______
Review of successful IS methods and systems for the steel industry
March 2018
Gorazd Krese, Gregor Podbregar, Boštjan Strmčnik, Vera Dodig, Boris Lagler KORONA INZENIRING DD (Korona d.d.)
EPOS - Enhanced energy and resource Efficiency and Performance in process industry Operations via onsite and cross-sectorial Symbiosis – is a project which received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 679386. This work was also supported by the Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI) under contract number 15.0217
Table of Contents LIST OF TABLES ...... 4 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS AND NOMENCLATURE ...... 5 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... 6 2. INTRODUCTION...... 7 Description of actions carried out ...... 7 3. IS CASE STUDIES FROM THE STEEL INDUSTRY ...... 8 Pohang, South Korea ...... 8 3.1.1. General information...... 8 3.1.2. Current IS status ...... 8 3.1.1. Future plans ...... 9 Wu’an, China ...... 10 3.2.1. General information...... 10 3.2.2. Current IS status ...... 10 3.2.3. Future plans ...... 10 Taranto, Italy...... 11 3.3.1. General information...... 11 3.3.2. Current IS status ...... 11 3.3.1. Future plans ...... 12 Jinan, China ...... 13 3.4.1. General information...... 13 3.4.2. Current IS status ...... 13 3.4.3. Future plans ...... 14 Jiuquan, China ...... 15 3.5.1. General information...... 15 3.5.2. Current IS status ...... 15 3.5.3. Future plans ...... 16 Lin-Hai, Taiwan ...... 17 3.6.1. General information...... 17 3.6.2. Current IS status ...... 17 3.6.3. Future plans ...... 18 Ulsan, South Korea ...... 19 3.7.1. General information...... 19 3.7.2. Current IS status ...... 19 3.7.1. Future plans ...... 20 Tangshan, China ...... 21 3.8.1. General information...... 21 3.8.2. Current IS status ...... 21 3.8.3. Future plans ...... 21 Liuzhou, China...... 22 3.9.1. General information...... 22 3.9.2. Current IS status ...... 22 3.9.3. Future plans ...... 23 IJmuiden, The Netherlands ...... 24 3.10.1. General information...... 24 3.10.2. Current IS status ...... 24 3.10.3. Future plans ...... 25 Kawasaki, Japan ...... 26
EPOS - 1
3.11.1. General information...... 26 3.11.2. Current IS status ...... 26 3.11.3. Future plans ...... 27 Avesta, Sweden ...... 28 3.12.1. General information...... 28 3.12.2. Current IS status ...... 28 3.12.3. Future plans ...... 29 Texas, USA ...... 30 3.13.1. General information...... 30 3.13.2. Current IS status ...... 30 3.13.3. Future plans ...... 30 Guiyang, China ...... 31 3.14.1. General information...... 31 3.14.2. Current IS status ...... 31 3.14.3. Future plans ...... 31 Styria, Austria ...... 32 3.15.1. General information...... 32 3.15.2. Current IS status ...... 32 3.15.3. Future plans ...... 33 Kwinana, Australia ...... 34 3.16.1. General information...... 34 3.16.2. Current IS status ...... 34 3.16.3. Future plans ...... 35 4. CONCLUSION ...... 36 5. REFERENCES ...... 38
EPOS - 2
List of figures
Figure 1 Current IS status in Puhang [1] ...... 8 Figure 2 Current IS status in Taranto [6]...... 11 Figure 3 Potential IS activities in Taranto [6] ...... 12 Figure 4 Current IS status in Jinan [8] ...... 13 Figure 5 Current IS status in Jiayuguan city [9] ...... 15 Figure 6 Current and potential symbiotic exchanges in Lin-Hai [10] ...... 17 Figure 7 Suggested symbiotic exchanges in Lin-Hai [12] ...... 18 Figure 8 Current IS status in Ulsan [13] ...... 19 Figure 9 Current and potential symbiotic exchanges in Tangshan [14] ...... 21 Figure 10 Current IS status in Liuzhou [8] ...... 22 Figure 11 Current and suggested symbiotic exchanges in Liuzhou [17] ...... 23 Figure 12 Current IS status in IJmuiden [19] ...... 24 Figure 13 Current IS status in Kawasaki [22] ...... 27 Figure 14 Current and suggested symbiotic exchanges in Kawasaki [8] ...... 27 Figure 15 Current IS status in Avesta [23] ...... 28 Figure 16 Current and potential symbiotic exchanges in North Texas [25] ...... 30 Figure 17 Current and suggested symbiotic exchanges in Guiyang [26] ...... 32 Figure 18 Current IS status in Styria [27] ...... 33 Figure 19 Current by-product IS in Kwinana [30] ...... 34 Figure 20 Current utility IS in Kwinana [30] ...... 35
EPOS - 3
List of tables Table 1 Summary of IS in steel industry Pohang, South Korea [1]–[4] ...... 9 Table 2 Summary of IS in steel industry of Wu’an, China [5] ...... 10 Table 3 Summary of IS in steel industry of Taranto, Italy [6]...... 12 Table 4 Summary of IS in steel industry of Jinan, China [8] ...... 14 Table 5 Summary of IS in steel industry of Jiayuguan city, China [9] ...... 16 Table 6 Summary of IS in steel industry of Lin-Hai, Taiwan [11] ...... 18 Table 7 Summary of IS in steel industry of Ulsan, South Korea [13] ...... 20 Table 8 Summary of IS in steel industry of Tangshan, China [14], [15] ...... 21 Table 9 Summary of IS in steel industry of Liuzhou, China [8]...... 22 Table 10 Summary of IS in steel industry of IJmuiden, the Netherlands [19] ...... 25 Table 11 Summary of IS in steel industry of Kawasaki, Japan [8] ...... 26 Table 12 Summary of IS in steel industry of Avesta, Sweden [23] ...... 28 Table 13 Summary of IS in steel industry of North Texas, USA [24] ...... 30 Table 14 Summary of IS in steel industry of Guiyang, China [26] ...... 31 Table 15 Summary of IS in steel industry of Styria, Austria [27]–[29] ...... 32 Table 16 Summary of IS in steel industry of Kwinana, Australia [30] ...... 35
EPOS - 4
List of abbreviations, symbols and nomenclature BF Blast Furnace
BFG Blast Furnace Gas
BOF Basic Oxygen Furnace
CDQ Coke Dry Quenching
CHP Combined Heat and Power
COG Coke Oven Gas
De-S Desulphurisation
EIP Eco-industrial park
FGD Flue Gas Desulfurization
IOP Iron Oxide Powder
IS Industrial Symbiosis toe tonne of oil equivalent
LD Linz–Donawitz
LNG Liquified Natural Gas
PSA Pressure Swing Adsorption
RHF Rotary Hearth Furnace
TRT Top Pressure Recovery Turbine
EPOS - 5
1. Executive summary
This report serves as a support to the validation process. It provides a review of successful IS case studies in the steel industry with the aim of identifying the best practices done in the steel industry. The reviewed sites are assessed based on their current symbiotic exchanges as well as their plans to extend the current IS activities. Each documented IS activity is characterised by the shared stream and corresponding symbiotic industrial partner and, where available, the magnitude of the exchange and the resulting benefits for the involved steel plant.
