Music Education Research International, Volume 2, 2008

The Hammer is the Teacher: Taking World Music Instruction to a Higher Level as Experienced through Balinese

John Eros University of Michigan—Ann Arbor, U.S.A.

Abstract Music education has been pushed World music has become a source of past the traditional boundaries of the significant interest among music educators, Western canon for decades. “World music” as musics from non-Western cultures can be has become commonplace in both journals, sources of powerful musical experiences in as evidenced by Volk’s 1993 review of 25 terms of performance, cultural knowledge, years’ writings, and conferences (Volk, and reevaluation of musical perceptions 1993), such as the MENC Multicultural based on Western models. The purpose of Symposium in 1990. The fact that we this paper was to describe my brief but require knowledge of a broad scope of intense experience with one particular non- musical genres for both our students and our Western musical genre: Balinese gamelan. growth as musicians is generally accepted. Research questions were (a) what was the However, it also behooves us to examine experience of a Western musician studying both the process in which we acquire this and performing Balinese gamelan music? knowledge and the process by which we and (b) how could Balinese gamelan and develop our students’ awareness. other world musics be taught effectively? We are aware that a vast body of The research was conducted during an music exists in our world. We have institute that included the performance, knowledge of the cultures in which the history, and theory of the Balinese gamelan, music originated, the musical instruments, performed on an authentic gamelan and basic information on many of the kebyar, and conducted at a conservatory in musical genres and styles. It is time for us to the northeastern United States. The study dig deeper into these other musics. followed a qualitative case study design Numerous articles discuss world musics, but using reflexive ethnography, with data being in many cases the articles address a number collected in the form of researcher journals, of musics in general (Bieber, 1999; field notes, and participant interviews. Goodkin, 1994) rather than examining one Findings indicated that (a) to make world particular music in depth. We need to be music instruction as powerful as possible, wary of what Campbell (2002) calls the authentic instruments and teaching practices “practice of musical tourism (the whirlwind should be used, (b) the teacher-student tour of songs of many lands) [which] may relationship and learning process are breed more of an exposure than an perceived differently by Balinese and educational outcome” (p. 31). For that Western musicians, and (c) music educators reason I have chosen to study only one should pursue familiarity with both Western world music, Balinese gamelan, with the and non-Western pedagogies when teaching objective of pursuing deeper insight than world musics. that offered by single articles or chapters. This paper is not a call for the inclusion of world music in American music

1 Music Education Research International, Volume 2, 2008 education as that topic has already been Research Questions convincingly argued (Fung, 1995). Rather, Research questions for this study this paper is an examination of the were: (a) What was the experience of a experience of learning one particular world Western musician studying and performing music and how educators might go about Balinese gamelan music? and (b) How could building understanding of both their students Balinese gamelan and other world musics be and themselves. taught effectively?

What Is a Gamelan? Method and Data A gamelan is not an individual This study followed a qualitative instrument but a group of instruments. case study design, using reflexive Shamrock and Wenten (2000) define ethnography (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000) and “gamelan” as: informal conversational interviewing (Patton, 2002). Denzin and Lincoln (2000) An ensemble or orchestra including define reflexive ethnography as research in sections of instruments comprised of 1) which: various sizes and models of barred percussion instruments, with heavy bars The researcher’s personal experience made of bronze; 2) heavy bronze pots becomes important primarily in how it resting, opening side down, on racks illuminates the culture under study. made from cords; 3) heavy bronze Reflexive ethnographies range along a of various sizes, from small to very continuum from starting research from large; and 4) miscellaneous others, one’s own experience to ethnographies including individual percussion, bowed where the researcher’s experience is and plucked strings, and flutes. (p. 186) actually studied along with other participants. (p. 740) can be found in several places in Indonesia but the most well known Data for this study was collected in exist on the islands of Bali and Java. three forms: researcher journal reflections, Gamelans have been established in a number field notes taken during the institute, and of countries around the world, including 168 interviews with other institute participants. known gamelans present in the United States The interviews were audio-recorded and (American Gamelan Institute, n.d.). coded by the researcher. The three data sets Although the instruments are similar constitute methods triangulation (Patton, in Balinese and Javanese gamelans, the 2002). styles of music and performance practices I kept a journal throughout the differ (see Goldworthy, 1997 for a institute, as well as making field notes discussion of Javanese gamelan). One during sessions. I conducted three interviews particular identifying feature of Balinese during the institute, one with each teacher gamelan, which will be discussed several (Chris and Wayan) and one with another times in this paper, is the kotekan, the term workshop participant (Judith). I felt for interlocking rhythmic and melodic important to examine data from both a patterns performed by multiple musicians Balinese master teacher (Wayan) with both instrumentally and vocally. lifelong gamelan experience and an American teacher (Chris) with several years’ experience performing and teaching

