knowledge, in­ cluding minor repair and adjustment. Major disassembly, overhaul, and testing should be taught In a vocational type automotive course rather than the power mechanics program.

This research report represents a rather perceptive analysis of what the power mechanics program should involve.

It should also be noted that this author has recognized the

importance of a background In science as a prerequisite to

such a program. Lastly, Wiseman has made a clear distinc­ tion between the automotive program and that of power m e c h a n ic s .

The most recent contribution to the published research on this topic was completed by Allen ( 1963) a t Indiana University. His doctoral dissertation, entitled

A Study of Present Practices and Trends in Industrial Arts

Teacher Education Undergraduate Laboratory Courses in Trans­ portation, and Power Mechanics, involved a study of the opinions of selected teacher educators toward the develop­ ment of technical courses. The data gathered through this study tended to indicate that (l) there is a growing inter­ est in the development of laboratory programs of this nature;

(2) content should evolve around the principles of operation and the application of power as well as an appreciation of the historic, economic and social factors involved; (3)

transportation was understood to involve a broad exploratory study of power devices and carriers used in the transporta­ tion industry on land, sea and air; and (4) power mechanics - was interpreted as the study of power, primarily the internal

combustion engine and the application of this power through various mechanical devices. His study concluded that the

latter concept appeared to be more readily accepted.

This study (Allen, 1963* P* 126) further indicated that: (1) content determination is generally based on an

analysis of the overall technology rather than being lim ited

to a job or trade analysis; (2) the content should be broad­

ened in scope to include a study of all of the major sources

of power; and (3) this phase of the industrial arts program

tends not to lend itself to project construction* 40

In summary, a total of twenty-five Master8s and doctoral studies, have previously been reviewed. It is interesting to note that approximately 68 per cent of these studies have been completed at The Ohio State University.

The abundance of research studies completed at this institu­ tion may in part be explained by the large numbers of gradu­ ate students enrolled in the program following World War II.

There is a marked degree of consistency among these studies in terms of format, and content selection procedures. Other conclusions which can be drawn from this re­ view of research studies include the following: 1. The concept of power mechanics and transportation dates back nearly thirty years to the latter part of the

19308s. There is a marked relationship between the programs proposed at that time and what is presently being advocated. 2. The most significant developments in the power and transportation program have taken place since World War II. The lack of acceptance of this program is in part due to the lack of published reference m aterial appropriate to the total program. 3. Recent studies tend to indicate that the power mechanics program should involve a study of all major energy sources. The automotive program is a separate and distinct program which should not be confused with the newly emerging program in power mechanics. Related Literature A series of publications and articles contained in professional journals referring directly to the power, transportation, or power mechanics program have been organ­ ized and reviewed in this portion of the report. This m aterial has been reported in a chronological order which should prove helpful in the further attainment of a histori­ cal perspective of the power mechanics program.

Early developments

One of the first known references to the term power was made by Homer J. Smith (1933) in a speech delivered before the Wisconsin Industrial Arts Association at Milwaukee on November 2, 1933. His comments were directed at the junior high level. He advocated that a course in power should be initiated to teach the principles of the automobile

but such a course should not be called auto mechanics.

The following year a most significant document

appeared. A Prospectus for Industrial Arts (Ohio, 1934> p. 23) was sponsored jointly by the Ohio Education Associa­

tion and the Ohio State Department of Education. Based on

the Terminological Investigation (Western Arts Association,

1933) and BonserBs (1930) philosophy, the Prospectus, w ritten 42 by Warner et a l., describes the mission of industrial arts as follows:

The public schools must provide an opportunity for young and old not only to become acquainted with changing industrial processes and the social- economic problems resulting, but to Include a wide range of experiences particularly in the m aterial changes which have and do occur. . . . This w ill come not only through the performance provided him in a school*s LABORATORY OF INDUSTRIES, but through planned visits and investigations to moti­ vate further study in Industrial Arts and its re­ lated subjects of the problems involving capital and labor, conditions of employment and unemploy­ ment, transportation, advertising, salesmanship, the quality and use of materials and products, all in addition to many other related problems. Specific reference is made to the transformation of the traditional automotive program to a broader program of transportation. The Prospectus (Ohio, 1934, p. 8 3) p o in ts o u t t h a t —

Development in this unit (Transportation, In­ cluding Automotives) in the junior and senior high schools of Ohio have all-too-frequently been lim­ ited to repair problems concerned with the engine, chassis, electrical system, or body of an auto­ mobile. This has enabled the pupil to become acquainted with certain manipulative problems and has gained for him certain knowledge and under­ standing of the functions of different automobile p a r t s . If one views the study of automotives, however, in a perspective of transportation, the field of study becomes very broad and usually significant. Certain purposes are involved in achieving this broader viewpoint, which may be stated as follows:

1. Automotives should be considered in a per­ spective of transportation.

2. All vehicles should be studied for their in­ fluence on various civilizations which included their use. 43 3. The relative values of different types of transportation may be judged in terms of what is best, fastest, most economical, safest, whether it be a: horse and buggy, train, automobile, bus, ship, airplane, or d i r i g i b l e .

4. Study and compare all kinds of motors (en­ gines) used in motorcycles, tractors, auto­ mobile, dirgibles, and airplaines.

The Prospectus thus became the cornerstone for many of the later developments in the transportation program. A majority of the research studies discussed in the preceding section were based on the acceptance of the broadened concept.

Smith and W ittick (1934, p. 11) published an article in the Industrial Education Magazine entitled "Courses in

Practical Arts in the University High School" which des­ cribed the various program offerings. One of the programs was identified as the "Power Laboratory." The units of study

listed under this program included the following: (1) water power, (2) steam power, (3) internal combustion, (4) elec­ trical power, (5) compressed air, and (6) miscellaneous— horsepower, testing, making gaskets, and repair procedures. Subject matter selection for the "power laboratory" was primarily derived from the consumer viewpoint. It was

their belief that all people are consumers, therefore, there are certain kinds of information which a ll people should

possess in order to perform the consumer function in telli­

g e n tly . 44

Finsterback (1944, P- 288) wrote an article during World War II which suggested that a unit of bicycle mainten­ ance should be included in the transportation program. He emphasized the fact that the bicycle offered an excellent opportunity to provide instruction in the field of consumer care and repair.

The American Vocational Association's (1946, pp. 16-7) publication entitled Improving Instruction in Industrial Arts listed approximately eighteen subject-matter fields or phases most commonly used to develop programs of industrial arts.

The automotive program was considered to be a major part of these eighteen fields while general power mechanics was relegated to the listing as an additional content field.

However, seven years later a revision of this bulletin, entitled A Guide to Improving Instruction in Industrial Arts

(AVA, 1953 j PP. 75-8), recognized transportation and power as a general instructional area and made no reference to automotive mechanics as a specific industrial arts offering.

A section of the latter publication dealing with “transpor­ tation and power" states that— - The history of civilization and the story of transportation are closely linked. The merging of peoples and the exchange of ideas, tools, and goods over wide distances (in short, the education of man in commerce, mechanics, language, and thought) proceeded through, by, and directly on wheels. In addition to its historical signifi­ cance, transportation can be a most Important theme in the industrial arts program because of its immediate application to everyday living. Knowledges, attitudes, and skills in the field of transportation can be gained through the neces­ sary experimentation and constructional activities dealing with power and its transmission to wheels and airfoils in order to cause movement. . . . Forms of travel studied under this proposal included

(1) bicycle, (2) outboard motor (engine), (3) marine trans­ portation, (4) automotive, (5) airplanes, and (6) railroads. Laboratory experiences placed less emphasis on the tangible product than on the learning of laws and their applications.

The manipulative experiences prim arily centered around the disassembly, service, repair, etc., of components involved in the various forms of travel. The construction of models was recognized as a method of acquiring an understanding of the theory provided it was not too time consuming. 11118 publication is one of the most widely read and quoted publi­ cations ever to be used in the field. The impact of this document on the entire industrial arts program is difficult to comprehend.

The curriculum to reflect technology On April 25, 1947, the American Industrial Arts

Association Convention was confronted with a revolutionary concept described in A Curriculum to Reflect Technology authored by Warner et a l. (1947* P* 3)* This publication describes the need for moving from the handicrafts to the

technology approach to curriculum derivation. Warner states

We examined the census and other economic data to discover five or more large divisions of subject 46

m atter resources, namely: Power, Transportation, Manufacture, Construction, and Communication, In addition to several human and organizational factors which are referred to as Management. . . .

Content in the new Industrial Arts curricu­ lum is derived via a socio-economic analysis of the technology and not by job or trade analysis as of old from the commoner village trades such as those of the carpenter, the blacksmith, the cabinet maker, . . . Now, the subject matter classifications are conceived as including:

A. Power: tidal, solar, atomic, electrical, muscular, hydraulic, combustion, . . .

B. Transportation: land, sea and air

Lisack (Warner et a l., 1947* P* 29) authored the sec­ tion of the Curriculum to Reflect Technology which was con- i cerned with the power division. He states that there are four major subjects in the study of power which include the f o llo w in g : Sources. The most important aspect to be covered are: Natural Sources, including Sun, Water, Wind and Food; Electrical Sources/includ­ ing Mechanical and Chemical ram ifications; and Thermal sources, composed of Solids, Gases, Liquids, and Atomic Energy. The history and development of these should be studied and illu s­ trated together with their applications and prob­ a b le u s e s .

Generation. The following breakdown may be applied: Solar, Hydro, Electrical, Biological, Combustion, and Nuclear Fission. Samples of generation from Natural Sources include a solar engine; water turbines, water wheels, and tidal machines; various types of windmills; and a re­ lated study of how plants and animals generate power from food. Transmission. The major factor include a breakdown of: E lectrical, Pneumatic, Hydraulic, and Mechanical. 47 U tilization. The best way to introduce it is through its relationship to manufacture, con­ struction, transportation, and communication.

Kleintzes (Warner et_al., 1947, p. 35) authored the section of the curriculum proposal based on technology which pertains to the "transportation division." He envisioned transportation as being divided into three major areas to include: land, sea, and air. This author further states t h a t —

The study of the various carriers: automobile, locomotive, ship and plane, is the prerogative of the transportation laboratory. . . . The Intimate connection between the automobile and highway, ship and port, airplane and navigation w ill not permit divorcing these areas from the transporta­ tion course even though they overlap the construc­ tion, communication and subject matter fields outside of what is normally considered to be Industrial A rts.

In essence, A Curriculum to Reflect Technology (Warner et a l., 1947) advocated the splitting of the program formerly referred to as power and transportation into two separate programs. Some would argue that since one of the divisions is dependent upon the other there are no clearly defined lines which distinguish the content of one division from that of the other, therefore, the content of these two divisions should not be fragmented.

Ten years later, Olson (1957* P* 16) completed his dissertation entitled Technology and Industrial Arts. He proposed an expansion of the original five divisions of technology to include "research and development and service." 48 In the final analysis, this proposal advocates the further fragmentation of the content since many of the laboratory experiences associated with the field of Inquiry may be classified as service In nature.

The specific contribution of this latter proposal to the organization of the divisions of "power" and "transpor­ tation" are somewhat negated, due to the authors use of

"words." The outlines provided tend not to clearly communi­ cate the organizational pattern that has been proposed. It may be concluded that an "expert" in this phase of the pro­ gram would have difficulty deriving any meaningful direction from the outlines provided.

Recent developments

R is h e r ( I 96OA, p. 46) published a series of five articles In the Industrial Arts and Vocational Education which were designed to examine the major aspects of the emerging power mechanics program. The first article entitled "Why

Power Mechanics" attempted to formulate a foundation for this newly emerging program. He states:

Power mechanics is becoming an identifiable Industrial arts Instructional area. . . . this program evolves around mechanical power—its sources, devel­ opment, utilization, control, transmission and future prospects which gives promise of providing an under­ standing of mechanized industry from the standpoint of past industrial development, information about today*s machines, and a foundation for understanding expected future mechanical developments. 49 This author relies on socioeconomic data in an effort to establish the importance of this program of study# Fac­ tors such as industrial production and the change from muscu­ lar forms of power to mechanical means in the United States tend to support his position. The table which follows tends to illustrate the rapid changes which have taken place.

TABIE 2

CHANGE FROM MUSCULAR TO MECHANICAL POWER IN THE UNITED STATES— 1880 TO I9 6 0

A nim al Human M e ch a n ica l Billions of D ate Power Power Power Hp. H rs .

1880 6 8 .6 $ 1 4 .2 $ 1 7 .2 $ 6 .8

1900 5 1 .7 1 0 .5 3 8 .2 3 1 .3

1920 2 0 .8 5 .7 7 3 .5 1 4 5 .0 1940 6 .4 3 .6 9 0 .0 2 6 0 .4

I 960 1 .3 2 .4 9 6 .3 4 7 1 .6

S o u rc e : Deitfhurst, America*s Needs and Resources, Appendix 32.

A fully developed program is envisioned by Rlsher (I 96OA, p. 47) as including a study of the following:

1. Each of the various energy sources 2. The development of energy forms into various types of power 3. The historical development of each type of power 4. Methods of utilization, distribution and control of power 50 5 ■> Transmission, measurement and future prospects o f power

6. The social and economic problems involved

The second article by Risher ( 196OB, p . 20) e n t i t l e d “Suggested Content for Power Mechanics" tends to be incon­ sistent with the above listed proposal for a fully developed program. Major emphasis is placed on a study of the various

operational systems of small gasoline engines in the program outlined. Tie study of other energy sources is included only as an introduction. The justification for this approach appears to stem primarily from the availability of small

engines and the fact that major scientific and operational

principles involved in this source of power tend to be con­

sistent with those associated with larger power plants. Other articles in this series (Risher, 196IA, B, and

C) were concerned with resource m aterials, tools and equip­ ment, and laboratory planning. This series of articles as well as the personal assistance provided by this educator

has certainly made a significant contribution to the further

development of this program. The pioneering nature of his

endeavors partially accounts for the narrow conception of

the program. Feirer's (i 9 6 0, p. 17) article entitled "The Case

for Power Mechanics" tends to support Risher*s position.

He lists the reasons for a course in power mechanics as a 51 fundamental part of all junior or intermediate school indus­ tria l arts programs as follows: 1. It is a good introduction to the service indus­ tries. The most rapidly growing occupational group in the United States includes the people in service industries who do maintenance and repair work on manufactured items. . . . 2. It gives the student a chance to study about power. Students learn about the principal sources of power, when and how these were de­ veloped and what they are used for.

3. It is an excellent tie between metalworking and electricity since all power mechanics units are basically metal and function through the use of an electrical system.

4. It w ill motivate students to study related science and social science.

Two years after the series of five articles were w ritten by Risher, another series of articles authored under the title of "Another Look at Power" was published. These articles were intended to examine the fu ll range of the pro­ gram under topic heads of (1)"The Rationale of Power Mechanics j" (2) "Custer!s Program in Power and Transporta­ tion;" (3) "Ideas for the Superior Program in Power;" and (4) "Industrial Support for Power Programs."

Atteberry (1962, p. 42), writing on "'Hie Rationale of Power Mechanics," expresses the following major focal p o i n t s :

1. "Power mechanics, . . ., is an attempt to give meaning by application to the basic principles or mechanical systems found bn our most com­ monly used machines, both vehicles and appli­ a n c e s . 52 2. The primary aim of this program is to teach the basic operational principles of our most commonly used machines.

3. Other units that appear to be appropriate are hydraulics, pneumatics, and refrigeration. . . . it may also include appliances and other machines of home and industry.

4. The student should be involved in laboratory activities on live units with the use of models as a last resort.

One of the reoccurring themes of this article advo­ cates the inclusion of appliances in the program. This type of Instruction is generally associated with the "home mechanics" program which has grown out of the "life*s need" proposal which w ill be discussed later in this chapter.

Eberhardt (1962, p. 44), writing the second article in this series, describes the power and transportation pro­ gram as it has been developed at Custer High School in

Milwaukee. He states that "the need for some instruction in the basic principles of internal-combustion engines is apparent." Thus, one can observe a classic example of an article which tends to further confound and confuse this program due to the fact that neither this author nor the publisher apparently make any distinction between the power mechanics and power and transportation program.

Margules (1962, p. 48) envisions a program in power which treats not only internal combustion engines, but also a ll of the known means of power development, generation and transmission. Such a program should Include a study of 53 power and Its transm ission as developed from prime movers, such as wind, water, combustion and nuclear, solar and chemical energies. He concludes that "such a study w ill provide youngsters with deeper insights Into the practical applications of physical science. It is through meaningful application of scientific principles and laws that technicians of the future w ill be able to serve himself, his country and m an k in d ."

The position advocated by Margules (1962) expresses a predominant theme in the development of the newly emerging power mechanics program. Indirectly, he is suggesting that content be drawn from the physical sciences and that the

product of such a program should be a technician. There is

a noted relationship between the position taken by this author and the "applied science approach" to program deri­

vation discussed later.

A college program. Sredl (1962, p.53) has written

the only article which specifically relates to the develop­ ment of a teacher education program in power. The Instruc­ tional program described is organized under the major head­

ing of "internal and external heat engines." All of the major engine sources are included under the classifications

of jet, diesel, turbine, etc. This author advocates that 54 an introduction to each of the major energy sources should include a discussion of each of the following: 1. History and development

2. Basic principles of operation

3 . F u e l

4. Advantages

5- Disadvantages 6. Application

The advantage of this approach lies in the fact that stu­ dents are involved in a comparison of each of the energy sources. However, it is generally agreed that a "systems" approach to the organization of content relative to each of the energy sources is most helpful in analyzing the rela­ tionship of the parts to the whole.

Student laboratory experiences advocated for this program include (1) work on engines, (2) construction of projects relating to the area of study, and (3) construction of working models and cutaways displaying the basic opera­ tional principles. No mention Is made of the service impli­ cations or procedures.

Power measurement. Poucher and Reams (1963# p. 29), In an article entitled "Nhat*s Your Horsepower?" describe the components and procedure followed in the development of a dynomometer for the measuring the horsepower of small two and four cycle engines. This is accomplished by using a simple water brake, rpm Indicator, and scales. A thermocouple 55 is also used to determine the affect of engine temperatures on power output. Since the publication of this article, Go Power Corporation has manufactured a complete unit to specifically serve this purpose. This dynamometer is avail­ able through one of the major concerns which provide equip­ ment and supplies for industrial education programs.

Power technology. A recent article by Schank (1964, p. 64), entitled "Power Technology," outlines a program involving the principles, behind (1) such mechanism as levers, gears, and cam©.) (2) electricity; (3) fluid dynamics; (4) chemical energy; (5) fuel cells; (6) thermal energy; (7) fuel cells; (8) ground effect machines and vertical take-off planes; as well as (9) a study of small engines. He con­ tends that this program should also recognize the hobbyist*s interest in the construction and flying of U-control or radio-controlled model planes and boats. He concludes that

"since power is an important part of our everyday life, it is therefore logical that power technology should be a basic part of the industrial arts curriculum offering."

The use of the term "power technology" indicates a noteworthy change in terminology. Schank (1964, p. 40) emphasizes the fact that the "current conceptions of power technology have been misconstrued and courses in power mechanics are merely automotive classes." This fact in no way sublimates the importance or value of the automotive program. However, his statement does point out an age old 5 6 problem of using popular terminology to describe a program regardless of whether the definition of such terms are con­ sistent with the program being offered. Thus, the problem is twofold: (1) the terminology and definitions used tend to be very broad which allows considerable latitude in program conceptualization, and (2) educators tend to change course titles to be "in tune with the times" without realistically examining the implications of such change. The entire responsibility for this type of internal inconsistency is not necessarily limited to the error of educators. Equipment manufacturers and book publishers also cause erroneous thinking. For example, no less than three years ago the catalogs of both Broadhead-Garrett and Freeman Supply contained a major section which was labeled "Auto­ motive o" The recent edition of their catalogs use the terms "Power Technology" and "Power Mechanics," respectively.

There have been very few items added to these catalogs dur­ ing this period of time. This situation tends to add to the confusion when one examines these sources and find that the tools and equipment listed pertain almost exclusively to the automotive field.

In a most recent publication, Pritchett (1965, p. 6 5) describes the power program as being neither an automotive 57 course nor a course devoted to small engine overhaul. He c o n te n d s :

If either of the above (automotive or small engine) are contemplated* forget about calling it . . . power. . . . A power program should be a study of the development, measurement, transmis­ sion and utilization of all types of power. Hi is w ill include the following topical units: 1. Introduction to Power 2. Power Development Through Prime Movers 3. Power Measurement 4. Transmitting Power by Mechanical Means 5. Transmitting Power by Fluid Means 6. Fuels and Lubricants

Hius, the program outlined advocates an even broader per­ spective to include the transmission and utilization of pow er.

Teaching aids. Quilling (1964), Hanmaek (1964), and Myslivecek (1965) each describe an aid to teaching the power program. Quilling provided a detailed plan for a combina­ tion seating unit and storage compartment. Hammack describes a plan for the construction of multipurpose-action

internal-combustion engine mock-up which is designed to facilitate the teaching of the principles involved in the

two and four stroke cycle compression and spark engines.

Myslivecek proposes a plan for a student-centered, self­

teaching unit appropriate for a unit on small gasoline

e n g in e s .

Programmed instruction. A rticles by Drozdoff (1964),

Face (1964), and Spence (1964) have endeavored to outline

the procedures and techniques used in the development of 58 programmed instruction units. These authors generally agree that there is an urgent need for the continued development of programmed instruction units appropriate to the various programs in industrial education.

Plezia (1964) and Trudeau ( 1965* p. 48) have pro­ vided examples of a linear program on "electricity" and "work and energy," which relate directly to the power mechanics program. The program on work and energy is designed to provide an "understanding of the operation of the Internal combustion engine and its underlying scientific principles." Thus, educators have been provided with some guidelines for the future development of programmed in­ structional units.

Rocketry. Sredl and Ewald (1964) outline a procedure for the meaningful implementation of a unit on rocketry into the power mechanics program. They contend that in addition to teaching the fundamental principles involved in rocket boosters, model rocketry can be used to actively involve students in research and experimentation experiences. They advocate following the procedures advocated by the "model rocketry movement " since it does not involve experimentation with fuels or the building of metal containers which later may become a deadly bomb. 'Hie boosters used in this program were commercially prepared solid-fuel rocket engines.

A ctivities associated with this unit on rocketry include

(1) the assembly and firing of one, two, and three stage 59 rockets; (2) the development and application of a variety of research apparatus; and (3) the measurement of thrust. Fluid power. Educators who take the position that industrial arts should be primarily concerned with providing an "understanding of industry" are increasingly advocating that a study of fluid power be included in the power mechanics program. Part of the present Impetus for the fluid power movement has grown out of a Fluid Power Institute which was held at Wayne State University in the summer of 1964. This institute was sponsored by the National Fluid Power Associ­ ation with the understanding that those teacher educators who participated would return to their respective institu­ tions and initiate a sim ilar program during the following sum m er.

Risher (1965* PP» 38-9) sent a questionnaire to the teacher educators and industrialists who participate in the Fluid Power Institute. Among other things he asked the respondents to state their opinion with regard to the estab­ lishment of an instructional program in fluid power at the secondary school level. The respondents generally endorsed the idea with the exception of including such a program at the junior high level.

Henke ( 1963* p. 40) states that "it has been esti­ mated that 80 t o 90 per cent of all the machines in a large industrial plant utilize one or more forms of fluid power."

He further points out that from an economic point of view it 6 0 would be virtually impossible to build a piece of heavy con­ struction or farm equipment usod today without fluid power.

This author suggests that educational institutions must assist industry in the training of personnel in this field.

Fisher (1965* PP* 41-2) indicates that a fluid power program may be conducted either in the machine shop or may be included as the second semester of a power mechanics course for senior high students of various levels of ability.

He proposes that such a program would include instruction organized around the following units: (1) basic fluids, (2) reservoirs, (3) strainers and filters, (4) hydraulic oils,

(5) hydraulic pumps, (6) hydraulic valves, (7) actuators, (8) circuits, and (9) servo valves. Suggested student activ­ ities would include (1) disassembly and assembly of equip­ ment, (2) constructing circuits on circuit tables, (3) applying of hydraulic controls to common machine tools, (4) the making of cutaways and other equipment, and (5) the per­ forming of various experiments with oil, force, pressure and area. The position one takes with regard to the nature of the fluid power offering in part depends upon the goals to be attained as well as the availability of the necessary components.

T ex tbooks

As mentioned in Chapter I, there have been five text­ books published since 1961 which specifically pertain to the 61 field of power mechanics. A brief analysis of each of these books w ill be of further assistance in showing the progress which has taken place in this brief period of time. The discussion which follows w ill center around an evaluation of' the content of each of these major references.

Atteberry (1961) published the first textbook in this field entitled Power Mechanics which is part of the Goodheart-

Willeox "Build-A-Book" series. The content of this book evolves around a discussion of the following topics: (1) heat engines, (2) the piston engine, (3) engine fuel systems,

(4) piston engine electrical systems, (5) engine cooling systems, (6) engine bearings, (7) lubricating internal com­ bustion engines, (8) power transmission, (9) service and troubleshooting, and (10) job opportunities in power mechanics.

The content and activities outlined primarily center around small gasoline engines. Many of the illustrations as well as descriptive information shows a striking resemblance to that found in literature readily available from a variety of manufacturers. Other sources of power such as the diesel,

jet and rocket engines are only briefly mentioned.

The next book by Glenn (1962) entitled Exploring Power

Mechanics contains four basic chapters devoted to (1) power,

(2) fundamentals of electricity, (3) small engines, and (4) general safety practices. The first chapter on power deals

briefly with the historical development of power, simple 62 machines, types of engines—piston and turbine, and engine power computation. The chapter on fundamentals of electric­ ity covers the fundamental principles of electricity and magnetism. The illustrations used are typically automotive oriented. The small engines chapter places primary emphasis on servicing procedures. The last chapter on safety is a carryover from other writings of this author.

These first two books on the topic of power mechanics are rather limited in terms of the scope of the content cov­ ered. The primary emphasis placed on small gasoline engines although sound educationally, represents a rather narrow concept of this field of study as w ill be evidenced by later publications. The content of these books tends to be service and consumer oriented.

Some rather significant improvements are evident in

Stephenson*s (1963, P* 1) book entitled Power Mechanics. First, this author has defined power mechanics as pertaining to "a study of Energy Sources and Machines that Convert Energy into Useful Work." He has further indicated that such a course should be ooncerned with (a) "a survey of energy applications with primary emphasis on propulsion and (b) use of the small gasoline engine as a major unit of study. . ."

Second, in addition to the traditional laboratory experi­ ences including disassembly, assembly, repair, maintenance, etc., this author advocates experiments dealing with jet,

rocket, gas turbine, and atomic power sources. Such experiences are to Involve the verification or illustration of the underlying scientific principles related to these power devices.

This book is divided into five basic sections which include (1) an introduction, (2) internal combustion engines—small gasoline engines as well as other heat engines, (3) external combustion engines, (4) electrical energy, and (5) atomic and solar energy. Units one through ten of this book (Sections 1 and II) deal exclusively with factors relating tc the small gasoline engine. Under the classification of "other internal combustion engines" is included a discussion of the automobile, diesel, jet, rocket and regenerative gas turbine engines. The steam engine and turbine are separately classified under the section pertain­ ing to external combustion engine. The unit on electrical energy revolves around a discussion of the principles of electricity and magnetism needed to understanding the oper­ ation of various electrical circuits associated with each of the power sources. The last section provides a brief dis­ cussion of atomic and solar energy as well as future sources of power such as the direct heat— to-electricity energy con­ v e r t e r s . This book represents the best reference presently available for use in the secondary schools. This conclusion is based on such factors as breadth of content, reading level, and nature of the secondary programs. 64

Gibbons and Moody (1964) have made a rather abortive attempt to publish a combination textbook and laboratory manual. This publication entitled Power Mechanics tends not to be related to the previously described publications. Con­ tent ranges from an introduction to power to a vague discus­ sion of new power sources. The authors (Gibbons and Moody,

1964, p. iii) suggest that "this book is designed specifi­ cally to be supplemented by a good teacher and adequate reference m aterials." This statement may be taken literally since their content analysis tends to further confound and confuse the organization of this subject matter. The most recent publication (Duffy, 1964) entitled

Power—Prime Mover of Technology is derived from an analysis of the historical development of various prime movers such as the internal combustion engine, reaction engine, and steam turbine engine which have furnished the power to effect our technological culture®

This book is also divided into five parts: (1) direct mechanical converters, (2) external combustion converters,

(3) internal combustion converters, (4) direct electrical converters, and (5) conventional electrical converters.

These broad areas of classification are sim ilar to those used by Stephenson ( 1963), although, different and sometimes foreign terminology is used.

Duffyfs (1964) book is intended as a college textbook applicable to teacher education programs as well as an introductory course in engineering. The content is more detailed in nature using a vocabulary and sentence structure which is considerably above that appropriate for secondary

school students. The historical orientation of this text­ book would further inhibit its use at the high school level. For example, the last chapter deals with exotic generators which includes a discussion of magnetohydrodynamic generators,

photovoltaic converters, and thermionic converters. Such a

study implies a background in physics, electricity and c h e m is try .

State Curriculum Guides

A review of the literature pertaining to the power mechanics program may be considered incomplete without the

examination of the guides pertaining to this program avail­ able from the various states. A systematic attempt was made

to determine the extent to which state curriculum guides were available to the public school teachers in each of the 50

states. A letter was sent to the state supervisor requesting state publications which pertained to the power mechanics program. The following discussion involves the reply to

this request as well as a brief summary of the resource material provided by selected states. It should be noted that only nine of the 50 states surveyed presently provide some

type of guide for the power mechanics teachers of their

respective state. 66

C a li f o r n ia

Dr. Robert L. Woodward (1964), Consultant in Indus­

trial Arts Education stated in his reply that one section of the new state industrial arts publication would be devoted to

power mechanics. The flow chart which accompanied his response indicated that this program would be offered at both the junior and senior high school levels. Woodward

(1964) further stated that: "The present textbooks on Power

Mechanics are, to me, *physics courses on power related to the motor.*" Educators in California involved in producing the state publication feel that such programs tend not to devote an ample amount of time to the "doing" or "applying" aspect of the program. A recent publication from California, entitled Industrial Arts Course Outlines—Grades Seven, Eight, and

Nine (California, 1965, PP. 35-40), outlines the content of an introductory and basic program. This publication pro­

vides an outline of "topics for study, discussion and demon­

stration" as well as appropriate laboratory activities. The

proposed program appears to be broad or exploratory in nature covering the major energy sources.

F lo r id a

Ralph V. Steeb (1964), Consultant for Industrial Arts,

indicated that a very brief tentative outline is distributed

to power mechanics teachers upon request. However, he points 67 out that the best source of curriculum m aterials tend to be that w ritten by local school personnel. An example may be

found in the publication entitled an Introduction to Power Mechanics (Florida, 1964) which has been w ritten by the

teachers of the Dade County Public Schools. The program described in this publication includes the following instructional units:

1. History and Development of Power by Man 2. Theory of Power 3. Tool Identification and Use 4. Fuels and Lubrication 5. Ignition 6. Carburetion 7 . C o o lin g 8. Fundamentals of E lectricity and Electrical S ystem s 9. Transmission of Power and Power Trains 10. Engine Construction 11. Minor Tune-up and Service 12. Shop Safety

Sample examination questions are included for each of the units of instruction. The appendixes provide such informa­ tion as: (1) suggested tool inventory) (2) resource materials)

(3) teaching aids) (4) films and film strips) (5) student work reports) and (5) industrial courses for teachers.

I l l i n o i s Amos D. Coleman (1964), Supervisor of Industrial Arts

Education, believes that the State of Illinois is rather

progressive in the development of the power mechanics pro­

gram which has been a direct result of the Illinois Power

Mechanics Teachers Association. This association has 68 published (l) a list of "manufacturer*s aids" ( 2 ) a c o u rs e outline, and ( 3 ) a list of suggested texts and references.

