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Effect of Letter Spacing on Visual Span and Reading Speed

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Effect of Letter Spacing on Visual Span and Reading Speed Journal of Vision (2007) 7(2):2, 1–10 http://journalofvision.org/7/2/2/ 1 Effect of letter spacing on visual span and reading speed Deyue Yu University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA Sing-Hang Cheung Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Gordon E. Legge University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA Susana T. L. Chung University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA S. T. L. Chung (2002) has shown that rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) reading speed varies with letter spacing, peaking near the standard letter spacing for text and decreasing for both smaller and larger spacings. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that the dependence of reading speed on letter spacing is mediated by the size of the visual spanVthe number of letters recognized with high accuracy without moving the eyes. If so, the size of the visual span and reading speed should show a similar dependence on letter spacing. We tested this prediction for RSVP reading and asked whether it generalizes to the reading of blocks of text requiring eye movements. We measured visual-span profiles and reading speeds as a function of letter spacing. Visual-span profiles, measured with trigrams (strings of three random letters), are plots of letter-recognition accuracy as a function of letter position left or right of fixation. Size of the visual span was quantified by a measure of the area under the visual-span profile. Reading performance was measured using two presentation methods: RSVP and flashcard (a short block of text on four lines). We found that the size of the visual span and the reading speeds measured by the two presentation methods showed a qualitatively similar dependence on letter spacing and that they were highly correlated. These results are consistent with the view that the size of the visual span is a primary visual factor that limits reading speed. Keywords: visual span, reading speed, letter spacing, visual crowding Citation: Yu, D., Cheung, S.<H., Legge, G. E., & Chung, S. T. L. (2007). Effect of letter spacing on visual span and reading speed. Journal of Vision, 7(2):2, 1–10, http://journalofvision.org/7/2/2/, doi:10.1167/7.2.2. using the drifting-text method. They measured reading Introduction speed with three different letter spacings (1Â, 1.5Â, and 2Â standard) for two normal and four low-vision participants. Spacing of letters in text influences reading speed in For all participants, reading speed was highest for the normal central and peripheral vision (Arditi, Knoblauch, standard spacing and decreased for larger spacings. & Grunwald, 1990; Chung, 2002; Legge, Rubin, Pelli, & The visual span for reading refers to the number of Schleske, 1985) and in low vision (Legge et al., 1985). In- adjacent letters that can be recognized reliably without creasing letter spacing beyond separations normally found moving the eyes. Legge, Ahn, Klitz, and Luebker (1997) in text slows reading speed (Chung, 2002; Legge et al., hypothesized that shrinkage in the size of the visual span 1985). This is surprising because increased letter spacing could account for slower reading for low-contrast text. They reduces crowding, the interference with letter recognition measured reading time as a function of the length of the from adjacent letters, and improves letter-identification words used in RSVP reading at different luminance con- performance (Bouma,1970; Chung, Levi, & Legge, 2001). trast levels. From these reading time versus word length In this study, we show that the size of the visual span (the functions, Legge, Ahn, et al. (1997) estimated that the number of letters in text that can be recognized without visual-span size decreased from 10 characters to 2 charac- moving the eyes) can account for the observed effects of ters as contrast decreased from 100% to 5%. Legge, letter spacing on reading speed. Mansfield, and Chung (2001) introduced a more direct Chung (2002) measured rapid serial visual presentation method for measuring the visual span, based on plots of (RSVP) reading speed for five letter spacings at the fovea letter-recognition accuracy as a function of distance left and 5- and 10- eccentricities in the lower visual field. and right of the midline. These plots were termed visual- Her results showed that reading speed in both central span profiles. (This method is described in the Methods and peripheral vision did not increase with letter spacing section.) These authors showed that visual-span profiles beyond the standard spacing (the spacing used in normal shrink in size in peripheral vision, potentially accounting for Courier text: 1.16 times the width of the lowercase x). In the corresponding decline of reading speed in peripheral fact, reading speed in central vision declined at larger