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2013 Empowering Women through Recognition of Rights to Land: Mechanisms to Strengthen Women's Rights in Vijaya Nagarajan University of San Francisco, [email protected]

Therese MacDermott

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Recommended Citation Nagarajan V, MacDermott .T Empowering Women through Recognition of Rights to Land: Mechanisms to Strengthen Women's Rights in Vanuatu. Pacific Affairs. September 2013;86(3):471-491. http://dx.doi.org/10.5509/2013863471

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Arts and Sciences at USF Scholarship: a digital repository @ Gleeson Library | Geschke Center. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theology & Religious Studies by an authorized administrator of USF Scholarship: a digital repository @ Gleeson Library | Geschke Center. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 © Pacific Affairs: Volume 86,No.3September2013 Analyzing Challenges Report toEconomicParticipation ______financial benefitsderived fromrentingandsellingland.Thisinhibits livelihood, aswelllimitingtheextenttowhichwomen canenjoythe I Introduction 1 Recognition ofRightstoLand: EmpoweringWomen through empowerment. identified asmajorobstaclestoachievingni-Vanuatu women’s economic nsecure accesstolandanduncertainpropertyrights havebeen DOI: KEYWORDS: of suchrights. absence of knowledge, empowerment and the acceptance of the legitimacy land managementandcontrol,thatpotentialwillnotberealizedinthe secure forwomenagreaterroleindecision-makingprocessesregarding that whilebothexistingandproposedmechanismshavethepotentialto land groups,trustsandcommunitycompanies.Thisarticleconcludes and registration, as well as legal vehicles such as incorporating customary under considerationinmanyPacificIslandcountries,includingrecording alternative ways toovercome the barriers facedby womenthat are currently practices.Thisarticleanalyzes limited successinaddressingdiscriminatory while providing an appropriate legal framework for equality, have only had guarantees andtheratificationofrelevantinternationaltreatyobligations, Commitment totheprinciplesofgenderequalitythroughconstitutional decision-making processes regarding land management and control. interpretations of custom are increasingly marginalizing women from discriminate againstwomen,theoperationofsystemandcontemporary Although the pluralist system of land tenure in Vanuatu does not directly Chakriya Bowman,JozefinaCutura, AmandaEllisandClareManuel, Women’s RightsinVanuatu Mechanisms toStrengthen Vijaya NagarajanandThereseMacDermott Vijaya http://dx.doi.org/10.5509/2013863471 Land,women,Vanuatu, equality, custom,rights. 1 Theyposeathreattovaluablesourcesoffoodand Abstract (Washington: World Bank,2009),46-50. Women inVanuatu: 471

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 be exploitedtodriveeconomicgrowth. in theglobaleconomy, landhastakenona new meaningas a commodityto sector development.ForPacificIslandcountriesstrugglingtofindtheirplace restricts theirabilitytoparticipateinentrepreneurialactivitiesandprivate women’s capacitytouselandascollateralgainaccesscredit,which 472 IDLO 2011. Tenure inSolomonIslands’ Traditional Justice:Practitioners’Perspectives,” Working Papersno,1, of MelanesianWomen,” Pacific IslandsForumSecretariat,2008), 79-122. The MatrilinealFactor, TheCasesoftheRepublicMarshallIslands,SolomonIslands andVanuatu Routledge-Cavendish, 2007),290-291. (Washington: World Bank, landanddevelopmentinthePacific customary ______women’s rightsiscontentious. isthebetter optionforsecuring approachorstateintervention customary particularly inrelationtogenderequality. identified asoneofthesignificantchallengesfacingPacificcountries, lawandimplementinghumanrightsnormshasbeen customary preserving to customonlandissues.Accommodatingthecompetingclaimsfor guarantee ofgenderequalitywiththeconstitutionalrequirementtodefer equality, theyarefacedwiththedifficultyofbalancingconstitutional courts inVanuatu haveshownapreparednesstoupholdprinciplesofgender the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). While the steps takenbytheVanuatu governmenttoimplementtheConventionon gender equality, but progress is slow and there is limited evidence of concrete to upholdingrightsofequality. Thisprovidesalegalframework topromote its Constitutionandthroughtheratificationofvariousinternationaltreaties decision-making processesregardinglandmanagementandcontrol. interpretations ofcustomareincreasinglymarginalizingwomenfromthe does notdiscriminateagainstwomen,althoughthesystemandcontemporary at othertimesfluid.Onitsface,thepluralistsystemoflandtenurein Vanuatu law,determined according to customary which is difficult todetermine and recognition ofinterestsinland.Butthecontentsthosearelargely Constitution andotherlegislation,providestheframework forthelegal law.both formal law and customary of bringingeconomicbenefitstodevelopingcommunitiesasawhole. awareness oftheimportancewomen’s economicempowermentasameans 7 6 5 4 3 2 Vanuatu, likemanyPacificIslandcountries,hascommitteditselfthrough Rights tolandinVanuatu aregovernedbyapluralistsystemmadeupof Rebecca Monson,“NegotiatingLand Tenure: Women, MenandtheTransformation ofLand Law and theRights Kenneth Brown and Jennifer Corrin, “Conflict inMelanesia:Customary Kristina EStege,RuthMaetala,Anna Naupa,JoelSimoandEliseHuffer, eds., Jennifer Corrin and Don Patterson, World Bank, Bowman etal., Pacific Affairs: Volume86,No.3–September2013 Gender Issues andBestPractices in LandAdministration Projects’ SynthesisReport Women inVanuatu Commonwealth LawBulletin 2005), 3. 7

, 46-47;AusAid, (Canberra:AusAID Introduction toSouthPacific Law 4 The formal law, as established by the 24(1998):1334. 2 Thereisalsoagrowingglobal 6

Thedebateaboutwhethera Making LandWork: Volume I,Reconciling 2008),xi,1. , 2nded.(London: Land andWomen: 5

3 (Suva:

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 avenues for facilitating the recognition of women’s rights to land currently practices.Itthenanalyzesalternative mechanisms toaddressdiscriminatory law,under customary howthisimpactsonni-Vanuatu women,andtheexisting problems withitsoperation.Itexamineshowlandinterestsaredetermined of NationalLandLegislation, Policy andLand Administration basket, ______requirements areroutinelyignoredandthatthestandard that thesestatutory intended toapplyonlyleasesoverpublicland.However, itisreported supposed to exceed 75 years and rights of renewal for longer terms are the lessor, whichshallnotbewithheldunreasonably. Leasetermsarenot of theleasedlandoranyinterestinitwithout writtenconsentof lease,includingtherequirementthat lesseenotdispose implied inevery interest inthatperson.Underthelegislativescheme,certain conditionsare that landbythecustomownertoanotherandvesting ofaleasehold place. land administration system, but the initial framework remains largely in contemplates thatanationallandlawwouldbedevelopedforcomprehensive land managementsystem. same timeencouraginginvestmentthroughtheestablishmentofaregulated of thecolonizersandreturningittoindigenouspeople, immediate concernsofthetime,byremovinglandownershipouthands This framework was designed as an interim measure to deal with the at the time of independence, and subsequent amendments to that framework. alongside thisisthelegislativeframework forlandmanagementestablished laws determinetheownerandotherinterest-holdersinland.Working in Vanuatu can essentially only be owned by ni-Vanuatu, whose customary is tobedeterminedaccordingtherulesofcustom.Thismeansthatland owners andtheirdescendants,dictatesthatownershipuseofland Vanuatu’s Constitutionlimitsownershipoflandtotheindigenous custom The ExistingLandTenure System highlights thesocialandculturalaspectsthatlimitthispotential. of existingandproposedmechanismstoimprovegenderoutcomes,but the potential trusts and community companies. It concludes by identifying furthering women’s landgroups, landrightssuchasincorporatingcustomary land rightsthroughrecordingandregistration,aswelllegalvehiclesfor various donor organizations. These include the legal recognition of women’s under considerationinmanyPacificIslandcountriesorbeingadvocatedby This article looks at the existing land tenure system and highlights current This articlelooksattheexistinglandtenuresystemandhighlightscurrent 9 8 landare through leasesof The maintransactionsinvolvingcustomary ’ Chris Lunnay, JimFingleton,MichaelMangawai,EdwardNalyalandJoelSimo, Jim Fingleton,AnnaNaupaandChris Ballard, ” Making LandWork Volume 2 Empowering Women through RightstoLand (AusAID Report, 9 TheVanuatu Constitution(Article76) “Village landtrustsinVanuatu:“Village ‘one common 2008), 27. (AusAID, 2007),11. 8 whileatthe Vanuatu Review 473

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 of landalienationthroughthetransferleaseholdintereststoforeign this framework for land tenure. It has been seen as facilitating a rapid rate agreements. length ofanyleaseis75years,withrightsrenewalwrittenintomany 474 see Law Review ______practiceandcustom was muchmorecomplicatedtodeterminecustomary all formerly alienatedlandwasreturnedtocustomownership,inpracticeit more. alienation bygovernmentinterests,colouringalldealings withlandforever by peoplewithoutrightstotheland,andlaterperiods sawevengreater life. Thisperiodsawmuchlandbeingalienatedbycustom ownersaswell interests that ruled from 1906 to 1980, had on indigenous culture and during thenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies BritishandFrench that theChristianmissionaries,aswellbusinessandplantationinterests Any examinationoflandinVanuatu hastogiveconsiderationtheimpact Law LandInterests underCustomary Determining been forthcoming. commitment toafullimplementationofthesummit’s resolutionshasnot Vanuatu women,butprogressinthisareahasbeenslowandthepolitical resolutions couldincludestrategiestoaddressthemarginalizationofni- have highlightedhowtheimplementationofNationalLandSummit and may exacerbate social discord over land issues. A number of reports directed anddonor-funded programsofland“reforms”remainsaproblem, Program hasbeenestablished.However, communitysuspicionofgovernment- management hasbeenlimited,althoughanaid-fundedVanuatu Land on animplementationstrategy. Subsequently aNationalLandSteeringCommitteewasestablishedtowork rights, andincludedmeasurestoestablishmechanismsdocumentcustom. land resolutions, manyofwhichweredirectedatstrengtheningcustomary Summit wasconvenedin2006,whichresultedthepassingoftwenty food productionandmarket gardensis beingthreatened.ANationalLand marginalized intheseprocesses.Thereisasensethattheiruseoflandfor dealings. Our focusis ni-Vanuatu women, whoare seenas beingincreasingly investors anddevelopers,asnotprovidingeffectiveregulationofland 15 14 13 12 11 10 In thelastfewyears,seriouspublicconcernhasariseninVanuatu about http://www.dailypost.vu/content/former-malvatumauri-head-makes-u-turn-mama-graon Howard vanTrease, See, forexample,Stegeetal., “Former Malvatumauriheadmakes u-turn onMamaGraon,” Lunnay etal., Sue Lunnay etal., 15 AlthoughindependenceonJuly30,1980meantthat theoretically 40(2009):387, Farran, Tale,” “Land as a Fundamental Right: A Cautionary 10

Pacific Affairs: Volume86,No.3–September2013 Vanuatu ReviewofNationalLandLegislation Vanuatu ReviewofNationalLandLegislation 399. The Politics ofLand Land andWomen 12 Butconcretechangetothesystemofland (Suva:Instituteof PacificStudies,USP1987). , 79-122. , Attachment5. , 20. Vanuatu DailyPost Victoria University of Wellington Victoria , 17July2012, . 14 13 11

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 relationship with land and the manner in which an individual’s actions Vanuatu hasshapedpeople’s illustratesthemannerinwhichcolonialhistory been withoutitsdifficultiesandtensions. while customhas been essentialto the forging of national identity, it has not ownership aftermanydecadesofbeinginEuropeanownership. for thePoor Working PaperSeries49322(World Bank,2009), 2; 2 (NewYork: BerghahnBooks,2009),122. (Vancouver: UBC Press,1987),33-35. Routledge, 1994). ______and reinterpreted to favourindividuals’ personal interests. For instance,the as acommodityforexploitation,customisalsoatriskof beingmanipulated ownership andusagerights. uncertainties contributetoongoingdisputesandcontroversiesabout Mission andcolonialtradersmayhavehadonindigenouspractices. to speculate on the impact that the male-centred practices of the Anglican descent systemwithmostlypatrilinealinheritanceofland,whichhasledHess In otherregions,suchasVanua Lava,landtransmissioncombinesamatrilineal for landrights,astrictinterpretationofrightswasstronglyadvocated. after a national court decision that favoured patrilineal descent as the basis after numerouslanddisputeswereheardinthevillagecourtRanonand decisions have had on theconstruction of these understandings,stating that construed. rightsunderstanding and the ofcustomary inheritance rules, which are strictly through maternalorpaternalalternativelinks,thisdoesnottranslatetoland understanding ofkinshipisflexible,allowingforrelationstobemaintained patrilineally. Eriksennotesthatalthoughthe ForexampleinAmbrym, inherited accordingtothematernalbloodline,whileinothersitisdetermined determining landrights. the waylawvisualizescustomasasetofpracticesthatarescrutinizedfor the factthatwithtimecustomwillchange,itisclearthisatodds is heldandinherited. fromregiontointheirdeterminationofthewayswhichland vary in Vanuatu. has Instead,a practiceswide range the that country of customary continue toinfluencethisrelationship. 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 attitudestowardslandnowencompassing itspotential With contemporary rulesgoverninglandtenure There isnosingle,uniformbodyofcustomary Justin Sabine Hess, Eriksen, Annelin Eriksen, Margaret Jolly, Bowman etal., Margaret Rodman, Margaret Jolly, van Trease, 261. Haccius, C 21 Gender, Christianityand Change inVanuatu Shealsopointstotheimpactthatlanddisputesandcourt Person and Place:Ideas, Ideals and Practice of Socialityon Vanua Lava, Vanuatu Women ofthePlace Women inVanuatu Empowering Women through RightstoLand Women ofthePlace:Kastom,Colonialism,andGenderinVanuatu oercion to Conversion: Push and Pull Pressures on Custom Land in Vanuatu Gender, Christianityand Change inVanuatu Masters of tradition: consequences of customary landtenure inLongana, VanuatuMasters oftradition: consequences ofcustomary 19 Althoughanthropologistshavealertedusto 20 Insomeregionscustomdictatesthatlandis 24