Among the 76 documented IS stream exchanges analysed in this review, five straightforward synergetic solutions are identified. Namely, the use of BF and steel slag as a raw material for the cement and construction industry, valorisation of steelwork off-gases for electricity generation, pickling acid regeneration, and the use of waste plastics as an alternative BF reductant.
EPOS - 6
2. Introduction
The EPOS project is dedicated to informing major industries of the benefits of technologies designed to reduce waste and implementing those technologies to increase efficiency, decrease costs, and create more sustainable processes. Achieving IS will be possible upon the completion of the EPOS project. This report is part of WP5 which focuses on the cross-sectorial testing of the EPOS tool and methodologies, challenging and proving their reproduction potential in different process sectors and for diverse IS activities. This document was prepared specifically as a review of successful IS systems and technologies in the steel industry. The presented review is key to the validation of the replicability assessment protocols introduced in the EPOS project.
Description of actions carried out
Review of successful IS methods and systems for the steel industry.
The objective of this report is to identify the best IS enabling practices done in the steel industry. For this purpose, a review of successful IS case studies in the steel industry was performed. For the sake of comparability, primary emphasis was put on reviewing symbiotic activities of integrated steel mills with an annual production capacity above 4 million tons. The reviewed sites are assessed based on their current symbiotic exchanges as well as their plans to extend the current IS activities. Each documented IS activity is characterised by the shared stream and corresponding symbiotic industrial partner and, where available, the magnitude of the exchange and the resulting benefits for the involved steel plant.
EPOS - 7
3. IS case studies from the steel industry
In this section case studies of practically implemented IS activities in the steel sector worldwide are analysed. The reviews include both current as well as future planned IS connections. The sites are presented in descending order according to their production capacity.
Pohang, South Korea
3.1.1.General information The considered steel plant (POSCO) is located in the eco-industrial park (EIP) of Pohang, South Korea, with 520,000 inhabitants. The integrated steel mill has an annual crude steel production of 16.5 million tons.
3.1.2.Current IS status The IS activities in Pohang EIP are centred around the POSCO steel plant (Figure 1). Waste heat and steam are fed to the local district heating network. BF slag is supplied to an adjacent cement plant as a clinker substitute. The non-ferrous fraction of the recycled steel slag is used in cement (fine particles) and construction (coarse particles). Mill scale is sent to a waste processing facility for metal recovery. Furthermore, POSCO’s wastewater facility is shared with neighbouring industries. The organic part of the resulting wastewater sludge is reused as fertiliser, while the inorganic fraction is supplied to the cement plant as a raw material substitute. A summary of the current IS status in Pohang is presented Table 1.
Figure 1 Current IS status in Puhang [1]
EPOS - 8
, Site location Site annual production Pohang, South Korea 16.5 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits BF slag valorisation BF slag Cement (R) - - Steel slag valorisation Steel slag Cement/Construction (R) - - Waste heat for district Waste heat Community (R) - - heating Metal recovery from Mill scale Waste processing (R/D) - - residue Wastewater treatment Wastewater Multiple (R/D) - - facility sharing Wastewater sludge reuse Wastewater sludge Cement/Fertiliser (R) - - Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 1 Summary of IS for the steel industry in Pohang, South Korea [1]–[4]
3.1.1.Future plans POSCO is developing various IS enabling technologies [4]:
- Ammonia based technologies to absorb and separate CO2 from BFG. - Optimal separation processes and adsorbent for the separation of CO and CO2, based on PSA techniques. - Technologies for slag waste heat recovery. - Power generation system based on waste heat recovery from steel mill. - Technologies to replace coal with hydrogen.
EPOS - 9
Wu’an, China
3.2.1.General information Wu’an Iron and Steel Group (WISG) is located in Wu’an city, northern China, with 830,000 inhabitants. The steelmaker has a yearly crude steel capacity of 15 million tons (BF/BOF route).
3.2.2.Current IS status Most WISG activities are centred on implementing cleaner production technologies rather than on IS. For example, WISG uses ore-pre-treatment technologies for large scale treatment of >30 % iron-containing iron ores, with a resource utilisation rate approaching 85%. The use of BOF (converter) flue gas and of dry-quenching and dry-dedusting technologies in the BF have been applied, thus improving water use and reducing water consumption overall. Additionally, slag- powdering technologies have been introduced, which enable the use of BF and BOF (steel) slag as a clinker substitute in cement production. About one third of the produced BOF slag is also treated with magnetic separation to recover iron. Furthermore, 100% of emitted BF gas is recycled and reused in power generation or as fuel, while only 30% of COG and BOF gas are being valorised [5]. The IS activities are summarised in Table 2.
, Site location Site annual production Wu’an, China 15 million tons. IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits BF slag valorisation BF slag Cement (R) - - BOF slag valorisation Steel slag Cement (R) - - BF gas as alternative fuel BF gas Power plant (R) - - BOF gas as alternative fuel BOF gas Power plant (R) - - COG as alternative fuel BF gas Power plant (R) - - Metal recovery from residue Steel slag Waste processing (R/D) - - Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 2 Summary of IS for the steel industry of Wu’an, China [5]
3.2.3.Future plans The WISG still has much room for development in terms of the use of COG, BOF gas, and steel slag. Additionally, the abundant low-temperature waste heat could be used to feed a local district heating network.