A state publication entitled Guidelines for Indus­ tria l Arts Instruction (Illinois, 1964) has been developed to provide a standard for teac ters in the presentation of

"ideas and principles" related to tools and m aterials. This publication outlines a nine week junior high program as well a s a 36 week senior high program devoted to power mechanics.

In d ia n a

Harold C. Boone (1964), State Supervisor of Industrial

Arts, provided the only official state publication devoted entirely to the power mechanics program. A Guide for Teach­

ing Power Mechanics in Industrial Arts in Indiana (Indiana,

1964) represents the work of selected teacher educators and

public school teachers under the direction of the Industrial

Arts Central Curriculum Committee. The content of this guide is organized under the following major headings: ( 1 )

technical content outline, ( 2 ) texts and references, ( 3 )

audio-visual aids, (4) teaching activities, and (5) student activities. Major instructional units included are as fol­

lo w s: ( 1 ) introduction to power mechanics; ( 2 ) pow er g e n e r ­ ation through prime movers; (3) power measurement; (4) power transmission—mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic and electri­ c a l ; (5) fuels and lubricants; ( 6) internal combustion

engines—small gasoline engines, outboard engines, automobiles engine, diesel engine, aircraft-recriprocating reaction, rocketry, and gas turbine; (7) ©team; (8) atomic and solar

energy; and (9) experimental power sources. This curriculum guide provides the most comprehensive analysis of the program presently available.

M ichigan

Mr. Hazen (1964) reported that a working copy of a

curriculum guide in power had been completed and was being

revised. The culmination of the work of his committee re­ sulted in a curriculum guide entitled Power ( 1965, p . i ) . The central theme of the guide evolves around a story of "the

history of man!s efforts in converting energy to use; in work." Units of instruction are organized around pertinent

phases and sources of power such as wind, steam, electricity, heat engines, atomic energy, and the theory and application of those potential forces in our present day industrial

society. Each unit of instruction is sub-divided in terns of

objectives, activities and resources.

Mr. E stell H. Curry (1964), Assistant Director of Vo­

cational Education, for the Detroit Public Schools, reports

that several publications related to power have been devel­

oped within the system. These publications include the

following s

1. Teacher8s Manual for Energy and Propulsion

2. Teacher8s Manual for Marine Engines and U tility B o ats 70

3* Teacher *s Manual for Automotive Mechanics 4. Teacher8s Manual for Fluid Power

The Teacher *s Manual for Energy and Propulsion (D etroit, 1962) relates to the automobile, outboard marine, steam and aircraft engines, electricity, fluid power, gas turbine, solar, solar fuel and aerospace vehicle engine systems. Hie Teacher*s Manual for Marine Engines and U tility Boats (D etroit,

1964) is being developed on an experimental basis. The pro­ gram outlined ranges from highly theoretical pre-engineering concepts to simple pre-service experiences. Hie Teacher*s

Manual for Fluid Power (Detroit, 1964) is oriented toward the development of a trade-preparatory program for the less than average ability, as well as the high and post high school pre-engineering and/or science oriented student.

M is s o u ri

Wheeler (1964), Director of Industrial Education, reports that the State Department of Education has published Hunter*s (1962) Course of Study in Power Mechanics. This publication serves as a guide for the development of power mechanics programs in the state. Major Instructional units described in this publication include (1) engines, a source of power; (2) general safety; (3) operational systems, mechan­ ical, ignition etc.; (4) trouble shooting and tune-up; (5) reconditioning; and (6) power transmission. 71 North Dakota

Richard K. Klein (1964), Director of Secondary Educa­ tion, forwarded a copy of a publication entitled Industrial

Arts Education in North Dakota (North Dakota, I 963) w hich

lists power mechanics as one of the major offerings in the

industrial arts curriculum. The outlines provided are rather brief including such units as (1) simple machines, (2) engine operational systems, (3) service and maintenance, and (4) fuels.

Ohio A committee is presently preparing "A Curriculum Guide in Power and Automotive Technology" designed to provide some

guidelines in the development of public school programs.

This bulletin is being published and distributed by the State

Department of Education under the sponsorship of the Ohio

Industrial Arts Association. The tentative completion date

should be prior to the 1966 convention. A Guide for Indus­

tria l Arts in Ohio Schools (Ohio, 1959) provides some general

guidelines for the organization of a power program.

Texas

Roger L. Barton (1964), former Chief Consultant for

Program Development, indicated that "an advisory committee has begun work on a teacher's guide for power mechanics." A recent follow-up revealed that Barton's replacement knew

nothing about this committee, therefore, a detailed analysis of the status of this publication cannot be provided. How­ ever, excerpts from Bulletin Number 615 entitled "Industrial

Arts" (Texas, 1961, p. 152) briefly outlines each of the public school program offerings. The introductory power pro­ gram involves a study of selected power units; their design, theory of operation, and function. Power units studied include model jet and reciprocating engines, small air- cooled engines and automobile engines. The advanced program includes "a study of the design and use of selected power units and components; industrial power units, tractors, fluid coupling, hydraulic systems, power control systems (mechanical, electrical and electronic), gears, and steering geometry." laboratory experiments are given little emphasis in favor of service work on live units.

In summary, only nine of the 50 states presently . provide w ritten guidelines for the development of public school programs in power. The guides presently available range in complexity from very brief to rather complete and complex. Generally speaking, each of the guides reviewed utilize a different format and organizational pattern. The more recent publications tend to advocate a broad program involving all significant power sources. There is also a noted trend toward associating the power mechanics program with the junior high school industrial arts program. 73 Derivation of the Curriculum

Since one of the major goals of this report is that of projecting a program in power technology, it would appear logical to examine the major concepts which have been re­ sponsible for the determination of the "body of knowledge" appropriate to the field of industrial arts education. Such an examination should prove helpful in conceptualizing the relationship between the project program and the total field of inquiry. Thus, the discussion which follows w ill en­ deavor to examine the fundamental proposals which have attempted to generate an over-all program.

Swanson (1965* P. 47) has provided a rather perceptive analysis of those groups of proposals which have attempted to define the "body of knowledge" from which the content of industrial arts should be drawn. These groups include the following approaches: (1) life 8s needs, (2) crafts and trades, (3) applied science, and (4) a study of industry. The latter category can be further subdivided into four parts. The examination of each of these proposals is primarily aimed at providing the reader with an understanding of the diversity which exists as well as determining the extent to which the power technology program is included.

Life8s needs approach All phases of general education advocate the prepara­ tion of youth for life in one way or another. The basis for 74 this approach in industrial arts education is reported by

Swanson (1965* p. 48) to have been derived from a proposal by Dr. Charles A. Prosser at the 1945 conference of the

Division of Vocational Education which pertained to life adjustment education. The basis for this proposal came from enrollment figures showing a comparison of the percentages of students who aspire into higher education and those who entered the work-a-day world. Prosser took the position that those students who entered college received occupational training necessary for life adjustment while those who entered the labor market were being overlooked.

The body of knowledge in the life %s needs approach was prim arily drawn from an analysis of those activities which people commonly were asked to perform. This approach di­ rectly resulted in such industrial arts activities as home mechanics, consumer education, and hobby and recreational p ro g ra m s.

The life 8 s needs approach appears to have had a rather lim ited influence in the conception and development of the power program. However, the data contained in Chapter III tends to indicate that there are in faet teacher educators who include home mechanics type experiences in this program.

Craft or trade approach

The craft or trade approach basically evolves out of

a majority of the readily accepted definitions of industrial 75 which frequently involve such terminology as a study of occu­

pations, tools, machines, processes, m aterials or products of industry. In practice, therefore, many of the public school and teacher education programs are involved in pro­ viding experiences with tools, machines, processes, m aterials or products of industry. The primary goal in these programs

range from vocational or skill orientation to a general

exploration.

The origin of this approach may be traced back to

Bennett who in 1917 advocated that "manual arts" include the

fields of (1) graphic arts, (2) mechanic arts, (3) the plas­

tic arts, (4) the textile arts, and (5) the bookmaking arts.

These programs have since been updated to include programs in

(1) woodworking, (2) automechanics, (3) metalworking, etc.

Each of these programs encompasses one or more trades or

crafts from which content is derived via means of an occupa­ tional or trade analysis. For example, woodworking includes the crafts of carpentry, pattern making, and cabinet making

(Swanson, 1965* P» 49). Major publications which have tended to advocate this approach include the American Vocational A ssociation^ (1946) (1953) Improving Instruction in Industrial Arts and A Guide

for Improving Instruction in Industrial Arts. The latter

publication outlined the objectives, interest areas, t y p e s

of experiences and informational topics appropriate to each

of the various instructional programs. The primary means of identifying content or units of instruction within a gi4en program has been the analysis technique advocated by Selvidge (1946), Fryklund (1942) and

Priese (1958). This technique involves the identification and listing for instructional purposes those essential ele­ ments of an occupation, process, or activity. This system further involves the development of job sheets, operation sheets, and related information which are used to facilitate the instructional process. The programs derived from this proposal have been accepted as being consistent with major industrial classifi­ cations. Often employment figures and other economic data are used to support the various program divisions.

The predominant influence of this basis for program derivation is readily observed in the confusion which exists beteen the "trade oriented" automotive program and newly emerging power mechanics program. Yoho (1962, pp. 11-12) advocates the "analysis tech­ nique" for the determination of the various programs of study.

He defines this technique as follows; . . . the process by which educators study a trade subject such as welding or an industrial arts activity such as plastics and identify the repetitive operations and the informational content to be taught to a learner, whose goal is to become proficient or develop understanding in such a sub­ ject or activity. This author, using the analysis technique, advocates a change from a program offering based on m aterials, products 77 or machines to the organization of content under the follow­ ing major headings: (1) "manufacturing arts," (2) "service arts," (3) "construction arts," (4) "communication arts," and (5) a miscellaneous category to include "craft, hobby and recreation."

Applied science approach

There are those who view industrial arts as involving a study of the application of science to the solution to man*s problems. For many years industrial educators have laid claim to making use of the principles of mathematics and science in their respective programs.

Swanson (1965* p. 51) concludes that Industrial arts curriculum builders have followed three general approaches in drawing content from mathematics and science which i n c lu d e s — 1. Special emphasis on problems calling for appli­ cations of mathematics and science.

2. Illustration and testing of scientific-mathe­ matical principles. 3. Bodily adopting of certain parts of mathematics and science.

The third approach is more readily apparent in the extension and up-grading of the industrial arts curriculum.

For example, the adoption of units of instruction such as the fundamentals of electricity, fluid power, atomic and solar energy, etc. into the power mechanics courses illustrates

this point. This program content draws heavily from the 78 fields of engineering and physics. The resulting effort has demanded that an increasing amount of time be devoted to teaching theory. Swanson (1965, p. 53) states that "Of all the efforts which have achieved widespread acceptance in practice, this (the applied science approach) probably comes closest to drawing its content directly from a well defined and established body of knowledge." Specific examples of this approach are readily appar­ ent in the textbooks previously reviewed as well as other publications such as Industrial Arts and Science (Woodward,

1962) and Fundamentals of Applied Machines (Cornetet and Fox, 1944). The former publication is specifically intended to determine (1) the scientific content of industrial arts courses, and (2) the best way of Increasing the practical application of scientific principles to each of the areas.

The latter publication is used as a major reference in the power mechanics program in one of the 84 institutions sur­ veyed. It Is primarily concerned with providing understand­ ings of the application of scientific principles to machines through the use of research and experimentation experiences. The concept of "research and Experimentation" advo­ cated in the writings of Maley ( 1963), Earl (1960A,B), and Olson (1963) further illustrates the applied science approach These w riters advocate the Involvement of students in experi­ ences designed to determine the validity of basic under­ 79 standings related to the particular field of study. Succes­ sive steps involved in this concept include ( 1 ) the genera­ tion of a meaningful hypothesis; ( 2 ) the determination of materials to be used; ( 3 ) the design and construction of experimentation equipment; (4) development of a systematic testing procedure; including appropriate safety precautions;

( 5) performing the experiment; ( 6) recording results; and

(7) drawing conclusions to either accept or reject the original hypothesis.

E a r l ( i 960, p. 24) advocates that the research and experimentation program in indis tria l arts is a problem­ solving approach to education which allows "the student and teacher, together, to form a technical team to define the problem, structure the procedure, conduct the experiment, and record the findings." The advantages brought about by this approach include the following: 1. Research challenges the student to explore the unknown.

2. Research problems investigated parallel in method, procedure, and equipment those of industry.

3. The investigative approach encourages students to examine references and contact industries.

4. The investigative approach requires students to examine many different m aterials and products.

5. The creative nature of research and experimenta­ tion fosters a type of freedom that helps to develop each student's individual abilities.

6. The analytical nature of research and experimen­ tation develops an awareness, on the part of the student, to the value of consumer shopping. 8o

The preceding discussion was endeavored to vividly illustrate two aspects of the applied science approach to curriculum development. F irst, this approach is capable of generating a broad body of knowledge with content appropri­ ate to each of several programs. Second, the newly emerging power mechanics program is in part drawing content from the fields of mathematics, science and engineering. Swanson

( 1965, p. 5*0 recently stated that— The advantages of making industrial arts wholly or partially applied science are apparent. These disciplines have established a structure and iden­ tified content. Pure science can be better under­ stood as its applications are seen. Greater under­ standing of principles makes them even more widely applicable. In this view, industrial arts is related to science in much the way that engineering is—it calls on scientific theory in the solution of practical problems.

Study of industry approach There appears to be several proposals involving a study of industry as the basis for deriving a body of knowledge for industrial arts. Each of these proposals generally con­ cur that the major content for this program should be drawn from industry as a whole rather than an analysis of a specific Tj industry or trade. The study of industry approach is clearly illustrated by those who advocate that the primary and per­ haps only purpose of the industrial arts program should be that of interpretirg industry or providing insights and understandings of industry in our culture. 8 1

Those major proposals deriving a program and subject matter content from a study of industry may include the f o llo w in g : 1. Technology approach

2. Functions of industry approach

3. Forces of industry approach 4. Conceptual approach

5* Common elements approach The discussion which follows w ill endeavor to examine each of the above;listed proposals. Technology approach. The basis for the technology approach may be traced back to the writings of Bonser (1930) which were further amplifed in A Prospectus for Industrial Arts (Ohio, 1934). This proposal advocated a study of indus­

try as a whole rather than the isolated parts of various

selected industries or trades. The conceptualization of the major categories of in­

dustry actually came in The Curriculum to Reflect Technology

(Warner et a l., 19^7, P* 3) which advocated content areas of (1) manufacture, (2) construction, (3) communication, (4)

power, (5) transportation, and (6) management. These major

divisions of industry are reportedly derived from an exam­

ination of the census and other economic data, although, no documentary evidence of this basis is provided.

Olson (1957, 1963) later added to the above listed

divisions those of (1) research, (2) service, and (3) elec­ 8 2 tronics which replaced communications. T hese d i v is io n s plus the original listing were assumed to account for all American industry that would be essential for a curriculum study in Industrial arts.

The major classifications derived from the technology approach have received rather limited acceptance. This lack of general acceptance of this approach is in part due to two factors. First, the proponents of the technology approach failed to establish pilot programs in which the concept could be studied and revised. Secondly, they have generally failed to establish the inherent advantages of this proposal.

Nevertheless, the technology approach has provided major con­ tent areas or divisions of industry under which specific

content can be organized.

Functions of industry approach. A recent proposal by

Bateson and Stern (1963* P» 10) critical of the technology approach previously discussed on two counts. First, these authors contend that "The Census of Manufacturers used as a

basis for deriving the content areas is intended to report economic data rather than provide a basis for curriculum development." Second, "no attempt has been made to synthe­

size the analytical data into a format which lends itself

to the fulfillm ent of educational objectives."

These authors (Bateson and Stern, 1963, p. 11) propose

that the body of knowledge be drawn from the "functions" of

industry whose role it is to produce and service the products which society requires. They advocate that all goods produc­ ing industries are involved in many rather universal "func­ tions" in the design, development, manufacture, distributing, an! marketing of a product. These universal functions are identified as ( 1 ) "research," ( 2 ) "product development," ( 3 ) "planning of production," (4) "manufacturing—custom or mass," and ( 5) "distribution." The goods servicing industry is reported to include;

( 1 ) " d ia g n o s is " ; ( 2 ) "correction involving adjusting, re­ placement and repair"; and (3) "testing." Thus, an attempt is made to generalize these functions as they apply to in­ dustry as a whole rather than accept the traditional classi­ fications involving industrial materials and processes. It may be concluded that this proposal is in a rather embryonic stage of development needing further refinement and clarifi­ c a t i o n .

Forces of industry approach. A recent doctoral thesis

(Stadt, 1962) proposes that industrial arts should aim at providing understandings of the often hidden, subtle "forces" generated by industry. Such an effort should contribute to the intelligibility of such forces. Stadt (1962, p. 92 ) illustrates this approach by using an example of an economic force generated by industry. He states that "Industry has been largely responsible for the standard of living we enjoy. It has become financially possible for large numbers of the population to purchase many goods and services." This 84 economic force then becomes the central theme of study.

M aterials which would contribute to an understanding of this force includes:

1. Theories which represent attempts to explain industry*s role in the overall economy, . . .

2. Theories which represent attempts to develop principles for economic decision making within the corporation (Stadt, p. 92).

This approach proposes that the "forces of industry" become th e central theme from which the specific aspects of the program are derived. An apparent weakness of this pro­

posal stems from its failure to carry this concept beyond

the illustration stage. The author leaves the actual devel­ opment of content to a research team and subject matter specialists from the various disciplines. Conceptual approach. The conceptual approach to pro­

gram derivation described by Face, Flug, and Swanson (1965) in the recent yearbook of the American Council of Industrial Arts Teacher Education is intended to change the traditional

program of industrial arts education. This new approach was first funded by a grant from the U.S. Office of Education and

later by a grant from the Ford Foundation. Hie program

derived from this conceptual approach is called American

Industry. The broad objectives of this program include

(Face, Flug, & Swanson, 1964, p. 62):

1. To develop an understanding of those con­ cepts which directly apply to industry. 85 2. To develop the ability to solve problems related to industry.

The conceptual approach of American Industry is aimed at identifying the basic concepts and ideas which are common to a variety of industries. The example provided illustrates that all forms of fasteners can be logically categorized under three major concepts: (1) "fastening by adhesion," (2)"by cohesion," or (3) "by mechanical linkage." These concepts then become the center for learning experiences which are applicable to many industries. This proposal, likewise, attempts to categorize understandings rather than industries, m aterials or occupations. Thus, understandings of concepts derived from this structure are reported to be

"universally applicable" in any specific industry which encompasses it.

The structure of American Industry has tentatively been categorized to include the following major concepts:

(1) communication, (2) energy, (3) transportation, (4) processes, (5) m aterials, (6) production, (7) management, (8) marketing, (9) purchasing, (10) personnel, public and industrial relations, (11) research and development, (12) physical facilities, (13) financing, and (14) public interest. The evolving program of American Industry is not envisioned as merely a new approach, or addition, to present industrial arts offering, but rather as displacing the traditional programs in the secondary schools. Since this 8 6 is an ongoing research project with adequate funds, it w ill be interesting to observe future developments. What is even more astounding about this proposal is the fact that it has been initiated at Stout State University which formerly has been noted for its traditional and often vocational orientation.

Common elements approach. Atteberry (1962, p. 43) also objects to the complete reorganization of the industrial arts curriculum proposed by the technology approach. How­ ever, he envisions a need for change from the traditional programs. This author proposes that—

. . . considerable support can be mustered for telescoping all of the traditional areas. I pro­ pose that we divide our industrial arts content into areas of ins true tionally feasible packages by common elements rather than the traditional single­ m aterial, areas as a basic course; (1) graphics (drawing, photography, printing), (2) metals* processes, (3) electricity and electronics, (4) fabrication and construction with cellulose and ceramic m aterials, and (5) power mechanics.

The logic of this proposal, however shallow it may be, is based on the assumption that a ll activities and knowledge h a v in g cosmnon p r i n c i p l e s , m a c h in e s, m a t e r i a ls and m ethods should be grouped together to avoid the "rediculous tempta­ tion of naming a new course for each new m aterial, process, or machine that may show on the industrial horizon." Sams

( 1965) concurs with this position and further suggest that the term of "industrial arts" no longer fits. His proposed t i t l e w as; "INDUSTROLOGY." 87 A new proposal

Towers * et a l. ( 1965) recently funded research pro­ ject entitled “An Industrial Arts Project for the Junior High School" has accepted the guidelines provided by Evans (1962) for the complete revision and development of the industrial arts curriculum. This research project is being funded through the provisions of Section 4(c) of the Voca­ tional Education Act of 1 9 6 3.

It Is the intent of the investigators to first examine industry in an effort to develop a taxonomically consistent, comprehensive and defensible structure of knowledge from which appropriate content for industrial arts education can be drawn. This conceptualization of the structure of indus­ try w ill be determined via means of an examination of the different categorization systems used to classify industry as reported In such publications as the Standard Industrial

C lassification Manual, the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, and the Census of Manufacturers. In addition, consultants from such disciplines as philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics, physical science, engineering, and industrial managements w ill provide assistance to the conceptualization of the structure as well as in later program development.

Step two of this research project involves the trans­ lation of the structure into syllabi which outline an educa­ tional program for boys and girls in the junior high school.

This first phase of this project w ill culminate in the 8 8 development of (1) a student laboratory manual; (2) textbook and other related study m aterial; and (3) a list of models, devices and films. The field testing and dissemination process w ill in part be dependent upon the availability of further appropriations.

In summary, there are four major groups of proposals for the generation of a "body of knowledge" appropriate to the field of industrial arts education. These proposals may be classified as follows: (1) the life*s needs approach; (2) the craft or trade approach; (3) the applied science approach, and (4) the study of industry approach. The latter classification may be further subdivided into five divisions which includes proposals derived from (a) technology, (b) functions, (c) forces; (d) concepts, and (e) common elements.

The most recent proposal advocates that the curriculum should be determined by an interdisciplinary approach.

The "research studies" and "related literature" sec­ tions of this chapter revealed that major developments in the decades of the 1940*s and 19508s may be directly associ­ ated with the technology approach which conceptualized this phase of the field of inquiry as being sub-divided into divisions of (1) transportation, (2) power, and (3) service.

However, the most recent developments tend to be directly associated with the applied science approach to determine the curriculum content. This trend is vividly illustrated in the Teacher8s Manual for Power-Prime Mover of Technology 89 (D u ffy , 1965). This publication primarily centers around

(1) the application of mathematics and science to the power program, and (2) the illustrating and testing of science and mathematics principles through research and experimentation experiences. It Is quite obvious that major portions of this publication have been taken directly from the mathe­ matics and science bodies of knowledge.

Derivation of Course Content

The discussion in the preceding section has been pri­ m arily devoted to a review of those proposals which have endeavored to conceptualize a "body of knowledge" which could be logically subdivided into various program offerings. The acceptance of the content areas derived from these proposals leads one to the point of determining the content which is considered to be appropriate. Several techniques for content derivation have been briefly mentioned in connection with the various techniques and procedures advocated for determining the subject matter content to be included in an industrial education program. There have been a variety of approaches to the deriva­ tion of content for industrial arts education. Wilbur (1945,

P. 53) mentions three such approaches, the first of these being the "trade analysis" approach advocated by Fryklund et a l. The second approach would allow "student interest" to dictate the content of a particular course. The third 90 method relies upon the "enthusiasm, hobbles, avocations, or teacher interest" to set the pace for the work to be accom­ p l is h e d .

London (1955, p. 47) has stated four major approaches to the problem of deriving content for the schools which includes the following:

1. Statements of fundamental premises about indi­ vidual and social needs have served as the basis for the curricular "experts" to prescribe educa­ tional content.

2. Expressions of educational needs and interests obtained from the recipients of education have served to determine what should be taught.

3. "(Ehird parties" such as employers, parents, sub­ ject matter specialist and the like have asked to outline the content.

4:. .Life’s activities have been analyzed to ascer­ tain what people must know and be able to do In order to perform those activities.

London concludes that Industrial arts education has "made some use of a ll four approaches."

A rather comprehensive review of the available lite r­ ature reveals that the predominant method of determining con­ tent has been the analysis technique which has been borrowed from^the field of trade and industrial education. An example of the application of this technique of selecting subject m atter may be found In the American Vocational

Association^ (1934) bulletin entitled Standards of Attain­ ment in Industrial-A rts Teaching. Extensive teaching units presented in this volume as well as the later revision 91 entitled Improving Instruction in Industrial Arts (AVA,

1946) were divided into three major categories: "the things you should be able to do," "the things you should know," and "the things should be." The first category involved manipu­ lative sk ill, knowledge of procedures, and construction processes. The second group involved information concerning qualities and characteristics of m aterials, together with other matters of general Interest to the field. The third group involved attitudes and habits which affect the success of individuals.

In recent years, the objectives established for Indus­ tria l arts education have tended to become more compatible with those of the total school program. As a result of this and other changes, the emphasis on content has been placed on related scientific knowledge and social habits rather than upon manipulative skills as was formerly the case.

Wilbur (1954, p. 5 8) expresses his discontent with the industrial analysis technique as a method of selecting specific content to be taught. He advocates that objectives should be expressed in terms of desirable behavior changes.

The suitability of subject matter may be checked by evalu­

ating it against the question, "Does it contribute signifi­ cantly toward bringing about one or more of the desired

behavior changes ?" Of this, he wrote: . . . If the answer is "yes," then that item may well become a part of the subject matter. If, on the other hand, the answer is "no," then—regardless 92 of how interesting or desirable that particular item may be—it should be rejected.

Friese (1953* PP* 208-11) has also discredited the analysis method of content selection for industrial arts pur­ poses. Among others, he list the following objections to this technique:

1. The circumscribing nature of analysis, with its tendency to make courses lose its freshness.

2. Its tendency to prevent student initiative and original planning.

3. Its non-adaptability to general industrial arts. This author further points out that the above listed objec­ tives have varying degrees of validity if the analysis tech­ nique is used in the traditional form. He states that "so far our professional writings have not provided much help in the form of substitutes for or modifications of the original form of analysis."

However, a modification of the original analysis tech­ nique has been provided by a formitable committee of the

r American Vocational Association which wrote A Guide to

Improving Instruction in Industrial Arts (AVA, 1953). This publication abondoned the traditional listing of "things to know" and "things to do." This committee chose instead to examine the objectives of industrial arts listing the sug­ gested behavior changes and their associated learning activities. Tie behavior changes were classified as skills, knowledge, attitudes or values, appreciations and special 93 ab ilities. This approach tends to be consistent with the position advocated by Wilbur (1954), in his book entitled Industrial Arts and General Education.

More recently, Maclean (1963, p. 2) has concluded that the product of the newer approaches is a curriculum in which the goal of learning is changed behavior; it focuses on the experiences that pupils have rather than on subject matter taught. Subject matter is not ignored, It is used instead as a tool that w ill help students achieve desired behavior. Learning experiences are arranged in some order, and sequence is found in the developmental (social, biologi­ cal and psychological) needs of a child.

This author (MacLean, 1963, p. 5) summarizes the mean­ ing of the "behavior change" approach to content selection in industrial arts education as follows:

1. Content is generated from the experiences re­ quired to produce changes In human behavior. 2. Behavior that is to be significant stems from educational goals or purposes.

3. Among educational goals are the requirements of: A. perpetuating and improving the culture—impor­ tant to the present topic is the notion that it is an industrial culture.

B. meeting human needs—these are psychological, socialj and biological. We already know things about how children learn, grow and develop w hich we do n o t c a p i t a l i z e o n .

4. . . . industrial arts has some definite responsi­ bilities . . . namely the portrayal of the scientific, technological, and industrial culture. . . . One of the most widely accepted authorities in the field of curriculum development (Taba, 1962, p. 427) out­ lines the following principles for content organization. First, attention must be focused on the task of examining the various relationships which exists among objectives, content, learning experiences and evaluation. Second, decisions must be made based on selected criteria concerning the scope, sequence and integration of the program being developed. Integration involves an examination of the relationships among disciplines or subjects. For example, scientific and social factors may be considered relevant to any given field of inquiry. Therefore, the content of a specific course may

logically involve ideas and concepts drawn from several disciplines.

T aba ( 1962, p. 438) has provided a schematic model of

a curriculum design which attempts to organize the various

factors involved ; the chief points at which curriculum deci­

sions are made; the considerations that apply to each; the

relationships that should exist among various steps and pro­

cedures; and the criteria for decisions. This model perhaps represents the most comprehensive blueprint presently

a v a i l a b l e .

Hie literature reviewed in this section would lead one

to conclude that there is no single approach to content

derivation universally accepted by industrial educators. The two techniqes most widely accepted in this field include 95 the trade analysis and behavior change approach. Specialist in curriculum development are presently advocating the use of a "model" to guide all aspects of decision making regard­ less of the discipline.

Philosophical Positions Regarding Curriculum Development

Glenn (1961, p. 22) verifies the existence of the

traditional and progressive positions described in Chapter I.

He describes the traditional automechani

He further indicates that the depth of such training depends

on the philosophy, objectives and equipment available in the

laboratory. The type of experiences in this program ranges from "pure theory" in which the study of the automobile is pursued solely through reading and class discussion, to the

repair approach of trade training. Table 3 represents Glenn5s ( 1961, p. 23) comparison of the traditional automechanics program with that of the more progressive power mechanics offering on the basis of

various instructional units appropriate to both programs.

An examination of this table reveals that there are marked

differences in the scope and purpose of these programs.

The information provided by Glenn points out three

fundamental differences between the two philosophical posi­

tions described as traditional and progressive. First, the

traditional program is entirely restricted to a study of the 9 6

TABIE 3

A COMPARISON OF THE TRADITIONAL AND PROGRESSIVE PROGRAMS

Ins true tional Types of Programs U n it Traditional Progressive Power History of power Nuclear engines Gasoline engines Diesel engines Electric motors Turbo-jet engines Turbo-prop engines Ram j e t e n g in e s R o c k ets

E n g in e s Repairing automotive Disassembling and as­ engines (with major sembling small engine emphasis on manipula­ units (with major em­ tive skills) phasis on applied science and mathematics)

E l e c t r i c a l Repairing automotive Experiments in funda­ electrical units (with mentals of electricity major emphasis on (with major emphasis on manipulative skills) applied science and mathematics service aspects of the automotive Industry in contrast to the

progressive program which provides a survey of a ll major energy sources. Second, the intent or goal of the traditional

program is vocationally oriented while the progressive pro­ gram tends to emphasize breadth. Third, perhaps the most

noteworthy difference involves the results desired from laboratory experiences. On one hand, the traditional program

stresses the maintenance and repair of components with the

intent of developing a saleable skill. On the other side of

the continuum one finds a program which involves students in 97 manipulative experiences with the intent of facilitating understandings of applied science and mathematics through the use of experimentation, disassembly, inspection, and re­ assembly activity. The fallacy of the traditional approach stems from the fact that it is nearly impossible to accom­ plish the vocationally oriented goal in the time allotted to this program.

The third aspect of Glenn*s comparative analysis of the progressive program versus the traditional program likens the modernized automotive program to that of the newly emerging power mechanics program. He views both of these programs as being prim arily concerned with the application of science and mathematics principles. The major difference lies in the energy source to which these principles are applied. This position tends to be somewhat unrealistic in actual practice. This dualism is perhaps brought about as

a result of his authorship in both programs. The above discussion should in no way be considered

as a condemnation of the specialized automotive program. Economically speaking, this program has its rightful place

in Idie industrial arts curriculum. The following facts pre­

sented by the American Manufacturers Association (1962, pp.

1, 66-7) tend to support this position.

1. Automotive horsepower in use in i 960 reached a total of 10.8 billion—95 per cent of the total energy in a ll prime movers in the United States. 98 2. One business in six Is automotive—of the 4,535,000 total businesses in the United States, 797,818 or 17.2 per cent are directly related to the automotive industry. 3. The highway transportation industries employ one out of every seven wage-earners in the United States.