, 257. , 47. 18

17 Rodman’s studyofLonganain , 46-47. Fingleton etal.,29. (London: Ashgate,2007),31. 16 Indeed, 23 (London: These These , Justice 475 , vol. 22

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 be motivatedbythemen’s self-interestandbedetrimentaltothecollective utilized. Insuchsituationsthereistheriskthatdecisionsmadewill and mendominatetheprocessofdetermininghowlandisgoingtobe practiceswherewomenaremarginalizedfromdecisionmaking customary increasing commercial exploitation of land has been occurring alongside 476 July 1983). Australian LawJournal Property 51818 (World Bank,2009), ______women isthattheymayexercisetheseusufructrights inordertocultivate and canbeheldbyindividualsorsmallerfamilyunits. access toitsresources,oroccupy, enjoytheland cultivateorotherwise rights. Theserightsmayallowuseofcertainareascustom-owned landor the land,includingmenandwomen,arecommonly termedusufruct rights ofownership.Usermaybegrantedtothose whodonotown benefit offuturegenerations. ownership thatlandcannotgenerallybedisposedof,butisretainedforthe ancestors, currentusersandfuturegenerations.Itisthenatureofcustom spiritual significance.Undercustom,landisacontinuumconnecting to beownedandsold,customlawgiveslandamuchmorecultural common lawofmanyWestern countriesconceivesoflandasacommodity individual will act in the best interests of the group. than arightofownership.Generally, practicesdictatethatthe customary representative capacityandismoreoftenarighttocontrolthelandrather where anindividualappearstoownland,thisismorelikelybeina to ownjoint,undividedinterestsintheareaoflandwheretheylive.Even reside withthem.Itismorecommonformembersofagrouporcommunity rarely vestedformallyinindividuals,althoughcontroloverthatlandmay descendants laterlefttheregion. is irrelevanttorightsofownershipthatthosefirstoccupantsortheir first occupants,althoughthecourtsin Vanuatu havedeterminedthatit First, ownershipisdeterminedbytracingone’s backtoaregion’s genealogy uncertainties that exist, these practices are said to share a few general features. the customownerisandprovingwhatis. who There isnoprovisioninthelawthatspellsoutmethodsofidentifying interest. 30 29 28 27 26 25 Fourth, customrecognizesasystemofuserrightsthataredistinctfrom practicesacrossVanuatuDespite thevariationincustomary andthe Corrin andPaterson, Haccius, Corrin andPaterson, See, forexample, Fingleton etal., Justis BlongEvriwan, 25 Customary practicesarealsosusceptibletomoderninterpretations. Customary Coercion toConversion Pacific Affairs: Volume86,No.3–September2013 Making LandWork, Bue ManieandKennethKaltabangv. SatoKilman 6;Sue Introduction toSouthPacific Law Introduction toSouthPacific Law Vanuatu Program Framework 11 (2005): Farran, “Landrightsandgenderequality inthePacificregion,” , 2. 29

131-132; Bowmanetal., vol. 2,29. 27 Second, customary ownershipoflandis Second,customary , JusticeforthePoor Working Paper Series , 295-296. , 295-296. Women inVanuatu 30 28 Thesignificancefor Third, whereas the [1983]VUSCL5/1984(5 , 47-51. 26

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 not generallynotedwhenaleaseisregistered. land subject to conditions, the existence of usufruct rights are customary though thereisprovisionintherelevantlegislationtomakealeaseof at markets. Suchrightsdonotfitwellwithinanyformallegalsystem.Even land fortheirfamily’s foodproductionortogrowadditionalproducesell the Poor, World Bank, 2011). LandTribunalActivities oftheVanuatu Customary andthe2001Act (Research Report,Vanuatu CulturalCentre,2005); HowardVan Trease andJoelSimo, 23-24 ______responsibility fortherelevantportfolioandotherpolitical instabilities.Finally, implementation ofthesemeasureshasbeendelayedbya changeinministerial details ofownershipandboundaries.However, consideration ofthe Department ofLandstoascertainwherealanddispute existedandtoverify before land a waslease accepted of customary for registration by the Coordinator ofLandDisputeManagement).Thisbody wouldbeconsulted ownership wouldberecordedwithadesignatedbody(theNational in theabsenceofanydispute. ownership oflandandamechanismforlandownerstomark theirboundaries that havealsobeenmootedincludearrangementstorecognizegroup LandDisputesManagementAct with theCustomary LandTribunalexisting Customary Actwouldberepealedandreplaced reviews this processaremen. actively engagedintheadjudicationprocess,andthatmostclaimantsthrough has beenquestioned. rules, and as a body other than a court, the legalitycustomary of its decisions criticized forbeingpoorly understoodandperceivedbychiefstoundermine land claimsundertheLandsTribunal Act2001.Thisacthasbeengenerally tribunalshearcustomary in 2001andtodayahierarchyofcustomary Island courts, with a right of appeal to the Supreme Court. This was altered have failed.Theformallegalstructureoriginallyinvolvedadjudicationby turning totheformalcourtsystemwheresuchattemptsresolvedisputes be dealtwithbytraditionaldisputesettlementmechanisms,parties because oftheprioritygiventoregisteredlease. lawstousetheland,forexamplegrowcrops, they hadundercustomary interests exceptthoserecorded.Asaresult,womenmaylosethebenefitthat means thattheleaseholdinterestisindefeasibleandfreefromallother 35 34 33 32 31 Disputes betweenpeopleclaimingtobethecustomownersoflandmay . Joel Joel Simo, Stege etal., Valele Family v. Touru Bowman etal., 34 andanewlegislativeschemewasrecentlyproposedinwhichthe Simo andHowardVan Trease, Report of the National Review of the Customary LandTribunal oftheNationalReviewCustomary Report Program inVanuatu Land andWomen, Women inVanuatu Empowering Women through RightstoLand [2002] VUCA 3;Lunnayetal., [2002]VUCA 33 32 Thetribunalsystemhasbeensubjecttoanumberof Researchinthisareaindicatesthatfewwomenare 112. , 48. 35 Underthisschemesuchboundariesand The Vanuatu Customary LandTribunalThe Vanuatu Customary System Vanuatu ReviewofNationalLandLegislation 31 (NZAID,2011). Theeffectofregistration . Other reform proposals Otherreformproposals (Justice for (Justice Report onthe Report 477 ,

