Illusions of Self-Knowledge
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Power and Illusory Control
Research Paper No. 2009 Illusory Control: A Generative Force Behind Power’s Far-Reaching Effects Nathanael J. Fast Deborah H. Gruenfeld Niro Sivanathan Adam D. Galinsky December 2008 R ESEARCH P APER S ERIES Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1314952 Running Head: POWER AND ILLUSORY CONTROL Illusory Control: A Generative Force Behind Power’s Far-Reaching Effects Nathanael J. Fast and Deborah H Gruenfeld Stanford University Niro Sivanathan London Business School Adam D. Galinsky Northwestern University *In press at Psychological Science Please address correspondence concerning this article to Nathanael J. Fast, Department of Organizational Behavior, Stanford University, 518 Memorial Way, Stanford, CA 94305; email: [email protected]. Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1314952 Power and Illusory Control 2 Abstract Three experiments demonstrated that the experience of power leads to an illusion of personal control. Regardless of whether power was experientially primed (Experiments 1 and 3) or manipulated through manager-subordinate roles (Experiment 2), it led to perceived control over outcomes that were beyond the reach of the powerholder. Furthermore, this illusory control mediated the influence of power on several self-enhancement and approach-related effects found in the power literature, including optimism (Experiment 2), self-esteem (Experiment 3), and action-orientation (Experiment 3), demonstrating its theoretical importance as a generative cause and driving force behind many of power’s far-reaching effects. A fourth experiment ruled out an alternative explanation: that positive mood, rather than illusory control, is at the root of power’s effects. The discussion considers implications for existing and future research on the psychology of power, perceived control, and positive illusions. -
The Art of Thinking Clearly
For Sabine The Art of Thinking Clearly Rolf Dobelli www.sceptrebooks.co.uk First published in Great Britain in 2013 by Sceptre An imprint of Hodder & Stoughton An Hachette UK company 1 Copyright © Rolf Dobelli 2013 The right of Rolf Dobelli to be identified as the Author of the Work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser. A CIP catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library. eBook ISBN 978 1 444 75955 6 Hardback ISBN 978 1 444 75954 9 Hodder & Stoughton Ltd 338 Euston Road London NW1 3BH www.sceptrebooks.co.uk CONTENTS Introduction 1 WHY YOU SHOULD VISIT CEMETERIES: Survivorship Bias 2 DOES HARVARD MAKE YOU SMARTER?: Swimmer’s Body Illusion 3 WHY YOU SEE SHAPES IN THE CLOUDS: Clustering Illusion 4 IF 50 MILLION PEOPLE SAY SOMETHING FOOLISH, IT IS STILL FOOLISH: Social Proof 5 WHY YOU SHOULD FORGET THE PAST: Sunk Cost Fallacy 6 DON’T ACCEPT FREE DRINKS: Reciprocity 7 BEWARE THE ‘SPECIAL CASE’: Confirmation Bias (Part 1) 8 MURDER YOUR DARLINGS: Confirmation Bias (Part 2) 9 DON’T BOW TO AUTHORITY: Authority Bias 10 LEAVE YOUR SUPERMODEL FRIENDS AT HOME: Contrast Effect 11 WHY WE PREFER A WRONG MAP TO NO -
Valuing Thoughts, Ignoring Behavior: the Introspection Illusion As a Source of the Bias Blind Spot ଝ
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43 (2007) 565–578 www.elsevier.com/locate/jesp Valuing thoughts, ignoring behavior: The introspection illusion as a source of the bias blind spot ଝ Emily Pronin ¤, Matthew B. Kugler Department of Psychology, Green Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA Received 3 September 2005; revised 16 May 2006 Available online 20 July 2006 Communicated by Fiedler Abstract People see themselves as less susceptible to bias than others. We show that a source of this bias blind spot involves the value that people place, and believe they should place, on introspective information (relative to behavioral information) when assessing bias in themselves versus others. Participants considered introspective information more than behavioral information for assessing bias in themselves, but not others. This divergence did not arise simply from diVerences in introspective access. The blind spot persisted when observers had access to the introspections of the actor whose bias they judged. And, participants claimed that they, but not