EPOS - 10
Taranto, Italy
3.3.1.General information The ILVA steelworks, which is the largest integrated steel mill in Europe with a yearly production capacity of 11.5 million tons, resides in Taranto, southern Italy, with around 200,000 inhabitants.
3.3.2.Current IS status The main synergies in Taranto occur between the steelworks, the refinery and their respective power stations (Figure 2). The steelwork supplies exhaust gas (BFG, COG) to the adjacent power plant and receives electricity (65% of needs) and steam in return. Additionally, BF slag and mill scale are sold as substitute raw material to the cement factory (CEMENTIR). The steel plant purchases steel scrap from scrap metal recovery firms as a substitute for virgin iron ore. A summary of the current IS status in Taranto is presented in Table 3.
Figure 2 Current IS status in Taranto [6]
EPOS - 11
, Site location Site annual production Taranto, Italy 11.5 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits BF slag valorisation BF slag Cement (R) 0,23 Mt/yr - Mill scale valorisation Mill scale Cement (R) 5.1 kt/yr - Electricity production from BFG, COG Power plant (R/D) 732 ktoe 65 % of required electricity (2477 plant exhaust gases GWh), steam Recycling of steel scrap Steel scrap Community (D) 1 Mt/yr - Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 3 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Taranto, Italy [6]
3.3.1.Future plans Planed future expansion of IS activities (Figure 3) focus primarily on BF slag valorisation, since currently only 15% of the total BF slag produced by the steel mill is being reused for cement production. There are suggestions to use the BF slag for rock wool, glass, brick or new refractory material production, as well as wastewater treatment. BF and BOF slag could also be valorised for construction. Additionally, mill scale could potentially be used in the province to produce sintered pellets and briquettes for other steelworks or EAF. An untapped opportunity is also to valorise the waste heat generated by the steel plant for district heating and cooling.
Figure 3 Potential IS activities in Taranto [6]
EPOS - 12
Jinan, China
3.4.1.General information Jinan iron/steel group corporation (JIS) is located in the eastern urban area of Jinan, China (Shandong), which has 6.04 million inhabitants [7]. JIS, which applies an integrated steel production route, has a total annual production of 10 million tons.
3.4.2.Current IS status There are nine symbiotic links involving the steel plant, surrounding companies and the urban community (Figure 4). BF slag is reused to produce powder; steel slag and gypsum are utilised by the cement and construction industry; COG is valorised for hydrogen production; and steam is supplied to the nearby ammonia plant. In return the steel plant receives red mud and chromium slag from heavy chemical industries as well as steel scrap and wastewater from the community. An overview of the stream exchanges involving the steel plant is provided in Table 4.
Figure 4 Current IS status in Jinan [8]
EPOS - 13
, Site location Site annual production Jinan, China 10 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits Slag powder production BF slag Cement (R) 1.8 Mt/yr 12.15 mio €/yr Steel slag recycling Steel slag Cement/Construction 1.2 Mt/yr 9.59 mio €/yr (R) Red mud reuse to refine red mull Aluminium (D) 1.6 Mt/yr 32.10 mio €/yr ferrous element Alternative fuels for steam Chemical (R) 60 kt/yr 1.48 mio €/yr ammonia production Alternative hydrogen COG Chemical (R) 60 Mm3/yr 0.12 mio €/yr production Desulphurisation by- Gypsum Cement (R) 10 kt/yr 9.45 mio €/yr product valorisation Recycling of chromium Chromium slag Chromium chemical 120 kt/yr 0.45 mio €/yr slag as sinter ore (D) Industrial water reuse Urban wastewater Community (D) 2 Mt/yr 12.15 mio €/yr Waste steel recycling steel scrap Community (D) 1.82 Mt/yr 9.59 mio €/yr Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 4 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Jinan, China [8]
3.4.3.Future plans There are three symbiotic stream exchanges being planned or constructed. Namely, valorisation of collected waste plastics as an alternative BF reductant, feeding steam and hot water to the local district heating network, and the use of steel slag for wastewater treatment [8][7].
EPOS - 14
Jiuquan, China
3.5.1.General information Jiuquan Iron & Steel Co., Ltd. (JISCO) resides in Jiayuguan city, western China, with a population of 232,000. The still mill produces 10 million tons of crude steel annually, the majority using the BF/BOF route.
3.5.2.Current IS status There are 65 IS exchanges identified at JISCO, 48 internal to JISCO (Figure 5). The activities, not involving the exchanges between the different stages of steelmaking, include: the supply of fly ash, flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) gypsum, BF and BOF slag to the cement plant as a substitute for raw material, supply of BOF and COG and gas as alternative fuel for the nearby thermal power station, supply of BOF scrap, BOF iron oxide powder (IOP) and pickling sludge to a waste processing facility for production of iron powder and iron oxide red. Furthermore, the steel plant purchases steel scrap from iron scrap collectors as a substitute for virgin iron ore. A summary of the current IS status in Jiuquan is presented in Table 5.
Figure 5 Current IS status in Jiayuguan city [9]
EPOS - 15
, Site location Site annual production Jiayuguan city, China 10 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits Fly ash valorisation Fly ash Cement (R) - - FGD gypsum valorisation FGD gypsum Cement (R) - - BF slag valorisation BF slag Cement (R) - - BOF slag valorisation BOF slag Cement (R) - - BOF as alternative fuel BOF Power plant (R) - - COG as alternative fuel COG Power plant (R) - - BOF scrap valorisation BOF scrap Waste processing (R) - - IOP valorisation IOP Waste processing (R) - - Pickling sludge valorisation Pickling sludge Waste processing (R) - - Waste steel recycling steel scrap Community (D) - - Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 5 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Jiayuguan city, China [9]
3.5.3.Future plans There are no future plans to expand the current IS activities indicated in the literature.
EPOS - 16
Lin-Hai, Taiwan
3.6.1.General information The studied steel plant of China Steel Corporation (CSC) is located in the Lin-Hai Industrial Park, within Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, with around 2.8 million inhabitations. The plant has an annual crude steel production of 10 million tons (BF/BOF route).