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Balinese gamelan, as this would yield Chris (American teacher) deeper insight into teaching practice and Chris had begun playing in gamelans underlying philosophy. I also felt it at the age of ten, had been to Bali several important to gather data from a participant times for a total of eight months, and had in the institute (Judith) who was a musician taught gamelan in a variety of settings in the yet had no previous gamelan performance United States, including university, youth, experience, as many current and preservice and community-based settings. In addition music educators will fit into this category. to Indonesian music, Chris was a conductor and vocalist. Chris had been teaching Research Participants gamelan at the workshop’s university since The participants in this study 1997. consisted of two instructors, another workshop participant, and myself. Other Wayan (Balinese master teacher) than the researcher, pseudonyms are used Wayan had begun his gamelan throughout to protect the identity of the training at the age of seven at the participants. Conservatory for the Performing Arts in Bali, after being inspired to study gamelan John (the researcher) by the local gamelan of his native village. Although my current study focuses He had been teaching Balinese gamelan in on Balinese gamelan, my gamelan the United States for 15 years, beginning at performance experience includes both the Indonesian Consulate in a large city and Javanese and Balinese ensembles. I have expanding to include several universities. In played in gamelan for one and a half years, addition to teaching, Wayan was also a and I have not been to Indonesia. While composer, dancer, puppeteer, and such a brief time might at first seem to be a choreographer. mark against my right to speak on the topic of gamelan in music education, I would Judith (institute participant) argue that it puts me in a situation The workshop was Judith’s first comparable with many educators. I have encounter with gamelan performance. experienced gamelan performance, but I Although she made her living as a librarian, have not been playing for such a lengthy Judith had substantial Western musical period of time that it would be difficult to experience, having played piano since relate to those new to Balinese gamelan. childhood and also currently playing My performing experience occurred keyboard instruments in early music while in graduate school for both my ensembles. I felt that Judith’s observations masters and doctoral degrees and augmented would provide insight into the perspective of by workshops. I was fortunate to attend a Western musician experiencing Balinese universities with gamelans and to have the gamelan for the first time, which would in opportunity to perform in them. Although turn be valuable for music educators who the numbers are rising, many schools of themselves have no prior gamelan music do not have gamelans, meaning that if performance experience. a currently practicing educator did not perform in a gamelan during graduate or Analysis undergraduate school, their opportunities to Journal entries, field notes, and learn gamelan will necessarily be limited to interview tapes were coded and categorized workshops and summer programs. according to the research questions. Based