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 Vanuatu has committed itself through its Constitution and through the Practices Existing MechanismstoAddress Discriminatory for determination,enforcementcanalsobeachallenge. even wherealanddisputeisbroughttotheformalresolutionsystem 478 2011), 23. Local CourtsofSolomonIslands,” Justice andDevelopmentWorking PaperSeries13(World Bank CourtsofPapuaNewGuinea, IslandCourtsofVanuatuA ComparativeAnalysisofVillage and ______to challenge their entitlements in such a way. They would also risk strong and genderequality. Fewwomenwouldhavetheresources orbeinaposition practices change communityattitudestotheinteractionsbetween customary women. Nordoisolateddecisionsfromtheformalcourt systemnecessarily argument, aconstitutionalclaimisnotreadilyaccessible optionformany any customthatdiscriminatedagainstwomenwasunacceptable. determined landownershipofthegroup,butsubject to thelimitationthat laws of the community still Constitution. However it decided that customary of differentiatingbetweenmenandwomenwasinconsistent withthe practice must haveequalrightstomen.TheCourtfoundthatthe customary andthatfemalemembersofafamily practicewasdiscriminatory customary respondent’s discretion. The Court rejected this argument, holding that the from theland,andultimatelythatanybenefittheymightgainwasat only, thatthewomenwouldnotnecessarilyshareinincomederived practicetorecognizemen’sassertion thatitwascustomary rightstoland profits generatedfromtouristsusingabeach.Theirclaimwasmetbythe 3, inwhichwomenofaparticularfamilygroupingsoughtsharethe equality. Themostappositeofthesecasesisthat and onthewholecourtshavedecidedinfavourofprinciplegender and customhasconfrontedthecourtsinVanuatu onanumberofoccasions, basis ofownershipanduseland. of Vanuatu and, more specifically, the form to that the rulesare of custom lawshallcontinuetohaveeffectaspartofthe mandate thatcustomary perceived tensionbetweenthesehumanrightsprinciplesandtheconstitutional enjoyed withoutdiscrimination,includingonthebasisofsex.Butthereisa of Vanuatu, whichguaranteesspecifiedrightsandfreedomsthataretobe practices. discriminatory burden onindividualwomentohavetheresourcesandcapacitychallenge practices and, to a significant degree, put the in addressing discriminatory equality. Howevertheselegalobligationshaveonlyhadlimitedsuccess ratification ofvariousinternationaltreatiestoupholdingrightsgender 36 While thiscaseisanimportantprecedentingivingprimacy totheequality The principleofgenderequalityisenshrinedinArticle5theConstitution Daniel Evans, Michael Goddard and Don Paterson, “The Hybrid Courts of : Pacific Affairs: Volume86,No.3–September2013

The conflictbetweenthe right to equality Noel v. Toto 36

[1995] VUSC ,

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 the formal court system now that the customary landtribunalsystemhas the formalcourtsystemnowthatcustomary of NGOs.Inaddition,claimsthisnaturearelesslikelytobeheardthrough rights issuesinthePacifichaveonlydonesowithassistanceandsupport not readilyavailable,andmanywomenwhohavetakenactionoverhuman family andsocialpressuresnottodoso.Legaladvicerepresentationis in NinePacific IslandCountries (2007), [10]-[11],[22]-[23]. Vanuatu, CEDAW/C/VUT/1-3 ______in awaythatdiscriminatesagainstwomentheland context.However, of itsCEDAW obligationsandhighlightthe potentialforcustomtooperate property. in relationtotheownership,administration,enjoyment anddispositionof independence, andthatatpresentwomeninVanuatu donotenjoyequality dispose of property is central to a ’s right to enjoy financial inheritance. againstwomen,especiallywithregardtolandownershipand discriminatory with theconceptofequalityinordertoensurethattheirrulingsarenot or island courts so thatraising these measures courts in are customary familiar women. eliminate culturalpracticesandstereotypesthatdiscriminateagainst put inplaceacomprehensivestrategy, or includinglegislation,tomodify could befoundtolawfulinsomecircumstances. law, withtheresultthattraditionalpracticesdiscriminateagainstwomen normsofcustomary and theprohibitionondiscriminationovercontradictory the Vanuatu Constitutionfailstogiveprimacytheprincipleofequality 2004, andajointfourthfifthperiodicreportrequestedbylate2012. been slow, withacombinedinitial,secondandthirdreportonlymadein Protocol in2007.However, compliancewiththereportingrequirementhas committee. Vanuatu ratifiedCEDAW in1995,anditaccededtotheOptional a state’s implementation ofitsobligationsbytherelevantUnitedNations made on with its convention obligations, and the consequent observations is through the mandated reporting process regarding a state’s compliance realised.” providing ahumanrightsbasisforwomen’s landsinpracticethisisnot “despitebeen established.AsNaupaandSimoobserve, nationallegislation 41 40 39 38 37 These statementsemphasizetheshortcominginVanuatu’s implementation In responsetothesereports,thecommitteeexpresseditsconcernthat Another mechanismbywhichgenderequalityprinciplescanbepursued Vedna JivanandChristineForster, CEDAW, United Nations,CEDAW, United Nations,CEDAW, Stege etal., 39 41 Italsorecommendedthatthegovernmentundertakeawareness- 37