vision (Chung, Mansfield, & Legge, 1998). Legge et al. spacings. Legge et al. (1985) obtained similar results by (2001) also formulated a computational model that links the doi: 10.1167/7.2.2 Received May 31, 2006; published February 1, 2007 ISSN 1534-7362 * ARVO Journal of Vision (2007) 7(2):2, 1–10 Yu, Cheung, Legge, & Chung 2 size of the visual-span profiles to RSVP reading speed and smaller print size, we expected that small letter spacings proposed that the size of the visual span imposes a bottle- would limit the visual span and reading speed more for the neck on reading speed. smaller print size than for the larger print size. The concept of visual span expresses the intuitively plau- The primary evidence that links visual span and reading sible idea that reading speed is influenced by the num- speed has been obtained with the RSVP method in which ber of letters that can be recognized on one glance; it is a eye movements are minimized (Chung et al., 1998; Legge kind of Bwindow size[ limitation or sampling limitation et al., 2001; Legge, Cheung, Yu, Chung, Lee, & Owens, in on reading. This general idea has been widely accepted as press). RSVP presents words one at a time in the same po- a qualitative limitation on reading from the work of Javal sition in the visual field. However, most everyday reading in the 19th century, who recognized that saccadic eye move- requires saccadic eye movements. It is possible that a link- ments functioned to move this sampling window along a age between reading speed and visual-span size for RSVP line of text (for a review, see Huey, 1908/1968). Until re- reading would not generalize to reading with saccades. cently, nobody has quantified this limitation on reading. Characteristics of eye-movement control may influence Three sensory mechanisms almost certainly affect the size the relationship between visual span and reading speed for of the visual spanVdecreasing letter acuity outward from everyday reading. Legge, Klitz, and Tjan (1997) and Legge, the midline, crowding between adjacent letters, and de- Hooven, Klitz, Mansfield, and Tjan (2002) have formulated creasing accuracy of position signals in peripheral vision. a computational model (BMr. Chips[) to simulate saccade The roles of these factors in determining the size of the planning with different visual-span sizes. In general, larger visual span have been reviewed by Legge (2007). Increased visual spans predict larger saccades. On the basis of this letter spacing reduces crowding, but it also extends the text model, we would also expect to find a close linkage between further into peripheral vision, which has reduced acuity and the size of the visual span and saccade-based reading speed. A reduced positional accuracy. A priori, it is not clear how an secondary goal of this study was to evaluate this expectation. increase in letter spacing would affect the size of the visual To summarize, we tested three predictions: (1) visual- span for reading. According to the hypothesis that visual span size and reading speeds have the same dependence on span is the primary sensory limitation on reading speed, we letter spacing; (2) this association generalizes from RSVP predicted that reading speed should show the same depen- reading to reading with eye movements; and (3) letter spac- dence on letter spacing as visual-span size. The primary ing has different limitations on reading speeds and visual goal of this study was to test this prediction in central spans for print sizes above and below the CPS. vision by measuring both the size of the visual span and reading speed as a function of letter spacing. Arditi et al. (1990) have argued that crowding occurs in Methods central vision near the acuity limit. If spacing effects are due to crowding, we would expect more pronounced spac- ing effects for print sizes near the acuity limit. To test this Participants idea, Chung (2002) used two print sizes in her study: one larger and one smaller than the critical print size (CPS). There were five participants with normal or corrected-to- The CPS is the point above which print size is not a lim- normal vision. Table 1 shows age, gender, binocular values iting factor for reading speed. Chung found an interaction of distance visual acuity (measured using the Lighthouse effect between letter spacing and print size for RSVP read- distance visual acuity chart), log contrast sensitivity (Pelli– ing such that a letter spacing that is smaller than the stan- Robson contrast sensitivity chart), and three measures from dard adversely affects smaller print size more than the larger the MNREAD Reading Acuity chart. All participants were print size. In this study, we also used two print sizes (one native English speakers. The experimental purpose and pro- above and one below the CPS) to test the interaction effect cedures were explained to the participants before written of letter spacing and print size on reading speed and visual- consent was obtained from each participant.
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