their peers, should rely on introspections when making self-assessments of bias. Only after being educated about the importance of nonconscious processes in guiding judgment and action—and thereby about the fallibility of introspection—did participants cease denying their relative susceptibility to bias. © 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Bias blind spot; Introspection illusion; Self—other; Nonconscious inXuences; Self-perception In a recent news story, a federal judge defended his ability The tendency to see bias in others, while being blind to it to be objective in handling a case involving a long-time friend. in ourselves, has been shown across a range of cognitive In another story, government scientists defended their impar- and motivational biases (for a review, see Pronin, Gilovich, tiality in evaluating drug companies from whom they received & Ross, 2004). -
Impact of Illusion of Control on Perceived Efficiency in Pakistani Financial Markets
Impact of Illusion…. Abasyn Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 5 No. 2 Impact of Illusion of Control on Perceived Efficiency in Pakistani Financial Markets Sidra Ajmal1 Maria Mufti2 Dr. Zulfiqar Ali Shah3 Abstract The purpose of this study is to test impact of illusion of control on perceived market efficiency. On the basis of literature review, questionnaire was developed. The study is carried out on sample of convenience of investors, financial analyst and finance scholars of Islamabad/ Rawalpindi. Questionnaire comprises of 15 items related to three forms of market efficiency and particular bias (illusion of control). The findings of the regression show significant results. This means that illusion of control has impact on perceived efficiency of Pakistani financial market. This study focuses on only individual located in Islamabad/Rawalpindi, and the sample size is also small due to time constraints. Further research can be done on a bigger scale to get the more general conclusions. This study will help investors to identify their biases and then formulate different strategies to reduce their irrational behavior. Key words: Illusion of control, market efficiency 1Sidra Ajmal, MS (Scholar), SZABIST, Islamabad. 2Maria Mufti, MS (Scholar), SZABIST, Islamabad. 3Dr. Zulfiqar Ali Shah, Associate Professor, SZABIST, Islamabad. Illusion of control is a psychological term referring to the tendency of people to overestimate their abilities to control any event, where as market efficiency is the phenomena primarily explained by Fama (1970). He had created a hypothesis that Sidra Ajmal, Maria Mufti, & Dr. Zulfiqar Ali Shah 100 Impact of Illusion…. Abasyn Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 5 No. -
Social Psychology Glossary
Social Psychology Glossary This glossary defines many of the key terms used in class lectures and assigned readings. A Altruism—A motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's own self-interest. Availability Heuristic—A cognitive rule, or mental shortcut, in which we judge how likely something is by how easy it is to think of cases. Attractiveness—Having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference. Attribution Theory—A theory about how people explain the causes of behavior—for example, by attributing it either to "internal" dispositions (e.g., enduring traits, motives, values, and attitudes) or to "external" situations. Automatic Processing—"Implicit" thinking that tends to be effortless, habitual, and done without awareness. B Behavioral Confirmation—A type of self-fulfilling prophecy in which people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations. Belief Perseverance—Persistence of a belief even when the original basis for it has been discredited. Bystander Effect—The tendency for people to be less likely to help someone in need when other people are present than when they are the only person there. Also known as bystander inhibition. C Catharsis—Emotional release. The catharsis theory of aggression is that people's aggressive drive is reduced when they "release" aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing about aggression. Central Route to Persuasion—Occurs when people are convinced on the basis of facts, statistics, logic, and other types of evidence that support a particular position. -
Infographic I.10