40 Concluding Comments Finally, itnotedthattherighttoown,manage,enjoyand Land andWomen, Empowering Women through RightstoLand (2005). (Review Report,UNDP PacificCentreandUNIFEM Pacific, 2007),30. Concluding Comments:Vanuatu, 38thsession,CEDAW/C/VUT/CO/3 Combined Initial, Second and Third Periodic Reports of States Parties, Combined Initial,SecondandThird ofStatesParties, Periodic Reports 112. , 39. Translating CEDAW intoLaw:CEDAW LegislativeCompliance 38 ItadvisedVanuatu to 479 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 also haslimitedenforcementandraisesconcernsregardingresources if anindividualwastopursueacomplaintundertheOptionalProtocol,this and ultimatelyitisforthestatetoaddresscomplianceissuesraised.Even committee’s commentsandrecommendationsaremerelyrecommendatory, presents real difficulties.enforcement Theofthe thesestatus observations of 480 Law ______is discussedbelow. of theseprocessescanbeusedtofurtherthearticulation ofwomen’s rights registered andavailableinthepublicdomain.Themanner inwhicheach provide foralldealings,betheyleasesorchargesand mortgages,tobe usually allowfor land to be registered in the nameof a group and canalso of formalizingrightsoverlandintheWestern tradition.Suchprocesses time. Registration of rights, on the other hand, is usuallyseenas a process time, anddoesnotaltertheserightsorprevent them fromchangingwith rights isaprocesstoascertaintheheldundercustom atanypointin the kindsofrightsheld,thereisafundamentaldifference. Recordingof namely the creation of a state-backed system that establishes a register of registering oftheserights.Whiletwooptionshavemuchincommon, to land:eitherbyrecordingtheserightsorprovidingforasystemthe There aretwowaysforthelawtofacilitaterecognitionofwomen’s rights and Registration Legal RecognitionofWomen’s LandRightsthrough Recording discussion thatfollows. interests inrightsandtheuseofcertainlegalvehicles,asexamined of women’s rightstolandincluderecordingandregistrationofwomen’s decision-making processes. which include measures that could address women’s participationinland importance ofimplementingalltheresolutionsNationalLandSummit, of sex. subject totheconstitutionalprohibitionagainstdiscriminationonbasis would seetheConstitutionamendedtostipulatethatcustomlawmustbe marginalize women. the problemasnotcustomitself,butreinterpretationsofthat forachievingthis.Therearethosethatsee different methodsputforward Vanuatu tobridgethegulfbetweengenderequalityandcustom,with access totheformaljusticesystem. 45 44 43 42 The cruxofthecommittee’s istheneedforstatessuchas observations (Oxford:OUP, Stege etal., Jivan andForster, Grace MeraMolisa, Daniel 44 Othershavetakenacustom-tenureapproachthatemphasizesthe Moeckli, SangeetaShahandSandesh Sivakumaran,eds., Pacific Affairs: Volume86,No.3–September2013 Land andWomen 2007), 406-409. Translating CEDAW intoLaw, 43 Black Stone( Somehaveadvocatedarights-basedapproachthat 45 , 112-115. Alternative avenues for facilitating the recognition Alternativeavenuesforfacilitatingtherecognition Suva, Fiji:ManaPublications,1983). 393. International HumanRights

42

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 rights mayallaytheconcernsthatbothmenandwomenhaveabout ownersasdiscussedabove.Theprocessofrecording protecting customary land,thesehavenotbeensuccessfulin against alienationofcustomary Although Vanuatu has entrenched constitutional provisions that protect Recording Rights aspx. for Vanuatu,” July 2009, see http://www.ausaid.gov.au/Publications/Pages/6594_7378_869_2974_4662. 35, no.3(2005):450-475,453. ______be created,accommodatingtheneedsofindividualsorfor landtobedivested, chiefs. rights inaccordancewiththeneedsofcommunity andthewillof lawthatcurrentlyallowsforthetapering andmouldingof of customary rights at a specific point in time, which is clearly altering the organic nature of landtenure. are afoottoreformthelandsector, whichispredicatedonproviding certainty rights inamannerthatwillfacilitaterecordingofsuch rights. potential canonlyberealizedifwomenareabletoarticulateandasserttheir also protect women’s rights where these are usufruct rights. However this that thereisnoanticipatedbasisfordisputesovertitle.Suchaprocessmay users withenoughconfidencethatlandboundarieshavebeenacceptedand reduce disputesasrecordingsuchrightsmayprovidepotentialinvestorsand or familieshavemovedawayfromtheselands.Third,ithasthepotentialto the recordingprocessestoasserttheirrights,evenincaseswhereindividuals groupswhocanrelyon it providescertaintyformembersofthecustomary LandsTribunalthe failureofCustomary toresolvethesedisputes.Second, land because ofthelargenumbercontestedtitlesand involving customary Financial institutionsarecurrentlyreluctanttoengageintransactions certainty ofownership,whichcanbeascertainedthroughthelandrecords. institutions that seek to finance economic growth, as it provides greater offinancial emphasized. First,itistheinitialstepinattractingservices records couldbemadeavailabletopotentialfinanciersandleasers. rights,includingusufructrights.Accesstothese andsecondary both primary groups.Suchrightscouldrecord be recordedinthenamesofcustomary rights allowsforthecapturingofexistingatapointintimeandcould result ingroupslosingtheirlinkstotheland. increasing shiftsofpopulationfromruralareastourban centresthatmay rightsinthewaveofdevelopment,aswell erosion oftheircustomary 48 47 46 The possible negative impacts cannot be ignored, particularly as moves Such a process brings numerous benefits, of which three should be Farran, “LandRights andGenderEquality,” 132. AusAid, “Land Sector Framework 2009-2018: A prosperous, equitable& sustainable land sector Tenure,”Daniel Fitzpatrick,“TheLegalRecognition ofCustomary 48 Currentlytheflexibilityofsystemallowsfornewgarden plotsto 47 One important consequence of recording would be to freeze Oneimportantconsequenceofrecordingwouldbetofreeze Empowering Women through RightstoLand 46 Recording customary land Recordingcustomary Development andChange 481