3 Music Education Research International, Volume 2, 2008 on the coding, I decided that the way to pieces, repeating them over and over until present the findings was in the form of they have them”. participant profiles (Seidman, 1998). In Chris also discussed the roles played describing participant profiles, Seidman by the teacher and the student. In terms of (1998) stated that a participant profile expectations, “Westerners generally, I find “allows[ed] us to present the participant in in Bali, expect to be catered to. … They context, to clarify his or her intentions, and expect to be taught in the way that they can to convey a sense of process and time, all learn, whereas there people are expected to central components of qualitative analysis” learn in the way that is taught.” Furthermore (p. 102). Chris concluded, “here the burden is on the As the data was coded, additional teacher to figure out the best way to teach categories encountered were: (a) Balinese people so that they will learn. There the versus Western pedagogy, (b) perceived burden is on the student to learn how to difficulties in the learning process, and (c) learn.” A clear picture emerged of teacher- the physical experience of performing in the learner relationships that were almost exact gamelan. opposites. The immediate question was if the Findings Western learner was at such an impasse with Chris (American teacher) the Balinese style of teaching, how did more The principal topics that emerged in than a selected few of Westerners learn Chris’s interview were (a) teaching gamelan performance? Chris observed that approaches in Bali versus teaching the Balinese teacher had been teaching in approaches in the United States, (b) the United States for some time and had experiences of American performers, and (c) learned to modify his teaching depending on recommendations for teacher and director his audience. In discussing the two education. conflicting concepts, Chris stated, “I would The approach to teaching gamelan say in teaching that’s been my biggest thing teaching in Bali differed markedly from the to try to negotiate between those two approaches typically used with performers system.” in the United States. In comparing the two, I asked Chris for his thoughts on the Chris made the following observation: “The topic of gamelan teacher training. In his case system there [in Bali] is just really throw he had become a gamelan instructor at the yourself in and catch up, so things are not last minute when the graduate student broken down; things are not explained.” assigned to the gamelan left unexpectedly. According to Chris, the name of this Although he had previous playing and Balinese system was maguru panggul, which listening experience, he still felt that his role he translated as “the hammer is the teacher,” as the teacher was most powerful when a reference to the fact that many of the working with a guest native teacher. After gamelan instruments are played with a reflection, he commented that “the best and hammer. Maguru pangul had also been easiest way to teach a teacher is the same translated as “teaching with the mallet” way you’d teach a student,” suggesting that (Bakan, 1994, 2003; Campbell, 2001), the teaching philosophy of the Balinese although the descriptions remained gamelan held true whether the objective was consistent. Conversely, Chris observed to perform or to teach performers how to “Westerners expect all kinds of analysis, all teach. kinds of breaking down things into little

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Wayan (Balinese master teacher) gamelan music had been published in As Chris’s interview and my own conventional Western notation (Bakan, journal had begun to focus on teaching and 1999; Gold, 2005; McPhee, 1976), it was learning, I focused Wayan’s interview on generally in the form of excerpts or the learning process. Wayan felt that the examples as opposed to the equivalent of a technical skills were the toughest challenge full orchestral score. for Western learners, particularly when Particularly at the beginning, Judith performing in different gamelans that called had been trying to develop “markers” in the for different techniques. As an example, music for structural points. She described gamelans used the technique of dampening, learning the music as a continuous process such that when a player struck a note on the of learning a passage and then having that keyboard the player simultaneously passage “overwritten” by the next passage, dampened the note just played by pinching as in “the first four measures were the metal bar so as to stop the previous overwritten by the next four.” She observed note’s sound. Some gamelans, Wayan that if she were going to give advice to related, required different styles of gamelan rookies, she would advise them to dampening and these transitions were work on their memorization skills. difficult for Western learners. A topic about which I wrote Researcher Journal repeatedly in my journal and discussed in My journal entries were coded into informal conversations over the course of three categories: the physical experience of the institute was the act of stopping for both playing and listening, performance mistakes during rehearsals. During our difficulties, and reflections on the pedagogy rehearsals in the institute we rarely stopped in use. even while learning new pieces. Wayan told Initially I wrote about the experience me that stopping the music is rare in Bali. of playing in a Balinese gamelan, the When I asked if teachers in Bali broke music instruments, sounds, and general down into smaller pieces for rehearsals, he atmosphere. There were many different stated, with a great deal of laughter, “no.” types of gamelans. The gamelan used at the He described breaking things into numbered institute was a gamelan gong kebyar, parts as something that he tried to do when whereas the Balinese gamelan I had teaching in the United States. previously played on was a gamelan , the principal difference being the Judith (institute participant) pitches used. After adjusting to the physical I interviewed Judith towards the end properties of the instruments, I analyzed the of the workshop so that she would have had sounds themselves. several days’ experience in gamelan Gamelan tuning was a complex topic performance yet still be engaged in the but in short, Balinese instruments were process of the workshop rather than tuned so that the frequencies among keys reflecting back on the experience. As and instruments varied, with the intent of opposed to Wayan’s feeling that technique producing beats in the sound. This was was the most difficult aspect for Westerners different from much of Western tuning, learning gamelan, Judith felt that her biggest which strived to eliminate beats in the struggle had been with memorization. sound. The effect of the different tuning in Balinese gamelan music, like many of the the Balinese gamelan is what I referred to as world’s musics, is an oral tradition. While a “wash” of sound, created by a combination

