Positive Images of War: a Study of British First World War Newsreels
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i Positive Images of War: A Study of British First World War Newsreels By Thomas Gilmour A thesis submitted to the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History Supervisors: David Monger and Christopher Thomson November 2018 ii Contents Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv List of Graphs and Figures v List of Abbreviations vi Introduction 1 Chapter 1 - Propaganda vs. Profit 1. The Institutional Development of Newsreels before the War 17 2. The First World War and Newsreels 19 3. Graphs 30 Chapter 2 - Men and Women of War 4. Men for War: Women for Work 43 5. Class and Femininity 53 6. Wounded Soldiers and Performative Masculinity 59 Chapter 3 - Smiling Soldiers and Critical Voices 7. Smiling British Troops and German Prisoners of War 79 8. Critical Voices: The Irish Rebellion 88 9. Pacifism and Married Men 92 Chapter 4 - War on the Home front 10. The Mobilisation of Children 100 11. The Mobilisation of Animals 111 12. The Militarisation of Sport in Civilian Society 113 Conclusion 120 Appendix 123 Bibliography 124 iii Abstract The First World War represents a monumental and defining moment in the twentieth century, where historians continue to argue over its significance and impact on contemporary social and political culture in modern scholarship. Despite the extensive examination of both propaganda and cinema during this period, scholarship of newsreels remains scarce. This thesis examines this gap in historiography, arguing that newsreels provided a directed and positive image of war, which reinforced social structures within British society and set a visual precedent to how Britons should function during the war. The moving image or newsreel represented a key facet of British leisure past-times. Newsreels were depicted in cinemas before, during breaks and after feature productions in cinemas and in other social and educational environments throughout Britain. Newsreels were shown bi-weekly in cinemas, making them a key aspect of what Britons saw of the war, whether it was on the home and on the war fronts. Newsreels also depicted what was considered ‘topical’ at different times during the war. This thesis discusses two of the three most popular producers during this period: The Topical Film Company and Pathé Gazette. Despite institutional studies of the former British based producer, the content of their newsreels remains overlooked. Even though Topical Budget was absorbed by the War Office, becoming the main outlet for film domestic propaganda in 1917, historians have still left its content unexamined as it was viewed as ephemera. Conversely, other sensationalistic aspects of British propaganda, such as atrocity material, have received greater observation when modern studies demonstrate that such material was a minority. This research quantitatively and qualitatively examines newsreel material, identifying what was, and also what was not being depicted to contemporary British audiences. This thesis covers the institutional development of British cinema with an emphasis on newsreels, demonstrating that they developed as the result of increasing public popularity, governmental propagandistic policies and their potential for gaining revenue. Subsequent discussion is split thematically, covering the depiction of gender and convalescent soldiers, the representation of smiling German and British troops, critical voices of war, and the British home front. This thesis argues that First World War British newsreels provided a positive and directed image of war, which was shaped with the purposes of creating a precedent to acceptable wartime practices and also maintaining and expanding public morale. iv Acknowledgments Before acknowledging those who have contributed to thesis, I must first thank my family for providing me with the opportunity to attend university and develop my interest in history. For that, I am forever grateful. I would like to now express many thanks to various people that have guided and supported me throughout my research. Firstly, I must express my outmost gratitude to Dr. David Monger for supervising me over both my Honour’s dissertation and Master’s thesis, and instigating my interest in First World War British history. Your support and advice have made my post-graduate experience truly memorable. I would also like to thank Dr. Chris Thomson, for providing assistance with proof reading and guidance with using computer software. Alongside my supervisors, I would also like to thank my mother, Lyn Gilmour, for proof reading my work over these past years and providing me with constant feedback on my writing in both undergraduate and postgraduate studies. I am very grateful for the assistance given