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 chiefs. Anyattempttorecordlandrightsneedsinstitutionalinvolvement, breakdown orwidowhoodasitmayrestricttheuseofdiscretionbyvillage who relyontheirfamiliesorgroupstoaccommodatethemincaseofmarriage the fabric of social relations. Recording of rights may adversely affect women creating bondsbetweendifferentgroups. 482 ANU, 2001),57-59, 97-99. ______land holding mustincludethenameofgroup record ofcustomary rightsandthedemarcation oftheboundariesland.The primary land,toapplytheLandRecordOffice fortherecordingof customary landholdinggrouporaperson,whoclaims aninterestin a customary Act onlyallowsfortheregistrationofformerrights. Theactprovidesfor rightscanexistinrelationtoland, theLandandTitles rights andsecondary LandRecordsActrecognizes thatprimary resort. AlthoughtheCustomary well aspublicizingandrecordingtheclaim,settling disputesasalast documentationwithin suchclaims,as checking claimsandthenecessary land holdingsandtheappointmentofrecordingofficers responsiblefor Land RecordOffice,whichisresponsibleforkeepingall recordsofcustomary land cannot be legally defeated. The act established the Central customary specific communityortribe.Oncerecordedundertheact,interestsin land) toberegisteredinthenameofcustomowner, whichcouldbea land(aswellasCrownandprivately-owned and allowsinterestsincustomary the Land and Titles Act, which provides for the registrationof titles to land holdings inthenameofgroups.Thissystemoperatesconjunctionwith land recordingofcustomary which providesasystemforthevoluntary these factors,primarilybytheirabsence. implemented intheSolomonIslandsdemonstratesimportanceofall integrity. The system of recording that was considered and partially and ministerswhovoluntarilycommittotheprocess,therebyaddingits generate trustwithinthecommunity, whichrequirestrustworthygovernments practicesthatexistamongthegroup. customary the disappearanceofanumberlanguagesinVanuatu, alongwiththe need tobereconciledinanydisputes.LynchandCrowleyhavedocumented its culture’s practicesand languages,whichmayhaveconflictingnormsthat in Vanuatu, withaculturethatisintransitionandhugeinternalvariety determine landrights,whichmaylaterbecontested.Thisisnotaneasytask lawsusedto Furthermore, effortshavetobemaderecordthecustomary for recordkeepingisessentialanysuchsystemtooperateeffectively. oflandandtodevelopasystem and donorbodiestoorganizethesurveying of anoveralllandmanagementscheme.Theinvolvementgovernments financial commitmentandthetrustofcommunitymustfitaspart 50 49 Land Records Act, In 1994 the Solomon Islands passed the Customary John Lynch and Terry Crowley, Justin Haccius,C Pacific Affairs: Volume86,No.3–September2013 oercion toConversion : andbibliography a newsurvey , 2. 49 Moreoveritworks tomaintain 50 Finally, thesystemhasto (Canberra: Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 extent oftherightsclaimed. rights and the who will represent the group and those claiming secondary showing thebasisformembershipofgroup,namespersons ofthatgroup rightsovertheland,genealogy claiming theprimary 22-37, 33. learn fromtheInternationalCommunity,” ______has notbeenwithoutproblems andwomenhavefaredpoorly, asdiscussed landis inalienable.Butthis formal rulesandcustomwherecustomary pluralist systemoflandtenure,whereownership isgovernedbothby viewing landascommunal,hasbeentheimpetusfor Vanuatu optingfora laws,particularly in thecaseoflanddisputes.Theimportancecustomary that canbealienated,andaccesstostate-baseddispute resolutionsystems promises includetheclarityoflegalrights,whereland isviewedasproperty pathway toeconomicgrowthinAfricaandAsia. Western traditionofexclusiverights tolandhasbeen viewed astheprimary conclusive evidenceoftitletotheland.Formalizingproperty rightsinthe landtoberegisteredand indoingsoprovides provides forallthecustomary interests as outlined above, and the second type is one where the state There canbetwotypesofregistrationprocesses:thefirstisonerecording lawrights Registration ofcustomary that exist. aware oftheimportancethisprocessandcommittorecordingrights group rights.Suchaprocessrequireswomenandcommunitiestobemade rights,anyrightswomenhaveneedtobeexpressedasprimary secondary rights,andgiventhatwomen’snot recordsecondary rightstolandareoften and forsuchrightstobeacceptedbycommunitymembers.Astheactdoes require womenbeingmadeawareoftheirrightswithincommunities it will require more than just a system of recording of land rights. It will However, ifany ofthesebenefitsaretoberealized,particularly forwomen, most landowninggroups,andthuswererarelyrecorded. rights went beyond the capacities of included explicit usufruct or secondary membership. Moreover, the requirements on documenting genealogies that not readilyaccommodateaclanortribewithlargeincompletelyknown and bureaucrats, deterring compliance. Further, the recording system did of therequirementsactamongcommunity, aswellwithlawyers procedures, includingthefactthattherewasgenerallypoorunderstanding the actinpastrevealedanumberofproblemswithitsrecording 2007 norightstolandhadbeenrecordedunderit.Failed attemptstouse 51 Recording has numerous advantages, which are relevant to Vanuatu. Although thedesignofacthasmanyadvantages,itappearsthatby Penny Lee, “Individual Titling of Aboriginal Land in Northern Territory: What Australia can Empowering Women through RightstoLand University ofNewSouthWales LawJournal 51 Thetwomainbenefitsit 29, no.2(2006): 483 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 time. Bycontrastanyproposedregistrationprocesshastheeffectoffixing rights toland. provides oneanswertotheseissuesbyallowingfortheformalizingofall land, in the above sections. Registration of all lands, including customary 484 Solomon Islands,” in and OrderWithoutLawinEastTimor,” ______boundaries, aswellrecording anyencumbrancesoreasementtowhich native-land-owning units,forresolvingdisputesabout ownershipand nativelandtodeterminetheboundaries ofthelandheldby for surveying for theiruse,maintenanceorsupport. needed owners butmustbesatisfiedthatthelandtoleasedis nototherwise to grant a lease or licence and is not required to consult with the indigenous acts forthebenefitofindigenousowners.Theboard hasageneralpower over dealingsinnativelandisvestedwiththeNativeLand Trust Board,which in Fijidonothavethepowertomanageandcontrolnative land.Thiscontrol their customsandtraditions.However, unlikeVanuatu, customlandowners peoples andrightstoownusenativelandaredeterminedaccording title.AsinVanuatu,customary nativelandcanonlybeheldbytheindigenous system oflandmanagement,setupbythecolonialadministration,records interests innativelandaredeterminedaccordingtocustom.Acentralized determined according to the Torrens Title registration system, whereas and statelandholding.Interestsinfreeholdare tenure isdividedintothreecategories:nativelandholding,freeholdtenure, of title. is concernamongcommunitiesthatregistrationcouldresultinthealienation Registration ofinterestsinlandisgenerallyviewedwithsuspicionasthere distinguished land to frombe registered. a system that allows for all customary Although asystemforregistrationofleasesupto75yearsexists,thisis land. no movementtodevelopasystemfortheregistrationofcustomary registered regimeofpropertyrelations. crops or their fathers’ land tolive,may not beaseasily created undera accommodation ofwidowstothelandtheirbrothers-in-lawcultivate adversely onwomen.Usufructrights,forexample,whichallowthe negotiability andindeterminacy, propertyrelationsoftheirunderlying characteristics of can robcustomary law.constraining theinherentflexibilityofcustomary Registrationprocesses rights atthetimeofregistration,whichcouldhaveeffectinadvertently 53 52 The NativeLandsCommission,established in 1880,has been responsible A different legislative approach has been adopted in Fiji, where land In Vanuatu, whereover90percentoflandiscustomarilyowned,there Custom reliesonthepracticesofpeopleandaccordinglycanchangeover John Cook and Genesis Eddie Kofana, “Recording land rights and boundaries in Auluta Basin, John CookandGenesisEddieKofana, “RecordinglandrightsandboundariesinAulutaBasin, Daniel FitzpatrickandSusanaBarnes, “TheRelativeResilienceofProperty:FirstPossession 53