The Digital Health Revolution: Leaving No One Behind The global AI in healthcare market is growing fast, with an expected increase from $4.9 billion in 2020 to $45.2 billion by 2026. There are new solutions introduced every day that address all areas: from clinical care and diagnosis, to remote patient monitoring to EHR support, and beyond. But, AI is still relatively new to the industry, and it can be difficult to determine which solutions can actually make a difference in care delivery and business operations. 59 Jan 2021 % of Americans believe returning Jan-June 2019 to pre-coronavirus life poses a risk to health and well being. 11 41 % % ...expect it will take at least 6 The pandemic has greatly increased the 65 months before things get number of US adults reporting depression % back to normal (updated April and/or anxiety.5 2021).4 Up to of consumers now interested in telehealth going forward. $250B 76 57% of providers view telehealth more of current US healthcare spend % favorably than they did before COVID-19.7 could potentially be virtualized.6 The dramatic increase in of Medicare primary care visits the conducted through 90% $3.5T telehealth has shown longevity, with rates in annual U.S. health expenditures are for people with chronic and mental health conditions. since April 2020 0.1 43.5 leveling off % % Most of these can be prevented by simple around 30%.8 lifestyle changes and regular health screenings9 Feb. 2020 Apr. 2020 OCCAM’S RAZOR • CONJUNCTION FALLACY • DELMORE EFFECT • LAW OF TRIVIALITY • COGNITIVE FLUENCY • BELIEF BIAS • INFORMATION BIAS Digital health ecosystems are transforming• AMBIGUITY BIAS • STATUS medicineQUO BIAS • SOCIAL COMPARISONfrom BIASa rea• DECOYctive EFFECT • REACTANCEdiscipline, • REVERSE PSYCHOLOGY • SYSTEM JUSTIFICATION • BACKFIRE EFFECT • ENDOWMENT EFFECT • PROCESSING DIFFICULTY EFFECT • PSEUDOCERTAINTY EFFECT • DISPOSITION becoming precise, preventive,EFFECT • ZERO-RISK personalized, BIAS • UNIT BIAS • IKEA EFFECT and • LOSS AVERSION participatory. -
Influencing Choice Without Awareness
Consciousness and Cognition 37 (2015) 225–236 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Consciousness and Cognition journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/concog Influencing choice without awareness ⇑ Jay A. Olson a,c, , Alym A. Amlani b, Amir Raz a,c, Ronald A. Rensink d a Department of Psychiatry, 1033 Pine Avenue West, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada b School of Business, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Main Building, Room 206, 12666 72 Avenue, Surrey, BC V3W 2M8, Canada c The Lady Davis Institute at the SMDB Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada d Departments of Psychology and Computer Science, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada article info abstract Article history: Forcing occurs when a magician influences the audience’s decisions without their aware- Received 18 July 2014 ness. To investigate the mechanisms behind this effect, we examined several stimulus Available online 7 February 2015 and personality predictors. In Study 1, a magician flipped through a deck of playing cards while participants were asked to choose one. Although the magician could influence the Keywords: choice almost every time (98%), relatively few (9%) noticed this influence. In Study 2, par- Forcing ticipants observed rapid series of cards on a computer, with one target card shown longer Magic than the rest. We expected people would tend to choose this card without noticing that it Volition was shown longest. Both stimulus and personality factors predicted the choice of card, Free will Decision making depending on whether the influence was noticed. These results show that combining Sense of agency real-world and laboratory research can be a powerful way to study magic and can provide Persuasion new methods to study the feeling of free will. -
Effects of Mindset on Positive Illusions