5 Music Education Research International, Volume 2, 2008 of the beating tones in multiple octaves and of the gamelan as a whole. Chris told me the sheer volume generated by a group of that he played enough Balinese gamelan metallophones. The net result was an intense music to usually predict the next part of a physical experience which I quickly song even if he had never played the song concluded could only be produced with a before. In that manner, he often learned the true Balinese gamelan. I summarized my music on the first try. As the institute thoughts by writing “Gamelan is very progressed and I learned my parts better, I atmospheric in a sense in that when you’re began to feel that I could “anticipate” the in the middle of it I think there’s a real sense new sections and passages without either of something other than music because there counting or what I would call memorization are so many sound waves, so many beats in in the Western sense. different octaves hammering at a high Finally, I considered the processes of dynamic.” teaching the music, Western classical-based Next, my writing turned to the tradition versus Balinese. My main difficulties that I was encountering. I had observation was the comparison between the previous experience with the dampening times when we played continuously for technique described above and did not twenty minutes and the times when we encounter difficulties with technique. My stopped and checked parts frequently. I main problem was similar to what Judith wondered if both approaches were used in described: memorization. I found the term Bali. In the Western tradition, the latter was “intensity” coming up in my thoughts certainly in use but the former less so. I frequently and in my journal, “I think the wondered which of the two was most intensity came largely from memorization, common in Bali and if, as I hypothesized, even more than the musical demands, which the former was more common, how did both were certainly substantial.” As I mentioned, Chris and Wayan switch back and forth gamelan music was not written down and between approaches? As I discovered in my even when it was transcribed into Western interviews, the approaches were used notation it was still somehow incomplete. I intentionally, sometimes the Balinese way had studied other oral traditional musics and and sometimes the Western way. Both had at times written out passages teachers had to make adjustments. approximated in my Western notation. This This investigation made me wonder however, seemed different. I wrote “In the how I would be able to gain additional case of the Balinese gamelan, however, insight into the pedagogical process for that’s more complicated because each part world music. In this case, I had specialists in depends so much on the other parts. The Balinese gamelan, including a native interlocking rhythms are extremely Balinese master teacher. If I did not have the dependent, such that writing one rhythm opportunity to work with a Balinese teacher down by itself theoretically works but, I or other specialist performer, however, how believe, actually makes it harder to learn.” could I fill in this critical component for Chris had observed that it was world music education? My answer was that critical in gamelan to build awareness of all I simply would need to find an expert on the of the parts rather than creating a tunnel music in question and the source of such vision for one’s own part. Taking his advice, specialized knowledge would likely come I attempted to open my ears to the other from outside the field of music education: parts. I was not trying to isolate them the ethnomusicologist. completely but to simply build an awareness

