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Vesicular Basalt Provisioning Practices Among the Prehistoric Hohokam

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Vesicular Basalt Provisioning Practices Among the Prehistoric Hohokam Vesicular Basalt Provisioning Practices Among the Prehistoric Hohokam of the Salt-Gila Basin, Southern Arizona by Craig M. Fertelmes A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved November 2014 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: David R. Abbott, Co-Chair Arleyn W. Simon, Co-Chair J. Andrew Darling ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY December 2014 ABSTRACT This study evaluates five different hypotheses potentially accounting for the prehistoric movement of vesicular basalt during the Hohokam occupation of the Salt-Gila Basin (ca. A.D. 700-1450): 1) direct procurement; 2) direct exchange; 3) down-the-line exchange; 4) market exchange; and 5) elite-controlled exchange. The plausibility of each hypothesis is assessed by examining the relative frequency of different vesicular basalt source types at sites as related to the geographic distance from their source; intra-site variance in vesicular basalt source type diversity; inter-site variance in vesicular basalt source type diversity; and temporal specificity and continuity in source preference. The study sample is comprised of 484 vesicular basalt artifacts recovered from nine Hohokam sites: Casa Grande, Gila Crossing, the Hospital Site, La Plaza, Las Colinas, Los Hornos, Lower Santan, Pueblo Grande, and Upper Santan. Geographic provenance data for artifacts are generated by comparing their chemical composition to a geochemical reference database composed of more than 700 vesicular basalt raw material samples from 17 different source areas in the Salt-Gila Basin. Geochemical data for both artifact and raw material samples were collected using a portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer and a newly developed sampling procedure that provides an efficient, reliable, and nondestructive means of analysis. The results of the hypothesis testing found that direct procurement is a possible material provisioning practice for perhaps only a small number of households in the Salt- Gila Basin; specifically those located less than 10 km from a vesicular basalt outcrop. Direct exchange is also an unlikely explanation, though it cannot be rejected outright. The other exchange hypotheses, down-the-line, market, and elite-controlled exchange, as i defined in this study, are all rejected as possible explanations. From these results, a new model of Hohokam vesicular basalt provisioning practices is developed for future testing. This model posits that vesicular basalt groundstone tools were produced by specialists in a handful of locations during both the Preclassic and Classic periods, and that finished tools were acquired through workshop procurement or local distributers. The implications of these findings for understanding the organization of Hohokam domestic and political economies are also discussed. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe my most sincere and profound thanks to my supervisory committee: David R. Abbott (co-chair), Arleyn W. Simon (co-chair), and J. Andrew Darling. David, your guidance and counsel have been an invaluable resource from my very first to my very last day of graduate school. Additionally, your attention to detail and relentless pursuit of sound archaeological research has been both instructive and inspirational in my own work. I am forever indebted to you. Arleyn, working with you over the years has been a blessing. The comments and feedback you provided have greatly improved the quality of this dissertation. Andy, I owe a big thanks to you for supporting my research during your tenure as director of the Gila River Indian Community – Cultural Resource Management Program (GRIC-CRMP). This dissertation would not have been possible without your assistance. Finally, I thank all three of you for believing in me and this study, and putting me back in the fight after I was nearly knocked out of the relentless and seemingly endless battle that is the anthropology doctorate program at Arizona State University. I also recognize the monetary sponsors of this research. Primary funding was provided by GRIC-CRMP, using funds allocated by the Bureau of Reclamation, under the Tribal Self Governance Act of 1994 [P. L. 103-413], for archaeological investigations associated with the Pima-Maricopa Irrigation Project (P-MIP). Additional research funds were contributed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Pima Agency and the Society for American Archaeology under the Douglas C. Kellogg fellowship. These two latter funding sources were essential for acquiring the equipment and materials necessary for the study, and also for providing logistical support for the large amount of travel that was completed during the research effort. iii The Native American community has been extremely helpful, and for that I am forever grateful. I would like to thank Barnaby Lewis, GRIC Tribal Historic Preservation Officer; M. Kyle Woodson, GRIC-CRMP Director; and Linda Morgan and Eloise Pedro, former and present managers of the GRIC-CRMP laboratory for providing logistical support. A special thanks also to Christopher Loendorf, GRIC-CRMP Senior Project Manager, for being a mentor, friend, and steadfast proponent of this study. I also thank Lynn Simon, also of GRIC-CRMP, who drafted and produced many of the wonderful figures in this report. Thanks are also owed to Shane Antone, Cultural Preservation Program Manager, and Tom Wright, Archaeologist, from the Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community (SRPMIC). They both have been wonderful supporters of my research and great hosts during my visits to the community. Additionally, I thank Peter L. Steere, Tribal Historic Preservation Officer, and Jefford Francisco, Archaeological Field Technician, of the Tohono O’odham Nation for providing me access to archaeological resources in the Vaiva Hills. I enjoyed my time learning new things from you as we searched for evidence of groundstone manufacturing. Several agencies and individuals also provided assistance. Bruce Kaiser of Bruker Elemental provided training and expertise in X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Barry Wilkens, Senior Research Professional at Arizona State University, provided hardware for producing pressed-powder reference standards. Thanks are also owed to Arthur Vokes, Acting Head of Collections for the Arizona State Museum; Holly Young and Lindsey Vogul of the Pueblo Grande Museum; and Dr. Amy Douglass, Manager, Tempe Historical Society. All of these individuals provided access to archaeological collections. I am also grateful to Richard Hanson, Manager of the Sonoran Desert National iv Monument; Kimberly Anth of the Deer Valley Rock Art Center; and Laurene Montero, City Archaeologist for Phoenix, for permitting access to vesicular basalt outcrops. I also need to thank Dr. Todd W. Bostwick, Senior Research Archaeologist with PaleoWest Archaeology; Dr. James H. Burton, University of Wisconsin – Madison; and Craig E. Skinner, Northwest Research Obsidian Studies Laboratory for providing useful information on vesicular basalt and their own past research efforts. Finally, thanks to Scott Seibel and the Friends of San Pedro River for allowing me to use your illustration of a Hohokam village scene. Last and certainly not least, I give thanks to my family and friends. Undoubtedly, I huge debt of gratitude goes to my parents, Roger and Lauren, who have always advised me to pursue my interests fully and without hesitation (unless it is hiking in the desert backcountry alone). Their unwavering support through the program has been a blessing that not enough doctoral students in anthropology enjoy. Additionally, my siblings Eric and Allyson – who probably no one believes are cut from the same cloth as me – provided a basis of support that proves that we are, in fact, family. To my friends: I am done and this time I mean it. I also must recognize my dog, Kelsey. Whenever there was a long day, she would be right next to me wagging her tail, reminding me that all is wonderful, take a break, and come play. Finally, my beautiful wife, Melanie. Without question, you are the most patient person an old student, but young husband could ask for. Thank you for doing everything for our home and family while I sat in a room at the opposite end of the house, in front of a computer, often with the door closed. Yes, you are done having to help me collect and haul rocks. Go ahead, pour yourself a drink, kick your feet up, and relax. It is my turn to do something. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………..xiii LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... xviii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH PROBLEM AND OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY.................................................................................................................. 1 The Hohokam and Vesicular Basalt Groundstone ............................................ 5 Research Objectives ........................................................................................ 17 Development of Portable X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy for Hohokam Vesicular Basalt Provenance Analysis...................................................... 18 Eliminating Potential Hypotheses of Hohokam Vesicular Basalt Provisioning Practices ............................................................................... 21 Research Significance ..................................................................................... 23 Dissertation Organization ............................................................................... 26 2 PREVIOUS
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