R a n d e l ( 1963, p. 1) further confirms the existence of the two extreme philosophical positions concerning curriculum development in a speech delivered at the 50th M ississippi Valley Conference. His remarks were concerned with the use of analysis and s tudent interest in the selection of content for industrial arts. Of the two extremes, he states:

On the one hand, we have had extremes in cur­ riculum. development with progressives who advocate the child as the chief control in determining what shall be learned and the extreme conservative as the advocate of the content as the chief control in determining what shall be learned. The extreme progressive would have such flexibility that there is virtually no curriculum! whereas, the extreme conservative of curriculum development would have such rigidity that there is virtually no oppor­ tunity to adapt the educational program to the individual.

The conservative position discussed by this author is directly related to the traditional program previously dis­ cussed. Noteworthy is the fact that the progressive posi­ tion likewise has the problem of structuring the broad body of knowledge involved in a study of prime movers.

It may be concluded that there does exist two diverse philosophical positions concerning curriculum development in industrial arts education. The traditional position may be associated with the trade oriented automotive program. 99 Hie progressive position is related to the science oriented power program. Many teacher educators would not subscribe to either of these extremes, but rather would take a posi­ tion on the continuum between these two points.

A National Curriculum

Feirer (1961B) has suggested an alternate solution to the dilemma facing educators in the area of curriculum development. After reviewing a U.S. Office of Education pub­ lication entitled Industrial Arts—An Analysis of 39 State Curriculum Guides (Schmitt, 1961), he concluded that the solution to this problem may be found in the development of a “national curriculum.” He (Feirer, 1963* p. 15) later outlined what may be considered to be a positive approach to this proposal. He explained his belief that a national curriculum should include the following:

1 . An outline of the teachable content in each of the major areas, Including . . ., power mechanics, .... However, it is not enough merely to list the learning units that should be included.

2. These learning units should be divided by grade levels and the suggested content to be covered at each grade level indicated.

3. A national curriculum by level of abilities. We should propose a good program for the slow learner, another program for the great middle group, and a third one for the superior student— each at the various grade levels. If this were done and kept up to date, we would have many advantages for industrial arts: 1 0 0

a) It would set standards that everyone could easily see and be more likely to follow.

b) It would provide a way of evaluating the effectiveness of our industrial arts pro­ grams. . . . There would be some very dis­ tinct advantages to having some standard­ ized tests.

c) It would help the individual teacher improve his present program.

d) It would help tremendously in the movement of students from, one school to another and from lone state to another.

He concludes his editorial by expressing the opinion that the advantages of a national curriculum far outweigh the disadvantages. Schmitt (1964), Specialist for Industrial Arts in the

U.S. Office Education, expressed his approval of Feirer*s proposal by stating that: "I am more and more convinced that one of the things that the Industrial arts profession w ill have to do Is to establish some kind of program standards." He further suggest that this may include standards for pro­ fessional preparation, shop and/or laboratory, and instruc­ tional programs. Olson (1963, p. 301) proposes a "package laboratory" which would standardize the basic components place in a given

laboratory. He contends that: "Too much Is at stake to leave

laboratory development in the hands of individual teachers; the teachers have enough to do in curriculum development.

Sim ilarly, his "packaged curriculum" Involves the technology

p r o p o s a l. 1 0 1

Thus, various authorities have placed their stamp of

approval on the development of a national curriculum which would serve as a guide for secondary school programs. The researcher would conclude that an equally appropriate solu­

tion would involve the development of professional prepara­

tion standards which has teen suggested by Schmitt. It would appear somewhat hypocritical for teacher educators to

advocate standards for the public schools without taking

steps to do likewise as in the preparational programs. It would appear that the standardizing of teacher preparatory programs could be equally effective in bringing about a

degree of sim ilarity in the total program offering.

General Objectives of the Program

This portion of the literature review w ill endeavor

to provide the reader with a perspective of the diversity of

opinion which exists with regard to the selection of general

objectives appropriate to the Industrial arts program. Each

of the various positions have been analyzed in an effort to

derive some consensus regarding the selection of objectives

from which program content can be derived.

Much has teen w ritten concerning the aims and objec­ tives of the industrial arts program. The diversity of

opinion which exists can in part be traced to the philosoph­ ical orientation of the individual or group of individuals

expressing their views. Huggins (1961* P* 17) states that 1 0 2

"there Is no real need to change our present objectives." However, he suggests that there is a real need to take steps

to measure the extent to which these goals are being attained.

This author contends that the curriculum should be based on concepts rather than the conventional project method.

Jarvis (1963) Is critical of the program for attempting to

be all things to all people. He does not believe that the entire program should be directed toward or by general edu­

cation objectives. This concept should be expanded to

Include college preparatory and pre-vocational goals. He

also feels that industrial arts must develop a meaningful

sequence of courses to be offered at different levels which w ill in turn necessitate different objectives. The general education function of industrial arts is

discussed by a variety of authors from each side of the philosophical spectrum. Coleman, Davis and Wallberg (1961) speak of strengthening the bond between industrial arts and the academic programs by bringing meaningful applications to the many abstractions of general education. Gerrish (1962)

also sees the enrichment and supplementation of the academic subjects as one of the major purposes of the Industrial arts

program. London ( 1961) emphasizes that this program must

make . unique contributiors which are not being advocated by

other programs. Mason (1961) believes that the unique con­

tribution of industrial arts has been minimized by the present

emphasis on college preparatory programs as well as the 103 lim elight which is focused on the various science programs as a result of Sputnik.

Much discussion has also been devoted to the rela­ tionship between industrial arts and the various vocational education programs. This problem frequently revolves around whether industrial arts is supplementary or introductory to vocational education or a phase of vocational education under particular circumstances. Bibb and Carver ( 1963) s e e th e

industrial arts programs playing a specific role in the voca­

tional education program by laying a foundation for the

training needed to relieve the unemployment problem brought

about by a lack of saleable skills. Brown ( 1965) c o n c u rs that the mechanically minded student should be provided with

some marketable skills in advanced programs. Evans ( 1963*

p. 24) contends that industrial arts should have pre-voca­

tional goals. He states:

Industrial arts is not vocational education and technical education is not exactly vocational educa­ tion, so probably industrial arts departments in colleges should train technicians or at least train teachers of technicians.

J a r v i s ( 1963) supports the development of a degree of market­ able skills by providing training for the unskilled and

semi-skilled in the industrial arts program.

Kaufman (1963* p. 33) opposes the previously stated position when he states that "... most industrial arts teachers continue to teach in-the If| 6 0 8s, the diluted solu­

tion of vocational education started a long time ago.” He 104 feels that industrial arts and vocational education programs are too sim ilar in nature. Therefore, he advocates the posi­ tion held by many of the authors referred to below: namely, an understanding of the world of industry and the impact of technology.

The predominant position expressed in the literature holds that industrial arts programs must be geared to pro­ vide an "understanding of industry" in a technological society. Alexander ( 1963) recommends a broader study of

Industry with less emphasis on hand processes and more tech­ nology. Programs should be organized in terms of fields such as plastics, power, transportation, etc. Dudley ( 1963) expresses a need for more emphasis on science, mathematics, problem solving and sensitivity to human relations to provide a proper perspective of industry. Evans (1962) stresses the need for a close correlation between industrial arts and mathematics and science. Hostetler (i 960, p. 21) sees the industrial arts program as providing laboratory and class­ room experiences designed to orient students to our technol­ ogical culture. The objectives advocated by this author are perhaps the most widely accepted at this time. He advocates the following objectives: 1. To develop in each student an insight and under­ standing of industry and its place in our culture.

2. To discover and develop talens of students in the technical fields and applied sciences. 105 3. To develop technical problem-solving skills related to m aterials and processes.

To develop in each student a measure of skill in the use of common tools and machines. These objectives were accepted by the i 960 Conference devoted to the theme of "Improving Industrial Arts Teaching in the Public Schools."

K arnes ( 1962) broadens the scope of industrial arts objectives by substituting the word "craftsmanship" for skill. He feels that students sire better prepared to cope with the complexities of our society as a result of greater depth and scope of understandings. Olson ( 1963) a d v o c a te s emphasis on the body of sciences, techniques and skills directly related to industry. He has transposed the goals and objectives into what he terms the six functions: tech­ nical, occupational recreational, consumer, cultural and social. Schmitt ( 1963) recommends new courses be Introduced dealing with contemporary industry.

The guidance function of industrial arts is not over­ looked in the analysis of objectives. Bateson and Stern ( 1962) stress the importance of bridging the gap between the various industrial education programs and the work-a-day world. They feel that exploratory experiences are important if students are to be able to make intelligent decisions concerning an occupational choice. London and Negel ( 1963) see industrial arts as a notivating force which directly affects individual decisions concerning trade training. 106

Other authors tend to stress the college-preparatory function of industrial arts. Evans ( 1963) sees industrial arts as serving a pre-engineering function with its content and immediate objectives being derived from the recommenda­ tions of the engineering educators. This pre-engineering f■unction takes on new importance since many of the engineer­ ing programs have dropped significant portions of the labora­ tory experiences in favor of theoretical endeavors. Jarvis

(1963) concurs with Evans in regard to the teaching of in­ dustrial arts at different levels—general education, college preparatory and pre-vocational. Each of these programs necessarily must be guided by different goals or objectives. Righthand (1964, p. 12 ) states that there is much controversy concerning the objectives of industrial arts among those who advocate the general education function as a major role and those who propose pre-vocational objectives.

OSie former group advocates a reconstruction of the curriculum to reduce the emphasis on manipulative skills as a result of more emphasis on the functions of industry.

A Program for the Future

As one looks at the tremendous technological develop­ ments which have taken place in the past half century, it becomes apparent that programs for the future must be flexi­ ble and based on change. Feirer (I 96IA, p. 17) briefly 107 discusses the futuristic industrial arts program and the problems which should be given careful considerations 1. The curriculum should be geared to the technol­ ogy of the era.

2 . . . . a program emphasis of experimentation, re­ search and problem solving, should be designed for the above-average student. . . ., experiments and exercises in problem solving should be the common educational activities.

3. Design in the broadest sense should be emphasized. 4. There should be greater emphasis on the use of oral and written language . . . especially on the understanding of technical vocabulary as it ap­ plies to each area of work.

5. Applied science and mathematics should be empha­ sized in every situation in which a natural and practical application can be made.

Hostetler (1962, p. 19) points out that a variety of changes have recently taken place in the field of education which have significant implications to the field of indus­ tria l arts. Among these he includes (l) the School Mathe­ matics Study Group which has recently reconstructed the entire mathematics curriculum from the fourth through twelfth grades, ( 2 ) the non-graded school, ( 3 ) programmed learning through the use of teaching machines, and (4) new physical facilities designed for team teaching. This author suggests a new departure for industrial arts in the larger high school—a new program for each 108 school composed of three separate phases, all of which are interdependent (H ostetler,1963, p. 20). 1. Phase one w ill provide for the effective presen­ tation and study of m aterials, processes, prob­ lems and methods of industry to large classes of from 100 t o 125 s t u d e n t s . 2 . . . . phase two will consist of a skills labora­ tory where hand and machine tool skills w ill be taught "on purpose," but the purpose of these skills w ill be to achieve the more basic functions o'f industrial arts. . . . (the discovery and development of talents in technical fields)

3 . . . . phase three w ill consist of a large experi­ mental laboratory which provides for independent study, experimentation, and research.

This program would be under the direction of three

"master teachers" who would receive annual salaries of

$15,000 per year. They would have the added assistance of assistant teac hers and laboratory technicians. This proposal certainly does not reflect the perpetuation of the "status q u o ." The bases for change envisioned by these authors has been the developments which are presently receiving serious consideration in the various disciplines. Fortunately, the program being reviewed in this report is not beset by tradi­ tion. Therefore, the transformation from present to future should be mope easily accomplished than may be the case with those phases of the industrial arts curriculum which have been firmly established for a longer period of time. 109 Summary

The newly emerging power mechanics program may be traced back to developments which have taken place in the 1930*s. Research studies and other professional literature make reference to two distinct programs emerging out of this decade. The transition from the traditional automotive pro­ gram to a broader program of transportation was evidenced in the Prospectus (Ohio, 1934). An article by Smith (1934) and theses by Bowers (1937) and Crow (1938) represent the earli­ est developments in the power mechanics program. There appears to be a sim ilarity between the program advocated by

these early writings and the program being advocated today. Hie major theme of the 1940®s revolved around the further development of the transportation program. The most

significant developments of this era are described in A Cur­ riculum to Reflect Technology (Warner et a l., 1947) and

Kleintzes*;(1947) thesis entitled A Transportation Program in Industrial Arts. The former publication divided the con­ tent of this phase of the industrial arts program into sep­ arate divisions of power and transportation. The power

division was conceived as involving a study of sources,

generation, transmission and utilization. The transportation

division contained major areas of study under the classifi­

cations of land, sea and air. 110

The decade of the 1950®s saw the continued develop­ ment of the power and transportation programs with several research studies being devoted to an analysis of either the total program or an aspect thereof. 01so n * s ( 1957) d i s s e r ­ tation accepted the previous divisions of technology while adding divisions of research and service. Thus, the content of the original power and transportation program was then divided three ways. The lack of acceptance of these divi­ sions is in part related to the fact that appropriate text­ books have not been developed as well as the failure of those who advocated these changes to establish pilot programs designed to determine the validity of their approach.

A marked change from the power and transportation programs to a broad program in power mechanics has been evidenced in the present decade. No less than six textbooks,

30 articles in professional journals, ten state curriculum guides and three research studies have been w ritten in the past five years directly related to the power mechanics pro­ gram. The earlier publications placed major emphasis on instructional units relating to small gasoline, the auto­ mobile, and outboard engines. The more recent literature has advocated the expansion of this program to Include a study of a ll major energy sources and machines whiclb convert energy into useful work such as the diesel engine, jet engines, rocketry, atomic power, solar energy and future sources of power. There is evidence to indicate that these 1 1 1 developments are related to earlier developments in the "power division" of technology.

There are four distinct approaches to the derivation of a body of knowledge appropriate to the field of industrial arts education which include ( 1 ) l i f e ' s n e e d , ( 2 ) crafts or trade, (3) applied science, and (4) a study of industry.

Recent developments in the power mechanics program are most directly related to the applied science approach. Various proposals classified under the study of industry approach are endeavoring to generate new Iprogram classifications under which the industrial arts curriculum can be reorganized. At the present time, separate developmental efforts in this regard are taking place at The Ohio State University, Stout

State University, State University of New York at Oswego and Central Michigan University. Three of these research projects have received funds from either the U.S. Office of

Education or Ford Motor Company. There appears to be no single or unitary approach to determining the specific content for the various program offerings included in the industrial arts curriculum. The two approaches most widely advocated are the trade analysis and behavior change techniques. Specialist in curriculum development advocate the use of a '‘model" which focuses on the task of examining the interrelations which exist among objectives, content, learning experiences and evaluation. Two extreme philosophical positions regarding cur-> rlculum development have an influence oil the breadth of pro­ gram offering within the field of inquiry. The traditional position advocates a program which evolves around the auto­ motive industry. Those who accept this position contend that since the automobile power plant is the primary energy producer in the United States, the instructional program should be restricted to a study of the manufacturing, and servicing of this product. The progressive position frag­ ments the content of this instructional program into divisions of power, transportation, service, and perhaps manufacturing.

The newly emerging power mechanics program accepts neither

of these extreme positions, although, it tends toward the

progressive position. This is evidenced by the breadth of

program offering which Includes all major energy sources

and machines involved in prime movers. The former program

tends to be vocationally oriented while the latter is more consistent with the general education function of the in­

dustrial arts program. Also noteworthy is the fact that many industrial arts leaders presently view industrial arts

as a part of technical education intended to fu lfill voca­

tional objectives at the upper secondary level. This posi­ tion appears to be directly linked to attempts to secure

federal funds for research as well as program development. Also, the scope of the program offering in many federally

funded vocational education programs has tended to broaden 113 due to the occupational adjustments which people in the

"work-a-day" world must make during their working career.

Various leaders at the national and local levels are presently proposing a national curriculum for industrial arts education sim ilar to those recently initiated in other disciplines. The advantages of this proposal are clearly evidenced by the almost universal acceptance of the sweeping changes which have taken place in the mathematics program in a brief period of ten years. It has been estimated that such changes in the field of education usually take approx­ imately a half century. Likewise, the American Vocational

Association (1953) publication entitled A Guide for Improv­ ing Instruction in Industrial Arts has been instrumental In promoting change within the field of inquiry. Programs for the future must be more In keeping with technological changes reflected by industry. Oswego*s Intern program at the mid-managerial level may provide a stimulus for keeping abreast with change. Also, educational innova­ tions such as the non-graded school, team teaching, and programmed learning must receive due consideration in the years to come. CHAPTER III

THE STATUS OP THE POWER MECHANICS PROGRAM

This chapter is prim arily concerned with an analysis and interpretation of the data derived from the preliminary survey (Appendix B) and the questionnaire (Appendix D) which was sent to selected teacher educators actively involved in teaching the power mechanics program. The data reported herein should provide the reader with a comprehensive over­ view of the status of this phase of the industrial arts teacher education program. Also included are the respondents’ opinions relative to various problems and Issues.

The data and discussion which follows have been organ­ ized under the following major headings: ( 1 ) the preliminary s u rv e y ; ( 2 ) background of respondents and institutions;

(3) definition of power mechanics; (4) general objectives of industrial arts; ( 5) formal course titles; ( 6) textbooks and references; ( 7) major instructional units; ( 8) laboratory activities; derivation of course content; ( 9) a national curriculum; ( 10) bases for content organization; ( 11) te a c h ­ ing techniques and procedures; ( 12 ) interdisciplinary rela­ tionships; ( 13) state curriculum guides; (14) state certifi­ cation regulations; and ( 1 5) a summary of the major findings and conclusions. 114 115 The Preliminary Survey

The preliminary survey described in Chapter I served three important functions. First, it identified those teacher education institutions which offer a laboratory program in power mechanics. Second, this survey further identified a specific person as teaching the power program at each of the institutions. Third, it identified those teacher educators who were willing to further participate in this research project. Table 4 provides an analysis of the data which was derived from the in itial survey.

TABLE 4

RESULTS OF THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY

F re q u e n c y P e rc e n ta g e Institutions included in the pre­ liminary survey 206 100 Institutions responding to pre­ liminary survey 191 9 2 .7 Institutions offering power mechanics program 102 5 3 .4 Institutions planning future offerings in power 45 2 3 .6 Teacher educators willing to participate 96 5 0 .3

The data contained in Table 4 may be compared with

the findings of a recent study by Allen (19&3). Using a

sim ilar technique, he was able to use the responses from 41

Institutions which offered a program entitled power, power mechanics, or power and transportation. The evidence here

tends to indicate that the number of Institutions offering 116 an Instructional program in power has more than doubled in a brief period of two years. It should also be noted that approximately 77 Per> cent of the 191 institutions responding to the preliminary survey either presently or will in the future provide a program in power mechanics.

Background of Respondents and Institutions

This portion of the chapter is included to provide the reader with descriptive data regarding the background of the participants as well as the institution they represent.

Discussion w ill include such topics as (1) professional rank, (2 ) number of years of college teaching experience, ( 3 ) teaching load, (4) time devoted to theory or formal instruc­ t i o n , ( 5) number of years the power mechanics program has been offered, and ( 6) specialized educational background of the respondents.

Professional rank

Table 5 indicates the frequency and percentage of the participants who have earned various professorial ranks. The fact that approximately 69 per cent of the respondents have attained the rank of instructor or assistant professor may in part be a result of several factors. First, the rapid growth and expansion of student enrollment in higher educa­ tion has resulted in the employment of an increasing number of new faculty members. Second, the newness of this program as well as the tendency for the more experienced teacher 117 educators to be involved in the graduate program may in part account for the positive skewing of this data. Third, there exists a rather noted lack of industrial educators who have completed advanced graduate program.

TABLE 5

PROFESSORIAL RANK OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

C u m u lativ e R ank F re q u e n c y P e rc e n ta g e P e rc e n ta g e I n s t r u c t o r 23 2 6 .7 2 6 .7 Assistant professor 36 4 1 .9 6 8 .6

Associate professor 17 19-8 8 8 .4 P r o f e s s o r 9 1 0 .5 9 8 .8 L e c tu r e r 1 1 .2 1 0 0 .0

N = 86

Teaching experience T ab le 6 was prepared to show the total number of years of college or university teaching completed by the 86 t e a c h ­ er educators participating in this research. An examination of this table reveals that the average number of years of teaching experience completed in higher education is 9*4. The distribution of this data is also positively skewed. Approx­ im a te ly 71 per cent of the respondents have been involved in the teacher education program for 12 years or less while approximately 29 per cent have assumed this role from 13 t o

40 y e a r s . 118 TABLE 6

YEARS OP COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY TEACHING EXPERIENCE

Cumulative Years Frequency Percentage Percentage

Less than 5 28 3 2 .6 3 2 .6 CO in i 18 2 0 .9 5 3 .5

9 - 1 2 15 1 7 .4 7 0 .9 13 - 16 12 1 4 .0 8 4 .9

17- 20 7 8 .1 9 3 .0

25 - 28 2 2 .3 95-3

33 - 36 2 2 .3 9 7 .6

3 7 - 40 1 1 .2 9 8 .8 No response 1 1 .2 1 0 0 .0 N = 8 6. Mean = 9*35*

Teaching load How many regularly scheduled class contact hours do teacher educators spend in the classroom per week? Table 7 points out that there is considerable variation in the teach­ ing loads at the 84 institutions represented in this study.

The average number of regularly scheduled class contact teaching hours per week was approximately 18.6. Approximately

63 per cent of the respondents had a teaching load of 20 hours per week or less. It should also be noted that nearly

13 per cent of the respondents reported a teaching load in excess of 24 class contact hours per week. This teaching 119

TABLE 7

REGULARLY SCHEDULED CLASS CONTACT TEACHING HOURS HER WEEK

Teaching Hours C u m u lativ e Per Week Frequency Percentage P e rc e n ta g e 5 - 8 1 1 .2 1 .2

9 - 1 2 8 9.3 1 0 .5 1 3 -1 6 13 1 5 -1 2 5 .6

17 - 20 32 3 7 .2 6 2 .8

21 - 24 15 1 7 .4 8 0 .2 25 - 28 10 1 1 .6 9 1 .8

37 ~ 40 1 1 .2 9 3 .0 No re s p o n s e 6 7 .0 1 0 0 .0

N = 86. Mean = 18.58. load would be more In keeping with that expected of public school teachers. Such an overload would seriously restrict involvement in other professional activities. The respondent indicating a teaching load of 39 hours per week apparently misread the question. It may be concluded that the teaching loads reported in this study are in excess of those associ­ ated with other college programs due in part to the labora­ tory activity involved.

What per cent of the respondent's yearly teaching load is in power or power mechanics? The data collected in response to this question is recorded in Table 8. The range of teaching load within this specialized program varies from 120 less than 11 per cent to over 90 per cent with a mean of 40.8.

Approximately 70 per cent of the respondents have half or less of their teaching load in power mechanics.

TABLE 8

PER CENT OF YEARLY TEACHING LOAD IN POWER MECHANICS

Cumulative Per Cent Frequency Percentage Percentage

Less than 11 9 1 0 .5 1 0 .5

1 1 -2 0 18 2 0 .9 3 1 .4

2 1 -3 0 13 15*1 4 6 .5

3 1 -4 0 9 1 0 .5 57*0 4 1 -5 0 11 1 2 .8 6 9 .8

5 1 -6 0 1 1 .2 7 0 .9 6 1 -7 0 1 1 .2 7 2 .1

7 1 -8 0 9 1 0 .5 8 2 .5

8 1 -9 0 1 1 .2 8 3 .7 91-100 11 1 2 .8 9 6 .5 No response 3 3*5 1 0 0 .0 N = 86. Mean = 40.77*

Tenure of program offering

The literature review revealed that the major develop­ ments in the power program have taken place since World War II.

However, the conceptualization of the power mechanics program has been basically confined to the last five years. In an effort to determine how long each of the institutions had 121

offered a power mechanics program, the respondents were asked

to indicate the number of years their respective institution has provided such an offering. The data derived from this

inquiry is recorded in Table 9.

TABLE 9

TENURE OF PROGRAM OFFERING IN POWER MECHANICS

Number of em u lativ e Years Frequency Percentage Percentage Less than 5 30 3 4 .9 3 4 .9

5 -9 21 2 4 .4 59*3

9 -1 2 9 1 0 .5 6 9 .8

1 3-16 6 7*0 7 6 .7

1 7 -2 0 9 1 0 .5 87*2

21-24 2 2 .3 89*5

2 5 -2 8 1 1 .2 9 0 .7

3 7 -4 0 3 3*5 9 4 .2

No response 5 5*8 1 0 0 .0 N = 8 6. Mean = 9 * 2 2 .

Table 9 indicates that 30 or 34.9 per cent of the respondents reported that their institution has provided a

power mechanics program for less than five years. Approxi­

m a te ly 77 per cent of those reporting indicated that this

program had been in vogue for 16 years or less. However, it should also be noted that approximately 15 per cent of the

responses fell in the range from 17 to 40 years. A detailed 122 analysis of the total instrument submitted by this group revealed that they had generally failed to distinguish between the power mechanics and automotive programs. Thus, the length of program offering reported by this group has been considerably extended.

Formal Instruction

There is considerable controversy with regard to the appropriate amount of time which should be devoted to theory or formal instruction in an industrial arts class which involves laboratory activity. The responses given by the participants when asked what per cent of their regularly scheduled teaching time was devoted to theory or formal instruction are recorded in Table 10. The average or mean amount of time devoted to formal instruction was approxi­ mately 39 per cent. This would be roughly equivalent to t spending two-fifths of the total teaching to theory or class discussion. The remaining 61 per cent of the class time would be devoted to laboratory experiences.

It has been previously noted that an increased amount of time is necessarily devoted to formal instruction in the newly emerging power mechanics program due to the applied science orientation. It should also be noted that 25 of the teacher educators reported that they devoted between 46 and

50 per cent of their regularly scheduled teaching time to formal instruction. It may be concluded that there is a 123 notable trend toward devoting an increased amount of time to formal instruction in industrial arts classes involving the applied science approach, namely, in power mechanics and electricity or electronics.

TABLE 10

PER CENT OF REGULARLY SCHEDULED TEACHING TIME DEVOTED TO FORMAL INSTRUCTION

Per Cent of C u m u lativ e Teaching Time Frequency Percentage P e rc e n ta g e 1 0-15 1 1 .2 ... 1 .2

21-25 11 1 2 .8 1 4 .0

2 6 -3 0 9 1 0 .5 2 4 .4

31-35 14 1 6 .3 4 0 .7

5 6 -4 0 13 1 5 .1 5 5 .8

41-45 3 3 .5 5 9 .3

4 6 -5 0 25 2 9 .1 8 8 .4

5 1 -5 5 1 1 .2 8 9 .5

5 6 -6 0 3 3 .5 9 3 -0

61-65 1 1 .2 9 4 .2

6 6 -7 0 3 3 .5 9 7 -7

No response 2 2 .3 1 0 0 .0 N = 86. Mean = 38.62.

Technical education An effort was made to ascertain the technical back­ ground of the teacher educators involved in this study.

Table 11 indicates the total number of quarter hours of 124 undergraduate and graduate credit completed by the respondents

In the power mechanics program. Noteworthy Is the fact that

66 o r 7 6 .7 per cent of those reporting have completed less than 12 quarter hours of credit in the specialized area in which they are teaching. The average number of quarter hours of credit completed in power mechanics was 5*59*

TABLE 11 NUMBER OP QUARTER HOURS OP UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE CREDIT COMPLETED IN POWER MECHANICS

Quarter Hours Cumulative of Credit Frequency Percentage Percentage Less than 5 38 4 4 .2 4 4 .2

5 -8 15 1 7 .4 6 1 .6

9-1 2 13 1 5 .1 7 6 .7 13-16 3 3 .5 8 0 .2 1 7-20 4 4 .6 8 4 .9 2 5 -2 8 2 2 .3 8 7 .2 2 9 -3 2 1 1 .2 8 8 .4 No response 10 1 1 .6 1 0 0 .0 N = 86. Mean = 5-59-

In addition to the technical education offering pro­ vided by teacher education institutions, a variety of indus­ tria l training programs provide excellent opportunities for industrial arts educators to acquire additional depth in their specific teaching specialty. Table 12 was prepared to show the frequency, average length in clock hours, and evaluation TABIE 12

FREQUENCY, LENGTH,' AND EVALUATION OF MANUFACTURING SCHOOLS ATTENDED BY THE RESPONDENTS

Average length E v a lu a tio n No Manufacturing Schools F re q u en c y in Clock HoursGood Average Poor Response DeIco-Remy D ivision of GMC 17 56 16 1 0 0 GMC Training C enters. 16 96 14 2 0 0 Sun Electric Corporation 16 30 14 2 0 0 Brings and Stratton Corp. 15 37 11 4 0 0 Vickers Hydraulic School 9 60 9 0 0 0 Fluid Power Institute-W SU 8 300 8 0 0 0 Carter Carburetor 5 21 5 0 0 0 Barrett Brake School 4 24 1 0 0 3 Bear. Manuf. School 4 7 2 2 0 0 Cummins Engine Company 2 40 2 0 0 0 Johnson Motors 2 42 0 1 0 1 Evenrude Motors 1 80 0 0 0 0 Wisconsin Motor Corporation 1 8 1 0 0 0 General Motors Diesel 1 80 1 0 0 0 126 of manufacturing schools attended by the teacher educators involved in this study. The data contained in this table reveals programs sponsored by General Motors Corporation are attended more frequently than those programs offered by any other industry. It should also be noted that the three industrial schools most frequently attended pertain exclusively to the automotive field. The frequences associated with the schools dealing with fluid power tends to Indicate that teacher edu­ cators have recognized a need for this type of instruction. The low frequencies obtained by manufacturing schools con­ cerned with small gasoline and outboard engines leads one to conclude that the opportunities provided these programs have not been fully exploited. The complexity of the power plant involved may also' be a factor.

Industrial Work Experience Industrial work experience provides another way of obtaining technical knowledge and experience. Industrial educators generally agree that such experiences are desirable in the preparation of industrial arts teachers (Opinions, 1 9 6 1 ) . This position is further supported by the respondents in this study. Table 13 points out that 93 per cent of the respondents agree that “industrial work experience is desir­ able in the preparation of power mechanics teachers.11 127 TABLE 13

DESIRABILITY OF INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE IN THE PREPARATION OF POWER MECHANICS TEACHERS

Statement : Industrial work experience is desirable in the preparation of power mechanics teachers.

Cumulative Choice of Response Frequency Percentage Percentage Strongly agree 23 2 6 .7 2 6 .7

Agree 57 6 6 .3 9 3 .0 Disagree 6 7 .0 1 0 0 .0 Strongly disagree 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0

N = 86. Mean = 3*20. Chi Square = 6 3. 6 7 4.