3.6.2.Current IS status There are a total of 15 IS exchanges established in the Lin-Hai Industrial Park, of which seven are linked to the residing steel plant (Figure 6). BF and BOF slag are utilised in the cement and construction industry, while desulphurisation (De-S) slag is also sold as fertiliser. The sludge generated from the steel mill is mixed with coal ash from a coal power plant in the industrial park and sold to cement industries. Coal tar sludge is also used as a raw material to produce chemicals in the chemical subsidiary of CSC, China Steel Chemical Corporation (CSCC). Similar to Tata Steel IJmuiden, CSC also sends contaminated pickling acid to a regeneration facility and receives back regenerated HCl acid and Fe2O3 powder. Moreover, CSC built a rotary hearth furnace (RHF) to concentrate zinc from the iron ore. The resulting coarse zinc oxide is sold to a zinc refinery in Japan. An overview of the IS connections is given in Table 6.
Figure 6 Current and potential symbiotic exchanges in Lin-Hai [10]
EPOS - 17
, Site location Site annual production Lin-Hai, Taiwan 10 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits BF slag reuse BF slag Cement/construction 3 Mt/yr - (R) BOF slag reuse BOF slag Cement/construction 1.2 Mt/yr - (R) Desulphurisation slag De-S slag Construction/fertilizer 0.3 Mt/yr - reuse (R) Mixing of sludge and coal Sludge, coal ash Cement (R) - - ash Coal tar valorisation Coal tar Chemical (R) - - HCl regeneration Contaminated pickling Waste processing - - acid (R/D) Zinc recycling Zinc oxide Zinc refinery (R) - - Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 6 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Lin-Hai, Taiwan [11]
3.6.3.Future plans CSC has proposed building a green supply chain of alkaline solid wastes such as BOF slag and electric arc furnace (EAF) dust (Figure 7). The alkaline solid wastes could be utilised for carbonation processes to react with the CO2 emitted from the stove or stack to form carbonate precipitation. Concurrently, the physicochemical properties of the carbonated solid waste are improved as the free CaO content can be eliminated, which is beneficial to the application as construction materials in civil engineering projects. In addition, if alkaline wastewater was introduced, the wastewater can be neutralised to meet the discharge permission standards [12].
Figure 7 Suggested symbiotic exchanges in Lin-Hai [12]
EPOS - 18
Ulsan, South Korea
3.7.1.General information The studied steel plant of Hyundai Hysco in located in the EIP of Ulsan, South Korea, which has more than 1.1 million residents. The integrated steel mill produces 10 million tons of crude steel yearly.
3.7.2.Current IS status IS activities in Ulsan EIP are dominated by the petrochemical industry (Figure 8). Only two stream exchanges directly involve the steel industry. The incineration facility at Hyundai heavy industry supplies steam to Hyundai Hysco, where LNG was previously used to generate steam. POSCO’s Pohang plant supplies lime (CaO) and magnesia (MgO) to the present non-ferrous metal alloy industry (LS-Nikko) as a neutralising agent (replacement for Ca(OH)2) for acidic wastewater discharged from the smelting process. An overview of the symbiotic exchanges concerning the steel industry is presented in Table 7.
Figure 8 Current IS status in Ulsan [13]
EPOS - 19
, Site location Site annual production Ulsan, South Korea 10 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits Supply of neutralising agent CaO, MgO POSCO (D)→ Non-ferrous 30 kt/yr - metal (R) Alternative steam source Steam Incineration facility (D) → 20 t/h - Hyundai (R) Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 7 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Ulsan, South Korea [13]
3.7.1.Future plans There are no future plans to extend the current IS activities indicated in the literature.
EPOS - 20
Tangshan, China
3.8.1.General information The Jingtang integrated steel plant resides in the Caofeidian district of Tangshan, China, with 7.5 million inhabitants. It has a designed yearly production of 8.7-9.2 million tons of crude steel.
3.8.2.Current IS status Jingtang Steel plant was constructed in 2009 as a circular economy pilot project, based on the relocation of Shougang Steel from Beijing. Hence, it was planned with IS activities in mind (Figure 9). The plant currently supplies 4 million tons of BF and steel (converter) slag yearly to a cement plant. Additionally, the plant supplies half (9 Mt/yr) of the fresh water produced from its desalination facility. At the same time, about 1 million tons of steel scrap has been taken from the community and utilised as substitute for virgin iron ore. An overview of the current synergetic exchanges is given in Table 8.
Figure 9 Current and potential symbiotic exchanges in Tangshan [14]
, Site location Site annual production Tangshan, China 8.7-9.2 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits Slag as clinker substitute BF, steel slag Cement (R) 4 Mt/yr - Recycling of steel scrap Steel scrap Community (D) 1.2 Mt/yr - Seawater desalination facility Fresh water Community (R) 9 Mt/yr - sharing Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 8 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Tangshan, China [14], [15]
3.8.3.Future plans In the future, 140 thousand tons of waste plastic will be taken from the community and utilised as a substitute reductant, and 660 million m3 of hydrogen would be expected to supply a petrochemical plant and the community per year [14].
EPOS - 21
Liuzhou, China
3.9.1.General information The considered steel plant, Liuzhou iron/steel integrated corporation (LIS), is located in the circular economy park of Liuzhou city, southern China (Guangxi province), with a population of 3.67 million [16]. The steel industry accounts for almost 14% of the industrial added value and more than half of the industrial energy use [17].
The studied steelwork is an integrated steelmaking factory (BF/BOF route) with an annual crude steel production of 8.18 million tons [8].
3.9.2.Current IS status There were three symbiotic activities involving the steel plant (Figure 10). Namely, BF slag is reused to produce powder (1.2 million t/year), steel slag is utilised by the cement and construction industry (1.2 million t/year), and by-products from the desulphurisation process are utilised to produce fertiliser (8100 t/year). The steel plant receives scrap metal from the community as a substitute for virgin iron ore. The plant also produces electricity for self- consumption using a top pressure recovery turbine (TRT) with a capacity of 2.5 MW, that they would like to expand to 5 MW in the near future [8]. A summary of the current IS status in Liuzhou is presented in Table 9.
