Prostate Cancer: Basic Mechanisms and Therapeutic Approaches

PROSTATE CANCER Basic Mechanisms and Therapeutic Approaches This page intentionally left blank Basic Mechanisms and Therapeutic Approaches Editor Chawnshang Vhang George H. Whipple Professor University of Rochester, USA WeWorld Scientific NEW JERSEY · LONDON · SINGAPORE · BEIJING · SAHANGHAI · HONG KONG · TAIPEI · CHENNAI Published by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224 USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601 UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Prostate cancer : basic mechanisms and therapeutic approaches / edited by Chawnshang Chang. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 981-256-067-X (alk. paper) 1. Prostate--Cancer. I. Chang, Chawnshang, 1955- RC280.P7P75835 2005 616.99'463--dc22 2004062902 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Copyright © 2005 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher. For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. Typeset by Stallion Press Email: [email protected] Printed in Singapore. B245-FM 3/2/05 4:42 PM Page v CONTENTS List of Contributors and Affiliations xiii Preface xvii Editor — Chawnshang Chang, Ph. D. xix 1 Hormonal Therapy for Prostate Cancer: Clinical and Experimental Evidence 1 Hiroshi Miyamoto and Chawnshang Chang Introduction 1 The AR and Androgens 1 Strategies of Androgen Deprivation 3 Concluding Remarks 20 References 21 2 Immunotherapies for Prostate Cancer 33 Kelley M. Harsch, Jason E. Tasch and Warren D. W. Heston Introduction 33 Inflammation 34 The Immune System 36 Targets of Immunotherapy 37 Cytokines 38 Growth Factors 39 Tumor Antigens 39 Monoclonal Antibody Therapy 40 Modulation of T-Cells 42 Vaccines 43 v B245-FM 3/2/05 4:42 PM Page vi vi Contents T-Bodies 46 Summary 46 References 47 3 Radiation Therapy and Hormonal Therapy for Prostate Cancer 55 Ralph A. Brasacchio Introduction 55 Conventional and Conformal Radiation Therapy 56 Radiation Therapy With or Without Androgen Ablation Therapy 58 Hormone Therapy and Brachytherapy 65 Potential Mechanisms of Androgen Ablation and Radiation Therapy 65 Future Directions 68 References 68 4 Gene Therapy for Prostate Cancer 75 Juan Antonio Jiménez, Chinghai Kao, Sang-Jin Lee, Chaeyong Jung and Thomas A. Gardner Introduction 75 Gene Therapy Strategy 76 Tissue-Specific Promoters 79 Past Approaches 84 Future Directions 96 Conclusion 97 References 98 5 Chemotherapy for Prostate Cancer 107 Samuel K. Kulp, Kuen-Feng Chen and Ching-Shih Chen Introduction 107 Present Chemotherapies for HRPC 108 Future Therapies for HRPC 109 Conclusions 124 References 125 B245-FM 3/2/05 4:42 PM Page vii Contents vii 6 Chemoprevention for Prostate Cancer 137 Noahiro Fujimoto Introduction 137 Chemopreventive Agents, Rationale and Clinical Trials 138 Others 148 Conclusions 148 References 149 7 Neuroendocrine Differentiation and Androgen-Independence in Prostate Cancer 157 Sonal J. Desai, Clifford G. Tepper and Hsing-Jien Kung Introduction 157 Neuroendocrine Differentiation 159 Androgen-Independent Growth 169 Summary 174 References 175 8 Biology of Prostatic Acid Phosphatase and Prostate-Specific Antigen and Their Applications in Prostate Cancer 191 Suresh Veeramani, Ta-Chun Yuan, Siu-Ju Chen, Fen-Fen Lin and Ming-Fong Lin Introduction 191 Historical Review — Discovery and Clinical Applications of PAcP and PSA 192 PAcP 193 PSA 197 Androgen-Independent PSA Secretion 198 Future Perspectives 202 Acknowledgments 203 References 204 B245-FM 3/2/05 4:42 PM Page viii viii Contents 9 Epigenetics in Prostate Cancer 213 Jose A. Karam, Elie A. Benaim, Hong Chen, Rey-Chen Pong and Jer-Tsong Hsieh Introduction 213 The Role of CpG Dinucleotides in DNA Methylation 213 Methyl Binding Proteins (MBP) 214 DNA Methyltransferases (DNMTs) 215 DNMT Inhibitors 216 Histones 217 Histone Deacetylases (HDACs) 220 Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors (HDIs) 220 The Interaction Between DNA Methylation and Histone Modifications in Gene Regulation 221 Epigenetics in the Pathogenesis and Diagnosis of PCa 222 Membrane Receptors 224 Nuclear Receptors 225 Nuclear Proteins 227 Conclusion 228 References 228 10 Significance of 5␣-Reductase in Prostate Cancer 243 Jun Shimazaki Introduction 243 5␣-Reductase 243 Formation and Metabolism of DHT in Cancerous Prostate 245 Risk of DHT Formation 246 Treatment with Inhibitors 249 Prevention 250 Conclusion 252 References 252 B245-FM 3/2/05 4:42 PM Page ix Contents ix 11 Roles of Vitamin E in Prostate and Prostate Cancer 