EffectEffectss ooff MindseMindsett oonn PositivPositivee IllusionIllusionss ShelleSheJleyy EE.. TayloTaylorr PetePeterr MM.. GollwitzeGoUwitzerr UniversitUniversityy oofCalifomia,f California, LoLoss AngeleAngeless UniversitUniversityy ooff KonstanKonstanzz SS.. EE.. TayloTayklrandr and JJ.. DD.. Brown'Brown'ss (1988(1988)) positioposilionn thalhalt mentallmentallyy healthhealthyy peoplpoopIee exhibiexhibitt positivpositivee illusioni11lol5ionss raiseraisess aI dilemmadikmma:: HowHow dodo pewitpeople funC1Wnfunction effectivelyeffectively ifthc:irif their perceptionsperceptions arcare positivelypositively biased?biased? UsingUsing Gollwitzer'Go/lwiucr'ss deliberative-implementadeliberative-implementall mindseffiindsett distinctiondistinction,, wv.ee assesseassessedd whethewhetherr peoplpeoplee iinn a deliberdeliber- ativativee mindsemioosett shoshoww leslesss evidenceevidence ofof positivpositivee illusionillusionss thathann peoplpc~e inin anan implementalimplemental mindsetmind$Cl... ParticPartk·- ipantipanlSs completecompletedd aa mindsemindsett tastaskk anandd assessmentassessmentss ooff moodmood,, self-perceptionsself-perceptions,, anandd perceiveperceivedd (invul(in)vul- nerabilitnerabilityy t10o riskrisk.. DeliberatioDeliberationn leledd tloworsenedo worsened moodmood,, greatevealerr perceiveperceivedd riskrisk,, anandd poorepoorerr self-percepself.percep- tionstiool,, relativrelativee ttoo implementationimplementation;; controcontroll (n(noo mindsetmindset)) participantparticipantss typicalltypicallyy scorescoredd iinn betweenbet~n. -
Illusion and Well-Being: a Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health
Psyehologlcal Bulletin Copyright 1988 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 1988, Vol. 103, No. 2, 193-210 0033-2909/88/$00.75 Illusion and Well-Being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health Shelley E. Taylor Jonathon D. Brown University of California, Los Angeles Southern Methodist University Many prominenttheorists have argued that accurate perceptions of the self, the world, and the future are essential for mental health. Yet considerable research evidence suggests that overly positive self- evaluations, exaggerated perceptions of control or mastery, and unrealistic optimism are characteris- tic of normal human thought. Moreover, these illusions appear to promote other criteria of mental health, including the ability to care about others, the ability to be happy or contented, and the ability to engage in productive and creative work. These strategies may succeed, in large part, because both the social world and cognitive-processingmechanisms impose filters on incoming information that distort it in a positive direction; negativeinformation may be isolated and represented in as unthreat- ening a manner as possible. These positive illusions may be especially useful when an individual receives negative feedback or is otherwise threatened and may be especially adaptive under these circumstances. Decades of psychological wisdom have established contact dox: How can positive misperceptions of one's self and the envi- with reality as a hallmark of mental health. In this view, the ronment be adaptive when accurate information processing wcU-adjusted person is thought to engage in accurate reality seems to be essential for learning and successful functioning in testing,whereas the individual whose vision is clouded by illu- the world? Our primary goal is to weave a theoretical context sion is regarded as vulnerable to, ifnot already a victim of, men- for thinking about mental health. -
John Collins, President, Forensic Foundations Group
On Bias in Forensic Science National Commission on Forensic Science – May 12, 2014 56-year-old Vatsala Thakkar was a doctor in India but took a job as a convenience store cashier to help pay family expenses. She was stabbed to death outside her store trying to thwart a theft in November 2008. Bloody Footwear Impression Bloody Tire Impression What was the threat? 1. We failed to ask ourselves if this was a footwear impression. 2. The appearance of the impression combined with the investigator’s interpretation created prejudice. The accuracy of our analysis became threatened by our prejudice. Types of Cognitive Bias Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases | Accessed on April 14, 2014 Anchoring or focalism Hindsight bias Pseudocertainty effect Illusory superiority Levels-of-processing effect Attentional bias Hostile media effect Reactance Ingroup bias List-length effect Availability heuristic Hot-hand fallacy Reactive devaluation Just-world phenomenon Misinformation effect Availability cascade Hyperbolic discounting Recency illusion Moral luck Modality effect Backfire effect Identifiable victim effect Restraint bias Naive cynicism Mood-congruent memory bias Bandwagon effect Illusion of control Rhyme as reason effect Naïve realism Next-in-line effect Base rate fallacy or base rate neglect Illusion of validity Risk compensation / Peltzman effect Outgroup homogeneity bias Part-list cueing effect Belief bias Illusory correlation Selective perception Projection bias Peak-end rule Bias blind spot Impact bias Semmelweis -