Figure 10 Current IS status in Liuzhou [8]
Site location Site annual production Liuzhou, China 8.18 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits Slag powder production BF slag Cement (R) 1.2 Mt/yr 40.82 mio €/yr Slag as clinker substitute Steel slag Cement (R) 1.2 Mt/yr 2.74 mio €/yr Fertiliser production from Ammonium sulphate Chemical (R) 8100 t/yr 1.15 mio €/yr desulphurisation by-product from sintering flue gas Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 9 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Liuzhou, China [8]
EPOS - 22
3.9.3.Future plans Industries co-located with the steel plant include chemicals, cement, machinery manufacturing and a power generation plant, thus there is huge potential for future symbiosis constitution and evolution (Figure 11). There are plans to supply steam and coke oven gas (COG) to the nearby ammonia plant. Suggestions have also been made to use waste plastics as an alternative reductant and scrap tires as an alternative fuel (the automotive industry is the largest industry in Liuzhou) [7], [18].
Figure 11 Current and suggested symbiotic exchanges in Liuzhou [17]
EPOS - 23
IJmuiden, The Netherlands
3.10.1. General information The selected steelmaker, Tata Steel, resides at the port city of IJmuiden, the Netherlands, with a total population of around 30,000. Tata Steel is the largest company in the region and annually produces 7.5 million tons of steel using the BF/BOF route [19].
3.10.2. Current IS status Tata Steel is the driving factor of IS in IJmuiden (Figure 12). It supplies BF slag to the cement plant (ENCI) as well as to a waste processing facility (Harsco) for metal recovery. It also sends the contaminated pickling acid of a cold strip mill to a hydrochloric regeneration plant (Aroc) and receives regenerated hydrochloric (HCl) acid and iron oxide powder (Fe2O3) in return. In a similar manner, excess steam is provided to a nearby gas plant (Linde), which supplies oxygen, nitrogen and argon back to the steel plant. Furthermore, the combined cycle power plant (CCPP NOUN) located at the Tata Steel site is completely powered by the steelwork off- gases arising gases of blast furnace and coke oven. Additionally, auxiliary steam is supplied by the steel plant to start up the CCPP. The symbiotic activities concerning Tata Steel are summarised in Table 10.
Figure 12 Current IS status in IJmuiden [19]
EPOS - 24
, Site location Site annual production IJmuiden, The Netherlands 7.5 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits BF slag reuse BF slag Cement (R) 1.4 Mt/yr - BF slag recovery BF slag Waste processing 1.2 Mt/yr - (R/D) Hydrochloric (HCl) acid Contaminated pickling Waste processing 163.5 kt/yr - regeneration acid, rinse water (R/D) Electricity production from BFG, COG, steam CC power plant (R) 188 GWh/ month - plant gases and steam Alternative energy source Steam Chemical (R) 20 kt/yr - for gas production Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 10 Summary of IS in the steel industry of IJmuiden, the Netherlands [19]
3.10.3. Future plans The potential IS links include the sharing of excess steam to the cement plant and the local paper mill, as well as feeding hot water to the local district heating network. Additionally, the wastewater treatment facility of Tata Steel could be shared with neighbouring industries (cement, paper).
EPOS - 25
Kawasaki, Japan
3.11.1. General information The studied site is located in the costal industrial area of Kawasaki City (Kawasaki Eco-Town), which is the ninth most-populous city in Japan with 1.42 million inhabitants. The present steelmaker, JFE (Japan Future Enterprise) Steelworks plays an important role in the local economy with an annual production of 4 million tons [20]. JFE uses the Blast Furnace/Basic Oxygen Furnace (BF/BOF) route for steel production [21].
3.11.2. Current IS status 14 symbiotic exchanges, connecting steel, cement, chemical and paper plants as well as waste processing and recycling facilities (Figure 13), have been documented in Kawasaki Eco- Town. Seven key material exchanges divert annually around 565 000 tons of waste from incineration or landfill. JFE steelworks and DC cement have been the main driving forces of industrial symbiosis. The use of blast furnace (BF) slag as a clinker substitute for cement production represents 56% of the material exchanges [22] in the IS cluster. The steel plant receives scrap metal from the home appliance recycling facility as a substitute for virgin iron ore. Furthermore, JFE steelwork also uses waste plastics collected from the home appliance recycling facility and urban area as an alternative BF reductant. Waste plastics along with organic waste are likewise valorised as an alternative cement kiln fuel. JFE steelworks additionally provides 50 GWh of electricity annually, which is generated from the BF gas for the paper mill [8]. The symbiotic activities concerning the steel plant are summarised in Table 11.
Site location Site annual production Kawasaki, Japan 4 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts (R/D*) Magnitude Benefits BF slag as clinker substitute BF slag Cement (R) 315 kt/yr 0.04 mio €/yr (cement 6.74 mio €/yr) Alternative BF reductants Waste Community (D) 66 kt/yr 35.56 mio €/yr plastics Electricity generation from BF BF gas Paper (R) 50 GWh/yr 3.58 mio €/yr gas Recycling of steel scrap Steel Community (D) 100 kt/yr - scrap Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 11 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Kawasaki, Japan [8]
EPOS - 26
Figure 13 Current IS status in Kawasaki [22]
3.11.3. Future plans There have been proposals to valorise the waste heat from the steel plant to feed the local district heating network (Figure 14).
Figure 14 Current and suggested symbiotic exchanges in Kawasaki [8]
EPOS - 27
Avesta, Sweden
3.12.1. General information The considered steelmaker, Outokumpu AB, resides in Avesta, Sweden, with a population of 23,000. The steel plant produces 2.6 million tons of stainless steel annually per EAF route from recycled steel.
3.12.2. Current IS status The IS activities are centred around the district hearting network of Avesta (Figure 15). The steel plant sells excess heat to the district heating network at certain times and the local heating distributor sells district heating to the steel plant at other times. The specially designed contract makes it possible for Outokumpu AB to, in parallel, work at making processes more efficient by being more energy efficient and to make use of the excess heat internally. This synergy has remained unchanged since its beginning in 1996. The steel plant also supplies excess heat to the nearby gas factory (AGA), which distributes oxygen, nitrogen and argon to the steel plant. Additionally, the steel plant sends its residue (sludge, dust) to the metal recovery facility (HARSCO). An overview of the stream exchanges involving the steel plant is provided in Table 12.