by the staff of various institutions. Thank you to Preservation Consultant, David Walsh Digital, Assistant Curator Helen Upcraft, Head of Film, Mathew Lee, former Head Curator, Roger Smither, and former Film Curator Paul Sargent of the British Imperial War Museum. I am also grateful for the assistance of Elizabeth Bowley, the Archive Coordinator British Pathé. I would also like to thank the University of Canterbury for providing financial support through a Summer Studentship, Master’s Scholarship, and funding to attend an international conference. I would also like to offer a sincere thank you to my post-graduate cohort in both Honours and Masters that have provided me with an unforgettable experience in my final years at university. v List of Graphs and Figures Figures 1. Gilmour, ‘Appendix 1.1: Primary Categories’, Positive Images. 32 2. Gilmour, ‘Appendix 1.1: Primary Categories’, Positive Images. 32 3. Gilmour, ‘Appendix 1.2: Secondary Categories’, Positive Images. 33 4. PG, 71709, 1858.43 40 5. TB, 265-2, 23-09-1916 41 6. WOOTB, 346-2, 13-4-1918 44 7. TB, 247-2, 20-05-1916 46 8. WOOTB, 326-2, 24-11-1917 48 9. WOOTB, 326-2, 24-11-1917 49 10. WOOTB, 324-2, 12-11-1917 52 11. WOOTB, 353-1, 27-05-1918 52 12. WOOTB, 317-1, 19-09-1917 58 13. PG, 1932.34, 73702 64 14. ‘With the Soldiers at Drury Lane’, The Sphere, 1 Jan. 1916. 67 15. TB, 271-2, 04-11-1917 68 16. TB, 248-2, 27-05-1916 72 17. TB, 257-1, 26-07-1916 73 18. C.E. Brock, ‘Fine Feathers’, in G. Goodchild (ed.), The Blinded Soldiers and Sailors Gift Book (London: Jarrold & Sons, 1916), 61. 75 19. PG, 1866.46, 71829 83 20. TB, 178-1, 20-01-1915 84 21. WOOTB, 371-2, 03-10-1918 86 22. TB, 245-2, 06-05-1916 90 23. TB, 238-1, 15-03-1916 96 24. WOOTB, 357-2, 27-07-1918 102 25. PG, 1866.15,71798 103 26. PG, 1918.18, 73308 105 27. TB, 265-2, 23-09-1916 107 28. PG, 2448.04,76979 114 29. PG, 2448.04, 76969 116 vi List of Abbreviations BBK - Beaverbrook Papers MOI - Ministry of Information PA - Parliamentary Archives PG - Pathé Gazette POWs - Prisoners of War PRO - Public Record Office Somme - The Battle of the Somme (Film) TB - Topical Budget TFC - Topical Film Company TNA - The National Archives WO - War Office WOCC - War Office Cinematograph Committee WOOTB - War Office Official Topical Budget WAAC - Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps WLA - Women’s Land Army 1 Introduction The First World War represented the first full media war of the modern period as all belligerent nations engaged in mobilisation of the masses through multiple avenues. However, one medium that remains largely overlooked in the vast expanse of historiography during this period is the ‘newsreel’. This thesis addresses First World War British cinema, alongside multiple scholarship strands portrayed within newsreel material. It argues that such depictions portrayed a ‘positive’ image of war that reaffirmed existing ideologies and social currents within British society. Newsreels were also used for ‘educational’ purposes, to set a precedent to British society. Therefore, using newsreels, this thesis explores this most widely viewed cinema outlet that Britons were regularly exposed to throughout this war. Similar to Luke McKernan’s study of Topical Budget (TB) newsreels, and to avoid anachronistic lexical ambiguity with contemporary resources, this research also applies the phrase ‘newsreel’ to encapsulate what was described during the First World War in many varied phrases. Indeed, the modern concept and terminology of the newsreel has been applied loosely to the history of film. Frederick A. Talbot, a contemporary writer on ‘moving pictures’, referred to ‘newsreels’ as an ‘illustrated newspaper’, ‘animated newspaper’, ‘moving picture newspaper’, ‘topicals’, ‘topical film’, ‘animated news-sheets’, and ‘the cinematographic newspaper’. However, the term 'newsreel' was not used officially until 1917, with the American International Newsreel, and in Britain not until the 1920s.1 When the British government used newsreels for propaganda purposes, they coined them as being ‘educational films’,2 which demonstrated their perceived purpose of newsreels. Therefore, for the duration of this research, 'moving picture' is used to refer to actuality material before the invention of cinema newsreels in 1908. The term ‘newsreel’ will be applied for the period after 1908, as this is when newsreels entered into the format that modern historians understand today. This is justified by Talbot’s comments that after 1908 newsreels started to depict ‘regular features’ or recurring topics. These topics included: sports, topical events in society, dedicated women’s sections, and 1 L. McKernan, The Great British News Film: Topical Budget (London: British Film Institute, 1992), 6; R. Fielding, The American Newsreel 1911-1967 (Norman: University of Oklahoma