Chi square was used to determine the level of proba­

b ility between observed and expected frequencies. Hie observed frequencies were determined by combining the strongly agree—agree responses and the disagree—strongly disagree responses. These frequencies were then compared to expected

frequencies as determined by chance variations. Since the observed value of chi square ( 6 3. 6 7 4) was greater than the

.01 level of probability (6.635), it can be concluded that

there is a significant difference between the observed and

expected frequencies in favor of industrial work experience

in the preparation of industrial arts teachers in power

m e c h a n ic s. 128

D efinition of Power Mechanics

The opinions of the respondents were solicited to determine the extent to which teacher educators agree or dis­ agree with statements pertaining to the definition and delim itation of the power mechanics program. Table 14 shows the participants* reaction to Stephenson’s ( 1963., p . 1) definition of power mechanics. It should be noted that

TABLE 14

POMER MECHANICS DEFINED Statement: Power mechanics may be simply defined as a "study of Energy Sources and Machines that Convert Energy in to Useful WorikiT"

Cumulative Choice of Response Frequency Percentage Percentage Strongly agree 30 3 4 .9 3 4 .9 Agree 43 5 0 .0 8 4 .9 Disagree 9 1 0 .5 9 5 .4 Strongly disagree 4 4 .6 1 0 0 .0

N = 8 6 . Mean 3 .1 5 . Chi Square == 4 1 .8 6 0 . n e a r l y 85 per cent of the respondents agreed that the power mechanics program involves a "study of energy sources and machines that covert energy into useful work," while only 15 per cent disagreed with this definition. Since the value of chi square (41.860) is greater than the .01 level of prob­ a b i l i t y ( 6. 6 3 5), it may be concluded that there is a signifi­ cant difference between the observed and expected frequencies in favor of the definition as stated by Stephenson. 129 The acceptance of the above listed definition would logically exclude using the term power mechanics to describe specialized courses in the automotive field. This conclu­ sion is based on the fact that this definition contains the terms "energy sources/' and "machines/1 which are both plural.

The responses recorded In Table 15 tend to Indicate that the respondents do not believe that the term power mechanics

TABLE 15

CLARIFICATION OF TERMINOLOGY Statements Power mechanics is a term which may be appropri­ ately used to describe specialized courses deal­ ing with the automotive field.

C u m u lativ e Choice of Response Frequency Percentage P e rc e n ta g e Strongly agree 4 4 .6 4 .6

A gree 13 1 5 .1 1 9 .8

D isa g re e 29 3 3 .7 5 3 .5

Strongly disagree 40 4 6 .5 100.0 N = 86. Mean = 1.73. C h i Square 3 1 .4 4 0 should be used to describe specialized courses pertaining to the automotive industry. Approximately 80 per cent of the teacher educators reporting disagreed with the statement con­ tained in this table while 20 per cent agreed. The value of chi square is significant at the .01 level of probability. The evidence derived from this data tends to Indicate that teacher educators generally reject the use of the term power mechanics to describe automotive type programs. 130

The data contained in Table 16 pertains to the transi­ tion from the traditional automotive program to a broad pro­ gram in power, transportation or power mechanics. The opin­ ions expressed in this table appear to indicate that the respondents generally favor a program of breadth rather than the traditional trade oriented program.

TABIE 16 NEED FOR PROGRAM CHANGE—TRADITIONAL TOWARD PROGRESSIVE Statement: Industrial arts teacher education programs should be changed from the traditional automotive mechan­ ics to a bft’oad program of power, transportation or power mechanics.

em u lativ e Choice of Response Frequency Percentage Percentage

Strongly agree 43 5 0 .0 5 0 .0

Agree 29 3 3 -7 8 3 .7 Disagree 11 1 2 .8 9 6 .5

Strongly disagree 2 2 .3 9 8 ,8 No response 1 1 .2 1 0 0 .0 N = 8 6 . Mean = 3*33 Chi Square = 4 0 .9 5 2 .

In smmary, the opinions of the teacher educators

reporting as expressed in Tables 14, 15, and 16, tend to

indicate that this group views the power mechanics program

as being prim arily concerned with a study of various energy

sources and machines that convert energy into useful work.

They have rejected the idea of using the term power mechanics 131 to describe specialized automotive programs. Furthermore, the respondents generally agree that there is a need to orient this phase of the industrial arts curriculum away from the traditional automotive type program.

General Objectives of Industrial Arts

The discussion contained in Chapter II revealed that there Is considerable controversy concerning the general objectives which should be emphasized in industrial arts edu­ cation. The literature review revealed that major consider­ ation in the newly emerging proposals is being placed on providing students with an “understanding of industry" and its place in our culture. Table 17 was prepared to show the respondents reaction to a list of ten objectives frequently advocated by various leaders. The respondents were asked to indicate the degree of emphasis which should be placed on each objective.

Noteworthy Is the fact that this group of teacher educators ranked the objective of developing safe and cooper­ ative work habits above all others. This objective would tend to emphasize the human relations aspect of industry.

It should be further noted that the objectives ranked second, fourth, fifth and sixth are those advocated by Hostetler

(Schmitt, 1962, pp. 19-20) at the i 960 conference on "improv­ ing industrial arts teaching." The evidence reported in

Table 17 tends to indicate that these objectives have been 132

TABLE I? DEGREE OP EMPHASIS PLACED ON GENERAL OBJECTIVES OP INDUSTRIAL ARTS EDUCATION—RANKED IN ORDER OP IMPORTANCE

Numerical Degree of Emphasis No Ranking Objectives Low Med. High Response Mean 2 1 Safe and coopera­ f 1 18 65 2 * tive work habits % 1 .2 2 0 .9 7 5 .6 2 .3 2 Insight and under­ f 4 18 63 1 2 .6 9 standing of $ 4 .7 2 0 .9 7 3 .2 1 .2 industry

3 Appreciation of f 2 24 59 „ 1 2 .6 7 good design and % 2 .3 2 7 .9 6 8 .0 1 .2 workmanship

4 Develop talents in f 3 23 59 1 2.66 technical fieldsLelds * % 33.5 .5 26.7 2 6 .7 68.66 8 .6 1.21 .2 and applied s c ie n c e s

Develop technical f 6 20 56 4 2 .6 1 problem-solving $ 7.0 23.3 6 5 .1 4 .7 skills related to m aterials and p ro c e s s e s

Develop skills in f 5 38 42 1 2.44 the use of com- % 5.8 44.2 48.8 1.2 mon tools and m ach in es

7 Develop consumer £ 7 39 39 1 2.38 know ledge % 8 .1 4 5 .3 4 5 .3 1 .2

8 Provide pre-voca­ £ ^ 41 28 2 2 .1 5 tional experi­ fo 1 7 .4 4 7 .7 3 2 .6 2 .3 ences of an in­ tensified nature

9 Develop avoca- f 23 44 16 3 1.92 t i o n a l and io 2 6 .7 5 1 .2 1 8 .6 3 .5 recreational i n t e r e s t 133 TABLE 17 (Contd.)

Numerical Degree of Emphasis Ranking Objectives ______£ow Me'd. H igh R esponse Mean 10 Provide vocation- f 36 36 10 4 1.68 al training when % 41.9 41.9 H«6 4.7 not otherwise a v a i la b l e Source of objectives: (U.S. Office of Education Survey No. 2070C, 1964, p. 1) (Schmitt, 1962, pp. 19-20).

generally accepted by the respondents* although, there appears

to be several areas which are not covered by Hostetler*s l i s t i n g . The low degree of emphasis placed on objectives

ranked ninth and tenth, leads one to believe thatc-the respon­ dents do not attach a high degree of significance to the avocational and recreational goal as well as the vocational

function. These functions have not generally been associated

with the field of inquiry, since the program under study is

considered to be exploratory in nature.

Formal Course Titles

The respondents were asked to list the formal course

titles and number of quarter hours of credit under which

their respective institution provided instruction in power

mechanics. The responses given to this inquiry are recorded

in Tables 18, 19, and 20. Table 18 shows the number, fre­

quency and percentage of courses pertaining to instruction 134 in power mechanics for each of the 84 Institutions represented in this study.

TABLE 18 NUMBER, FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE OF COURSES PERTAINING TO INSTRUCTION IN POWER MECHANICS

Number of Courses Cumulative Offered Frequency Percentage Percentage

1 41 4 8 .9 4 8 .9

2 21 2 5 .0 7 3 .9

3 10 1 1 .9 8 5 .7

4 5 6 .0 9 1 .7

5 7 8 .3 1 0 0 .0 N = 84. Mean * 2.00.

Generally speaking, those respondents who listed fewer than three formal course titles under which instruction in power mechanics was provided tended to make a,distinction between the power and automotive programs. Those respondents listing three or more courses tended to include specialized courses pertaining to the automotive field. This fact w ill be further supported by the responses recorded in the following tables. Table 19 provides an analysis of the total number of quarter hours of credit offered in power mechanics at each of the 84 institutions reporting. The mean or average num­ ber of quarter hours of college credit provided was 7*780. 135 Table 19 shows that approximately 76 per cent of the 84 in­ stitutions reporting offer 12 quarter hours of credit or less in power mechanics.

TABLE 19 QUARTER HOURS OF CREDIT PROVIDED IN POWER MECHANICS

Number of Quarter C u m u lativ e Hours of Credit Frequency Percentage P e rc e n ta g e Less than 4 24 2 8 .6 28.6

4 -6 21 2 5 .0 5 3 .6

7 -9 14 1 6 .7 7 0 .3 10-12 5 6 .0 7 6 .3

13-15 8 9 .5 85.8

16-18 7 8 .3 8 4 .1

19-21 2 2 .4 9 6 .5 2 2 -2 4 1 1 .1 9 7 .6

No re s p o n se 2 2 .4 100.0

1 N = 84. Mean = 7.78.

The 168 formal course titles listed by the respondents have been categorized and ranked in order of frequency under the following major headings: ( 1) titles which contain the term power, power mechanics and/or transportation; and ( 2 ) those course titles which pertain to specialized programs in the automotive field. Since it has previously been deter­ mined that the latter program offering Is not a part of this 136 study, only the former titles have been reported in Table 20.

Only those course titles which have a frequency of two or more have been reported. The titles cortained in Table 20

account for approximately 50 per cent of the total reported.

The remaining titles which have not been reported either per­

tained to the automotive program or had a frequency of less

th a n tw o. TABLE 20

FORMAL COURSE TITLES CONTAINING THE TERMS, POWER, POWER MECHANICS AND/OR TRANSPORTATION RANKED IN ORDER OF FREQUENCY

Formal Course Titles F re q u en c y

Power Mechanics I 35 Power Mechanics II 11

Power Technology 9 Power and Transportation I 8

Power Mechanics III 6

Power I 6

Power Mechanics IV 2

Power and Transportation II 2

Air Transportation 2

Water or Marine Transportation 2 Power I I 2

Power I I I 2 137 Textbooks and References

What major textbooks and/or reference m aterials are being used in the power mechanics program at the teacher education level? Tables 21 and 22 contain a listing of those textbooks and references which have been reported by the respondents in answer to this question. Table 21 contains a listing of the general textbooks and reference m aterials

TABLE 21

GENERAL TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCE MATERIALS USED IN POWER MECHANICS CLASSES BY AUTHOR AND TITLE RANKED IN ORDER OF FREQUENCY

Author Title F req u en cy Duffy Power—Prime Mover of Technology 28

Stephenson Power Mechanics • 19

P u rv is A ll About Small Gasoline Engines 19

G lenn Exploring Power Mechanics 15 A tte b e r r y Power Mechanics 12

Briggs and Stratton"Repair Instructions 11" 7

Briggs and Stratton"Theories of Operation" 7 General Motors "The Story of Power" 6

General Motors "Power Goes to Work" 3

S te p h e n so n Small Gasoline Engines 3 Technical Pub.Inc. Small Engine Manual 2

T h ir r in g E n e rg y f o r Man 1 138 used at the various institutions reporting. It should be

noted that the book by Duffy (1964) entitled Power—Prime

Mover of Technology had been available for less than five months at the time this study was completed. Therefore, it would appear rather significant that 28 of the 84 institu­

tions reporting have at this time adopted this textbook in preference to those published at an earlier date.

Table 22 contains a listing of the specialized text­ books used in courses entitled power, power mechanics and/or transportation. These books have been categorized by con­

tent under the classifications of: (1) automotive; (2)

aviation; (3) boating and outboard engines; (4) diesel;

(5) farm power; (6) hydraulics; and (7) machines. The books

listed in this table tend to be associated with specialized

courses related to the power and transportation program.

For example, those books listed under the "automotive" or

"aviation" classifications tend to be used in the land and

marine transportation programs, respectively.

Considerable difficulty was experienced in reporting

the data contained in the last two sections of this report.

The major problem involved the respondents’ failure to dis- tinquish between the power mechanics and automotive programs.

This confounding factor is pointed out quite clearly by the

fact that 37 different course titles contained the term "automotive, "or some derivation thereof, were reported.

Likewise, the total frequency of specialized automotive 139 TABLE 22

SPECIALIZED TEXTBOOKS USED IN COURSES ENTITIED POWER, POWER MECHANICS OR POWER AND TRANSPORTATION BY AUTHOR, T IT IE , AND FREQUENCY

A u th o r T i t l e F re q u e n c y A utom otive

C rouse Automotive Mechanics 16

S to c k e l Auto Mechanics 12 Motor Book Dept. Repair Manual 6 Venk-Billet Automotive Fundamentals 6

T o b o ld t Automotive Encyclopedia 5 G lenn Auto Repair Manual 5 Delco-Remy Corp. Educational Publications and Aids 5 G lenn Automotive Engine Rebuilding and 2 Maintenance

A v ia tio n B la n c h e r Aeronautical Science

University of I l l i n o i s Aviation—Space Technology 1

WASA Space—The New Frontier 1

Casamassa dnd B out Jet A ircraft Power Systems

Boating and Outboard Engines

Venk Complete Outboard Boating Manual 3 Miller Small Boat Engines 1

Horst Small Boat Lofting and Layout 1 140

TABLE 22 (Contd.)

Author Title Frequency

D ie s e l

General Motors "Diesel—The Modern Power" 1

K ates Diesel and High Compression Engines 1

Farm Power Moses and Frost Farm Power 1 B a rg e r Tractors and Their Power Units 1

H y d ra u lic s Pippenger and H icks Industrial Hydraulics 3 Attland Practical Hydraulics 1

NAPERS Basic Hydraulics 1

M achines

S o u la rd History of Machines 1

Meyers Great Inventors 1

Cornetet and Fox Applied Fundamentals of Machines 1

oriented textbooks and references was 6 5. The a u to m o tiv e

oriented courses reported logically involved the use of specialized automotive textbooks such as Grousers Automotive

Mechanics which had a frequency of 16. The ration of

specialized automotive textbooks to general power oriented textbooks was approximately one to two or 76 to 149,

respectively. 141

The irony of this situation is further illustrated by the data contained in this report which pertains to a "def­ inition of power mechanics . ’1 The respondents generally agreed that the field of inquiry involved a study of energy sources and machines that convert energy into useful work.

The use of the plural terms SOURCES and MACHINES tends to point out the inconsistency which exists between opinion and practice. Furthermore, approximately 80 per cent of the respondents agreed that the term power mechanics was not ap­ propriate for the specialized courses in the automotive field.

Perhaps this inconsistency could have been avoided had the researcher re-emphasized the Introductory- remarks contained in the survey instrument in conjunction with the questions dealing with formal course titles and reference m aterials.

Major Instructional Units

Item 17 in the survey instrument contained a listing o f 21 major instructional units frequently associated with the power mechanics program. Part two of this question asked the respondents to indicate those major instructional units which were included in their program. The results of their responses to this question are recorded in Table 2 3 .

The data contained in Table 23 leads one to conclude that those energy converters which are readily available tend to be more frequently included in the power program than energy sources which have been recently developed. The lower frequencies recorded for those instructional units ranked 13 142

TABLE 23

MAJOR INSTRUCTIONAL UNITS INCLUDED IN THE POWER MECHANICS PROGRAM RANKED IN ORDER OP IMPORTANCE

Numerical Fre- Per- Ranking Major Instructional Units N = 86 quency centage 1 Small gasoline engines 85 98.8 2 Automobile engines 81 9 4 .S

3 H istorical development of power 80 9 3 -0

4 Power measurement 77 8 9 .5

5 Mechanical power transm ission 77 8 9 .5

6 Diesel engines 73 8 4 .9

7 Fundamentals of electricity and m agnetism 73 8 4 .9

8 Fuels and lubricants 72 8 3 .7

9 Outboard engines 71 8 2 .5 10 Social and economic implications o f power 69 80.2

11 Simple machines 68 7 9 .1

12 Diagnosis and troubleshooting 68 79*1

13 Steam engine and turbine 64 7 4 .4 14 Reaction engines 60 69.8

13 A ircraft engines-reciprocating 57 6 6 .3 16 R o c k e try 57 6 6 .3

17 Atomic energy 55 6 3 .9

18 Solar energy 55 6 3 .9

19 Fluid power 5** 6 2.8 20 Gas turbine engine 53 61.6 TABLE 23 (Contd.)

N u m e ric al F r e ­ P e r ­ Ranking Major Instructional Units N = 86 quency c e n ta g e 21 Experimental power sources 48 5 5 .8

To be Read: Of the 86 teacher educators reporting, 71 or 82.5 per cent included an instructional unit on outboard engines in their power mechanics program. through 21 may in part be due to several factors. First, these energy sources are not generally associated with the consuming public.Second, a lim ited amount of Information on these topics is contained in the recently published textbooks.

Third, models or mock-ups of these power sources must be used since live components are not readily available.

Additional instructional units written in by the re­ spondents under the category of ’’other11 include the service of power units, tools of industry, preventive maintenance, fric­ tion and bearings, water power, fuel efficiency, wind and water machines, steam generator design, physical science prin­ ciples, and engine testing on a dynamometer. Many of these .

topics may be categorized under the original listing.

Part four of Item 17 in the survey instrument requested

that the respondents indicate the degree of emphasis which they felt should be placed on each of the major instructional

units. Table 24 was prepared to report the data derived from

this Inquiry. The large frequency reported in the ”no re­ sponse” column could have perhaps been avoided had the research

er provided a four point scale including the category of "none. TABLE 24 I DEGREE OP EMPHASIS PLACED ON SELECTED MAJOR INSTRUCTIONAL UNITS RANKED IN ORDER OF MEAN SCORE

Numerical Major Instrue- Degree of Emphasis No Re- Ranking tional Units Low Med. High sponse Mean 1 Small gasoline f 6 25 52 3 2 .5 5 e n g in e s % 7 .0 2 9 .1 60.5 3 .5 2 Diagnosis and f 3 29 39 15 2 .5 troubleshooting % 3.5 33-7 45.3 1 7 .4 3 Automobile engines f 9 26 45 6 2 .4 5 % 1 0 .5 30.2 5 2 .3 7 .0 4 Fundamentals of f 7 26 40 13 2 .4 5 electricity and % 8 .1 30.2 4 6 .5 1 5 .1 m agnetism

5 Mechanical power f 7 34 33 12 2 .3 5 transmission % 8.1 3 9 .5 3 8 .4 1 4 .0 6 Fluid power f 10 26 30 20 2 .30 % 11.6 30.2 3 4 .9 2 3 .3 7 Fuels and lubri­ f 8 38 28 12 2 .2 7 c a n ts % 9 -3 4 4 .2 32.6 1 4 .0 8 Power measurement f 9 41 31 5 2.27 % 1 0 .5 4 7 -7 36 .0 5 .8 9 Simple machines f 15 34 27 10 2 .1 6 % 1 7 .4 3 9 .5 31.4 1 1 .6 10 Outboard engines f 20 35 25 6 2 .06 * 2 3 .3 4 0 .7 29.1 7 .0 11 Social and e®onomic f 18 34 21 13 2 .0 6 implications of % 2 0 .9 3 9 .5 2 4 .4 1 5 .1 power

12 Historical develop­ f 17 47 14 8 1 .9 6 ment of power % 1 9 .8 5 4 .6 1 6 .3 9 .3 13 Diesel engines f 19 44 15 8 1 .9 5 % 2 2 .1 5 1 .2 1 7 .4 9 .3 14 Gas turbine engines f 21 32 12 21 1 .8 6 % 24.4 37.2 14.0 2 4 .4 145 TABLE 24 (Contd.)

N u m erical Major Instruc­ Degree of Emphasis No Re- R anking tional Units Low Med. High sponse Mean 15 Experimental power f 24 26 14 22 1 .8 4 s o u rc e s % 2 7 .9 3 0 .2 1 6 .3 25.6 16 Steam engines and f 27 32 12 15 1 .7 9 t u r b in e i 3 1 .4 3 7 .2 1 4 .0 1 7 .4 17 Atomic energy f 25 30 11 20 1 .7 9 % 2 9 .1 3 4 .9 1 2 .8 23-3 18 Solar energy f 26 30 10 20 1 .6 7 % 30.2 3 4 .9 1 1 .6 23-3

19 Reaction engines f 26 34 9 17 « 1 .7 5 % 3 0 .2 3 8 .5 1 0 .5 1 9 .8

20 Rocketry f 30 32 7 17 „ 1 .6 6 * 3 4 .9 3 7 .2 8 .1 19.8

21 Aircraft engines - f 40 24 5 17 0 1 .4 9 reciprocating % 4 6 .5 2 7 .9 5 .8 1 9 .8

Note: The mean was computed by using a value of 1, 2, and 3 for each of the degrees of emphasis and dividing the cumulative score by the number of respondents reporting.

The data contained in Tables 23 and 24 provide.a basis for some rather interesting comparisons. First, the number one ranking of the small gasoline engine unit in both in­ stances bends to indicate that this instructional unit receives major emphasis in a vast majority of the programs surveyed. The logic of this selection may in part stem from the fact that the fundamental concepts involved in this unit of study are equally applicable to other larger and more sophisticated energy sources involved in prime movers in­ cluding the compression Ignition and reaction engines. There appears to be a progression from simple to complex involved N* 4 in this selection. t

Another comparison which is worthy of mention involves the ranking of the instructional unit on fluid power. This instructional unit was included in 54 or 62.8 per cent of the teacher education programs surveyed which resulted in a rank­ ing of nineteenth. However, the ranking of this unit moved to sixth place when rated in terms of degree of emphasis.

Those respondents who included this instructional unit tended

to place considerable emphasis on it while those who did not

include this unit either abstained from responding (no re­ sponse column) or recorded a rather low rating.

Should a study of fluid power be included as an integral part of the power mechanics program? Table 25 contains the respondents® response to this question. Approximately 90 per cent of those reporting agreed that the power program should

include a study of fluid power while 8.2 per cent disagreed. Since the value of chi square (58.332) exceeds the .01 level of probability, it may be concluded that there is a signifi­ cant difference between the observed and expected frequencies

in favor of including an instructional unit in fluid power as an integral part of the-power mechanics program. 147

TABLE 25

FLUID POWER AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT IN POWER MECHANICS

Statement: A study of fluid power should be included in an integral part of the power mechanics program.

Cumulative Choice of Response Frequency Percentage Percentage Strongly agree 3 ° 3 4 .9 3 4 .9 Agree 47 5 4 .6 8 9 .5

Disagree 5 5 .9 9 5 .4 Strongly disagree 2 2 .3 9 7 .7 No response 2 2 .3 1 0 0 .0 N = 86. Mean = 3.25. Chi Square 58.332.

Laboratory A ctivities

Part three of Item 17 in the survey instrument (Appen­ dix D) requested that each respondent indicate those major instructional units which required student involvement in laboratory experiences. Table 26 shows the frequency and percentage of the total population which require laboratory activity in conjunction with selected instructional units. The data contained in this table reveal that approximately

92 per cent of the teacher educators reporting require labor­ atory activity involving small gasoline engines. In contrast, only 3*5 per cent of the total population reported laboratory activity in conjunction with a study of atomic energy. The data contained in Table 26 lead one to conclude

that a major portion of the laboratory activities in the 148

TABLE 26 MAJOR INSTRUCTIONAL UNITS REQUIRING STUDENT ENVOLVEMENT IN LABORATORY ACTIVITY RANKED IN ORDER OP FREQUENCY

N u m e ric al F r e ­ P e r­ Ranking Major Instructional Units N=86 quency c e n ta g e 1 Small gasoline engines 79 9 1 .8

2 Automobile engines 69 8 0 .2

3 Diagnosis and troubleshooting 64 7 4 .4

4 Outboard engines 61 7 0 .9

5 Fundamentals of electricity 54 62 «8 6 Mechanical power transm ission 54 6 2 .8

7 Power measurement 53 61.6 8 Simple machines 39 4 5 .3

9 Fluid power 38 4 4 .2

10 Fuels and lubricants 37 4 3 .0 11 Delsel engines 34 3 9 .5

12 Reaction engines 20 2 3 .3

13 A ircraft engines—-reciprocating 17 19.8 14 R o c k e try 15 1 7 .4

15 Solar energy 15 1 7 .4 16 Steam engines and turbine 14 1 6 .3

17 Experimental power sources 10 1 1 .6 18 Gas turbine 6 7 .0

19 Atomic energy 3 3 .5 149 various teacher education programs is restricted to instruc­ tional units involving outboard, automotive and smallgaso- line engines. Laboratory activities associated with the major instructional units ranked third, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth may be accomplished as a part of the units pre­ viously mentioned. Also, there appears to be a relationship between the accessibility of the various power sources and the order in which they are ranked.

Table 27 was prepared to further describe the general nature of the laboratory activity associated with the power mechanics program. The participants were asked to Indicate the degree of emphasis placed on selected' kinds of laboratory activity. The evidence contained in this table tend to sup­ port the conclusions drawn from the data reported in the previous table.

Responses listed under the "other" category include the following: individual student research and experimenta­ tion! hydraulic circuitry construction! disassembly, inspec­ tion and repair of live units; development of demonstration kits! and troubleshooting. The addition of these alternate responses plus the expansion of the degree of emphasis scale to allow for a "no" or "none" response may have made a sig­ nificant difference in the findings derived frcm this inquiry. The reluctance of public school teachers as well as teacher educators to include Instructional units involving some of the newer sources of power may in part involve the 1 5 0

TABLE 27

DEGREE OF EMPHASIS PLACED ON SELECTED LABORATORY EXPERIENCES RANKED IN ORDER OF MEAN SCORE

Numerical Laboratory Degree of Emphasis No Re- Ranking Experiences N = 86 Low Med. High sponse Mean 1 Small engine main­ f 6 30 48 2 2 .5 0 tenance and repair % 7 -0 3 4 .9 5 5 .8 2 .3 2 Live automotive main­-f 26 24 30 6 2 .0 5 tenance and repair % 3 0 .2 2 7 .9 3 4 .9 7 .0 3 Teaching aid con­ f 22 36 20 8 1 .9 7 s t r u c t i o n % 25.6 4 1 .9 23.2 9 -3 4 Disassembly, inspec­ f 26 39 19 2 1 .9 2 tion and repair of % 3 0 .2 4 5 .3 2 2 .1 2 .3 "d e a d 1' u n i t s

5 Repair and mainten­ f 30 29 21 6 1 .8 9 ance of outboard % 3 4 .9 2 3 .7 2 4 .4 7 .0 e n g in e s

6 Construction of f 35 29 12 10 1 .7 0 research apparatus % 4 0 .7 3 3 -7 1 4 .0 1 1 .6 7 Project construc­ f 38 25 13 10 1 .6 7 tion involving % 4 4 .2 2 9 .1 1 5 .1 1 1 .6 s o u rc e s

8 Model construction f 46 25 5 10 1 .4 6 * 5 3 .5 2 9 .1 5 .8 1 1 .6 9 Repair and mainten­ f 56 4 2 24 1 .1 3 ance of aircraft % 6 5.I 4 .7 2 .3 2 7 .9 piston engines

adaptability of such content to a laboratory situation. Table 28 shows that 79 per cent of the respondents are of the opin­ ion that one of the criteria used in the selection of content for the power mechanics program involves the adaptability of such content to laboratory activity. Approximately 151 20 per cent of those reporting disagreed with this basis for r content selection. Since the value of chi square (30.600) is greater than the .01 level of probability (6.635), one may conclude that there is a significant difference between the observed and expected frequencies in favor of using the adaptability of program content to a laboratory situation as one of the criteria for content selection.

TABLE 28

ADAPTABILITY OP CONTENT TO LABORATORY SITUATION AS A CRITERIA FOR CONTENT SEIECTION Statement: One of the criteria used in the selection of con- tent for power mechanics programs Involves the adaptability of such content to laboratory a c t i v i t y .

C um ulativ e Choice of Response F requence P e rc e n ta g e P e rc e n ta g e

Strongly agree 18 2 0 .9 2 0 .9 A gree 50 4 8 .1 7 9 .0

D isa g re e 12 1 4 .0 9 3 .0

Strongly disagree 5 5 .8 9 8 .8 No response 1 1 .2 1 0 0 .0 N - 86. Mean = 2.95 C hi sq u a re = 3 0 .6 0 0

Table 29 was prepared to report the opinions of the participants concerning the inadaptability of selected instruc­

tional units. Approximately 62 per cent of those reporting

disagreed with the statement while nearly 38 per cent agreed..

The value of chi square (4.650) is greater than the .05 level 1 5 2 of probability (3.841). In other words, a majority of the respondents are of the opinion that instructional units deal­ ing with jet engines, rockets, atomic energy, and solar power do not readily lend themselves to meaningful laboratory experiences.

TABLE 29

ADAPTABILITY OP SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL UNITS TO MEANINGFUL LABORATORY EXPERIENCES Statement; Major instructional units dealing with jet engines, rockets, atomic energy, solar power, etc., readily lend themselves to meaningful laboratory experiences.

C u m u lativ e Choice of Response Frequency Percentage P e rc e n ta g e Strongly agree 10 1 1 .6 1 1 .6

A gree 23 2 6 .7 3 8 .4 D isa g re e 40 4 6 .5 8 4 .9

Strongly disagree 13 1 5 .1 1 0 0 .0

D e r iv a tio n o f C ourse C o n te n t

By what means do teacher educators determine the con­ tent which should be included or excluded from a specific educational program? Several techniques used in the field of industrial education have previously been discussed in

Chapter II. In an effort to provide a basis for the program to be projected In Chapter IV, the researcher has solicited the respondents1 opinions regarding the various bases for determining course content. The discussion which follows 153 w ill evolve out of an analysis and interpretation of the data derived from Itesm 27 through 33 of the survey instru­ m en t.

Behavior change approach The behavior change approach within the field of in­ quiry is perhaps most directly related to the major concepts expressed in W ilber's (1956) book entitled Industrial Arts and General Education. This author advocates that course content including laboratory activities be selected on the basis of their potential effect on desirable behavior change.

The data in Table 30 tends to indicate that the re­ spondents agree with W ilber's basic premise. Approximately

TABLE 30

DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR CHANGE AS A BASIS FOR CONTENT DERIVATION Statement; Course content including laboratory activities should be selected on the basis of their poten­ tial effect on desirable behavior change.

C u m u lativ e Choice of Response Frequency Percentage P e rc e n ta g e Strongly agree 22 25.6 2 5 .6

A gree 46 5 3 .5 7 9 .1 D isa g re e 14 1 6 .3 9 5 .4 Strongly disagree 0 0 .0 9 5 .4

No response 4 4 .6 1 0 0 .0 N = 86. Mean = 3.10. Chi square = 35.560. 154 79 per cent of those reporting agree to the behavior change approach to content derivation while 16.3 per cent disagree.

Since the value of chi square (35-560) is greater than the

.01 level of probability, it may be concluded that there is a significant difference between the observed and expected frequencies in favor of using desirable behavior change as a basis for content derivation.

Trade or occupational .analysis

The trade or occupational analysis technique of deter­ mining course content in industrial education is generally associated with the writings of Fryklund (1962), Eriese

(1958)# et a l. The data reported in Table 31 Indicate that 62.8 per cent of the teacher educators reporting agree that course content should be based on an analysis of occupations, jobs, processes or unit operations in industrial life. This table further indicates that 33*8 per cent of the respondents disagree with this basis for content derivation. Since the value of chi square (7-578) is greater than the .01 level of probability (6.635)# it may be concluded that a majority of the respondents consider the analysis technique to be an appropriate basis for determining course content. Although this technique of content derivation is most effective when used to analyze a specific trade or occupation, it has some serious lim itations when applied to a broad exploratory pro­ gram which is not directly related to a specific trade, occu­ pation, process or unit operation. TABLE 31

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE AS A BASIS FOR DETERMINING COURSE CONTENT

Statement: Course content should be based on an analysis of occupations, jobs, processes or unit operations In industrial life.

Cumulative Choice of Response Frequency Percentage Percentage Strongly 8 9 .3 9 .3 Agree 46 53*5 6 2 .8

Disagree 20 2 3 .3 8 6 .0

Strongly disagree 9 1 0 .5 9 6 .5 No response 3 3 .5 1 0 0 .0 N = 86. Mean = 2.64. Chi square = 7*578.