, Site location Site annual production Avesta, Sweden 2.6 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits Waste heat for district heating Waste heat Community (R/D) 25.85 GWh/yr - Alternative energy source for Steam Chemical (R/D) - - gas production Metal recovery from residue Sludge, dust Waste processing (R/D) - - Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 12 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Avesta, Sweden [23]
Figure 15 Current IS status in Avesta [23]
EPOS - 28
3.12.3. Future plans The plant has the potential to deliver additional excess heat to the district heating network if its operator expands their customer base to a larger heat demand (currently no need for more heat). The Outokumpu plant also has a goal to become self-sufficient, i.e. no incoming heat from the district heating network.
EPOS - 29
Texas, USA
3.13.1. General information The considered steel plant is sited in Midlothian (Texas), with around 24,000 inhabitants. The steel mill has a yearly capacity of 1.8 million tons of steel per EAF route [24].
3.13.2. Current IS status Since Midlothian is the cement hub of North Texas, most synergies involve the cement industry (Figure 16). Mill scale from the steel mill is used as source of iron oxide in the adjacent cement plant. The steel plant also developed and installed magnetic separation for its hot EAF slag to produce an iron-rich slag, which is returned to the steel furnace, and a low iron slag, which partially replaces limestone in cement making, while enhancing cement kiln capacity. Furthermore, steel is produced primarily from scrap steel sourced from an automobile shredder facility located next to the steel mill. An innovative flotation separation technology was acquired to separate the automobile scrap residue, in recoverable fractions of non- chlorinated plastics (useable as alternative fuel for cement making), non-ferrous metals (for recycling) and residual waste fraction [24]. An overview of the stream exchanges involving the steel plant is provided in Table 13.
Figure 16 Current and potential symbiotic exchanges in North Texas [25]
, Site location Site annual production Midlothian (TX), USA 1.8 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits Mill scale valorisation Mill scale Cement (R) - - Steel slag valorisation Steel slag Cement (R) 130 kt/yr Cemet: 10% production increase, 11.8 kt/yr coal saved Waste steel recycling Steel scrap Community (D) - - Refuse-derived fuel Waste plastics Cement (R) 120 kt/yr 18 kt/yr recovered metals, Cement: 66 kt/yr coal saved Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 13 Summary of IS in the steel industry of North Texas, USA [24]
3.13.3. Future plans There are no future plans to extend the current IS activities mentioned in the literature.
EPOS - 30
Guiyang, China
3.14.1. General information The studied steel plant resides in Guiyang city, southwest China, with a total population of 4.32 million. The steel mill annually produces about 0.6 million tons of steel and ferroalloy (total capacity 1.2 Mt/yr).
3.14.2. Current IS status After Guiyang city become the circular economy pilot, a series of cleaner production and circular economy initiatives have been implemented in the present large coal-burning power generation plants, large-scale iron and steel companies, aluminium processing companies, coal-based chemical companies and phosphorus chemical companies. The Guiyang iron/steel company implemented coke dry quenching (CDQ) to improve the coke quality, reduce water consumption and recover sensible heat from red hot coke in the form of steam, as well as top pressure recovery turbine (TRT) to generate electricity from the thermal and pressure energy of BF gas [26]. The symbiotic activities concerning the steel plant are summarised in Table 14.
, Site location Site annual production Guiyang, China 1.2 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits CDQ Red hot coke - - - TRT BF gas - - - Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 14 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Guiyang, China [26]
3.14.3. Future plans There are plans (Figure 17) to reuse the produced steel slag in the cement industry for clinker production, use waste plastics as an alternative BF reductant, and valorise the generated waste heat for cogeneration (CHP).
EPOS - 31
Figure 17 Current and suggested symbiotic exchanges in Guiyang [26]
Styria, Austria
3.15.1. General information The studied steelmaker is located in Leoben in the Austrian province of Styria, which has a total population of 1.2 million. The integrated steel plant (BF/BOF route) has an annual steel production of about 1 million tons.
3.15.2. Current IS status Among the identified IS links (Figure 18), four material streams involve the steel plant. Namely, BF sand and slag are sold to the cement and construction industry, while Linz–Donawitz (LD) converter (BOF) dust is sold to a paint factory. The steelmaker purchases steel scrap from iron scrap dealers as a substitute for virgin iron ore. The IS activities are summarised in Table 15.
, Site location Site annual production Styria, Austria 1 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits BF sand valorisation BF sand Cement/construction (R) - - BF slag valorisation BF slag Construction (R) - - BOF dust valorisation BOF dust Paint industry (R) - - Waste steel recycling steel scrap Community (D) - - Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 15 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Styria, Austria [27]–[29]
EPOS - 32
Figure 18 Current IS status in Styria [27]
3.15.3. Future plans There are no future plans to extend the current IS activities mentioned in the literature.
EPOS - 33
Kwinana, Australia
3.16.1. General information The considered site is located in Kwinana, western Australia, with a total population of 39,000. The residing pig iron plant has an annual production capacity of 0.8 million tons.
3.16.2. Current IS status The Kwinana industrial area is dominated by heavy process industries (Figure 19 and Figure 20), including an alumina refinery, a nickel refinery, a titanium dioxide pigment plant, lime and cement kilns, an oil refinery, and the mentioned pig iron plant (HIsmelt). The latter uses water from the local wastewater treatment facility and receives lime kiln dust from a cement and lime plant. The pig iron plant supplies excess steam to a nearby gas plant. The current IS activities are summarised in Table 16.
Figure 19 Current by-product IS in Kwinana [30]
EPOS - 34
Figure 20 Current utility IS in Kwinana [30]
, Site location Site annual production Kwinana, Australia 0.8 million tons IS activity Stream Symbionts Magnitude Benefits Wastewater reuse Wastewater Wastewater treatment - - facility (D) Lime kiln dust valorisation Lime kiln dust Cement (D) - - Alternative energy source Steam Chemical (R) - - for gas production Note: R – receiver, D – donor Table 16 Summary of IS in the steel industry of Kwinana, Australia [30]
3.16.3. Future plans There has been interest and research to utilise pig iron slag (230 kt/yr) in soil treatment, acid water neutralisation, as cement substitute, in alumina production, and construction materials (e.g. filler, aggregate) [31].