Pacific Affairs: Volume86,No.3–September2013 Making LandWork , vol2,47-63,56. Law andSocietyReview 52 which in certain circumstances may impact whichincertaincircumstancesmayimpact 44,no2(2010):205-238,215. Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 between rights of ownership and usufruct rights. The advantage of this system land in question, thereby at least partly overcoming problems of distinguishing righttouseandoccupythenative native landandrecognizesthecustomary The NativeLandsAct the landissubject,andindividualscomprisingland-owningunit. 2003), 111-118. Definition ofEqualRights” vanuatu-land-program-design-document.pdf for Vanuatu,” July 2009, see ‘wayoftheland,’”the customary ______trusts andthenewlyproposedcommunitycompany. While allthesevehicles principles. Herethreemainvehiclesareexamined:incorporated landgroups, to ensure that women’s rights are articulated in accordance with equality ownership of land, while being cognizant of the need facilitate customary There havebeenseveralattemptsmadetodevelop legal structuresthat Legal Vehicles Women’s forFurthering LandRights mechanisms, whicharebothnewandtransformational. well asthefacilitationofwomen’s participationinlandmanagement groups, as universal principles of equality into the language of customary However, these arenoeasytasks.Rather, theyinvolvethetranslationof steps toconstructingaframework that enablesthedevelopmentofland. pathwaystofacilitatedealingsinlandareconsideredessential participatory decisions abouttheirland,andestablishinglandregistriesthatprovide of citizens. its linkwitheconomicgrowth,stabilitythroughtheregionandwelfare as demonstratedbythefocusonsustainabledevelopmentoflandand this isamatterofcentralimportancetodonorbodiesandthegovernment, acquisitionofpropertybythestate. compulsory introducing suchaprocesscouldbeunconstitutionalasitmayamountto of managementovertheirlandtoagovernmentauthority. Further, are consciousoftheirrightsandwouldbeunwillingtosurrenderpowers land andrecognizedbyindigenousFijians. rightsattachedto tothecustomary definitions areartificialandcontrary recognized. However, it is important to acknowledge the criticism that such their owntriballandinheritance,andtheboundariesofalllandsare framework setupover150yearsago.As a result,allindigenousFijiansknow allows forallindigenousFijianbirthstoberecordedwithinthegenealogical is thatitprovidesforthesystematicrecordingoftriballandownership,which 57 56 55 54 Such a system is unlikely to be replicated in Vanuatu, where landowners Sandra Freeman,“BeyondtheDichotomy ofFormalandSubstantialEquality:Towards anew AusAid, “Land Sector Framework 2009-2018: A prosperous, equitable& sustainable land sector AusAid, John Crosetto,“TheHeartofFiji’s LandTenure Conflict:TheLawof Tradition and Vakavanua, 56 Making LandWork, Volume I Improvingtheprocessesforcustomgroupstomakecollective Empowering Women through RightstoLand

in Temporary SpecialMeasures

http://www.ausaid.gov.au/countries/pacific/vanuatu/Documents/ provides foracollectivenotionofownershipover Pacific RimLaw& Policy , 85. , 12. , ed. I. Boerefijn et al. (Antwerpen: Intersentia, , ed.I.Boerefijnetal.(Antwerpen:Intersentia, 14,no.1(2005):71-101,95. 54 55 Nevertheless it is clear that Neverthelessitisclearthat 57 485 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 or constrainwomen’s agency. Ithasbeensuggestedthatthetransplantation social, culturalandpoliticalfabricofsociety, andthesefactorscanpromote cannot beoverrated.Essentiallythesevehicleshavetooperatewithinthe laws byprovidingidenticalpathwaysformenandwomen,theirpromise effectsofcustomary attempt toovercomesomeoftheinherentdiscriminatory 486 New Guinea,” Review ______a tradeable asset that can be used by the group and is valuablecollateral. becomes to thestateandthenleasesitbackgroup. Thelease commercial borrowing.Instead,theincorporatedgroup mustgivetheland incorporation ofthelandowninggroupcannotbe used assecurityfor the wayinwhichsuchentitiescanbeused. is notprotectedbytheprincipleofindefeasibilitytitle, whichhasrestricted to thegrantingofanincorporationcertificate. the group’s suitabilityforincorporation andconsideranyobjectionsprior Incorporated LandGroupsisrequiredtopublicizethe application,check group’s settlementauthorityhavetobeincluded.Theregistrarof about anycustomunderwhichthegroupoperatesanddetailsof the wayinwhichgroupactsandhowitsactionsarerecorded.Information composition ofthecommitteeorothercontrollingbodygroup,and of thegroup,qualificationsformembershiptitle, preparation ofagroup’s constitution,includingtheusualdetailsofname to beusedinthismanner. Although itwasnotaimedatempoweringwomen,doeshavethepotential land. economic developmentoftheirnationbyusingcustomary aim offacilitatinggreaterparticipationbyPapuaNewGuineansinthe Incorporation Actprovidesforsuchaprocess.Itwasintroducedwiththe separate entitywithcustom.InPapuaNewGuinea,theLandGroups hold, manageanddealwithlandasagroup,blendstheadvantagesof groupto Using anincorporatedentitytoallowmembersofacustomary land-owninggroups ofcustomary Incorporation by difficultiesinfulfillingtheirobjectives. explains whyeachofthethreevehiclesexaminedbelowhasbeenplagued andifthelawsaresupportedbystakeholders. the country andinstitutionsin successful iftheselawsareconsistentwiththeideology of lawsfromdevelopedcountriestoemergingnationsisonlylikelybe 61 60 59 58 land in Papua New Guinea cannot be registeredCustomary and accordingly Under thislegislationtheprocessforincorporationrequires 6,no.2(2001):286-311. AusAid, Mugambwa, “AComparativeAnalysis ofLandTenure LawReform,” 49. John John Gillespie,“GlobalizationandLegal Transplantation: LessonsfromthePast,” Mugambwa, “AComparativeAnalysis ofLandTenure LawReforminUgandaandPapua Journal ofSouthPacific Law Making LandWork, Volume I Pacific Affairs: Volume86,No.3–September2013 11 (2007):39-55,49. , 8. 60 Title tolandsecured through 58 Thispartly Deakin