Socioeconomic analysis versus job or trade analysis ' The origin of the socioeconomic approach to curriculum development may be found in the writings of Bonser (1930).

N&rner (1947) has made an issue out of this matter by stating that "content should be derived via a socioeconomic analysis of technology rather than by job or trade analysis." The data recorded in Table 32 indicate that a majority (57 per cent) of the respondents take a position in favor of the socioeconomic approach. Approximately 34 per cent of those reporting favor the job or trade analysis position. Those who failed to respond to the statement took the position that an issue does not exist. In other words, either approach may be equally appropriate In a given situation. The computed 1 5 6 value of chi square (5*128) is significant at the .05 level of probability (3*841). Therefore, it may be concluded that the responses to this issue tend to favor the socioeconomic a p p ro a c h .

TABLE 32 SOCIOECONOMIC ANALYSIS OP TECHNOLOGY VERSUS JOB OR TRADE ANALYSIS AS A BASIS FOR CONTENT DERIVATION Statement: Content is derived via a socioeconomic analysis of technology rather than by job or trade analysis.

C um ulative Choice of Response Frequency Percentage Percentage Strongly agree 13 15*1 15*1 A gree 36 4 1 .9 57*0

D isa g re e 27 31*4 8 8 .4

Strongly disagree 2 2 .3 9 0 .7

No response 8 9*3 1 0 0 .0 N = 86. Mean =2.77* Chi square = 5*128.

Analysis of llfe*s activities

Another technique of content derivation associated with the field of inquiry involves the determination of those things people need to know and be able to perform in order to live in our society. Table 33 shows that 84.4 per cent of the respondents agree with the analysis of life 6s activity approach to content derivation while 9.3 per cent disagree.

The mean (3*04) and value of chi square (55*046) recorded for this basis of content derivation tends to indicate that 157 the respondents favor this technique over other methods listed in this section of the report.

TABLE 33

AN ANALYSIS OP L IF E 'S ACTIVITIES AS A BASIS FOR CONTENT DERIVATION Statement: Life's activities should be analyzed to ascertain what people must know and be able to do in order to perform these activities.

C u m u lativ e Choice of Response Frequency Percentage P e rc e n ta g e Strongly agree 13 1 5 .1 1 5 .1 A gree 63 7 3 .2 8 8 .4 D isa g re e 6 7 .0 9 5 .4

Strongly disagree 2 2 .3 9 7 -7 No response 2 2 .3 1 0 0 .0

N = 86. Mean = 3• 04. Chi square = 55.046.

Interest basis Table 34 was prepared to show the respondents' reaction to the student enthusiasm, hobby, avocation or teacher inter­ est approach to determining content. Approximately three- fourths of those reporting rejected this basis for content derivation. Their general rejection of the interest basis for content derivation appears to be well founded for several reasons. First, content so derived tends to3ack the funda­ mental structure. Second, the interest basis for content derivation tends to rather narrow in scope. 158

TABLE 34

INTEREST BASIS FOR CONTENT DERIVATION Statement: Student enthusiasm, hobbies, avocation or teacher interest should determine content selection for a given course.

C u m u lativ e Choice of Response Frequency Percentage P e rc e n ta g e Strongly agree 5 5 -8 5 .8

A gree 9 1 0 .5 1 6 .3 D is a g re e 52 6 0 .5 7 6 .8 Strongly disagree 20 23.2 1 0 0 .0

N = 86. Mean = 1.99. C hi sq u a re = 3 9 .1 1 6

The responses derived from Items 30 and 33 of the survey instrument have not been reported due to the incon­ clusiveness of the responses. For further information refer to Appendix G.

In summary, the evidence derived from this inquiry into the various bases for content derivation tends to indi­ cate that the teacher educators reporting tend to take an eclectic position favoring the behavior change, trade or occupational analysis, socioeconomic analysis and an analysis of life 8s activities approaches while rejecting the interest basis whether it be student or teacher oriented. This group most readily accepted the analysis of life ’s activities approach to content derivation. A National Curriculum The literature review revealed that there are several nationally known leaders (Schmitt, 1961) ( F e i r e r , 196IB) who are presently taking the position that there is a need for the development of national standards for course content.

They point out that this need has been brought about by the tremendous technological advances which have taken place in the past half century. The resulting effect can be readily observed in the tremendous diversity of content included in a given program from community to community or state to state. T able 35 shows that 60.5 per cent of the respondents tend to favor the establishment of a national curriculum

TABIE 35 NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR COURSE CONTENT Statement: National standards for course content should be established through a national curriculum center organized under the American In d u stria l Arts Association

Cumulative Choice of Response Frequency Percentage Percentage Strongly agree 12 1 4 .0 1 4 .0

Agree 40 4 6 .5 6 0 .5

Disagree 20 2 3 .3 8 3 .7

Strongly disagree 13 1 5 .1 98.8 No response 1 1 .2 1 0 0 .0 N = 86. Mean = 2.60. Chi square = 4.246. 1 6 0 center organized under the American Industrial Arts Associa­ tion. In contrast, approximately 38 per cent of the respon­ dents opposed national standards for course content. Several of the respondents who opposed the statement contained in T ab le 35 based their objection on the use of the term stand­ ards which has the connotation of being used as a measuring device to determine the adequacy of the program. Further­ more, they frequently substituted the term ’’guides” in place of standards. The logical result to be obtained from national stand­

ards or guidelines would among other things bring about some

conformity in program offering throughout the United States.

T ab le 36 was prepared to show the respondents* reaction to

the standardization of course content in the basic power mechanics program. This table indicates that 75*6 per cent

of those reporting agreed with the statement as compared to 23.3 per cent who disagreed. The value of chi square

(23.822) is greater than the .01 level of probability

(6.635)» Therefore, it may be concluded that there is a significant difference between the observed and expected

frequencies in favor of a basic course in power mechanics

being the same throughout the country with variations in

activities to meet local needs. 161

TABLE 36

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR COURSE CONTENT IN POWER MECHANICS

Statements A basic course in power mechanics should be the same throughout the country with variations in activities to meet local needs.

C u m u lativ e Choice of Response Frequency Percentage P e rc e n ta g e

Strongly agree 1 6 .3 1 6 .3

A gree 51 59-3 7 5 .6 D isa g re e 11 1 2 .8 8 8 .4

Strongly disagree 9 1 0 .5 98.8 No response 1 1 .2 1 0 0 .0 N = 86. Mean = 2 . 706. Chi square = 23.822.

Bases for Content Organization Hie previously reported data have been specifically concerned with an analysis and interpretation of the various procedures and techniques advocated for determining course content appropriate to a particular program. This discussion has left unanswered the question: "What bases do teacher educators use in an effort to arrive at a logical organiza­ tion of the content after it has been identified? Two items in the survey instrument pertained to this question.

The data recorded In Table 37 relates the degree of reliance which the teacher educators place on selected bases for content organization. The data reported in this table tend to indicate that the respondents rely more heavily on 1 6 2 resource m aterials from Industry and personal knowledge of content breadth. Also noteworthy is the fact that those responding tended to reject (mean of 1 .1 8 on a three point scale) the advisory committee approach.

TABLE 37 DEGREE OP RELIANCE PLACED ON VARIOUS BASES FOR CONTENT ORGANIZATION RANKED IN ORDER OP IMPORTANCE

Bases for Content Degree of Reliance No Re- Organization N = 86 Bow Med. High sponse Mean Resource materials from f 4 21 58 3 2 .6 5 i n d u s t r y % 4 .6 2 4 .4 6 7 .4 3 .5 Personal knowledge of f 1 29 53 3 2 .6 3 content breadth % 1 .2 3 3 .7 6 1 .6 3 .5 Textbooks published on f 6 35 43 2 2 .4 4 the subject % 7 .0 4 0 .7 5 0 .0 2 .3 Information, job and f 24 39 18 5 1 .9 3 operation sheets % 2 7 .9 4 5 .3 2 0 .9 5 .8 State and national f 49 32 1 4 1 .4 3 curriculum guides * 5 7 .0 3 7 .2 1 .2 4 .6 Advisory c o m it tee f 62 10 1 13 1.18 % 72 .1 1 1 .6 1 .2 1 5 .1

Other bases for content organization which w ere w r ltte i in include the following: personal experience and research; laboratory equipment; research reported in the form of theses and dissertations; professional meetings; and periodicals or related literature.

The statement contained in Table 38 pertains to the organization of the content related to various heat engines 163 under the classification of the major operational systems involved. Approximately 86 per cent of those reporting agreed

TABES 38

ORGANIZATION OP CONTENT BY OPERATIONAL SYSTEMS Statement: The study of various internal combustion engines is best organized under a study of the various operational systems—mechanical, electrical, lubrication, fuel, cooling, and exhaust.

Cumulative Choice of Response Frequency Percentage Percentage

Strongly agree 17 19.8 1 9 .8 Agree 57 6 6 .2 8 6 .0

Disagree 9 1 0 .5 9 6 .5 Strongly disagree 1 1 .2 9 7 .7

No response 2 2 .3 1 0 0 .0 N = 86. Mean = 3 . 2 7. Chi square = 48.760.

to this organizational procedure while 11.7 per cent dis­

agreed with the statement. The logic behind this approach to

content organization appears to be rather significant. First, the operational system approach to content organization

allows the student to examine the various parts in relation­

ship to the whole. Second, this procedure provides a means

of comparing the sim ilarities and/or differences of a given system with each of the energy sources studied. Thus, an

opportunity to build on what has previously been learned is

provided as well as a built in procedure for review. 164

Teaching Techniques and Procedures

A list of 19 teaching techniques and procedures was developed including a variety of teaching techniques and pro­

cedures frequently associated with the Industrial education

program. Item 13 in the survey instrument asked the respon­

dents to indicate the degree of emphasis which they placed

on each of the items in their power mechanics program. The

results of this inquiry are recorded in Table 39• Formal lectures, individual and group laboratory experiences received

the highest ranking while student personnel organization,

teacher placement, and programmed learning experiences ranked at the bottom of the list. The relative high ranking (fifth) received by the use of free and Inexpensive m aterials tends

to indicate that the published textbooks do not adequately

cover the subject matter content.

Interdisciplinary Relationships There appears to be a trend toward increasing the re­ quirements in the mathematics and science fields as a part of the preparation of industrial arts teachers. Hie basis for this trend has grown out of the belief that knowledge derived from these fields of inquiry make a direct contribu­ tion to the technical preparation of the prospective teacher. In accordance with this philosophy, the two laboratory courses recently initiated in "power" at The Ohio State Uni­ versity have prerequisites in physics and mathematics. 1 6 5

TABLE 3 9

DEGREE OP EMPHASIS PLACED ON SELECTED TEACHING TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES RANKED IN ORDER OP IMPORTANCE

Numerical Teaching Techniques Degree of Emphasis No Re- Ranking and Procedures 1 2 3 *T sponse Mean

1 Formal lecture f 1 11 39 33 2 3 .7 0 * 1 .2 12.8 45.3 38.4 2.3 2 Individual labora­ f 1 13 24 44 4 3 .6 2 tory experiences 1 .2 15.1 27.9 51.2 4 .6

3 Group laboratory f 1 16 27 37 4 3 .2 4 experiences ft 1.2 18.6 31.4 44.2 §.6 4 Group demonstrations f 1 13 34 34 4 3 .2 3 ft 1 .2 15.1 39.5 39.5 1l .6 5 Use of free and f 5 16 33 28 4 •3.02 inexpensive ft 5 -8 1 8 .6 3 8 .4 3 2 .6 4 .6 m aterials

6 Problem-solving f 3 21 28 22 12 2 .9 3 a c tiv itie s % 3 .5 2 4 .4 3 2 .5 2 5 .6 1 4 .0

r Textbook assignments f 4 20 37 21 4 2 .9 1 it 4 .7 2 3 .3 4 3 .0 2 4 .4 4 .6 8 Written assignments f 1 32 37 10 6 2 .9 1 ft 1 .2 3 7 .2 434-0.11.6 7.0 9 Use of resource f 17 7 24 33 5 2 .9 0 persons from ft 1 9 .8 8 .1 2 7 .9 3 8 .4 5 .8 industry

10 Films, film s trip s f 0 30 33 20 3 2 .8 8 and slid e s ft 0 .0 3 4 ,9 3 8 .4 2 3 .3 3>4 11 Paper pencil tests f 4 24 43 10 5 2 .7 3 ft 4 .6 2 7 .9 5 0 .0 1 1 .6 5 .8 12 Bulletin board f 9 56 15 0 6 2 .6 4 • • O displays ft 1 0 .5 6 5 .1 ■tr O 7 .0 13 Performance tests f 9 28 31 14 4 2 .6 1 $ 1 0 .5 3 2 .6 3 6 .0 1 6 .3 4 .7

14 Teaching aid f 10 29 30 13 4 2 .5 6 construction f> 1 1 .6 3 3 .7 34.9 15.1 4.7 166

TABLE 39 (Contd.)

Numerical Teaching Techniques Degree of Emphasis No Re- RankLng and Procedures 1 § 3 4“ sponse Mean 15 Research and experl® f 11 34 18 17 6 2 .5 1 mentation experi­ % 12.8 39-5 20.9 1 9 .8 7 .0 ences

16 Teacher placement f 22 28 17 8 11 2 .1 5 % 2 5 .6 3 2 .6 1 9 .8 9 .3 1 2 .7

17 Student personnel f 19 38 14 7 8 2 .1 2 organization % 22.1 44.2 16.3 8 .1 9 -3 18 Field trips to f 18 45 15 4 4 2 .0 2 industry % 20.9 52.3 1 7 .4 4 .6 4 .6

19 Programmed learning f 49 18 8 1 10 1 .5 0 experiences # 57.0 20.9 9.3 1 .2 1 1 .6 1 = No emphasis. 3 = Considerable emphasis. 2 = Some emphasis. 4 = Great emphasis

However, only two of the 84 Institutions represented in this study reported any such prerequisites to enrolling in the power mechanics program. One of these institutions required physics while the other required the successful completion of trigonometry and physics. Table 40 indicates that 97*6 per cent of the teacher educators reporting agreed that basic understandings and knowledge in the physical and mathematical sciences are essential in the preparation of industrial arts teachers in

the field of power. It should be further noted that only

2.3 per cent disagreed with this statement. Since the value

of chi-square (78.186) greatly exceeds the .01 level of

probability, it may be concluded that there is a significant 167 difference between the observed and expected frequencies in favor of the statement contained in Table 40.

TABLE 40

RELATIONSHIP OP THE PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES TO THE PREPARATION OP POWER MECHANICS TEACHERS Statement; Basic understandings and knowledge in the physi­ cal and mathematical sciences are essential in the preparation of industrial arts teachers in the field of power.

Cumulative Choice of Response Frequency Percentage Percentage Strongly agree 45 5 2 .3 5 2 .3

Agree 39 4 5 .3 97-7 Disagree 2 2 .3 1 0 0 .0 Strongly disagree 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0

N = 8 6 . Mean = 3 -5 0 . Chi square = 7 8. 1 8 6.

The almost universal agreement among the respondents concerning the appropriateness of providing prospective power mechanics teachers with a background in the physical and mathematical sciences would logically lead one to question why only two of the 84 institutions reported prerequisites in these programs. The answer to this question may in part be based on the fact that formal course work in physics, chemistry and/or mathematics is frequently taken as a part of the general education requirements for graduation. There­ fore, more time is available for specialized education courses. Also, course work in the physical and mathematical 168 sciences is considered applicable to all phases of the specialized educational program offering for industrial arts t e a c h e r s .

Table 41 further illustrates the importance the re­ spondents place on the interdisciplinary relationship with science. The universal acceptance of the statement contained

TABIE 41 CONTENT IN POWER MECHANICS BASED ON OPERATIONAL FUNDAMENTALS AND SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES Statement: The Instructional content in power mechanics courses should emphasize the understanding of operational fundamentals and scientific princi­ ples for each of the various energy sources s t u d i e d .

C u m u lativ e Choice of Response Frequency Percentage P e rc e n ta g e

Strongly agree 49 5 7 -0 5 7 .0

A gree 37 4 3 .0 1 0 0 .0 D isa g re e 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0

Strongly disagree 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0

N = 86. Mean = 3-57* Chi square = 86.000. in this table further supports the importance which the re­ search has attached to the identification of the operational and scientific principles in the projected program contained in Chapter IV. The early adoption of Duffy® s book entitled

Power-Prime Mover of Technology may be related to the fact that this author has attempted to base his book on this 1 6 9 concept. In contrast, the other major references presently available have been prim arily concerned with an explanation of the operational principles neglecting for the most part the application of various scientific principles to the source of power being discussed. The acceptance of this approach clearly illustrates the importance attached to the

"applied science approach" to program derivation discussed in Chapter II.

Interdisciplinary relationships with the fields of economics and social studies have previously been illustrated by the degree of emphasis placed on major instructional units involving (1) the historical development of power sources, and (2) the social and economic implications of power.

State Curriculum Guides Item nine in the survey instrument (Appendix D) asked the respondents to indicate whether or not a curriculum guide in power mechanics was available in their respective state from the State Department of Education. A total of 21 teacher educators reporting from 13 states provided an affirm ative answer. Those states reported to have such m aterial available are as follows: (1) California, (2) Florida, (3) Illinois,

(4) Indiana, (5) Maine, (6) Michigan, (7) Missouri, (8) Min­ nesota, (9) New Mexico, (10) New York, (11) North Dakota,

(12) Texas, and (13) Washington. A letter was sent to the state supervisors of industrial arts in an effort to obtain a 170 copy of their curriculum guides. Table 42 was prepared to record the title s, sources and inclusive page numbers of those publications which the research has examined, ifae contents of several of these guides have been reviewed in Chapter II. The researcher was unable to confirm the avail­ ability of curriculum m aterial in the states of Maine, Minnesota, and Texas.

It should be noted that the publication listed for the State of Florida is a local curriculum guide rather than a state publication. It may be concluded that the curriculum guide available from the State of Indiana is the most compre­ hensive publication presently available. A committee is presently in the process of developing a curriculum guide in

"Power and Automotive Technology" for the State of Ohio under the guidance of The Ohio Industrial Arts Association and the

State Department of Education. The researcher has served as chairman of this group.

State Certification Regulations

An analysis of the data derived from this research reveals that there is considerably disagreement among the respondents concerning the certification regulations for Industrial arts teachers in their respective states. Approx­ imately 65 of the 86 respondents Indicated that the certifica tion regulations in their state did not require that prospec­ tive Industrial arts teachers receive instruction in power 1 7 1

TABLE 4 2

T ITIES, INCLUSIVE PAGES, AND SOURCES OP STATE CURRICULUM GUIDES PERTAINING TO POWER MECHANICS

Titles and Inclusive Pages S o u rce

Industrial Arts Course Outline Industrial Arts Education Grades' Seven, Eight, and Nine. 721 Capitol Mall PP. 3 5 -4 0 Sacramento, California A tt: Dr. Robert L. Woodward C o n s u lta n t

An Introduction to Power Dade County Public Schools Mechanics. Bulletin too. Textbook Department 12PM. pp. 1-116, Price $1.25 230 S.W. 22nd Avenue Miami, Florida

Guidelines for Industrial Arts State Dept, of Public In­ Instruction, pp. 70-2, s t r u c t i o n 109- 12 , 173-79 Industrial Arts Education Springfield, Illinois A t t : Amos D. Colem an S u p e r v is o r

A Guide for Teaching Power State Supervisor of Indus­ Mechanics in Industrial Arts trial Arts in Indiana, pp. 1-43. Department of Public Instruc­ t i o n Indianapolis, Indiana A tt: Harold C. Boone

Power—B ulletin No. 2149, Trade and Industrial Educa­ p p . 1-33 t i o n Department of Public Instruc­ t i o n Lansing, Michigan Att: Arthur Hansen

A Course of Study for Power State Department of Education Mechanics by Hunter. Jefferson City, Missouri p p . 1-35 Att: Merton Wheeler, Director Industrial Education The New Mexico S tate Planning State Department of Education Guide fo r Indus t r i a l ""Arts- Santa Fe, New Mexico p p . 4 7 -5 6 A tt: Tom Wiley 1 7 2

TABLE 42 (Contd.)

Titles and Inclusive Pages Source *Power Technology S tate Education Department Albany, New York Att: Dr. Arthur P. Ahr, Chief Bureau of Ind. Arts E d u c a tio n Industrial Arts Education in Department of Public Instruc­ DakotaJ pp. 71-2, 90-2 t i o n Bismark, North Dakota A tt: Richard K. Klein, D i r e c t o r Secondary Education

Industrial Arts Guide, pp. 45-6, Division of Curriculum and 96-100 Instruction P.O. Box 500 Olympia, Washington A tt: Dr. Chester Babcock A ssistant Superintendent

Curriculum guide soon to be published. mechanics. Ihe remaining 17 participants gave an affirmative answer. Table 43 contains an analysis of the state certifi­ cation regulations in those states where an instructional

program in power mechanics is required as reported by the

respondents. The obvious inconsistencies reported in Table 43 lead

the researcher to do further research on this topic. The

data contained in Table 44 were taken directly from publica­

tions recently received from the State Department of Educa­

tion in each state mentioned. TABLE 4 3

STATE CERTIFICATION REGULATIONS REQUIRING INSTRUCTION IN POWER MECHANCS AS PREPARATION FOR INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHERS

F re q u en c y No No. of Qt. Hrs. Required No S ta te N Yes No Response 1-4 5-8 9-12 13-16 R esp o n se* C a l i f o r n i a 4 2 2 0 2 G e o rg ia 2 1 1 0 1 0 I l l i n o i s 4 1 3 0 1 0 In d ia n a 3 1 2 0 1 0 M aine 1 1 0 0 1 0 M in n e so ta 3 1 1 1 1 0 New Hampshire 1 1 0 0 1 0 New Jersey - 3 2 0 1 1 1 North Dakota 2 1 1 0 1 0 Ohio 6 3 1 2 1 2 Oklahoma 4 1 3 0 1 0 T exas 5 1 4 0 1 W ash in g to n 3 1 2 0 1

T o ta l 41 17 20 4 6 2 1 1 7

Respondents answering yes who did not specify the number of quarter hours of instruction required. 174

TABLE 4 4

INDUSTRIAL ARTS CERTIFICATION REGULATIONS IN SELECTED STATES

Sem. Hrs. of State Sp. Ed. Areas and Credit Hours Required California 40 "Required subject group—fifteen se­ mester hours from five of the follow­ ing six fields: automotives 1 and transportation, woodwork, drawing, electricity and radio, metalwork, and printing and graphic arts." (Califor­ n i a , 1952)

G e o rg ia 34 "... including instruction in elec­ tricity, drafting, general shop, wood­ working, and metal working." (Georgia, 1962, p . 2 2 )

I l l i n o i s 32 "Teachers in all subject areas: wood­ working, metalworking, electricity, graphic arts and auto mechanics shall have at least eight semester hours in the subject to be taught." (Matthews, 1963) I n d ia n a 40 Requires four semester hours in metals, drafting, graphic arts, woods, elec­ tric it y-electronic s, and power and transportation. (Indiana, 1962, p . 33)

M aine No specific regulations in terms of content areas or number of credits r e q u i r e d .

M in n e so ta 24 No specific areas specified (Hoots, 1963) New 30 No specific areas mentioned—six H am pshire semester hours in subject to be taught. (New Hampshire, 1962, p . 11)

New J e r s e y 40 "Three hundred clock hours of work experience in occupation related to industrial arts field approved by the State Department of Education." Areas: general shop, metals, mechanical drawing, graphic arts, and crafts. (Surest, 19o3) 1 7 5

TABLE 44 (Contd.)

Sem. Hrs. of S tate Sp. Ed. Areas and Credit Hours Required

North Dakota 16 No specific content areas mentioned. (North Dakota, 1962)

Ohio 45 Includes preparation in each of the following areas: graphic arts, woods, metals, electricity, crafts, automo­ tives, and drawing. (Ohio, 1961, P . 3) Oklahoma 24 “To teach general shop, mechanical drawing, metal work, woodworking, a minimum of eight semester hours is required in each subject taught. Other related subjects require one college credit course in the subject taught." (Oklahoma, 1961, p. 86)

Texas 24 No specific content areas mentioned.

W ashington 25 No specific content areas mentioned. T Requires a minimum of 416 clock hours of practical experience in the subject field in a commercial establishment or a three-unit course in research and experimentation.

Several conclusions can be drawn from a comparison of the information contained in Tables 43 and 44. First, those teacher educators participating in this study were not well informed concerning the certification requirements in their state. Second, the certification regulations in only four of the thirteen states reviewed in Table 44 even mention an area which is remotely connected to the power mechanics pro­ gram. These states include California, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio.. Third, the certification regulation in 13 states 1 7 6 mentioned In 44 do not contain a single reference to the power mechanics program.

The situation regarding the certification regulations in selected states is perhaps not as disconcerting as the data reported herein would lead one to believe. The discrep­ ancies which have previously been pointed out may partially be accounted for by the fact that the institution granting the degree In many instances establishes the specific content areas and number of credit hours to be taken in order to graduate. The institution then recommends the Individual to the state certification board where the stamp of approval is granted. Thus, it is conceivable that different institu­ tions in a given state would recommend prospective Industrial arts teachers for certification with a different technical background.

Summary The preliminary survey utilized in this research was successful in identifying 102 teacher education institutions preparing industrial arts teachers which reportedly provide an instructional program in power mechanics. An additional

45 instutitions indicated that they plan to include this phase of the curriculum in the near future.

The average or typical respondent involved in this study may be described by the data derived from the in itial questions in the survey instrument.

1. Has attained the rank of assistant instructor 2. Has nine years of teaching experience in higher

e d u c a tio n

3. Teaches 19 class contact hours per week

4. Has 41 per cent of his yearly teaching load in the

power program

5. Spends 39 per cent of his regularly scheduled teach­ ing time in class discussion or theory 6. Teaches at an institution which has offered a power mechanics program for approximately nine years

7. Has completed six quarter hours of undergraduate or graduate credit in this field

8. Believes that industrial work experience is desir­

able in the preparation of power mechanics teachers

The respondents generally agree that this phase of the curriculum involves a study of energy sources and machines which convert energy into useful work. Likewise, four out of five of the participants reject the idea of using the term power mechanics to describe specialized programs per­ taining to the automotive field. OSiis group contends that this phase of the industrial arts teacher education program should be changed from the traditional automotive program to a broaden more comprehensive offering.

The general objectives which should guide the develop­ ment of programs in industrial arts include the development of

1. safe and cooperative work habits.

2. insights and understandings of industry. 178 3. an appreciation of good design and workmanship 4. talents in technical fields and applied sciences. 5. skills in the use of common tools and machines. 6. consumer knowledge. This listing may later be compared to the data derived from at status study which is being conducted in the State of Ohio as well as national survey now under way through the U.S. Office of Education. Hie 84 institutions involved in this study offered an average of two courses pertaining to the power mechanics program involving eight quarter hours of credit. The pre­ dominant course title was power mechanics followed by titles of power technology and power and tra n sp o rta tio n . Duffy*s (1964) textbook entitled Power - Prime Mover of ’Technology has been adopted in one-third of the 84 institutions surveyed. The major instructional units included in 80 per cent of the programs surveyed included a study of (l) small gaso­ line engines, (2) automotive engines, (3) power measurement, (4) historical development of power, (5) mechanical power transmission, (6) diesel engines, (7) fundamentals of elec­ tricity and magnetism, (8) fuels and lubricants, (9) outboard engines, and (10) social and economic implications of power.

Those instructional units included least frequently include

(1) rocketry, (2) atomic energy, (3) solar energy, (4) fluid power, (5) gas turbine engines, and (6) experimental power sources. Even though the instructional unit on fluid power 1 7 9 ranked rather low, approximately 90 per cent of the partici­ pants are of the opinion that this instructional unit should be included as an integral part of the power mechanics program .

Laboratory activities were most frequently associated with instructional units involving ( 1 ) small gasoline engines,

(2 ) automobile engines, ( 3 ) diagnosis and troubleshooting, and (4) outboard engines. Less than 20 per cent of the pro­ grams involved students in laboratory activities related to

Instructional units in ( 1 ) aircraft engines—reciprocating, (2 ) rocketry, ( 3 ) solar energy, (4) steam engine and tur­ b in e s , ( 5) experimental power sources, ( 6) gas turbine, and

(7) atcanic energy. In many instances, laboratory activities associated with the latter units must be restricted to ex­ periences with models or experimentation. Seventy-nine per cent of the respondents are of the opinion that one of the criteria used in the selection of content for the power nechanics program involves the adaptability of such content to a laboratory situation. Furthermore, 62 per cent of those reporting believe that instructional units dealing with jet engines, rockets, atomic energy and solar energy do not readily lend themselves to meaningful laboratory experiences. The data derived from this study tend to indicate that teacher educators take an eclectic position concerning the derivation of course content. They tend to accept the analysis of life's activity, behavior change, job or trade l8 o analysis or socioeconomic bases for content derivation. The teacher or student interest basis was rejected by this group. Four out of six of the respondents favored national standards for course content in industrial arts organized under the auspices of the American Industrial Arts Associ­ ation. Likewise, three-fourths of the participants take the position that a basic course in power mechanics should be the same throughout the country with variations in activities to meet local needs. The three most widely accepted bases for content organization in power mechanics include: (1) resource m aterials from industryj (2) personal knowledge of content breadth! and (3) textbooks published on the subject. The least accepted bases are: (1) information, job and operation sheets; (2) state and national curriculum guides; and (3) advisory committees.

The teacher educators involved in this study tend to place a high degree of emphasis on the following teaching techniques and procedures: (1) formal lectures, (2) individ­ ual laboratory experiences, (3) group laboratory experiences, and (4) group demonstrations. On the other end of the con­ tinuum ranked the following: (1) field trips to industry,

(2) student personnel organization, (3) teacher placement, and (4) programed learning experiences. The application of the scientific fields to the prep­ aration of industrial arts teachers was not verified by l8 l prerequisites in these fields for the power program. Only two of the institutions surveyed reported prerequisites to the power program in either the physical or mathematical sciences. In contrast, 97*7 per cent of the 86 respondents agreed that basic understandings and knowledge in these fields are essential in the preparation of industrial arts teachers in the field of power. This group unanimously agreed that the instructional content in power mechanics courses should emphasize the understanding of operational fundamentals and scientific principles for each of the various energy sources studied. Approximately 13 of the 36 states Included in this study are reported to have available curriculum guides in power mechanics. Ihe researcher was able to v e rify the e x is­ tence of only ten of this total. The most comprehensive guide presently available has been developed by the Indiana Indus­ tria l Arts Curriculum Committee. •Hie participants reported that the state certification regulations in 13 states require that institutions preparing industrial arts teachers provide an instructional program in power. A review of selected certification m aterials revealed that the power mechanics program was not mentioned in any of these states. This inconsistency is in part due to the fact that institutions frequently establish requirements which tend to be higher than those listed in state publications.

Also, several states certify teachers on the basis of an institutional recommendation. CHAPTER IV

A PROPOSED PROGRAM IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

This chapter is concerned with the projecting of a program in power technology as outlined in Chapter I. This projected program is an endeavor to answer the fundamental question: “What should be the nature of laboratory courses in power technology at the teacher education level?" Major emphases have been placed on: (1) a definition of power technology, (2) the analysis and Interpretation of economic data, (3) the determination of the major instructional units to be included, (4) the organization and outlining of the technical content, (5) the identification of the fundamental principles (operational and sc lent if 3c) which should be taught, and (6) the development of a procedure for the implementation of "research and experimentation" experiences into the laboratory.

Power Technology Defined

Why "power technology?" The researcher is convinced that the term "power technology" should be used in preference to the previously used terminology of power mechanics. The bases for this conclusion are several. First, the data con­ tained in Chapter III tended to indicate that even teacher 182 183 educators who profess to being knowledgeable of the program described by the latter term tend to confuse the power and automotive programs. Second, the term “mechanics11 is fre­ quently considered to be somewhat synonymous with "mechanic."