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Rationale for Relationships with gamelan was substantially more powerful. Ethnomusicologists Furthermore, I was not implying that no one Ethnomusicologists and music in the music education profession was educators benefit greatly by collaboration. qualified to deliver valid gamelan Before continuing further, however, a brief experiences. However, for the experience to definition of ethnomusicology by Miller include a depth of knowledge beyond (1999), in this case in comparison to the techniques and songs, the expertise of a study of world musics, would be helpful. specialist in Balinese culture and tradition was an essential component. I wish to make a distinction between That specialized knowledge was “world musics” and “ethnomusicology.” seldom the realm of the music educator, who Survey type courses are primarily must be versed in numerous musics; it was descriptive of non-Western, non- to be provided by one who has devoted classical traditions, rarely raising considerable time to developing it, namely epistemological and methodological the ethnomusicologist. While a trip to study issues; this I call “world musics.” in Bali would be a wonderful experience, I Ethnomusicology … is a research could provide students with much richer discipline concerned with the learning experiences by collaborating with philosophical, methodological, and those with a more intimate knowledge of the technical issues of designing research culture and, by extension, at least an projects, doing fieldwork, and acquaintance with music education communicating the results. (p. 2) traditions in that culture. The same might be true for any form of world music that I School music educators and teacher chose to actively pursue. In today’s educators do not usually teach world music educational world, a deeper, more thorough survey courses as part of their primary knowledge is needed to teach world music music education classes. Still, as what we than that previously provided by a chapter in teach is often described as “world music,” a world music survey text. the distinction here is appropriate for our Additionally, it is likely that purposes. ethnomusicologists have greater My institute experience led me to performance experience in world musics conclude that for my gamelan expertise to than music educators. In my university develop more deeply, I needed to step experience, the gamelans were maintained beyond the familiar confines of my survey and directed by the ethnomusicology materials. Initially, all I had was the feeling department with few students or faculty that something further was needed. I from the music education department even concluded that for my gamelan experience having seen the gamelan (in both cases the to reach a higher level, two areas needed to gamelans were housed in the deepest, be addressed: instructors and equipment. I darkest reaches of the school of music). was not implying that Western-made Furthermore, ethnomusicologists instruments, for example Orff frequently perform field study among metallophones, had no value for the study of musical cultures, often for extended periods gamelan. Rather, after five days of playing of time. Although not an ethnomusicologist, authentic gamelan instruments in an Chris observed that the most powerful authentic configuration, I concluded that the experiences in his gamelan education had experience of playing in a true Balinese

7 Music Education Research International, Volume 2, 2008 taken place in Bali, indicating that there is instruments and, where possible, no substitute for going to the source. pedagogical practices. There is simply no Moreover, the specialized knowledge substitute. African music can be reproduced includes pedagogical as well as performance on plastic congas and gamelan music can be practice. As an example, Balinese gamelan reproduced on Orff instruments, but crucial generally cycles through the same patterns components are missing in several respects. numerous times, giving the performers A plastic drumhead is strikingly different multiple opportunities to correct errors from a true goatskin head in terms of both without stopping. In the Western tradition, if timbre and feel of the material. Even the a performer misses a note in a passage in a strongest bars on Western orchestral symphony he will not get a chance to correct metallophones or Orff classroom it until the next performance. If there is an instruments cannot come close the metal error in a Western piece, the conductor stops keys on Balinese gamelan instruments. to fix it. If there is an error in Balinese Upon playing the first note with a Balinese music, the performance continues and the hammer on a Balinese instrument, a student performer corrects it the next time the crosses into a musical world which cannot passage occurs. It is this insight into be experienced any other way. pedagogical processes that is needed in our An additional component is the studies of world music. tuning of the instruments, as I discussed Relationships between briefly above. The cumulative effect of the ethnomusicologists and music educators “beats” in the sound through several octaves have been proposed before (Stock, 2003). simultaneously at the high dynamic created Henderson (1993) summarizes by the gamelan is significant. The all- recommendations made in 1988 by a special encompassing sonic “wash” leaves an committee of the Society of impression just as strong as the simple act of Ethnomusicology, including the following: playing the instrument itself. As Western (a) Summer workshops for teachers; (b) The metallophones are tuned precisely to avoid use of ethnomusicologists who would visit beats in the sound, this effect cannot be methods classes for music education majors obtained elsewhere. In this case, the precise and offer in-service workshops for music tuning of classroom instruments is actually a teachers; (c) Workshops at state, regional, detriment to a musical experience. To and national conferences of MENC and the illustrate this specific scenario, Palmer professional organizations of college music (1991) writes: faculty members; and (d) Development of teaching materials such as textbooks, The very essence of gamelan is the recordings, filmstrips, and videotapes to special sound of its bronze further the study of world cultures in the instruments—for which no wood can classroom. Those recommendations must be substitute—and their special tunings, so assessed as to their implementation. If they different from Western scales. … This have not been implemented, they must be immediacy of the object must be held revisited. sacred if we wish to bring alive the richness of each experience. (p. 10) Recommendations for University and P- 12 School-Level Learning Environments For gamelan music to leave a lasting To make world music education as impression, then, it must be experienced on powerful as possible requires authentic authentic instruments. Music education