EPOS - 35
4. Conclusion
Within this report, a review of successful IS methods and systems for the steel industry was conducted. In total, 16 steelmaker sites involved in IS activities, from three different continents, were analysed. The majority, i.e. more than 60%, of the considered steel mills are located in Asia, of which six reside in China as the world leader in steel production. Among the rest of the studied steel plants four operate in the EU, while two produce in Australia and USA. The reviewed steel mills range from 0.8 to 16.5 million tons of yearly steel production. Although emphasis was put on steel mills with a production capacity above 4 million tons, smaller plants were also reviewed, since they require higher efforts to stay competitive due to economy of scale.
While the vast majority of IS activities in the considered Asian sites were induced though government initiatives, like the Chinese Five-year Development Plan, the Japanese Eco-Town program or the South Korean EIP initiative, the documented symbiotic connections in the rest of the world (EU, USA, AUS) were formed spontaneously by the motivation of cost reduction. The number of IS exchanges per site varies between 11 in Jiayuguan (CHN), and 2 in Ulsan (KOR) and Guiyang (CHN), with an average value of around 5. Hence, there is no obvious correlation between the number of exchanges and the IS driving factor.
Among the 76 documented IS activities across 16 sites, 27 involve the cement and construction material industry as symbiotic partner. The most frequently occurring synergetic exchange is the use of BF slag as clinker substitute for cement production, as it is present in 10 out of the 16 analysed sites. Except from two sites (Jinan and Liuzhou (CHN)), which produce slag powder, no special treatment of BF slag on the steelmaker’s side is mentioned. BF slag is followed by steel slag, which is being shared in 22% of the IS cases involving the cement and building material industry. There is also one document case of desulphurisation slag valorisation (Lin-Hai (TWN)). Among the flue gas desulphurisation by-products, gypsum is also being reused as raw material in the cement sector on two sites (Jiayuguan, Jinan (CHN)). Other stream exchanges between the steel and cement industry also include fly ash, mill scale and sludge, whereby the latter must be mixed with coal ash in order to be used in the cement manufacturing process (Lin-Hai (TWN)).
The second most common symbiont of the considered steel mills is the local community. In this case, steel scrap recycling is the most conventional IS activity, i.e. 58% of documented exchanges involving the community. In Kawasaki (JPN) mixed waste plastics collected from the community are used as an alternative BF reductant. Water is also an important relatively easily shareable resource. In Jinan (CHN) urban wastewater is reused as industrial water, while the steel plant in Tangshan (CHN) supplies half of the fresh water produced from its desalination facility to the community, which is also the largest documented stream exchange in this review with 9 Mt/yr. Surprisingly, there are only two documented cases of waste heat recovery for district heating, namely, Ulsan (KOR) and Avesta (SWE). The latter case is especially interesting, since the residing EAF plant is simultaneously a producer and consumer (i.e. prosumer) of district heat.
An important industrial sector has developed around the treatment and processing of steelmaking by-products, since 10 of the reviewed synergetic connections (i.e. 13%) are with waste processing facilities. The activities most frequently circle around recovering metals from the following by-products: BF slag, steel slag, mill scale, BOF scrap, IOP, sludge and dust. On two sites (IJmuiden (NLD), Lin-Hai (TWN)) contaminated pickling acid is sent to a regeneration plant to obtain regenerated hydrochloric acid and iron oxide powder in return.
EPOS - 36
The main off-gases of integrated still mills, i.e. COG, BFG, BOFG, are usually used as alternative fuel for electricity generation in power plants, with only one mentioned case of COG valorisation for hydrogen production in Jinan (CHN). Steam is most commonly supplied to the chemical industry as an alternative energy source for gas production. Additional documented IS activities within the chemical industry are the supply of coal tar as a raw material to produce chemicals (Lin-Hai (TWN)) and fertiliser production from ammonium sulphate obtained from desulfurizing desulphurising sintering flue gas (Liuzhou (CHN)).
More particular symbiotic exchanges include the recycling of chromium slag as sinter ore and the extraction of ferrous in red mud from the aluminium industry (Jinan (CHN)), the valorisation of BOF dust in the paint industry (Styria (AT)), the supply of lime and magnesia as a neutralising agent for acidic wastewater (Ulsan (KOR)), and zinc recycling from zinc oxide extracted from iron ore treatment in the rotary hearth furnace (Lin-Hai (TW)).
Less than half of the documented synergetic connection (i.e. 36) have quantified magnitudes. The recorded material exchanges range between 5.1 kt/yr, in case of mill scale supply to a cement plant in Taranto (ITA), and 9 Mt/yr at Tangshan (CHN), where fresh water produced from a steel mill’s desalination facility is shared with the community. The largest reported energy benefit is the supply of 2477 GWh/yr of electricity to the Taranto steel mill based on the valorisation of 732 ktoe of BFG and COG. The most substantial mentioned economic advantage resulting from IS activities is the 40.82 mio € yearly benefit from selling slag powder produced from 1.2 Mt of BF slag to the cement and construction industry in Liuzhou (CHN).
To conclude, in order to preserve its competitiveness and retain the current number of workplaces in the European steel industry as well as to meet stricter emission standards (e.g. Paris Agreement) the implementation of industrial symbiosis activities is an unavoidable measure. Currently the Chinese steel manufacturing industry is the frontrunner in adopting the industrial ecology paradigm as a result of various government initiatives and circular economy practices enforcing regulations. Among the 76 documented IS stream exchanges analysed in this review, five straightforward synergetic solutions are identified. Namely, the use of BF and steel slag as a raw material for the cement and construction industry, valorisation of steelwork off-gases for electricity generation, pickling acid regeneration, and the use of waste plastics as alternative BF reductant. For the diversification of the steelmakers core business, COG represents an especially attractive opportunity, since it can be valorised for the synthesis of methanol or production of hydrogen.
EPOS - 37
5. References
[1] J.-H. Park, I.-G. Jung, J.-G. Seo, and S.-H. Kim, “Current Status of By-products Generation and Industrial Symbiosis Network in Pohang, South Korea,” J. Korea Org. Resour. Recycl. Assoc., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 63–69, Mar. 2015.
[2] POSCO, “POSCO Report 2016: Integrated Report of Economic, Environmental and Social Sustainability,” POSCO, Pohang, 2017.
[3] S. Jung, G. Dodbiba, S. H. Chae, and T. Fujita, “A novel approach for evaluating the performance of eco-industrial park pilot projects,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 39, pp. 50–59, 2013.