The former term (mechanics) is defined by Barnhart (1956,

P* 755) as: (a) "the branch of knowledge concerned (both theoretically and practically) with machinery or mechanical appliances," or (b) "that branch of applied science which treats the effect of force upon bodies and the motion they produce." The latter term (mechanic) is properly defined as: (a) "a skilled worker with tools or machines," or (b)

"one who repairs machines." Thus, this misunderstanding changes the goal of the program from a study of energy source® and machines to a service orientation. Third, the proposed terminology of power technology more clearly dis­ tinguishes this program from others which may be closely related. Automotive technology may be an equally appropriate term to describe the specialized automotive offering. What does the fie ld of power technology encompass? The term "power" is herein defined as "the energy or force available for application to work." It may be further dis­ tinguished as a mechanical energy rather than human labor.

Technology is defined (Barnhart, 1956, p. 1243) as "The branch of knowledge that deals with the industrial arts or 184 the science of in d u s tria l a r t s ." 1 Therefore, the power technology program may be described as that phase of the industrial arts curriculum which pertains to a study of the operational and scientific principles involved in energy sources as they are applied to prime movers. A "prime mover" has been described in Chapter I as a device which transfer nergy of one kind to that of another. Internal and external combustion engines are good examples as well as wind, moving water, and solar cells. Such devices are dis­ tinguished from "secondary movers" which depend upon another source of power such as an e le c tric motor. These devices would be Included in the power technology program only as they are used or applied to prime movers. Thus, the "home mechanics" type of experience is excluded frcan this program.

An E d u c a tio n a l P h ilo so p h y

Good (1959* P* 395) defines an educational philosophy a s : A careful, critical, and systematic endeavor to see education as a whole and as an integral part of man's culture, the more precise meaning of the tern varying with the systematic point of view of the stipulator; any philosophy dealing with or applied to the process of public or private education and used as a basis for the general determination, interpretation, and evaluation of educational prob­ lems having to do with objectives, practices, out­ comes, child and social needs, m aterials of study, and all other aspects of the field.

1Industrial arts Is used in the broad sense to mean the art of Industry rather than the program. 185 Thus, it should be recognized that the researcher's philosophy-

expressed herein is intended to (1) govern the character of his approach to education, (2) give direction to the proposed

program in power technology, and (3) form a foundation upon which future program changes and modifications may be built. The education of any individual in our society must be

viewed as a continuous process which begins at birth and does not end until death. Thus, the proposed program becomes a

small part of a large body of knowledge with which individ­

uals in our society should become acquainted.

The purposes of a general education program (Wilber,

1948, p. 43) in our society may be categorized under three

broad classifications. First, such programs should endeavor to "transmit a way of life." Hiis involves, among other

things, the relating of knowledge, customs and technical

accomplishments which have been derived from previous gener­

ations. Second, provisions should be made to allow the learner to "improve and reconstruct that way of life." This

involves the stimulation of critical thinking, research,

experimentation, problem solving, and above all else the development of an intellectually curious mind interested in the discovery and generation of new knowledge. Third,

efforts must be made "to meet the needs of individuals in the basic aspects of living." These individual needs have been 186 classified by the Committee on the Functions of Science in

General Education (1938, p. 2 7) as follows: 1. Personal living 2 . Immediate personal-social relationships

3. Socio-civic relationships

4. Economic relationships

Therefore, the power technology program should endeavor to significantly contribute to each of these major purposes of general education. This program must attempt to further con­ tribute to educating the whole Individual for a balanced, well rounded, and complete life.

Industrial arts education has a significant and re­ sponsible role to play in the attainment of the goals of general education previously outlined. An analysis of the

American culture reveals that it is highly industrial and technological. Therefore, the function of the industrial arts program is that of acquainting the youth of our nation with the true nature of our technological culture. This program is therefore a fundamental part of the total educa­ tional offering in American schools. The bases from which the power technology program evolves may be summarized as follows:

1. The primary purpose of the educational system in our society is that of acquainting children, youth, and adults with the true nature of our culture. 187 2. The American culture Is characteristically indus­ tria l and technological in nature.

3. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the American schools to acquaint youth with the technological aspects of their industrially dependent culture.

4. Since industrial arts education is a phase of gen­ eral education designed to interpret industry, it is logically assumed that it is the responsibility of this program to acquaint youth with the nature of industrial technology.

5• One phase of industry which is directly related to the economic growth and development of our society involves the design, invention, manufacture, application, service and utilization of energy sources. All aspects of our society are directly dependent upon this phase of industry.

6. It logically follows that one phase of the industrial arts curriculum would include a systematic study of power technology.

7* The power technology programs, as a part of the total general education offering, must be broad in nature covering all major energy sources which affect our culture.

8. Thus, the industrial arts teacher education program must provide a background of knowledge and technical skills which w ill serve as a basis for the further development of the power program in the public schools

The program which follows is intended to be consistent with the philosophy previously outlined. 188

Course Objectives

The following objectives have served as guidelines for projecting the proposed program. Since this program is

being developed as a part of the teacher education curricu­

lum, it should be recognized that the goals or objectives may differ significantly from those proposed for a sim ilar pro­ gram in the secondary school. The underlying reason for this difference stems from the fact that the teacher education

program is intended to be vocational and professional prep­ aration, whereas, the secondary school program would be exploratory in nature intended to fu lfill general education

objectives. The projected power technology program has been devel­

oped to fu lfill the following goals or objectives:

1. To provide prospective teachers with an opportunity

through reading, class discussion, experimentation, and

laboratory experiences to gain insights and understandings of the fundamental operational and scientific principles of

selected power sources which presently affect our society.

2. To fam iliarize students with both the production

and service aspects of industry related to the field of power.

3. To assist students in becoming fam iliar with the

process of transforming one form of energy to that of another in an effort to perform work.

To provide students with insights into the socio­

economic aspects of designing, fabricating, and utilizing prime movers. 189 5. To provide students with an opportunity to study and seek out interrelationships which exist between related industries and occupational areas such as the petroleum and metal industries.

6. To provide students with a technical background concerning the application of science and mathematics relat­ ing to each of the energy sources studied.

A Proposed Program The proposed program outlined below has been developed with three basic goals in mind. First, the content as out­ lined is intended to be consistent with the definition, philosophy, and objectives as previously stated. Second, this outline is Intended to be of assistance to the committee presently working on a curriculum guide in "Power and Automo­ tive Technology" for the State of Ohio. Third, it may serve as a basis for the further refinement of the content to be included in the power technology program at either the secondary or teacher education level.

The organization of the major instructional units to be included in this program is as follows:

I. An Introduction to Power II. Power Measurement

III. Power Transmission

IV. Internal Combustion Engines

V. External Combustion Engines 190

VI. Fluid Power

VII. Fundamentals of Electricity

VIII. Atomic Energy IX. Solar Energy X. F u tu re E n erg y S o u rces

The outline which follows is intended to more clearly delineate the technical content to be included in the power technology program under each of the above listed categories.

I . AN INTRODUCTION TO POWER (se e de Camp) A. H istorical Development 1. Manpower

2. Animal Power

3. Wind Power

4. Water Power

5. Steam Power

6. Internal Combustion Power

7. Chemical Power 8. Electrical Power

9. Nuclear Power

10. Potential Power Sources for the Future

B. Laboratory Management

1. Tools—Hand, Power and Precision

2 . S a f e ty

3. Procedures 1 9 1 I I I POWER MEASUREMENT

A. Introduction

1 . Mass

2 . Time

3. Distance

B. Measurements

C. D efinition of Terminology

1 , Work 2 . E n erg y

3* Power 4 . I n e r t i a

5 . T orque 6. Horsepower

D. Engine Rating 1. SAE Horsepower

2. Indicated Horsepower

3. Brake Horsepower 4. Friction Horsepower

E. Engine Efficiency

1. Mechanical

2 . T herm al

3. Volumetric

I I I . POWER TRANSMISSION A. Mechanical

1. Simple Mechanical Principles a . l e v e r b. Wheel and axle c. Inclined plane d . P u lle y e . Wedge P . Screw . Basic Mechanism a. Pulley and belt b. Sprocket and chain c . Cam and eccentric d. Piston and cylinder e . Bell crank and lever f . S p rin g g . S h a f ts 1) Extension 2) C rank 3) Cam h. Couplers 1} Positive 2) Friction 3) Fluid i . G ears 1) Types of teeth a ) S pur b) H e l ic a l c ) S p i r a l 2) Arrangements a} Internal teeth b) External teeth c ) Rack and pinion d ) Worm e ) B ev el f \ Herringbone g) Id le rs h) Planetary combinations j. Bearings 1) P l a in a ) S o lid b) B ushing c) Split (insert) ' • j- JLw islufi a ) B a ll b) R o l le r c) Pin or needle 3) M aterials a) Requirements and conditions b) M e ta ls cl Nonmetals d) lubricant impregnation 4) Application a) Radial b) A x ia l c) Load and speed 193 3. Maintenance and Lubrication of Basic Mechanisms

IV . INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES A. Small Gasoline Engines—U tility Type

1. Social and Economic Importance (see A.E.A. & G ard n er) a. Third fastest growing industry in America to d a y b. Annual production of 6 1/2 m illion engines in 1963 c. Estimated 100 m illion dollar service business i n 1964 d. Annual production up 500$ since 1950 e. Fifty to 75$ production Increase in next 5 to 7 y e a rs f . S a le s 1) 1950 - 1,000,000 mowers sold 2) 1958 - 3*000,000 mowers sold 3) 1962 - 4,000,000 mowers sold 4) 1965 - 6,000,000 estimated sales 5 ) 1970 - 7* 9 0 0 ,0 0 0 estimated sales 2. Uses and Application

3. Design and Construction a. Valve arrangement—L, I, F, & T head b. Piston arrangement c. Crankcase design

4. Operational Principles a. Four stroke cycle (720 degrees) 1} In ta k e 2) Compression 3 ) Power 4) E x h a u st b. Two stroke cycle (360 d e g re e s )

5- sifct.jc-1 Ope"”1''''tier?r "' a. Mechanical 1) Cylinder head and block a ) Bore b) Cylinder block warpage 2 ) P is to n a.) Design - 2 and 4 cycle b) Rings - Compression, oil c) Piston pin 3) Connecting rod and cap a.) D e sig n b) B e a rin g c) Alignment—Wear pattern 4) Crankshaft a.) Counterweights b) Flywheel c) Timing gear d) Bearings e} Journal—-Main and connecting rod f ) Ends—Power take off—magneto drive 5) Valve train a.) C am shaft b) Lifters—tappet c) Valves and seats d) Valve guides e) Springs, keepers, retainer Magneto system 1) Primary circuit a} Pole shoes b) Coil—primary windings c ) P o in ts d) Condenser e) Circuitry f ) Flywheel—permanent magnets 2) Secondary circuit a} Coil—secondary b| High tension lead c) Spark plug (1) Heat range (2) Servicing—cleaning, filling and g a p p in g d) Circuitry 8) Operational principles and theory a} Magnetism b) Transformer Cooling system 1) A ir a] Shrouds—-normal or artlc b) F in s Lubrication system 1} S p la s h 2) Pressure 3) Functions of Oils a) Lubrication b) Cleaning c ) S e a lin g d ) C o o lin g 195 4) Characteristics of oil a) API Rating ML, MM, & MS b) SAE Rating—visposity c) Oil additives 1 e) Fuel system 1) Carburetor a) Operational principles—Bernoulli & a i r b le e d b) Operational circuits (1 ) F lo a t (2 ) I d le (3) High speed (4 ) Choke c) Types of carburetors (1) Gravity feed-r-float (2) Suction feed %3) Diaphragm 2) Governors aV Air vane b) Centrifugal 3) Air cleaners a ) O il b a th b ) Foam c ) P ap er d ) F o i l 4) Tank and line f. Exhaust system 1) Exhaust ports 2 ) M u ffle r

6. Disassembly, Inspection and Reassembly Procedures

7. Preventive Maintenance a . C are b . S to ra g e

8. Troubleshooting a. High oil consumption b. Overheating c. Hard starting a. isngine noise

9 . T une-up a. Compression b. Magneto system 1) P o in ts 2) Sparkplugs 3v Condenser 4} Tim ing 5) Armature air gap c . V alve a d ju s tm e n t d. Carburetor adjustment e. Restricted exhaust

10. Reconditioning a. Valve grinding and lapping b. Reboring cylinders B. ®ie Automobile Engine

1. A Survey of Automotive Industry a. Importance to economy 1} One b u s in e s s i n s i x 2) One of every seven employed in U.S. 3) Yearly production—eight million+ b. Manufacturing 2. Physical Principles

3. Design and Classification a. Cooling system 1) A ir 2 ) L iq u id b. Cylinder arrangement 1) I n - l i n e 21 V-6 or 8 3) Opposed (Corvair & VW) 4) R o ta ry 5) S la n t c. Valve arrangement—L, I, P, & T head 4. Other Engine Applications a . D ie s e l b. Eree-piston c. Gas turbine d . W ankel

5. Servicing Procedures a. Disassembling b. Machining or repairing c. Replacing of components d. Reassembling e. Adjustment

6. Principles of Operation

7. Basic Tools and Equipment Major Operational Systems (engine) a. Mechanical system 1} Cylinder block & crankcase 2) Crankshaft 3) Main and connecting rod- bearings- seals 4) Cam shaft - bearings 5) Timing gears or sprockets and chain 6) Connecting rod assembly 7) Cylinder head and gasket 8) Valves and valve train a ) S e a ts b) G uides c ) S p rin g s d ) L i f t e r s (1 ) S o lid (2) Adjustable (3) Hydraulic e ) Push ro d s f) Rocker arms and shaft assembly 9) Pan and covers 10) Flywheel 11) Vibration dampener 12) Trouble diagnosis and service b. Lubrication system 1) Types a ) S p la s h b) Force feed c) Combination splash and force feed d) Full force feed 2 ) S u p p ly 3 ) Pump a) Gear type b) Vane type c) Rotor type d) Plunger type 4 ) F i l t e r a ) B y-pass b) Full flow 5) Indicators a ) Gauge b) l i g h t 6) Crankcase ventilation a) Non-positive b) Positive (PCV) 7) Diagnosis and service c. Electrical system 1) Fundamentals of electricity a) Electron theory . b) Magnetism c ) Ohm®s law d) Meter movements 2) Storage battery al Construction bl Operation c l T e s tin g d) Servicing 3) Starting system a) Circuitry b) Starting motor (1} Principles of construction (21 Operation (3) Drive mechanisms ( a ) B endlx (bl Over-running clutch ( c ) D ry er c) Switches (1} M anual (2) Magnetic (3) Solenoid d) Testing and service 4) Ignition system a) Primary circuit (ll Battery (21 Ignition switch (3) Ballast resistor (41 Ignition coil (5) D istributor (al Contact points (b) Condenser (6) Primary wiring b) Secondary circuit (ll Ignition coil (2) Distributor (a ) R o to r (b ) Cap (3l Secondary wiring (4) Spark plugs c) Spark control (ll Vacuum advance ( 2 ) Centrifugal advance d l Transistorized circuit e) Testing and service Cooling system 1) Air (Corvair) al Heat radiating fins b l B low er c ) Shrouds 2 ) W ater al Radiator, pressure cap, etc. b) Pump (ll Centrifugal (2) Rotating vane 199 3) Trouble diagnosis and service 3- Fuel system 1) Basic theory a} Terms—venturi, vaporization, etc b Atmospheric pressure c Bernoulli’s principle 2) Types a) Gravity b l Vacuum d) Pressure 3) Tanks and filter 4) Carburetor a ) Types '1) up-draft |2) Side-draft .3) Down-draft b) Circuits '1 ) F lo a t f2) I d le ^3) High-speed, part load 4 ) High speed, fu ll load ^5) Accelerating ,6 ) Choke 5) Indicator a ) L ig h t b) Gauge 6) Air Cleaner a ) D ry b) Oil saturated c) Oil bath 7) Trouble diagnosis and service f. Exhaust system 1) Exhaust manifold 22)) Pipes and muffler C. Outboard Engines

1. Principles of Operation

2. Design and Construction

3. Component Relationship a„ S t a r t e r b . M agneto c. Power head d. Transmission e. Drive shaft f. Water pump g. Gear case h. Propeller 4. Types of Power Heads a. Single cylinder b. M ulti-cylinder 1) I n - l i n e 2) Opposed 3) V 5. Lower Drive System a . D ir e c t b. Gear shift drive c. Neutral clutch d. Automatic transmission 6. Water Pumps a. Eccentric rotor b. Centrifugal

7. Gear Case 8. Propeller

9. Major Operational Systems a. Fuel system 1} Carburetor 2 ) Reed valves 3) Fuel pump b. Cooling system 1) A ir 2 ) W ater c. Lubrication system d. Electrical systems 1} I g n i t i o n 2) M agneto 3) Charging a} D.C. generator b) A.C. generator (alternator) 4) Starting 10. Preventive Maintenance and Repair

Diesel Engines

1. H istorical Development

2. Economic Implications

3. Advantages and Disadvantages 201

4. Application and Use a. Stationary b . M obile 1) Automobile 2) R a ilr o a d 3) M arine

5. Engine Type and C lassification a. Two and four stroke cycle b. Piston action 1} Single acting 2| Double acting 3) Opposing c. Piston connection 1] T runk 2) Crosshead d. Cylinder arrangement e. Method of fuel injection 1) A ir 2) S o lid f. Speed and size 1) Low - 350 R .P.M . 2) Medium - 1200 R.P.M. 3) High - over 1200 R.P.M. 6. Major Operational Systems a. Mechanical system 1) Stationary parts 2) Moving parts b. Fuel System 1) Pumps 2) Injectors a ) Common r a i l b) U n it c ) A ir 3) Fuel distributors 4) Fuels - cetane rating c. Cooling system 1) A ir 2) L iq u id d. Lubrication system 1) Force feed a) Wet sump b) Dry sump 2) Oil conditioning a ) C o o le r b) Re-refiner c ) F i l t e r s 3) API classification of oil a ) DG b) DM c ) DS e. Exhaust system f . S t a r t i n g sy ste m 1) Auxiliary engines 2) Electric 3) Hand (mechanical) 4) Compressed a ir 5) Starting and shut-down procedures g. Governing system 1) Mechanical 2) Hydraulic 3) Electric

10. Maintenance a. Daily inspection b. Performance and operating record c . Trouble-shooting

. The Gas Turbine (Chrysler Corporation)

1. H istorical Development 2. Principal Components a. Air inlet b. Compressor c . Regenerative drums d. Combustors or burners e. Gaslfier turbine f . Power turbine g. Exhaust section

3. Advantages a . O ne-fifth the moving parts b . S m a lle r c. Less weight (450 lbs.) d. No radiator or liquid cooling system e. Fewer electrical components f . Vibration free g. Low temperature starting h. M ultifuel ability i. V ersatility

4. Disadvantages a. Production cost b. Endurance c. Quantity of air required d. Fuel economy

5. Application a. Stationary 1) Water pump 2) Emergency electrical power generation 203 b . M obile 1) Passenger car (Chrysler - G.M.C.) 2) M arine 3) Aircraft 6. Operational Theory a. Brayton cycle b. Combustion principle 1} Inlet and combustion air temperature 2) Flame control zone a ) P rim a ry b) Secondary c| Tertiary d) Quenching distance 3) Continuous versus interm ittent combustion 4) T h ru s t a) Newton*s second law b) Newton*s third law 7* Major Operational Systems a. Mechanical system b. Fuel system c. Ignition system lT Vibrator 2) Transformer 3) Igniter plugs d. Combustion system 1) Chamber a) Can b| Cannular c) Annular 2} Flame holder 3) Exhaust cone 4) Heat shields e. Lubrication system 1) Lubricants 2) Pumps 3) F i l t e r s 4) C o o le rs f. Starting system 1) Air Turbine 2} Electric motor 3) Solid propellant 4) Fuel-air combustion

F. Reaction Engines

1. Introduction a . H is to r y b . D e sig n c. Application 2. Operational Principles a. Action-reactlon b. Pour-stroke cycle 1} I n ta k e 2) Compression 3 / Power 4) E x h au st

3• Types a. Pulse-jet b . Ram j e t c. Turbojet d. Turboprop

4. Engine Sections a . I n l e t b. Compressor c. Burner or combustor d . T u rb in e e . E x h au st

5. Accessory Systems

6. Operational Controls

7. Advantages and Disadvantages 8. Application R o c k e try

1 . H is to r y a. Early developments b. Applications

2. Principles a. Newton's third law of motion b. Basic properties of gases

3. Types of Rockets a. Solid fuel 1), Advantages a) Low toxicity b) High density c) Ease of handling d ) Economy e) Dependable 2) Disadvantages a) Low thrust yield b) Decomposition c) Cracking 205 dl Hot casing e) Non-variability of burning rate b. Liquid fuel 1) Advantages al More powerful bl Ease of storing c] Readily available dl Low combustion temperature el Control of temperature and combust f 1 Air independent g) Unaffected by temperature 2) Disadvantages al Intricate valvlng system bl Chemicals - highly corrosive c 1 T oxic d ) S a f e ty

4. Classification a. Mono-propellants b. Bi-propellants

5* Solid Propellant Design a . Tubular b. Crusiform c. End burning d. Star center

6 . B urning a. Restricted b. Regressive c. Unrestricted d. Progressive

7 • TheorJe s of Plight a . P itc h b . Yaw c . Roll 8. Firing Procedures 9. Methods of Tracking a . Equipment b. Calculation l l Speed 2) T h ru s t 3) H e ig h t

10. Recovery Techniques H. Rotary Engine (Wankel)

1. H istorical Development

2. Operational Principles

3 . D esig n 4. Nomenclature

5. Application 6 . System s

7. Advantages and Disadvantages

V. EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES A. Steam Engine

1. H istorical Development

2. Operational Principles

3 . D esig n 4. Application 5 . Nomenclature 6 . System s

7. Advantages aa d Disadvantages B. T u rb in e

1 . D e sig n 2. Development

3. Application 4. Operational Principles

V I. FLUID POWER

A. Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic Principles

1, Pascal*s Law 207 2. B ernoulli's Theorum

3 . B o y le 's Law 4. Darcy's Equation

5 . C h a r le s ' Law 6. Perfect Gas Law

B. Reservoirs 1. Outlet and Inlet 2 . B a f f le

3. Air Filter 4. Oil Filter or Strainer

C. Tubing and Connectors

1. T ubing a . S o lid b. Flexible

2. Connectors a. Flare nut b. Flareless c . W elded d. Screw pipe

D. Hydraulic Oils

1. Function

2. Properties a. Viscosity b. Oxidization c. Pour point d. Resistance to emulsification e . C o lo r

E. Hydraulic Pumps 1. Reciprocating 2 . G ear

3. Internal-Gear

\ 208 4. Gear-Like

5 . Screw 6. Vane

7. Radial«Piston

8. Axial-Piston

9. Centrifugal

P. Hydraulic Valves

1 . Types a . Cocks b. Globe c . G ate d. B all e . F la p p e r f . Needle g . S p o o l B e . R o ta ry

2. Pressure Control a . R e li e f b. Pressure reducing c. Pressure sequence d. Unloading e. Pressure switch

3• Volume-Control 4. Diredtional a. Pour-way b . Check

5. Miscellaneous a . P r e f i l b . P i l o t

G. Hydraulis Actuators

1 . P is to n s

2 . M otors 3 . Transmissions 209 H. Ac e m u l a t o r s 1. Weight Loaded

2. Spring Loaded

3. Pneumatic Types (non-separator) 4. Pneumatic Types (separator)

I. Hydraulic Circuits J. Hydraulic Advantages 1. Compactness 2. Simplicity;

3. Accuracy of Control 4 . S a f e ty

5 . Economy

V II. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY A. Basic Electron Theory

B. A p p lic a tio n o f Ohmss Law

C. A.C. and D.C. Current

D. Series and Parallel Circuits

E. Magnets and Magnetism

G. Electromagnets and Electromagnetism

H. Generation

1. Alternating Current 2. Direct Current

I. Inductive and Capactlve Reactance

J. Meter Movements 210

V I I I . ATOMIC ENERGY A. H istorical Development

B. Operational Principles

1. Structure of Matter

2. Elements and Compounds

3. Isotopes 4. Mass and Energy

5* F i s s i o n 6 . F u s s io n

7. Radioactivity C. Nuclear Reactor

1. Concrete Shield 2. Graphite Block

3. Cadmium Control Rods 4 . F u e ls

a ) U-235 b) U-2 3 8

5 . C o o la n t 6. Heat Exchanger

7. Condenser

8 . Pump

9 . T u rb in e 10. Generator

D. Application

1. Power Plants

2. Atomic Engines 3 . Tracer 4 . M e d ic a l

5. Agriculture i 6. Food Processing

7. Thickness Control F. Advantages 1. Diversity of Application

2. Quantity of Energy Produced

3. Few Mechanical Components

4. Low Fuel Consumption

G. Disadvantages 1. Control of Power Output

2. Shielding

3. Radiation Rays a) A lp ha b) B e ta c) Gamma

SOLAR ENERGY A. H istorical Development

B. Operational Principles

1. Conductors 2. Insulators

3. Semi-conductors 4. Covalent Bonding

5. Thermal Conductivity

6. Electron Flow.and Control C. Construction

1. P - Type M aterial a} S i l i c o n b) B oron

2. N - Type M aterial a} S i l i c o n b ) A rs e n ic

3 . P - N J u n c tio n D. Application

1. Space Exploration

2. Communications 3. Portable Tools

4. Photography E. Advantages 1. Light Weight 2. Inexpensive Source of Power

3 . No M oving P a r ts

4. Noiseless

P. Disadvantages 1. Expensive to Construct

2. Needs a light Source

3. Requires batteries for Continuous Operation

FUTURE POWER SOURCES

A. Thermionic Converters B. Magnetohydrodynamic Converters

C. A.C. and D.C. Converters

D. Thermophotovoltaic Converters 213 E. Thermoelectric Converters P. Fuel Cells

One may logically ask: How can the previously outlined content contribute to the four basic individual needs pre­ viously listed?, Under the heading of personal living are grouped such needs as those pertaining to the development of a sound bases for both physical and mental health. Many general education programs may justly lay claim to the devel­ opment of mental health. Therefore, the unique contribution

of this program lies in the development of physical dexterity derived from a variety of laboratory experiences. Thus,

these laboratory experiences provide an avenue for releasing both mental and physical tensions.

The contributions of the power technology program to the personal-social relationships are rather self evident.

Throughout the adolescent period, the individual finds him­ self interacting in a variety of relationships with peer

groups, parents, teachers, etc. The group relationships inherent in this program require the individual to assume

both the leadership and followership roles. This ability to interact with people is considered an all important aspect of achieving success in the work-a-day world. Therefore,

this educational program can make a direct and immediate

cohtrlbutlon to the personal-social and social-civic rela­

tionships which are very closely related. 214

The power technology program is also intended to con­ tribute to the development of economic relationships. The consumer knowledge and prevocational nature of this program offering w ill contribute to the selection of an occupation as well as the intelligent expenditure of the funds derived from such employment. This is a necessary aspect in the edu­ cational development of the youth of our society which is frequently overlooked.

In summary,, the power technology program outlined is intended to provide prospective Industrial arts teachers with the technical knowledge and skills needed to provide a simi­ lar program in the public schools of our nation. This general education program is intended to (1) transmit a way of life, (2) improve that way of life, the most feasible method being by training for critical thinking>• and (3) meet the needs of individuals in the basic aspects of living.

These basic needs have been classified as (a) personal .living,

(b) immediate personal-social relationships, (c) social-civic relationships, and (d) economic relationships.

Identification of Principles What are the scientific and operational principles or generalizations which have a direct application to the power technology program? Prior to answering this fundamental question It Is necessary to more clearly define what is meant by the terms generalization and principle. A principle 215 has been defined in Chapter I (Good, 1945, p. 308) as a

"generalized statement through which otherwise unrelated data are systematized and interpreted." Adams (1947, p. 10) has defined a generalization as:

. . . a statement of the interdependency existing between natural phenomena based on observational and experimental evidence. These statements may be observed sequential relationships or merely statements of interdependencies between natural phenonomena and a man or society. The statement shall be neither an unrelated fact nor a definition.

Therefore, it would be logical to conclude that the generali­ zations or fundamental principles to be considered herein should be consistent with the following criteria.

1. It must describe some fundamental process, con­ stant mode of behavior, or property, relating to a phenom ena.

2. It must be true without exception within the limi­ tations specifically stated.

3. It must be capable of Illustration within the field of power or power technology.

4. It must not be a definition. The following list of generalizations or fundamental principles are considered to be consistent with the above listed criteria. This list is not intended to be all inclu­ sive, but rather to establish some guidelines for the further development of this task in future research studies. In some 216 Instances the research has attempted to illustrate the in­ structional unit or component to which the principle applies.

1. Law of Conservation of Energy—Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can be changed from one form to another with exact equivalence, (heat engines, or any form of power)

2. The work obtained from a simple machine is always equal to the work put into it less the work exerted in overcoming friction. (IHP - FHP - HHP)

3. When there is a gain in mechanical advantage by using a simple machine, there is a loss of speed and vise versa, (transmission) 4. When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first, (action and reaction of jet engines)

5. Die amount of momentum possessed by an object is pro­ portional to its mass and to its velocity, (fly­ w h e e l)

6. Bodies in rotation tend to fly out in a straight line which is tangent to the arc of rotation, (grinder)

7. Sliding friction is dependent upon the nature and condition of the rubbing surfaces, proportional to the force pressing the surfaces together, and inde­ pendent of the area of contact.

8. A fluid has a tendency to move from a region of higher pressure to one of lower pressure; the greater the difference, the faster the movement, (fuel sys­ tem) (Adams, 19^7, P» 102) 9. Newton’s first law of motion—All bodies persist in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an outside force.

10. Inertia is that property of a body which requires that an outside force be exerted to accelerate the b o d y .

11. Newton’s second Law of Acceleration—The magnitude of the force necessary to produce an acceleration is proportional to the mass of the object being acceler­ ated and the magnitude of the acceleration produced, (weight-to-power ratios) 2 1 7 12. Newton's third law of motion (Law of Interaction)— Every action is accompanied by an equal and opposite r e a c t i o n .

13. The coefficient of Linear Expansion is defined as the fraction of the length of a substance by which each unit of length increases when its temperature is Increased one degree centigrade.

14. If the pressure is constant, the volume of a dry gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature.

15. Boyle's Law—If the temperature of a gas is kept con­ stant, the volume of that gas Is Inversely propor­ tional to the pressure to which a given mass of gas is subjected, (hydraulics and engines)

16. It is impossible to cause heat to pass from one body to another of higher temperature without the aid of some external supply of energy, (heat engines)

17. Clausius* law—It is impossible for a self-acting machine, unaided by any external agency, to convey heat from one body to one of higher temperature. (heat engines)

18. Bernoulle's Theorem—At any point in a tube through which a fluid is flowing, the sum of the pressure energy, the potential energy and the kenetlc energy is a constant, (carburetor) 19. Kirchhoff's Law—At any point in an electrical cir­ cuit where two or more conductors are joined, the sum of the current directed toward the junction equals the sum of the current directed away from the junction, (any parallel circuit)

20. Around any closed path in an electric circuit the algebraic sum of the potential differences equals z e r o . 21. Lenz's Law—An induced current set up by the relative motion of a conductor and a magnetic field always flows in such a direction that it forms a magnetic field that opposed the motion, (coll)

22. Pascal's Law—Pressure exerted on a confined liquid is transmitted undemlnished In all directions and act with equal force on all equal amas. (Duffy, 1965, pp. 39.-142) 218 23. The distortion of an elastic body is proportional to the force applied provided the elastic lim it is not e x c e e d e d .

24. The energy which a body possesses on account of its motion is called kinetic energy and is proportional to its mass and the square of its velocity.