The Self-Attribution Bias and Paranormal Beliefs ⇑ Michiel Van Elk
Consciousness and Cognition 49 (2017) 313–321 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Consciousness and Cognition journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/concog The self-attribution bias and paranormal beliefs ⇑ Michiel van Elk Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Amsterdam Brain and Cognition Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands article info abstract Article history: The present study investigated the relation between paranormal beliefs, illusory control Received 8 December 2016 and the self-attribution bias, i.e., the motivated tendency to attribute positive outcomes Revised 2 February 2017 to oneself while negative outcomes are externalized. Visitors of a psychic fair played a card Accepted 2 February 2017 guessing game and indicated their perceived control over randomly selected cards as a function of the congruency and valence of the card. A stronger self-attribution bias was observed for paranormal believers compared to skeptics and this bias was specifically Keywords: related to traditional religious beliefs and belief in superstition. No relation between para- Paranormal beliefs normal beliefs and illusory control was found. Self-report measures indicated that paranor- Self-attribution bias Cognitive biases mal beliefs were associated to being raised in a spiritual family and to anomalous Individual differences experiences during childhood. Thereby this study suggests that paranormal beliefs are Superstition related to specific cognitive biases that in turn are shaped by socio-cultural factors. Illusion of control Ó 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Paranormal beliefs refer to an eclectic range of New Age beliefs and practices, involving belief in Psi, precognition, witch- craft, superstition, as well as telekinesis and channeling (Lindeman & Svedholm, 2012). -
Optimal Illusion of Control and Related Perception Biases
OPTIMAL ILLUSION OF CONTROL AND RELATED PERCEPTION BIASES Olivier Gossner Jakub Steiner CERGE Charles University Center for Economic Research and Graduate Education Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic Economics Institute EI WORKING PAPER SERIES (ISSN 1211-3298) Electronic Version 571 Working Paper Series 571 (ISSN 1211-3298) Optimal Illusion of Control and Related Perception Biases Olivier Gossner Jakub Steiner CERGE-EI Prague, September 2016 ISBN 978-80-7343-378-9 (Univerzita Karlova v Praze, Centrum pro ekonomický výzkum a doktorské studium) ISBN 978-80-7344-394-8 (Národohospodářský ústav AV ČR, v. v. i.) Optimal Illusion of Control and Related Perception Biases∗ Olivier Gossnery CREST, CNRS { Ecole´ Polytechnique, Universit´eParis Saclay and London School of Economics Jakub Steinerz University of Edinburgh and Cerge-Ei September 2016 Abstract We study perception biases arising under second-best perception strategies. An agent correctly observes a parameter that is payoff-relevant in many decision problems that she encounters in her environment but is unable to retain all the information un- til her decision. A designer of the decision process chooses a perception strategy that determines the distribution of the perception errors. If some information loss is un- avoidable due to cognition constraints, then (under additional conditions) the optimal perception strategy exhibits the illusion of control, overconfidence, and optimism. ∗We thank Andrew Clausen, Bard Harstad, Yuval Heller, Ed Hopkins, Drazen Prelec, J´ozsefS´akovics, Colin Stewart, Andy Zapechelnyuk, and the audiences at YEM 2016, BRIC 2016, GAMES 2016 and the Limited Cognition workshop in Barcelona for comments. Ludmila Matyskov´ahas provided excellent research assistance and Judith Levi has carefully edited the text.