[4] J. Kim, Y. Ahn, and T. Roh, “Low-carbon Management of POSCO in Circular Economy: Current Status and Limitations,” in Towards a Circular Economy: Corporate Management and Policy Pathways. ERIA Research Project Report 2014-44, no. September, Jakarta: ERIA, 2016, pp. 185–199.
[5] S. H. Ma, Z. G. Wen, J. N. Chen, and Z. C. Wen, “Mode of circular economy in China’s iron and steel industry: A case study in Wu’an city,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 64, pp. 505–512, 2014.
[6] B. Notarnicola, G. Tassielli, and P. A. Renzulli, “Industrial symbiosis in the Taranto industrial district: Current level, constraints and potential new synergies,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 122, pp. 133–143, 2016.
[7] L. Dong, F. Gu, T. Fujita, Y. Hayashi, and J. Gao, “Uncovering opportunity of low-carbon city promotion with industrial system innovation: Case study on industrial symbiosis projects in China,” Energy Policy, vol. 65, pp. 388–397, 2014.
[8] L. Dong et al., “Environmental and economic gains of industrial symbiosis for Chinese iron/steel industry: Kawasaki’s experience and practice in Liuzhou and Jinan,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 59, pp. 226–238, 2013.
[9] J. Wu, H. Qi, and R. Wang, “Insight into industrial symbiosis and carbon metabolism from the evolution of iron and steel industrial network,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 135, pp. 251–262, 2016.
[10] N. Office of Research and Development, “Research Express@NCKU - Commentary (Volume 17 Issue 10),” Off. Res. Dev. NCKU, Apr. 2011.
[11] K. N. Lin, “Resource Integration at CSC,” in ESCO seminar 2011, 2011, p. 5.
[12] J. Li, S. Y. Pan, H. Kim, J. H. Linn, and P. C. Chiang, “Building green supply chains in eco- industrial parks towards a green economy: Barriers and strategies,” J. Environ. Manage., vol. 162, pp. 158–170, 2015.
[13] S. K. Behera, J. H. Kim, S. Y. Lee, S. Suh, and H. S. Park, “Evolution of ‘designed’ industrial symbiosis networks in the Ulsan Eco-industrial Park: ‘Research and development into business’ as the enabling framework,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 29–30, pp. 103–112, 2012.
[14] C.-X. Zhang, R.-Y. Yin, S. Qin, H.-F. Wang, and F.-Q. Shangguan, “Steel plants in a circular economy society in China,” Kang T’ieh/Iron Steel, vol. 46, no. 7, pp. 1–6, 2011.
[15] F. Zhang and J. Xie, “Green Manufacturing Process of Shougang Jingtang Steel Plant,” Springer, Cham, 2017, pp. 17–29.
[16] H. Li, L. Dong, Y. T. Xie, and M. Fang, “Low-carbon benefit of industrial symbiosis from a scope-3 perspective: A case study in China,” Appl. Ecol. Environ. Res., 2017.
EPOS - 38
[17] L. Dong et al., “Promoting low-carbon city through industrial symbiosis: A case in China by applying HPIMO model,” Energy Policy, vol. 61, pp. 864–873, 2013.
[18] L. Sun et al., “Eco-benefits assessment on urban industrial symbiosis based on material flows analysis and emergy evaluation approach: A case of Liuzhou city, China,” Resour. Conserv. Recycl., vol. 119, pp. 78–88, 2017.
[19] S. S. Deshpande, “Development Patterns and Factors Influencing the Growth of Industrial Symbiosis: Case Study of Tata Steel IJmuiden and the Surrounding Industrial Region to Achieve Reduction in Water Consumption Using Industrial Symbiosis Approach,” Delft University of Technology, 2015.
[20] S. Ohnishi, H. Dong, Y. Geng, M. Fujii, and T. Fujita, “A comprehensive evaluation on industrial & urban symbiosis by combining MFA, carbon footprint and emergy methods— Case of Kawasaki, Japan,” Ecol. Indic., vol. 73, pp. 315–324, 2017.
[21] “Production Process and Products|JFE Steel Corporation.” [Online]. Available: http://www.jfe-steel.co.jp/en/works/west/process.html. [Accessed: 21-Nov-2017].
[22] R. Van Behkel, T. Fujita, S. Hashimoto, and M. Fujii, “Quantitative Assessment of Urban and Industrial Symbiosis in Kawasaki, Japan,” Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 43, no. 5, pp. 1271–1281, 2009.
[23] “Industrial Symbiosis in Sweden - Lidköping.” [Online]. Available: http://www.industriellekologi.se/symbiosis/avesta.html. [Accessed: 24-Nov-2017].
[24] R. Van Berkel, “Regional resource synergies for sustainable development in heavy industrial areas: an overview of opportunities and experiences,” no. 1. Centre of Excellence in Cleaner Production, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, WA, Australia, p. 139, 2006.
[25] A. Mangan and E. Olivetti, “By-Product Synergy Networks: Driving Innovation through Waste Reduction and Carbon Mitigation,” in Sustainable Development in the Process Industries: Cases and Impact, 2010, pp. 81–108.
[26] L. Dong et al., “Towards preventative eco-industrial development: An industrial and urban symbiosis case in one typical industrial city in China,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 114, pp. 387–400, 2016.
[27] E. J. Schwarz and K. W. Steininger, “Implementing nature’s lesson: the industrial recycling network enhancing regional development,” J. Clean. Prod. Clean. Prod., vol. 5, no. 12, pp. 47–56, 1997.
[28] E. J. Schwarz, Unternehmensnetzwerke im Recycling-Bereich. Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universitätsverlag, 1994.
[29] M. R. Chertow, “INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS : Literature and Taxonomy,” Annu. Rev. Energy Environ., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 313–337, Nov. 2000.
[30] D. Beers, A. Bossilkov, G. Corder, and R. Berkel, “Industrial Symbiosis in the Australian Minerals Industry: The Cases of Kwinana and Gladstone,” J. Ind. Ecol., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 55–72, 2008.
[31] D. Van Beers, “Industrial Symbiosis in the Kwinana Industrial Area Status Report,” Project 3B1: Capturing Regional Synergies in the Kwinana Industrial Area. Centre of Excellence in Cleaner Production Curtin University of Technology, Perth, WA, Australia, p. 121, 2007.
EPOS - 39