25. The amount of heat developed in doing work against friction is proportional to the amount of work thus e x p e n d e d .

26. The energy which a body possesses on account of its position or form is called potential energy and is measured by the work that was done in order to bring it into the specified condition.

2 7 . Solids are liquified and liquids are vaporized by heat; the amount of heat used in this process, for a given mass and a given substance, is specific and equals that given off in the reverse process. 28. When two bodies of different temperature are in con­ tact, there is a continuous transference of heat energy, the rate of which is directly proportional to the difference of temperature.

29. The electrical current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference and inversely proportional to the resistance.

30. Electrical power is directly proportional to the product of the potential difference and the current.

31. Oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and are quantitatively equal.

32. Like magnetic poles always repel each other and unlike magnetic poles always attract each other.

33. The force of attraction or repulsion between two mag­ netic poles varies directly as the pole strengths and inversely as the square of the distance between the p o l e s .

34. The more nearly vertical the rays of radian energy, the greater the amount of energy that w ill be received by that area.

35. A magnet always has two poles and is surrounded by a field of force. 219 36. The amount of heat produced by an electric current is proportional to the resistance, the square of the current and the time of flow.

37• When a gas expands, heat energy is converted into mechanical energy.

38. In a series circuit the current is the same in all parts, the resistance of the whole is the sum of the resistance, of the parts, and the voltage loss of the whole is the sum of the voltage losses of the parts.

39* In a parallel circuit the total current Is the sum of the separate currents, the voltage loss is the same for each branch, and the total resistance Is less than the resistance of any one branch. 40. Gases conduct electric currents only when Ionized. (Adams, 1947> PP. 103-12) 41. Gases have the ability to expand indefinitely or to be compressed into a smaller volume.

42. When heated, gases expand and become less dense.

43* The pressure of a confined gas is raised as the temperature df the gas rises.

44. Two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same tim e . 45. A force may be produced by physical or chemical change, by gravity, or by change in motion.

46. The effort force and the distance through which it acts is equal to the resistance force and its d i s t a n c e .

47. The mechanical advantages of speed Is the ratio of the resistance distance to the effort distance.

48. All bodies In the universe attract all other bodies. 49. The mass of a body influences gravitation.

50. An electrical conductor which moves in a magnetic field produces an electrical current. (Olive, Wayne, 1957, PP. 1-265) 220

The above listed principles are applicable in varying degrees to the sources of power contained in the technical content outline. Thus, these principles provide a basis for a more complete understanding of the interrelationship which exists between energy sources as well as providing a basis for illustrating the practical application of mathematics

and science. The including or excluding of these principles

as they apply to each of the energy sources studied may make

the difference between providing a service oriented program

or a program consistent with the applied science approach.

The above listed principles may further serve as a

basis for research and development experiences as an integral

part of the power technology program. The discussion which

follows w ill endeavor to illustrate how such experiences can be incorporated into the program.

The Implementation of Research and Experimentation Experiences Many of the above listed principles may provide a basis for involving students in research and experimentation

experiences which w ill facilitate the teaching of the power

technology program. Other sources from which testable hypotheses may be drawn include: (1) claims made in the

advertisement of various related products—"you go ten per

cent farther on Certified gasoline"; or (2) any generaliza­

tion pertaining to the field of inquiry. The suggested out­

line which follows is intended to provide a guideline for the 221 Implementation of research and development experiences in the power program. Although the illustration used does not apply to all the major headings, it is important that they be considered to avoid possible injury resulting from un­ foreseen safety hazards.

I. Title - Relationship of Pressure to Rate of Flow II. Background Information

III. Statement of the Principle or Hypothesis

A fluid has a tendency to move from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pres­ sure; the greater the difference in pressure, the faster the movement of fluid.'

IV. Application in the Field of Power Technology This principle is basic to the operation of hydro-electric plants which generate electric­ ity. It is also observable in the gravity feed fuel systems on small gasoline engines.

V. Equipment and M aterials

1. Two tin cans of equal size with a tube soldered into the base 2. A three foot length of 1/2" rubber hose 3. A support for one can

-VI. I l l u s t r a t i o n ( p i c t o r i a l d raw in g )

VII. Safety Precautions or Limitations

VIII. Procedure

1. Connect the two cans by means of a rubber tu b e 2. F ill each can with a sim ilar liquid to a level of one-third the total capacity of the container. (The cans must be at the same height.) 3. Raise can B 6" higher than can A. Deter­ mine (in seconds) the amount of time it takes to empty can B. 2 2 2

4. Repeat procedure #3 moving the can up an additional 6" on each trial. 5. Calculate the difference in rate of flow through the one-half inch hose for each experiment. How do you account for the rate of flow? IX. Findings

Report the findings of the experiment in the form of a table whenever possible.

X. Conelusions

In this simple experiment, it can be illustrated that when one can is raised to an elevation above the other can, the pressure at the tube opening of the lower can is greater than the pressure of the water in the can. Consequently, the water flows from the region of high pres­ sure to the region of lower pressure.

This principle can be further illustrated by drilling two holes of equal size in a container at varying distances from the bottom. When the container is filled with water, one can readily observe that a greater pressure is exerted on the water coming out of the lower hole.

With some minor alterations, this procedure could be used to illustrate the hydrodynamic principle which states that "pressure exerted on confined liquids is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with equal force on all a r e a s ." XI. Questions XII. References The above outline and Illustration may provide a starting point frcm which students can logically generate hypotheses and proceed to determine the validity of their c o n s t r u c t . 223 Curriculum Im plications

The program previously outlined has curriculum impli­ cations to various aspects of the elementary, secondary, technical, adult and teacher education programs. The dis­ cussion which follows w ill endeavor to briefly point out the application of Bruner's (i 9 6 0, p. 16) hypothesis which states that "any subject can be taught effectively in some intel­ lectually honest form to any child at any stage of develop­ ment." Hie acceptance of this hypothesis tends to indicate that the content of the power program is applicable at dif­ ferent educational levels.

E le m e n ta ry

Children at this level may be exposed to a variety of energy sources as they are applied to the toys with which they play. Buehr's (1962) book entitled The First Book of

Machines; Harrison's ( 1965) publication entitled Hie First Book of Energy; and Liberty's (i 960) writings in The First

Book of Tools have a ll been w ritten to show the evolution and application of various energy sources, machines and tools.

These publications would be helpful in providing children with an understanding of the effect which various power devices have had on our society. The upper elementary grades may be exposed to a more sophisticated organization of this subject as contained in de Camp's (1961) book entitled Man 224 and Power. Each of these references have been specifically written for use on the elementary school level.

A study of power technology may be considered as an inherent part of the established curriculum. For example, the historical development of various energy sources may be included in a social studies unit pertaining to "great in­ ventors." The science program could involve a study of the practical applications of basic principles involved in various prime movers. The natural curiosity of young boys and girls should be allowed to probe this body of knowledge.

Secondary school

Junior high.—The program previously outlined has direct implications to the junior high industrial arts program.

Since this program is intended to be exploratory in nature, it provides an excellent opportunity to involve students in the power technology program. The conceptualization and development of this program at the teacher education level has been intended to provide teachers with an adequate back­ ground to implement this program at the junior high school l e v e l .

Educational experiences in this program should endeavor to expose students to a variety of energy sources. The con­ tent may place emphasis on the application of these energy sources to either machines or vehicles. For example, stu­ dents in Vincent Napoleone8s (industrial arts teacher at 225 Riley Junior High in Livonia, Michigan) classes have designed and constructed such vehicles as: (1) a uni-controlled go- kart; (2) a scale model of the 1902 oldsmoblle; (3) a mini­ bike; (4) a sea sled; and (5) a ground effects machine. Each of these devices utilized a different power source. Further­ more, the design and construction involved the application of a rather unique and recent industrial development.

Senior high.—A program in power technology is equally appropriate at the senior high level. This program would provide students with an excellent background which has direct application to a more specialized program involving the automotive industry. Major emphasis should be placed on the development of basic understandings of the operational and scientific principles involved in the energy sources s t u d i e d . The technical and experimental functions may be most appropriately implemented at this level. An in-depth study of each major unit would provide students with a better under­ standing of the advancing technology which is constantly changing our society.

T e c h n ic a l

Many of the instructional units included in the power program may be further expanded into a program appropriate to the technical institute or community—junior college.

Technical knowledge and skills are Involved in the breadth 226 of background required to achieve employment In a chosen field. Examples may Include the units on fluid power, diesel maintenance or automotive technology.

Adult education

The adult education program is broadly conceived as being a life-long process covering the full range of educa­ tional experiences extending from the cradle to the grave.

Programs derived from the technical content previously out­ lined must be specifically oriented to the educational needs

of the participants. They should play an active role In the determination of the content to be Included in such programs.

At the public school level, programs pertaining to automo­ tive maintenance and small engine repair tend to be rather widely accepted. Such programs may be either consumer or vocationally oriented depending upon the group being served.

Teacher education The primary challenge to teacher educators involves the preparation of teachers with a broad background of technical skills and knowledge concerning the energy sources

to be included in the power technology programs as it is

implemented into the public schools. Further research and

experimentation Is needed at this level to answer some of the

fundamental questions raised in the concluding section of

C h a p te r V. 227 Social and Economic Implications

The data contained in Table 2 (Chapter I) clearly indicated the tremendous change from muscular to mechanical power which has taken place in the United States during the past century. In 1850, approximately 95 per cent of the

1 billion horsepower hours produced were derived from a com­ bination of animal and human energy. In contrast, approxi­ m a te ly 9 6 .3 per cent of the 500 billion horsepower hours developed in i 960 was derived from mechanical sources with animal and human energy providing 1.3 and 2.4 per cent of the total, respectively. A comparison of the energy produced in

1850 with that produced in i 960 reveals an increase of

500-fold (Dewhurst, 1955). Table 45 was prepared to further indicate a potential reason for the tremendous change from animate to inanimate energy sources. Noteworthy is the fact that human power is

150times as expensive as the power produced by the automobile.

It has been estimated that man is capable of producing approx­ imately one-fifth of a horsepower per hour of labor. It has further been estimated that the equivalent of 35 horsepower per eight hour day is available for every person living in the

United States. This is roughly equivalent to 5*6 times the horsepower available to persons in all other parts of the w o rld . 2 2 8

TABIE 45

GOST OF VARIOUS ENERGY SOURCES

C o st Source (Per KWH)

Wind $ .007

Central power stations ...... 01

D i e s e l ...... 03

Gas Turbine ...... 04

A u t o m o b i l e ...... 2 0

Lead acid storage battery .... 2 .0 0

Solar batteries ...... 6 .0 0

M a n ...... 3 0 .0 0 Note: One killow att hour is equal to 1.3^ horsepower or 737 foot-pounds of work per second.

Table 46 shows that there is a positive relationship between the use of energy and the growth of our economy. For the greater part of the period since 1900, the gross

national product (GNP) and energy use have moved upward at relatively the same rate. The over-all increase in GNP from

1900 to i 960 was 882 per centj for energy use 695 p e r c e n t .

The figures contained In Table 46 tend to indicate

that there is a corresponding relationship or correlation,

between energy use and economic performance. Table 47 shows

a sim ilar relationship between the per capita GNP and the

per capita personal Income. 229 TABIE 46

ENERGY USE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

fo o f In**: ^ io o f In ­ Energy Consumption crease GNP c re a s e Y ear (Trillions of BTU's) over 1900 ( B i ll i o n s ) o v e r 1900

1900 7 ,5 7 2 — $ 7 7 .8 —

1905 1 1 ,3 6 9 50 97*5 25

1910 1 4 ,8 0 0 96 115*1 47

1915 1 6 ,0 7 6 112 1 2 3 .1 58

1920 1 9 ,7 8 2 161 1 4 9 .3 92

1925 2 0 ,8 9 9 176 1 8 4 .4 137

1930 2 2 ,2 8 8 194 1 9 2 .3 147

1935 1 9 ,1 0 7 152 1 7 8 .7 130 1940 2 3 ,9 0 8 216 2 4 0 .6 209

1945 3 1 ,5 4 1 317 3 6 7 -1 372 1950 3 4 ,1 5 3 351 3 7 1 .5 378

1955 3 9 ,9 5 6 428 4 5 9 .0 499 I9 6 0 4 4 ,9 6 0 494 5 2 3 .4 573

1970* 6 0 ,1 9 0 695 7 6 3 .6 882

' ' ' ' ' Estimates (Babian, 1964, p. 9). 230

TABLE 47

ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND PERSONAL INCOME (Per Capita)

Energy Use Incom e Y ear (Billions of BTU*s) (In dollars) 1900 100 $ 716

1962 257 2 ,3 7 9 Percentage of Increase 1900 to 1962 157 232

Between 1899 and 1962 there has been a 15-fold increase in the total horsepower available in United States manufac­ turing industries. This appears to be a significant measure

of the Importance of energy in our economy, since all this horsepower was obtained either directly from primary energy

fuel sources or from electricity, which in turn was produced

principally from oil, gas, and coal.

Inanimate energy, then, tends to be a significant

factor in our economic growth. However, inanimate energy Is

not the only factor. There are many others such as (1) im­

proved technology, ( 2 ) research, (3) education, (4) a labor

force growing in skill, and (5) Increased managerial talent—

all these and more enter into shaping our economic activity, however, energy has an important role to play.

Table 48 provides an international comparison of the

close relationship between energy use and the income of a

nation. It shows that the United States consumes more energy 2 3 1 per person, from inanimate sources, than any other country of the world. A quick glance at this table w ill establish the fact that nations which are low energy users are not high income producers. Prom a statistical point of view, one can say that there is a significant and high degree of correlation between the two.

TABIE 48

ENERGY USE AND NATIONAL INCOME (Per Capita for 1961)

Energy Consumption National Income N a tio n s (In M illions of BTU's) (In U.S. Dollars) United States 232 $ 2 ,3 0 8

C anada 163 1 ,4 6 1 United Kingdom 142 1 ,1 4 8

A u s tr a l ia 116 1 ,2 3 7 West Germany 105 1 ,1 1 4 Soviet Union 84 800

Netherlands 81 868

F ran ce 73 1 ,0 3 5

Ja p an 37 402 A rg e n tin a 34 413

B r a z il 10 129

I n d ia 4 67 Source: Babian, 1964, p. 11. 232

This economist (Babian, 1954, pp. 8-9) points out that the variations which exist among nations in the rela­ tionship between use of energy and national income may be partially accounted for by the following factors:

1. Climatic conditions are not the same the world o v e r.

2. Differences in economic structure of various countries bring about differences in the use of e n e rg y .

3. Underdeveloped economies use less energy per capita than developed countries because they make less use of mechanical aids to production. 4. Countries with a greater number of automobiles in relation to population tend to be higher energy users than those with lower ratios of cars per person.

5. International energy statistics are not always comparable and of uniform significance.

Table 49 shows the enormous increase which has taken

place in the use of energy in the United States since 1900.

Also, it should be noted that the advent of the deisel,

automobile, and aircraft has resulted in an enormous increase in the use of oil as an energy source. Once again, the

importance of recently developed sources of power is clearly

e v id e n c e d .

The data contained in Table 50 shows the future

economic growth reflected in terms of the gross national product and the energy needs in relationship to the popula­

tion growth. The estimated figures contained in this table reveal that the population is expected to increase TABLE 49

THE CHANGING PICTURE OP ENERGY USE (Trillions of BTU»s)

O il & W ater N u c le a r $ of Increase Year Coal Natural Gas Power Power T o ta l o v e r 1900

1900 9 0 .3 $ 6 .4 $ 3 .3 $ ------7 ,5 7 2 — 1910 8 5 .9 1 0 .5 3 .6 ------1 4 ,8 0 0 94

1920 7 8 .4 1 7 .7 3 .9 ------1 9 ,7 8 2 161 1930 6 1 .2 3 5 .3 3 .5 2 2 ,2 8 8 194

1940 5 2 .4 4 3 .7 3 .8 ------2 3 ,9 0 8 216

1950 2 7 .8 5 7 .5 4 . ? 3 4 ,1 5 3 351

I 960 2 3 .2 7 2 .9 3 .9 ------4 4 ,9 6 0 494 1970 2 1 .7 7 3 .5 4 .2 .6 6 0 ,1 9 0 695

Source: Babian, 1964, p. 12. 233 approximately 90 per cent during the period between i 960 and

2000. During this same period, the GNP is expected to in c r e a s e 3 . 4-^0 Id while energy needs w ill nearly double.

TABIE 50

FUTURE ECONOMIC GROWTH AND ENERGY NEEDS

Energy Needs Population GNP (in Billions (In Trillions Y ear (In M illions) o f 1963 D o lla r s ) o f BTU*s) I 960 1 7 9 .9 $ 5 1 5 .9 4 5 ,3 5 0 1970 2 0 8 .0 7 6 3 .6 6 0 ,1 9 0

1980 2 4 5 .0 1 , 0 8 5 .0 7 9 ,1 9 0 ,

1990 2 8 7 .0 0 1 ,5 4 5 .6 10 1 ,9 1 0

2000 3 3 1 .0 2 ,2 5 1 .9 1 3 5 ,1 6 0 Percentage of Increase 1960-2000 90 337 198

Source: Babian, 1964, p? 16.

In summary, the economic data previously presented has clearly shown that there is a positive and direct rela­ tionship between energy use and economic growth. The availability of abundant, low-cost sources of energy has helped the United States to achieve the great increases in productivity that we have enjoyed and w ill continue to need for further economic growth. Ohere can be little doubt con­ cerning the importance and influence which energy sources have had on our society. It would therefore, appear quite 235 logical and imperative to provide an instructional program designed to provide members of our society with an under­

standing of this aspect of their cultural heritage.

Summary

The investigator has proposed the term power technol­ ogy to describe the broad program evolving around a study of

energy sources and its application to prime movers. This

new terminology better describes the true nature and deriva­

tion of the program as well as helping to eliminate the con­

fusion which presently exists. This proposed program title

change is further consistent with technology which is

defined as a branch of knowledge which deals with the indus­

trial arts or the science of industrial arts.

The proposed program outlined in this chapter is based

on the philosophy which takes the position that this phase of the industrial arts program is intended to be exploratory in nature. It is, therefore, consistent with the general educa­

tion function of industrial arts in the public schools. The

purposes of a general education program are to (1) transmit a way of life, (2) Improve and reconstruct that way of life, and (3) to meet the needs of individuals in basic aspects of

living. The teacher education program in power technology must be consistent with these purposes while providing pros­ pective teachers with a broad background of knowledge and

technical skills needed to perform successfully in the public

s c h o o l s . 2 3 6

Economic data clearly Indicate that there is a direct cause and effect relationship between the utilization of energy sources and the prosperity of a nation or the people living therein. The over-all increase In energy use In the

United States from 1900 to i 960 was 695 per cent while the gross national product Increased 882 per cent. Projected gross national product and energy use figures indicate a sim ilar relationship w ill continue to exist through the turn of the century at which time the United States population w ill have increased 90 per cent over the i 960 f i g u r e .

The proposed program in power technology is organized under the headings of (1) an Introduction to power, (2) power measurement, (3) power transmission, (4) Internal combustion engines, (5) external combustion engines, (6) fluid power,

(7) fundamentals of electricity, (8) atomic energy, ( 9) s o l a r energy, and (10) future energy sources. Emphasis in each of these instructional units should be placed on providing an understanding of the operational and scientific principles applicable to the energy source being studied. Thus, the interrelationships which exist among energy sources are clearly established rather than being assumed or left to chance. Consideration must also be given to providing stu­ dents with insights and understandings of Indus try within our s o c i e t y . Opportunities for student involvement in research and experimentation experiences should be Included as an integral 237 part of the power technology program. These experiences may

involve the generation and testing of hypotheses derived

from scientific principles or claims made through the adver­ tising media to the consumer public.

The power technology program has direct Implications to the fu ll range of the educational spectrum including the elementary, secondary, technical adult and teacher education

programs. Appropriate adjustments must be made at each of these levels. CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This investigation was undertaken in an attempt to make a significant contribution toward the better understand­ ing of the status and possible future developments in indus­ tria l arts teacher education laboratory courses in power mechanics. Preliminary evidence seemed to indicate that considerable diversity exists in regard to the nature of the content and laboratory activities included in this program.

The discussion which follows w ill endeavor to very briefly summarize the information obtained from this investigation.

Summary

The problem

The major purposes of this study were (1) to determine the status of teacher education laboratory courses in power mechanics in answer to the question—What is? and (2) to project a program in power technology in answer to the ques­ tion—What should be?

P ro c e d u re

The following procedures were employed in this research: (1) A preliminary survey was conducted involving

2 3 8 206 teacher education institutions preparing industrial arts teachers which were identified via means of directories pre­ pared by Wall (1963) and the American Industrial Arts

Association ( 1 9 63). (2) Of the 191 returns received, 96 institutions were identified as offering a power mechanics program in addition to being interested in further participa­ tion in this study. (3) A questionnaire was constructed from information gleaned from a review of the literature. (4) This questionnaire was submitted to a "jury of experts" for c riti­ cal evaluation. The jury was composed of educators who have authored articles and/or books contributing to the further development of the power program. (5) A pilot study was con­ ducted involving the Institutions in Ohio. (6) The revised instrument was sent to 98 teacher educators who were actively involved in teaching this program. (7) the data obtained from 86 returns has been reported in tabular form for each of the items contained in the survey form. (8) A proposed program in power technology has been developed which provides a detailed outline of the content to be Included. ( 9) A l i s t o f 50 principles have been Identified as being applicable to the power technology program. Compilation of the data derived from the normative survey has been presented in 40 tables. Frequencies, per­ centages, and measures of central tendency were used exten­ sively throughout the study. When appropriate, cumulative percentages, chi square, and ofcder rankings were utilized to 240 further interpret the data. Chi square was used to compare observed and expected frequencies on those questions which solicited opinions. The expected frequencies were deter­ mined by chance variation.

Presentation of information

Chapter I describes the nature of this research project in detail. The nature of the problem, background information, basic assumptions, objectives, lim itations, delim itations, definition of terms, and design of the study have been dis­ cussed in this chapter. Chapter II contains a comprehensive review of the lit­ erature applicable to this study. Brief descriptions of selected research studies, articles in professional journals, textbooks, and available curriculum glides are intended to provide the reader with a historical perspective of the evolu­ tion of the power mechanics program. Other topics considered include (1) the bases for deriving a body of knowledge and content to be included therein, (2) philosophical positions regarding curriculum development, (3) proposals for a national curriculum, (4) objectives,x and (5) considerations for future program development.

Chapter III contains an analysis and interpretation of the data derived from the preliminary and descriptive surveys organized under the following major headings: (1) the prelim­ inary survey, (2) background of respondents and institutions, 241

(3) a definition of power mechanics, (4) general objectives of industrial arts, ( 5) formal course titles, ( 6) textbooks and references, ( 7) major instructional units, ( 8) la b o r a ­ tory activities, ( 9) derivation of course content, ( 10) a national curriculum, ( 11) bases for content organization,

( 1 2 ) teaching techniques and procedures, ( 13) interdisciplin­ ary relationships, (14) state curriculum guides, and (15) state certification regulations.

Chapter IV contains a proposal for the change in terminology from power mechanics to power technology. Major consideration is given to outlining the technical content and the identification of fundamental principles to be included in the proposed program. A procedure has been outlined illustrating how research and development activities can be included as an integral part of the power technology program. Also, an attempt has been made to indicate the application of the power technology program to the elementary, secondary, adult, and technical education programs.

Conelusions

A review of the related literature reveals.that the power mechanics program has its origin in the 1 9 3 0*s, a l ­ though the major developments in this program have taken place since i 9 6 0. The third decade of this century also saw the conceptualization of the transportation program. Both of these programs remained somewhat dormant until the end of 242

World War II, after which time major emphasis was placed on separate programs of power and transportation. Similar emphasis on the power and transportation pro­ gram was evidenced during the decade of the 1950*s. Major acceptance of the transportation concept has been somewhat restricted to the states of New York and California with scattered teacher education programs in some mid-western states organizing this phase of the industrial arts curricu­ lum under the classifications of land, sea, and air transpor­ tation. The major emphasis on the automotive industry was somewhat retained as a part of the land transportation pro­ gram. A major factor in the lack of acceptance of the power and/or transportation program(s) stemmed from the lack of appropriate instructional materials such as textbooks.

In the brief period since i 960, the power mechanics program has received rather wide acceptance. There is some evidence to indicate that this newly emerging program is directly related to the "power” division advocated earlier, although, the basis, organization, and content differ sig­ nificantly. The content of the power mechanics program has continually expanded from a rather narrowly conceived unit on small gasoline and automotive engines to presently include a study of all major sources of energy and machines utilized in prime movers. 243 Other factors derived from the review of literature in c lu d e —

1 . The e n e r g y source utilized in the automobile accounts for an overwhelming m ajority of the horsepower out­ put of all prime movers.

2. The applied science approach to curriculum develop­ ment has made the most significant and direct contributions to the refinement of the content to be included in the power mechanics program. 3. Proposals classified under the study of industry approach to industrial arts program derivation are presently attempting to develop a new means of classifying the body of knowledge to be included in this field of study. Tftiese pro­ posals are designed to generate new approaches intended to replace the traditional programs which in some instances have become stagnated. 4. Fluid power (a secondary mover) has emerged as a new instructional unit applicable to the power mechanics p ro g ram .

5* Providing students with an understanding of indus­ tria l technology appears to be a predominant purpose pres­ ently being advocated for industrial arts education programs.

6. The analysis and behavior change techniques for content derivation appear to be most widely accepted. 244 7. Biere is considerable impetus for the development of national curriculum standards for industrial arts educa­ t i o n . 8. Future program changes must consider the applica­ tion of recent educational developments such as the non­ graded school, team teaching, and programmed instruction. The descriptive survey utilized in this research has been designed to determine the status of the power mechanics program at selected teacher education institutions throughout the United States. The data derived from this status study provides the bases for the following conclusions.

1. Approximately 53 per cent of the 191 institutions responding to the preliminary survey offer laboratory course(s) in power mechanics as a part of the industrial arts teacher education program. An additional 2 3 .6 per cent of this group intend to provide such an offering in the near future. This represents a substantial increase over the number of programs offered two years earlier as determined by another study. 2. The typical respondent involved in this study (a) has earned the rank of assistant professor, (b) has nine years of college teaching experience, (c) teaches 19 class contact hours per week, (d) has 41 per cent of his yearly teaching load in the power program, (e) devotes 39 per cent of his regularly scheduled teaching time to formal instruction, (f) teaches at an institution which has offered a power mechanics program for approximately 9 years, and (g) has completed six 245 quarter hours of undergraduate or graduate credit in this program .

3. The definition of power mechanics as ”a study of energy sources and machines that convert energy into useful work” was accepted by 85 per cent of the respondents. Only

20 per cent of this group agreed that power mechanics is an acceptable term which may be appropriately used to describe specialized courses dealing with the automotive field. Furthermore, 84 per cent of those reporting agreed that the industrial arts teacher education program should be changed from the traditional automotive program to a broad program of power, transportation, or power mechanics. In each instance a comparison of observed and expected frequencies using chi square was significant at the .01 level of probability. 4. The respondents were asked to indicate the degree of emphasis which should be placed on a selected lis t of general objectives of industrial arts. Those objectives accepted by the respondents Include the following which are ranked in order of Importance. A. Safe and cooperative work habits B. Development of insights and understandings of Indus try C. Appreciation of good design and workmanship D. Develop talents in technical fields and applied sciences 246 E. Develop skills in the use of common tools and

m ach in es P. Develop consumer knowledge

G. Provide pre-vocational experiences of an intensi­ fied nature

5. An average of two courses pertaining to power mechanics was offered at each of the 84 institutions repre­ sented. These courses were roughly equivalent to eight quarter hours of credit.

6. Results derived from an inquiry into the formal course titles under which instruction in power mechanics is provided clearly indicate that many of the respondents do not make a clear distinction between the power mechanics and specialized automotive programs. The predominance of automo­ tive oriented programs may be explained in part by the impor­ tance attached to this source of power in our society. Nevertheless, previously reported evidence indicates that the respondents agree that these programs are separate and dis­ t i n c t .

7. Duffy*s book entitled Power—Prime Mover of Tech- nology was used as a major reference in 28 of the 84 programs involved in this study. The relatively quick acceptance of this book may be compared to frequencies of 19, 19, 1 5, and

12 textbooks w ritten by Stephenson, Purvis, Glenn, and

Atteberry, respectively. Nearly half of the textbooks listed 247 pertained exclusively to the automotive field which further illustrates the dilemma which exists.

8. Major instructional units included in 70 per cent or more of the programs surveyed included (a) small gasoline engines, (b) automobile engines, (c) historical development of power, (d) power measurement, (e) mechanical power trans­ mission, (f) diesel engines, (g) fundamentals of electricity and magnetism; (h) fuels and lubricants, (i) outboard engines,

(j) social and economic implications of power, (k) simple machines, (1) diagnosis and troubleshooting, and (m) steam engines and turbines. Instructional units included less fre­ quently (55 to 70 per cent of the programs) included (a) ex­ perimental power sources, (b) gas turbine engine, (c) fluid power, (d) solar energy, (e) atomic energy, (f) rocketry,

(g) aircraft engines—reciprocating, and (h) reaction engines.

It would appear rather significant that all 21 instructional units were included in 55 per cent, or more, of the programs. 9. Approximately 90 per cent of the respondents agreed that a study of fluid power should be included as an integral part of the power mechanics offering. This data further supports the conclusion drawn from the literature. 10. Laboratory experiences were most frequently re­ quired in conjunction with instructional units involving (a) small gasoline engines, (b) automobile engines, (c) diagnosis and troubleshooting, (d) outboard engines, (e) fundamentals of electricity, (f) mechanical power transmission, and (g) 248 power measurement. There appears to he a relationship be­ tween the accessibility of power sources and the extent to which laboratory activities are involved. Student involve­ ment in laboratory activity is most likely to include main­ tenance and repair tasks or teaching aid construction. He is least likely to be involved in activities associated with project construction. Thus, a distinct and significant dif­ ference exists between the vehicles for learning used in the power mechanics program and those accepted in other programs in the industrial arts curriculum. 11. A significant majority (79 per cent) of the respondents are of the opinion that one of the criteria used in selecting content for the power mechanics program involves the adaptability of such content to laboratory activity.

They further contend (61.6 per cent) that instructional units pertaining to jet engines, rocketry, atomic energy, solar power, etc., do not lend themselves to meaningful laboratory experiences. This points up the fact that authors of recent textbooks advocating including these Instructional units have failed to bridge the gap between theory and practice.

Research and experimentation experiences may provide an answer to this problem.

12. The respondents in this study take an eclectic position regarding the derivation of course content as evi­ denced by their significant acceptance (exceeds .01 level of probability) of the behavior change, trade and occupational 249 analysis, and analysis of life*s activities approaches. This group rejected the teacher or student interest basis

for content derivation.

13. Of those teacher educators reporting, approxi­ m a te ly 0 1 per cent agreed that national standards for course content should be established through a nationalcurriculum

center organized under the auspices of the American Industrial

Arts Association. They further agreed (75*6 per cent) that a

b a s ic c o u r s e in power mechanics should be the same throughout

the country with variations in activities to meet local needs.

14”. The teacher educators involved in this study place the greatest degree of reliance on m source m aterials from industry, personal knowledge, and textbooks as bases for con­

tent organization. They tend to rely least on advisory com­

m ittees, state and national curriculum guides and information, job and operation sheets.

15. Opinions expressed hy the respondents indicated that there is significant agreement concerning the organi­

zation of content involved in the study of various internal combustion engines by major operational systems—mechanical, cooling, lubrication, fuel, exhaust, and ignition. This

approach allows the student to analyze the parts in rela­

tionship to the whole.