263 Shuyuan Yeh, Jing Ni, Eugene Chang, Yi Yin and Ming Chen Introduction 263 Vitamin E and its Analogs 264 Vitamin E Absorption and Transport 264 Functional Mechanisms of Vitamin E in Prostate Cancer 265 In vivo Animal Study of Vitamin E’s Role in Prostate and Prostate Cancer 268 Clinical Study of Vitamin E in Prostate Cancer 269 Summary 271 References 272 12 Vitamin D and Prostate Cancer 277 Yi-Fen Lee, Huei-Ju Ting and Bo-Ying Bao Introduction 277 Epidemiology Study 278 Vitamin D Action 279 Mechanism of Anti-tumor Action in Prostate Cancer by Vitamin D 280 Development of New Vitamin D Analogs and their use in Combination Therapy for Prostate Cancer 283 Vitamin D-Based Clinical Trials 284 Loss of Vitamin D Anti-proliferative Responsiveness in Prostate Cancer 285 Future Perspectives 286 References 287 13 Functions of Estrogen Receptor in Prostate and Prostate Cancer 293 Shuyuan Yeh, Ming Chen, Jing Ni, Yi Yin, Eugene Chang, Min Zhang and Xingqing Wen Introduction 293 Distribution of ER␣ and ER␤ in Prostate Tissues, Cancer Specimens and Cancer Cell Lines 294 B245-FM 3/2/05 4:42 PM Page x x Contents Estrogen Regulated Genes in Prostate Cancer 296 ER Coregulators in Prostate 297 Histological Changes in Prostates of ␣ERKO and ␤ERKO Mice 298 Estrogen Imprinting Effect on the Development of Prostate 298 Estrogen Treatment of ␣ERKO, ␤ERKO, and Hypogonadal (hpg) Mouse Models 299 Estrogen Effect on Initiation, Growth, and Progression 302 of Prostate Cancer Conclusion 305 References 305 14 Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer 315 Ann W. Hsing and Anand Chokkalingam Introduction 315 Rates and Patterns 321 Risk Factors 331 Challenges of Studies with Common Polymorphisms 344 Summary 346 References 347 15 Profiling Gene Expression Changes in Prostate Carcinoma 365 Peter S. Nelson Introduction 365 Methods for Profiling Gene Expression Alterations 366 Microarray Studies of Gene Expression in Prostate Carcinoma 367 Transcript Profiling and Predicting Cancer Outcomes 369 Proteomic Approaches for Assessing Gene Expression in Prostate Carcinoma 374 Conclusion and Future Directions 377 Acknowledgments 378 References 378 B245-FM 3/2/05 4:42 PM Page xi Contents xi 16 Study of Androgen–Androgen Receptor Roles in Prostate Cancer using Mice Lacking Functional Prostate Androgen Receptor 383 Chun-Te Wu, Shuyuan Yeh, Qingquan Xu, Zhiming Yang, Philip Chang, Yueh-Chiang Hu and Chawnshang Chang Introduction 383 Generation of Androgen Receptor Knockout (ARKO) Mice 384 Prostate Development and Carcinogenesis in Prostate-Specific ARKO Mice 385 TRAMP Mice Lacking the Endogenous AR but Carrying the T877A Mutated Transgene 386 ARKO Mice with AR-97Q and AR-24Q Transgene Expression 387 Inducible ARKO and ARKO TRAMP Mice 387 ARKO Human Prostate Cancer CWR22R Cells 388 Conclusion 390 References 390 17 Capturing Signal Anomalies of Human Prostate Cancer into Mouse Models 393 Hong Wu, Ani Khodavirdi and Pradip Roy-Burman Introduction 393 Cell Surface Signaling Molecules 395 Intracellular Signaling Molecules 400 Collaboration Between Signaling Molecules 408 Summary and Conclusions 410 Acknowledgments 411 References 412 Index 423 This page intentionally left blank B245-FM 3/2/05 4:42 PM Page xiii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS AND AFFILIATIONS Bo-Ying Bao, Departments of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine and Urology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York Elie A. Benaim, Department of Urology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX Ralph A. Brasacchio, Department of Radiation Oncology and JP Wilmot Cancer Center, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York Chawnshang Chang, George H. Whipple Lab for Cancer Research, Departments of Urology, Pathology, Radiation Oncology, and the Cancer Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York Eugene Chang, Departments of Urology and Pathology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York Philip Chang, George H. Whipple Lab for Cancer Research, Department of Urology, Pathology, Radiation Oncology, and the Cancer Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York Ching-Shih Chen, Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio Hong Chen, Department of Urology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX Kuen-Feng Chen, Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio Ming Chen, Departments of Urology and Pathology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York

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