8 Music Education Research International, Volume 2, 2008 majors must have these experiences during in which the music continues regardless of their teacher preparation programs. Outside errors or missed transitions. of the university it will be a rare school that possesses its own gamelan. As the number Conclusions of gamelans in the United States grows, My institute experience was very however, so does the opportunity for powerful in terms of both my performance teachers to arrange authentic experiences for experience and my reflections. I gained an their students, as does options for teachers’ understanding of a specific music but more own professional development. importantly I reflected on the teaching and Additionally, the music education learning of that music. I was caught between faculty at our colleges and universities must wanting to be absolutely focused in the develop and maintain relationships with moment while I was playing, and wanting to those in the field of ethnomusicology. We reflect and make observations during the not only need the experience of authentic rehearsals. After the final performance, I felt instruments, we need to learn as much as that I had received a substantial educational possible about the authentic culture and experience, both in terms of performance pedagogical traditions of the music being and pedagogy. studied. That is not to say that once we have World music is unquestionably learned how music is studied in Bali we important, but it is also important to should restrict ourselves to that approach consider the pedagogy as much as the and cease to use Western approaches at all. repertoire. We must be aware of not only However, knowledge of authentic pedagogy how to play but also how to teach the music. from cultural experts makes us more well While there is the Western approach, there is informed and qualified as music educators also the Balinese philosophy that “the and can be combined with our own hammer is the teacher.” Music educators musicianship and educational expertise to need knowledge and proficiency with both. create the best possible learning We must push our understanding as teachers environment for world music. Just as I may and musicians in order to leave a lasting teach music in sections or stop for group impact on our students’ understanding of mistakes, I will also give my students the world music and guide them into powerful experience of learning in the Balinese way new musical experiences.

REFERENCES American Gamelan Institute. (n.d.). Statistic retrieved July 31, 2006, from http://www.gamelan.org Bakan, M. (1994). Lessons from a world: Balinese applied music instruction and the teaching of Western “art music.” College Music Symposium, 33/34. Retrieved October 23, 2006 from http://www.music.org Bakan, M. (1999). Music of death and new creation: Experiences in the world of Balinese gamelan beleganjur. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Campbell, P. S. (2001). Conference keynote: Unsafe suppositions? Cutting across cultures on questions of music’s transmission. Music Education Research, 3(2), 215–226. Campbell, P. S. (2002). Music education in a time of cultural transformation. Music Educators Journal, 89(1), 27–32, & 54.

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Denzin, N. K. & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of Qualitative Research. 2nd ed. London: Sage Publications, Inc. Fung, C. V. (1995). Rationales for teaching world musics. Music Educators Journal. 82 (1), 36– 40. Gold, L. (2005). Music in Bali: Experiencing music, expressing culture. New York: Oxford University Press. Goldsworthy, D. (1997). Teaching gamelan in Australia: Some perspectives on cross-cultural music education. International Journal of Music Education, 30, 3–14. Goodkin, D. (1994). Diverse approaches to multicultural music. Music Educators Journal, 81(1), 39–43. Henderson, C. (1993). Preparing future music teachers for dealing with minority students: A profession at risk. The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning, 4(2), 35–44. McPhee, C. (1966). Music in Bali: A study in form and instrumental organization in Balinese orchestral music. New Haven: Yale University Press. Miller, T. E. (1999, October). Beyond ethnomusicology and cultural diversity: Normalizing world musics in the curriculum. College Music Society Newsletter. Retrieved July 24, 2006 from http://www.music.org Palmer, A. J. (1991, September). World musics in music education: The matter of authenticity. College Music Society Newsletter. Retrieved July 24, 2006 from http://www.music.org Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods. 3rd ed. London: Sage Publications, Inc. Seidman, I. (1998). Interviewing as qualitative research. New York: Teachers College Press. Shamrock, M., & Wenten, I. N. (2000). The challenge of “kotekan.” In A. de Quadros (Ed.), Many seeds, different flowers: The music education legacy of Carl Orff (pp. 186–195). Perth: CIRCME. Stock, J. P. J. (2003). Music education: Perspectives from current ethnomusicology. British Journal of Music Education, 20(2), 135–145. Volk, T. (1993). The history and development of multicultural music education as evidenced in the Music Educators Journal, 1967-1992. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41(2), 137–155.

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