16. The respondents almost universally agree ( 9 7 .7 p e r

cent) that basic understanding and knowledge in the physical

and mathematical sciences are essential in the preparation of 250

Industrial arts teachers in the field of power. The fact

that only two of the 84 institutions reported prerequisites

in these disciplines indicates that an inconsistency exists

between opinion and practice. This may be a result of such requirements being considered as part of the general educa­ tion program. The applied science orientation of the power

program clearly indicates the necessity for a background In mathematics, chemistry, and physics.

17• The respondents universally agreed that the in­ structional content included in the power mechanics program should emphasize the understanding of operational and

scientific principles for each of the energy sources studied.

This approach may provide a basis for the reorganization of

the content included in this program. One might study the application of these principles to each of the energy sources.

18. The states of California, Indiana, Michigan,

Missouri, and New York provide Industrial arts teachers In

the public schools with curriculum guides pertaining to power

mechanics. There is considerable variation in the content

advocated in these guides.

1 9. Significant variations between reported certifica­

tion regulations and those expressed In literature distributed

by certification officials in selected states was discovered. This discrepancy Is partially accounted for by the fact that

*• institutional requirements frequently exceed state require­

ments. Als$, acceptance for teacher certification is 251 frequently based on an Institutional recommendation or on the

fact that the institution has met the requirements of a national accrediting agency.

It must be recognized that the data derived from the survey cannot be generalized to include other aspects of the

Industrial arts teacher education program. 'Hie lim itations of

the questionnaire as a method of collecting data must also be

considered..

Recommendations The following recommendations are reflective of some

of the major problems which were discovered as a result of this study. Future research projects may consider these p ro b le m s .

1. What is the status of the power mechanics program in each of the various states as determined by an analysis of available state and local curriculum guides? The procedures

utilized in the U.S. Office of Education bulletin, by Schmitt (1961) entitled Industrial A rts: An Analysis of 39 State Cur­ riculum Guidesj 1953-58, may provide helpful guidelines in the

organization of such a study. 2. What should be the nature Of a college-level text­

book utilized in teacher education programs in power tech­

nology? There is a need for the development of a textbook

which is more detailed than the book w ritten by Stephenson

(1963), yet more logically organized and less historically

oriented than the recent publication by Duffy (1964). The 252 former book is an excellent reference for public school pro­ grams. The latter publication tends to be oriented toward the introductory engineering program. The newly developed textbook should endeavor to bridge the gap between these two publication while placing emphasis on the discussion and illustration of operational and scientific principles which apply to prime movers.

3. What are the implications for programmed instruc­ tion in the teaching of an instructional program in power technology? The investigator would recommend that in itial efforts be confined to the instructional unit on small gaso­ line engines due to the diverse application of such m aterial.

Pilot and control groups at either the public school or teacher education level may be used to refine this m aterial as well as establish the validity of this approach. The needs of the service industry may also be considered.

Trudeau's (1965) article or Rosenberg's (1964) book may serve as a guide in the development of such m aterial.

4. What types of laboratory experiences should be in­ cluded as a part of the newly emerging instructional units on the more recent sources of power? Recent publications have clearly outlinted the type of experiences associated with the older, more readily avilable forms of power such as small gasoline engines and the automobile power plant. However, very little consideration has been given to the development of meaningful laboratory experiences involving such 253 instructional units as diesel engines, solar energy, atomic energy, etc. Future studies may endeavor to examine the specific nature of laboratory activities associated with these and other units at both the teacher education and public school levels.

5. Is there a need for the development of a national curriculum for industrial arts which establishes guidelines for program development and standardization? The American Industrial Arts Association should take steps to secure funds and personnel to perform this function. A committee composed of knowledgeable people from teacher education, the public schools, and various aspects of industry may be drawn together to perform this task. Funds to accomplish this task should be sought from various sources.

6. What are the implications of the Elementary and

Secondary Act (HR 89-10) to the further development of indus­ trial arts programs at the local, state and national levels?

Proposals should be written based on local needs in an effort to secure federal funds as provided under the various sec­ tions of this legislation. States which do not presently have state supervisors for industrial arts should initiate proposals designed to secure adequate funds to insure leader­ ship at the state level.

7. What w ill be the nature of the power technology program in 1970? Future research projects designed to deter­ mine the status of this program should be conducted every 25M five years. Such studies should Involve an examination of the nature and needs represented by the public school pro­ grams. Pilot testing of such instruments must include a visit and interview with the responded ts . A multi-personnel approach may elim inate many of the problems encountered in this study and thus provide more conclusive data.

8. "What is the role of teacher education programs in the implementation and up-grading of public school programs? In-service programs are badly needed to ifabroduce, up-date and fam iliarize teachers with recent developments in the power program. Such programs should endeavor to broaden the scope of the power program to include a ll major sources of power involved In prime movers. Specialized programs in the auto­ motive field are also needed.

9* How can the new Innovations in the power program be more effectively transmitted to teacher involved in this program? The professional journals provide one means of communication which has contributed much during the past five years. Additional means of direct communication need to be developed.

10. Do laboratory experiences facilitate the learning and retention of fundamental concepts pertinent to this instructional program? Research projects need to be in iti­ ated which w ill provide evidence to confirm or reject one of the fundamental basis assumed by a variety of educational

p ro g ra m s. 255 11. Do teacher education institutions graduating fewer th a n 50 industrial arts teachers per year provide the depth and breadth of program offering needed by the teacher of tomorrow? Research designed to determine the adequacy of the technical and professional offering of those institutions with limited enrollments should be initiated. Perhaps the consolidation which is presently taking place in the public schools has implications for the preparation of teachers. 12. Can the power technology program be organized around a study of the application of fundamental operational and scientific principles applied to prime movers? Future research projects should endeavor to more clearly establish the application of the principles identified in this study to each of the various sources of power. Perhaps a study of these principles may be an equally appropriate way of subdi­ viding the content of this program. Efforts should also be made to discover additional principles which apply to this field of inquiry.

\ APPENDIX A

PRELIMINARY SURVEY LETTER

256 THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHER EDUCATION 25$ 2047 NEIL AVENUE COLUMBUS9 OHIO 43210

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION T . J . J e n s o n , Chairman F . R . C y p h e r t , Associate Chairman November 23, 1964

Dear Fellow Teachers:

A research project is being initiated in an effort to determine what is being taught in power mechanics courses at the teacher education level. An effort will be made to determine the range of the instructional con­ tent and laboratory activities included in such programs throughout the United States. This research is being conducted as a part of the dis­ sertation requirement for the doctoral degree.

The term power mechanics is herein defined as a study of a variety of energy sources and its application in our technological sbciety. Such a program may include a study of the scientific and operational princi­ ples involved in developing, transmitting, using, and servicing the many forms of mechanical power. The variety of subject matter content may range from a study of small two and four cycle gasoline engines to atomic energy.

Please respond to each of the questions included on the enclosed postal card and return it to me at your earliest convenience. The major objec­ tives of this preliminary survey are: 1) to identify those teacher edu­ cation institutions which provide an offering in power mechanics; and 2) to accurately identify the staff member(s) who is (are) responsible for teaching this program.

participation in this research study (Question 3 on the enclosed postal card) will involve responding to a survey instrument which will be sent at a later date. Respondents to this survey will receive an abstract of the research findings if requested.

Any suggestions you may wish to offer concerning specific items to be included in the instrument will be given due consideration in the final revision.

Your thoughtful consideration in this matter of utmost importance to our profession will be sincerely appreciated. Thank you.

Sincerely yours,

Louis Ecker LE:bg Approved by:

s/Robert W. Haws

Robert VJ. Haws, professor Industrial Arts Education APPENDIX B

RETURN POSTAL CARD SENT WITH

PRELIMINARY SURVEY LETTER

258 Yes No 1. Does your institution offer a laboratory course in power mechanics?

Yes No 2. (If no to Question 1) Do you plan to pro­ vide such an offering? Yes No 3* (If yes to Question 1) Would you or the appro­ priate member(s) of your staff be responsible for the power mechanics program be w illing to participate in this research study?

1 2 3 4 5 4. How many staff members are involved in teaching this program?

5« ( I f yes to Q u e s tio n 3 ) To whom sh o u ld th e survey instrument(s) be sent?

Name Rank

Name of Institution

Address

2 5 9 APPENDIX C

INITIAL AND FOLLOW-UP LETTER ATTACHED TO QUESTIONNAIRE

260 THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY COLLBOB OF EDUCATION INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHER EDUCATION 2947 NBIL AVENUE COLUMBUS 10, OHIO February 16, 196$

1 m uId like to ttank youto r your prompt response to the postal card aum y uhichyou reeieved several ueeks ago. IMs prelialaa^ sw ? ^ vm successful in identifying ^tpruxisately ninety teacher education institutions ishiefe presently offer an instructional prepw in pover aeehanics. As you nay recall, I an involved in a eurriculua st 06y design* to deteraiae the instructional content and laboratory activities in- eluded in the power aeehanics prograa at the teacher education levels IMs research is being completed as a part of uy doctoral prograa. The enclosed questionnaire is svfeaitted to you as a re su lt of your response to the preliainaxy survey. Please mpoad to each of the questions included in the attached instrunent and return it to ae in the enclosed envelope at your earliest convenience. Jtesults froa the ^pilot stuty* indicate that completion of this iastrusaat u ill require 8$proxiaately thirty (30) ainutss of your valuable tia e . The inforaation requested will be reported in a professional Manor. You have uy personal assurance i&ai couplet® anosyaity • will be Maintained. Your assistance is urgently needed if this stu$y is to be successful. An early response to the enclosed qtssstio^&irs Mill enable this stu2$y to proceed without daisy* lbs tentative dead® line date has bom set for tech 8. Du closing, 1 w sincere ttaiss In idw@ for your thoughtful cooperation. '

Sincerely®

Louis G. Bcker

Bsbm bWo i M j F rotim m r industrial Arts Education 262 THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHER EDUCATION

2047 NEIL AVENUE COLUMBUS, OHIO 43210

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION T . J. Jenson, Chairman M arch 10, 1965 F . R . C y p h e r t , Associate Chairman

Approximately three weeks ago you received a question­ naire pertaining to specific aspects of your power mechanic s program. The major purpose of this research is to attain a comprehensive overview of this phase of the total industrial arts teacher education curriculimi.

This is just a reminder to inform you that I have not received your completed questionnaire. I realize that you are extremely busy at this time of the year. At your earliest convenience, would you please set aside a few min­ utes of your time to complete the enclosed questionnaire. As of this date, I have received completed questionnaires from nearly sixty per cent of the sample included in this study. However, I need your return to make this study c o m p le te .

If for any reason you are presently unable to partici­ pate in this study, please forward the enclosed instrument to a fellow faculty member who is involved in teaching power mechanics or return the unmarked instrument.

Your cooperation is urgently needed in this matter which is of utmost importance to the further development of our profession. On behalf of the improvement of this phase of our program, I hope to hear from you in the near future. S in c e r e ly ,

Louis G. Eeker

Approved by;

Robert ¥. Haws, Professor Industrial Arts Education APPENDIX D

SURVEY INSTRUMENT

263 A SURVEY OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHER EDUCATION

LABORATORY COURSES IN POWER OR POWER MECHANICS

Directions: Many of the questions included in this questionnaire require specific knowledge and insight into the course content of your power or power mechanics program. Therefore, it is imperative that this questionnaire be completed by the staff member who is presently teaching this program.

Note: SPECIALIZED COURSES CONCERNED WITH THE AUTOMOTIVE FIELD SHOULD NOT BE CONSIDERED IN YOUR RESPONSE TO EACH OF THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS.

Terms are defined as follows:

Power or power mechanics "is a study of Energy Sources and Machines that Convert Energy into Useful Work." A ma.lor instructional unit refers to any major part or division of a course. One (1) semester of credit is equal to one and one-half (1 1/2) quarter hours. Fluid power is a broad term concerned with hydraulic fluid, compressed air or gas as a means of power, generation used to create mechanical energy.

1. My present professorial rank: ( ) Instructor ( ) Professor ( ) Assistant Professor ( ) Lecturer ( ) Associate Professor ( ) Other: '

2. How many years of college or university teaching experience have you completed including this year? _____

3® How many regularly scheduled class contact hours do you teach per week? ______

4. What per-, eent of your yearly teaching load is in power or power mechanics? ______

5« What per cent of your regularly scheduled teaching time is devoted to theory or formal instruction? to laboratory work? _____

6. For how many years has your institution offered instruction in power or power mechanics? _____

7» Indicate the number of quarter hours of undergraduate or graduate credits you have completed in power mechanics. .

264 8. Mark an "X" in the parenthesis following those manufacturing schools which you have attended.. Indicate the length of each school attended in clock hours® Also, evaluate those programs which you have attended® Length in Evaluation Training Programs in Industry Clock Hours Good Average Poor Barrett Brake School ( ) Bear Manufacturing Company ( Briggs and Stratton Corporation ( ) Carter Carburetor ( ) Cummins Engine Company ( ) Delco-Remy Division of GMC ( Fluid Power Institute, WSU ( ) General Motors Training Center ( Perfect Circle Corporation ( Sun Electric Corporation ( Vickers Hydraulic School ( Other: ( )

9» Is there a curriculum guide in power mechanics available to the public school teacher from your State Department of Education? ( ) Yes ( ) No If yes, list the title and source from which this publication can be obtained®

10® Do the certification regulations in your state require that your institution provide prospective industrial arts teachers with an instructional program in power mechanics? ( ) Yes ( ) No If yes, how may quarter hottrs of credit are required? ______

11. List the formal course title(s) under which your institution provides instruction in power mechanics® Indicate the number of quarter hours of credit, annual (yearly) student enrollment and prerequisites~Tmath, physics, chemistry, etc.) for each course listed®

Qt® Credit Av® Annual Formal Course Title(s) Hours Enrollment Prerequisites 12o List the major textbook(s) or reference material(s) which are used in the above listed course(s) by author and titleo

Author Title

13o Place an "X" in the appropriate column to indicate the degree of emphasis which you place on the following items in your power programo , • The columns denote the following;

1 3 No Emphasis 3 Considerable Emphasis 2 3 Some Emphasis 4a Great Emphasis

Ao Bulletin board displays Bo Field trips to industry Co Films0 film strips or slides Do Formal lecture Eo Group demonstrations Fo Group laboratory experiences Go Individual laboratory experiences Ho Paper pencil tests lo Performance tests Jo Problem-solving activities K.o Programed learning experiences Lo Research and experimentation experiences Mo Student personnel organization No Teacher placement Oo Teaching aid construction Po Use ©f free and inexpensive materials Qo Use of resource persons from industry Ro Textbook assignments So Written Assignments To Others l4o Indicate the extent to which you rely on the following sources for content organization by placing an. MXn in the appropriate columno

Degree of Reliance Low Medo High Sources for Content Organization Ao Your knowledge of breadth of content Bo State or national curriculum guides Co Resource materials from industry Do Advisory committee • Eo Textbooks published on the subject Fo Information,, job and operation sheets Go Other: 15• What degree of emphasis is placed on each of the following kinds of laboratory experiences in your power programo

Degree of Emphasis Low Med a High A. Live automotive maintenance and repair B. Small engine maintenance and repair C. Repair and mainter^ance of outboard engines D. Project construction involving power sources E. Disassembly, inspection, and repair of "dead" units Fo~> Construction of research apparatus G. Teaching aid construction Ho Repair and maintenance of aircraft piston engines lo Model construction J. Other: l6o In your opinion, what degree of emphasis should be placed on the following general objectives of industrial arts? (Place an "X" in the appropriate column opposite each objective.)

Degree of Emphasis Low Med. High ______Objectives ______Ao To develop in each student an insight and understanding of industry and its place in our cultureo Bo To discover and develop talents of students in the technical fields and applied sciences. Co To develop technical problem-solving skills related to materials and processes. Do To develop in each student a measure of skill in the use of common tools and machines. E. To provide pre-vocatlonal experiences of an intensified nature for those students interested in technical worko F. To develop consumer knowledge <, Go To develop avocational and recreational interesto H. To provide vocational training for students when not otherwise availableo I. To develop safe and cooperative work habits. J. To develop an appreciation of good design and workmanship. K. O t h e r : ______268 17* There are four steps to this questiono Each step will require your reaction.to the following list of major instructional units which may be included in a power mechanics prdgram. COMPLETE EACH STEP BEFORE CONTINUING TO THE NEXT* The left-hand columns denote the following:

P m Units Included in Your Program L a Units Requiring Lab Activity

Degree of Emphasis p L Major Instructional Units High Medo Low A. Historical Development of Power B. Social and Economic Implications of Power Ca Power Measurement D. Simple Machines - Lever, Axles, etco E. Mechanical Power Transmission Fa Small Gasoline Engines Ga Outboard Engines Ha Automobile Engines l a Diesel Engines J. Aircraft Engines - Reciprocating Ka Reaction Engines La Rocketry Ma Steam Engines and Turbine N a Atomic Energy 0. Solar Energy Pa Experimental Power Sources Q. Fluid Power - Hydraulics, Pneumatics, etco R« Fundamentals of Electricity ancf Magnetism S. Diagnosis and Trouble Shooting Ta Gas Turbine Engine Ua. Fuels and Lubricants V. Other:

Step A - Critically review this.list adding any major instruc­ tional units included in your program which have been omitteda Step B - Place an1"X" under Column 1 to identify those major instructional units which are presently included in your power programa Step C — Under Column _2„ place an "X" opposite those instructional units included in your program which require laboratory experience for your studentso Step D - Indicate the degree of emphasis which you feel should be placed on each of the major instructional units listed abovea Place an "X" under the appropriate column on the righta 26.9

Directions; Indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with, each of the following statements by circling the.appropriate response in the left hand margin. The abbreviations used are as follows: SA = Strongly Agree D = Disagree A = Agree SD = Strongly Disagree

SA A D SD 18. Power mechanics is a term which may be appro­ priately used to describe specialized courses dealing... with the automotive field. SA A D SD 19* Power mechanics may be simply defined as a "study of Energy Sources and Machines that Convert Energyvinto Useful Work." SA A D SD 20. Industrial arts teacher education programs should be changed from the traditional auto­ motive mechanics to a broad program of power, transportation or power mechanics. SA A D SD 21. Basic understandings and knowledge in the physical and.mathematical sciences are essen- . tial in. the preparation of industrial arts teachers in the field of power. SA A D SD 22. Industrial work experience is desirable in the preparation of power mechanics teachers. SA A D SD 23. Industry, broadly speaking, is the social institution whose role it is to produce and service the products which man requires to satisfy his material needs.

SA A D SD 2 k . Major instructional units dealing with jet engines, rockets, atomic energy, solar power, etc. readily lend themselves to meaningful laboratory experiences. SA A D SD 25. The study of various internal combustion engines is best organized under a study of the various systems— mechanical, electrical, lubrication, fuel., cooling, and exhaust. SA A D SD 26. A study of fluid power should be included as '■* Integral part of the power mechanics program.

Directions: Each of the following statements describe an approach ■ M M H w a m a M i advocated for determining course content appropriate to industrial arts education. Indicate your position by circling the appropriate response.

SA A D SD 2 7 . Course content should be based on an analysis of occupations, jobs, processes or unit operations in industrial life. 270 SA A -D SD 28. Course content including laboratory, activities should be selected on the basis of their potential effect on desirable behavior change. SA A D SD 29. Student enthusiasm, hobbies, avocation or teacher interest should determine content selection for a given course. SA A D SD 30. Fundamental statements about individual and social needs provide a basis for curriculum "experts" to prescribe educational content. SA A D SD 31. Life's activities should be analyzed to ascer­ tain what people must know and be able to do in order to perform these activities. SA A D SD 32. Content is derived via a socio-economic analysis of tephnology rather than by job or trade analysis. SA A D SD 33. Published textbooks should provide guidelines for the determination of course content. SA A D SD 3^. National standards for course content should be established through a national curriculum center organized under the American Industrial Arts Association. SA A D SD 35 • The instructional content in power mechanics courses should emphasize the understanding of operational fundamentals and scientific principles for each of the various energy sources studied. SA A D SD 36. One of the criteria used in the selection of content for power mechanics programs involves the adaptability of such content to laboratory activity. SA A D SD 37• A basic course in power mechanics should.be the same throughout the country with variations in activity to meet local needs.

NOTE: IF AVAILABLE, PLEASE SEND A COPY OF YOUR POWER MECHANICS COURSE OUTLINE.

My (INSTITUTION OR PROGRAM) (MAY, MAY NOT) be referred to for illustrative purposes.

Send the completed instrument to: Louis Ecker The Ohio State University Industrial Arts Education College of Education 20^7 Neil Avejiue Columbus, Ohio ^3210 A P P E N D I X E

MEMBERS OF THE JURY OF EXPERTS

271 Name and A d dress Contribution

Dr. W illard A. Allen Author of a doctoral disser­ Division of Industrial Arts tation entitled A Study of State University of New York Present Practices and Trends Oswego, New York in Industrial Arts Teacher Education Undergraduate Lab­ oratory Courses In Transpor­ tation, Power, and Power Mechanics'll Dr. Pat H. Atteberry, Author of a textbook entitled C hairm an Power Mechanics and article Industrial Arts Department entitled "The Rationale of Western Washington State Power Mechanics'1 C o lle g e Bellingham, Washington

Dr. Joseph W. Duffy Author of textbook entitled Department of Industrial Power--Prime Mover of Arts Education T echnology Montclair State College Upper M ontclair, New Jersey

Professor Kenneth E. Poucher Author of article entitled Department of Industrial Arts ''What*s Your Horsepower?” Ball State Teachers College Muncie, Indiana

Professor Samuel L. Pritchett Author of article entitled Dept, of Technical and "Laying Out and Equipping a Applied Arts Power Mechanics Laboratory. 'I Purdue University Lafayette, Indiana

Dr. Charles G. Risher Author of seven articles Department of Industrial directly related to this E d u c a tio n field (see Selected Western Michigan University Bibliography). Kalamazoo, Michigan

Mr. George E. Stephenson Author of textbook entitled Galesburg Public Schools Power Mechanics and laboratory Galesburg, Illinois manual on Small Gasoline E n g in es Dr. Henry Sredl Author of articles entitled Dept, of Ind. Arts Education "A Course in Power at the Montclair State College College Level" and "Rocketry Upper M ontclair, New Jersey in the Shop." 272 A P P E N D I X F

PARTICIPANTS AND FREQUENCY OP RESPONSE

273 Name and Location of Participating Quest ionnaires Institutions Sent keturned Tuskegee Institute Tuskegee Institute, Alabama 1 1 Arizona State University Tempe, Arizona 1 1 A M and N College** Pine Bluff, Arkansas 1 1 Arkansas A and M.College College Heights, Arkansas 1 1 Chico State College Chico, California 1 1 Humboldt State College Areata, California 1 1 Pacific Union College Angwin, California 1 0 San Francisco State College San Francisco 27, California 1 1 San Jose State College San Jose, California 95114 1 1 Adams State College Alamosa, Colorado 1 1 Colorado State College Greeley, Colorado 1 1 Colorado State University For Collins, Colorado 80521 1 1 Central Connecticut State College New B ritain, Connecticut 1 1 Florida A and M University Tallahassee, Florida 1 1 University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida 1 1

274 Name and Location of Participating Ques tionnalres ______Institutions______Sent Returned Georgia Southern College Statesboro, Georgia 1 1 Savannah State College Savannah, Georgia 1 1

Bradley University Peoria, Illinois 1 1 Illinois State University* Normal, Illinois 1 1

Northern Illinois University Dekalb, Illinois 1 1 Western Illinois University Macomb, Illinois 1 1 Ball State University* Muncie, Indiana 1 1

Purdue University Lafayette, Indiana 1 1

Indiana State College Terre Haute, Indiana 1 1

Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 1 1

State College of Iowa Cedar Palls, Iowa 1 1

William Penn College Oskallosa, Iowa 1 1

McPherson College McPherson, Kansas 1 1

Eastern Kentucky State College Richmond, Kentucky 1 1 Berea College Berea, Kentucky 1 0

Grambling College Grambling, Louisiana 1 0 276 Name and Location of Participating Ques tionnaires ______InstL tutions______Sent Returned Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, Louisiana 1 1

Southeastern Louisiana College Hamnond, Louisiana 1 1

University of Southwestern Louisiana Lafayette, Louisiana 1 1

Gorham State Teachers College Gorham, M aine 1 1 University of Maryland College Park, Maryland 1 1 Fitchburg State College Fitchburg, Massachusetts 1 1

Central Michigan University Mt. Pleasant, Michigan 1 1

Michigan State University , East Lansing, Michigan 1 1

Northern Michigan U niversity Marquette, Michigan 1 1

Western Michigan University* Kalamazoo, Michigan 1 1 Bemidji State College Bemidji, Minnesota 1 1

Mankato State College Mankato, Minnesota 1 0

Moorhead State College Morehead, Minnesota 1 1

St. Cloud State College St. Cloud, Minnesota 1 1

Winona State College Winona, Minnesota 1 1

M ississippi State University State College, Mississippi 1 1 Name and Location of Participating Que s t io nnaire s Institutions Sent Returned Central Missouri State College Warrensburg^ Missouri 1 1 Peru State College Peru, Nebraska 1 1 Keene State College Keene, New Hampshire 1 1 Montclair State College* Upper Montclair, New Jersey 2 2

Newark State College Union, New Jersey 1 1 Western New Mexico U niversity Silver City, New Mexico 1 1 U niversity of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico 1 1 State University College* Buffalo, New York 1 1 State University College Oswego, New York 2 2

Appalachian Teachers College Boone, North Carolina 1 1 East Carolina College Greenville, North Carolina 1 1 Western Carolina College Cullowhee, North Carolina 1 1 Ellendale State Teachers College Ellendale, North Dakota 1 1

University of North Dakota Grand Porks, North Dakota 1 1 Wilmington College Wilmington, Ohio 1 1 Ohio University Athens, Ohio 1 1 Name and Location of Participating Questionnaires Institutions Sent Returned Miami U niversity O x fo rd , Ohio 1 1

Kent State University Kent, Ohio 1 1

Bowling Green State University Bowling Green, Ohio 1 1

East Central State College Ada, Oklahoma 1 l

Northeastern State College** Tahlequah, Oklahoma 1 1

Panhandle A N M College** Goodwell, Oklahoma 1 1

Southeastern State College Durant, Oklahoma 1 1

Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon 1 1 Northern State College Aberdeen, South Dakota 1 1

Southern State College Springfield, South Dakota 1 1

Austin Peay State College Clarksville, Tennessee 1 0 Tennessee State University Nashville 8, Tennessee 1 0

Abilene Christian College Abilene, Texas 1 1

North Texas State University Denton, Texas 1 1

Southwest Texas College San Marcos, Texas 1 1

Texas College of Arts and Industry Kingsville, Texas 1 l Name and Location of Participating Q uestionnaires Institutions Sent Returned West Texas State University Canyon, Texas 1 1 Utah State University Logan, Utah 1 1 Virginia Polytechnic Institute Blacksburg, Virginia 1 1 Central Washington State College Ellensburg, Washington 1 1 Western Washington State College* Bellingham, Washington 1 1 Stout State University Menomonie, W isconsin 1 1 Wisconsin State University River Palls, Wisconsin 1 0 Andrews University Berrien Springs, Michigan 1 1 Eastern Michigan University Y psilanti, Michigan 1 1

Eastern New Mexico University 1 1 Portales, New Mexico

Trenton State College Trenton, New Jersey 1 1 Eastern Washington State College Cheney, Washington 1 1 Jackson State College Jackson, M ississippi 1 0 Kearney State College Kearney, Nebraska 1 1 Ohio Northern University A da, Ohio 1 1 Wisconsin State University Plattevllle, Wisconsin 1 1 Name and Location of Participating Questionnaires Institutions Sent Returned University of Arkansas Fayetteville, Arkansas ______1_____ 1 Total 98 90

Indicates the institutions involved in pilot study. Indicates returned questionnaire was not used in the s tu d y . APPENDIX G IEVEL OP PROBABILITY BETWEEN OBSERVED AND EXPECTED FREQUENCIES ON OPINION QUESTIONS

281 Question 18 Chi Level of # Agree # Disagree % Agree. % Disaqree Square Probabi J11 v Observed f 17 69 3 4 .9 6 5 .1 31.44( > .01 Expected f 43 43 50 50

Question Chi Level of # Agree # Disagree % Agree. % Disaqree Square Probabi11 tv Observed f 71__. .... 1 3 ...... 84,9 11.860 .01 Expected f ....43 ...... 43...... 50 50......

Question 20 Chi Level of # Agree # Disagree % Agree % Disagree Square ProLabli itv Observed f A 2 - 13 40.952 .01 Expected f 4 2 .5 4 2 .5 50, . . 50

Question 21 Chi Level of # Agree § Disagree % Agree % Disaqree Square Probabi1itv Observed f 84 2 9 7 .7 2 .3 78.186 .01 Expected f 43 43 5 0 50

00 Question chi Level of # Agree U Disagree % Agree % Disaqree Square Probabi U tv Observed f 80 6 9 3 .0 7 .0 6 3 .6 7 4 .01 Expected f 43 43 50 50

282 Question 23 Chi Level of # Agree # Disaqree % Aqree % Disaqree Square Probabi1itv Observed f 82 2 97*6 2 .4 7 6 .1 9 0 .05 Expected f 42 42 50 50

Question 24 Chi Level of # Agree # Disagree % Agree % Disaqree Souare Probabi 1 itv Observed f _J33 __ 53 3 8 .4 9 1 .6 4 .6 5 0 .05 Expected f 43 ___ J2L...... 30 50

Question 25 Chi Level of # Agree # Disagree % Agree % Disaqree Square Probabi1itv Observed f 74 10 4 8.760 .01 Expected f 42 42 50 50

Question 26 Chi Level of # Agree # Disagree % Agree % Disagree Square Probabi1ity Observed f 77 7 5 8 .3 3 2 .01 Expected f 42 42 50 50

Question 27 Chi Level of # Agree # Disagree % Agree % Disaqree Souare Probabi 1 Itv Observed f 54 ...... 29 7 .5 7 8 .01 Expected f 4 1 .5 50 _ 5 S ..-.... 284

Question 28 Chi Level of # Aqree ; iilsaqree % Agree % Disaqree Square Probabi)itv Observed f 6 8 , 14 ; 35.56C .0 1 I Expddted f 41 , 41 50 50 . j

Question ^9 Chi Level 6f

# Aqree; # Disaqree % Agree _ % Disagree Square Probabi1itv Observed f 14 ; 72 16.3 8 3 .7 39.116 .01 Expected f 43 43 50 50

Question 30 Chi Level of # Agree # Disaqree % Aqree % Disagree Square Probabi1itv Observed f , 40 41 .012 .95 Expected f 4 0 .5 4 0 .5 50 50

Question 31 Chi Level of U Aqree # Disaqree % Agree % Disaqree Square Probabi1itv Observed f . 76 8 55.046 .0 1 Expected f 42 42 50 50

Question 32 Chi Level of # Agree H Disagree % Agree % Disagree Square Probabi1itv Observed f ...... 29 5 .1 2 8 .05 Expected f 39 39 50 50 285

Quest ion 33 Chi Level of # Agree # Disaqree % Aqree % Disaqree Square Probabi1i ty Observed f 42 40 .048 .9 0 Expected f 41 41 50 50

Question 34 Chi Level of # Aqree # Disaqree % Aqree % Disaqree Square Probabi1 i tV Observed f 52 33 4 .2 4 6 .05 Expected f 42.5 42.5 50 50

Quest ion 35 Chi Level of # Aqree # Disaqree % Agree % Disaqree Square Probabi1itv Observed f t 86 0 )1000 0 86.00 .01 Expected f 43 43 50 50

Question 36 Chi Level of # Aqree # Disaqree % Agree % Dlsaqree Square Probabi1ity Observed f 68 17 3 0 .6 0 0 .01 Expected f 42 42.5 50...... 50

Question 37 Chi Level of # Agree # Disagree % Agree % Disaqree Square Probabi1i tv Observed f 65 20 23.822 .01 Expected f 42.,5... ______5 0 . 5 0 L - „ SEIECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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