Law 59 61

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 developers to the customary landowners. developers tothecustomary owning groupsisusedtodistributeroyalties,rentorcompensationfromthe land, namelylogging,petroleumandoilpalm.Theincorporationofland- for distributingthefinancialgainsfromdevelopingresourcesoncustomary This vehiclehasbeenprimarilyusedasameansofenteringintoarrangements in Vanuatu,” an Egalitarian Society Organisation Papers, ______business. Oncecreated,thetrustismanagedbytrustee, whocanbea Trusts areawell-knownlegalarrangementusedtohold propertyorconduct Trusts men andwomenabouttheirrightsresponsibilities. supported byaneducationcampaigntoincreaseawareness amongboth term. It also requires that the introduction of any such new entity be to forge changes in the manner in which the group functions over the longer equal participationindecisionmakingandincomesharing thatmaybeable such anentityinVanuatu hastoconsider theinclusionofrulesdealingwith profit sharingwithintheincorporatedlandgroup.Anyattempttointroduce at thecommunityandclanlevelalsodominatedecisionmaking are againdisadvantaged,asfrequentlythepeoplewhomakedecisions royalties fromtheentityhastobedistributed,itwouldappearthatwomen dominated bymen. incorporated groups the participation in decision-making positions is also one, control of land may still be male dominated. positions usuallyoccupiedbymen.Evenwherethegroupisamatrilineal members ofthemanagementcommitteeoraschairmancommittee, fare undertheseentities,itappearsthatwomenarerarelyselectedas being imposed on groups, granting them little or no control over the decision. income andsocialdevelopment,withincorporationinsomecircumstances have beenusedmostlyasvehiclesforreceivingincomeratherthangenerating skills for managing an incorporated land group, and the groups necessary littlegovernmentsupportfortheindigenousownerstoacquire very general andthenregisteringthelandwithLandRegistry. Therehasbeen todeterminelandboundaries,obtainingapprovalfromthesurveyor surveys determining thelandoverwhichgrouphasrightsinvolvesconducting genealogical investigationsrequiredtodeterminegroupmembership.Further, However, incorporation iscostlyandtimeconsuming,withextensive groupstoenablethemusetheirlandintheformaleconomy.customary 64 63 62 Although therehasbeennoassessmentofthemannerinwhichwomen It hasbeenrecognizedthatincorporationcanbeanimportanttoolfor Vijaya Nagarajan,“Findingtherightfitforeconomicgrowthand privatesectordevelopment Vijaya Stege etal., Jim Fingleton,“PacificLandTenures: NewIdeasforReform,” FoodandAgricultural Pacific EconomicBulletin Land andWomen (NewYork: ColumbiaUniversityPress, 1993);Fingletonetal.,29. http://www.fao.org/legal/prs-ol/lpo73.pdf Empowering Women through RightstoLand 64 Astheactdoesnotprescribemannerinwhich , viii-x,111-112;MariaLepowsky, 23,no.3(2008): 35-49. , lastaccessed2March2012. FruitoftheMotherland:Genderin 63 It appears that in 487 62

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 and can then beused for the benefit of those specified in thetrustdeed. have beenusedtoownlandthatisobtainedeitherbypurchaseorgift example ofthewayatrusthasbeenusedislandtrust.Suchtrusts and isrequiredtoactintheinterestsofbeneficiariestrust.Acommon person oracompany, whoisboundbythetermsoftrustestablished, 488 ______respective villages. purpose ofthesetrustsisto managelandforthebenefitofpeople these trustsarecomprisedofanumberland-holding groupsandthe trusts that have enjoyed success are the Ifira Trust and the Mele Trust. Both management, whichusuallyoccursataclanorgroup level.Thetwomain landandmakes decisions aboutland not theunitwhichownscustomary a trusttobeestablished.Although the villagemay be a settlement unit, it is out thatthismaybebecausethevillagenot appropriatelevelfor Use ofsuchtrustshasnotspreadthroughVanuatu andithasbeenpointed generation ofvillagersoverthrewtheroletraditional authorities.” this structureworked wellforadecade,it“brokedownwhenyounger practices withinaforeigntrustframework. Ithasbeenarguedthatalthough community in majordecisions, representing an attempttoblend customary of thecommunity. Thetrustwasrequiredtoengagewiththevillage legislation andcouldthenbevestedwithvillagelandsheldforthebenefit village land trusts whereby a trust company could be established under local Later, inthe seventies,theVanua’aku Partyencouraged villages tosetup Presbyterian Churchusedsuchanarrangementtomanageitslandholdings. received fromtheseactivities. land forminingandcommercialpurposesthedistributionofincome decisions areadequatelyreported.Negotiationshaveincludedtheleaseof appropriate dialoguewithcommunitymembersiscarriedoutandthat functionswhichincludeensuring created bystatuteandhavestatutory taking intoaccountAboriginalculture,traditionsandlaw. Landcouncilsare role it is to ensure that decisions are in accordance with the custom group governed bylegislation.Thetrustisdirectedalandcouncil,whose corporationsandholdthetitletolandare trusts arestatutory handed backtoAboriginalownersisvestedinLandTrusts. These from theNorthernTerritory. Herecommunaltitletolandthatisformally Aboriginal peopleandthefirstAustralianexampleofusinglandtrustscomes rights andmonitoringtheexerciseofthoserights. or negotiating communityconservation rights, as well as articulating In morerecenttimes,non-profitgroupshavebeenusingtrustsfor 67 66 65 Vanuatu’s experiencewithtrustsgoesbacktocolonialtimes,when the In Australiathetrusthasplayedanimportantroleinholdinglandfor Fingleton, “Pacific Land Tenures: New IdeasforReform,” 10. landtrustsinVanuatu,”Fingleton etal.,“Village 31. landtrustsinVanuatu.”Fingleton etal.,“Village Pacific Affairs: Volume86,No.3–September2013 65 67 66

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 interviews suggestthatwomendoparticipate insuchtrusts,thisisdriven interviews by groupswithbusinessacumenoraccesstolegaladvice.Althoughour more familymembers.Currentlythisprocessisprimarilybeingaccessed land is registered in the name of a trust and then leased back to one or ______development. However, membership and participation within the community including women,touseland assecurityforborrowingmoneybusiness this doesnotnecessarilyfacilitatelarger-scale entrepreneurialactivities. enterprises throughVANWODS (theVanuatu womenindevelopmentscheme), produce. While micro finance is available to ni-Vanuatu women for small-scale larger-scale businessesinvolvingtheprocessingandmarketing ofagricultural coffee orcocoa.Further, thereisthepotentialforthisvehicletobe usedfor held land to productive use, including growing cash crops such as vanilla, that women’s groupsmaybeable tousethisbusinessformputcommunally and shares cannot be offered to people outside the community. It is expected community. Thepurposeforincorporatingmustbethecommunity interest, to withdraw assets from it, thus ensuring that benefits remain with the companies isthattheyhaveanassetlock,restrictingtheability ofshareholders must be members of one community. A fundamental feature of community interest. Its membership is limited to 50 shareholders and all shareholders currently beingconsideredinVanuatu. the potentialtobeusedbywomen’s groupsforowningland.Thismodelis further byallowingfortheregistrationofacommunitycompanywhichhas introduced in2010theSolomonIslands,followstheseleads,butgoes separate legalentitywithlimitedliabilityiscreated.TheCompaniesAct, history, attestedtobythenumberofincorporatedassociationswherebya The useofthecorporateformbynot-for-profit organizationshasarich Company Community public andprivatesectors. will beaslowprocessthatneedsinstitutionalcommitmentfromboth combining thesewitheducationcampaignstoshiftsocialnorms.This strict rulesdealingwithmembershipbasedongenderquotasand istointroduce incorporated landgroups,themostpracticalwayforward where theseprinciplesdonotreflectsocialnormsorcustom.Aswiththe wider scalewillnot,generallyspeaking,beeasyinVanuatu, particularly manner inwhichlawsareframedbysocialtrendsandbeliefsystems. by thenormsofcustomgroups,whichonceagainillustrates Family trustsarealsobeingmorecommonlyusedtoholdland,where 68 Clearly therearemanyadvantagestosuch anentityasitallowsmembers, The main objective of this legal vehicle is the promotion of a community Relying ondemocraticprinciplestoencouragetheuseoftrustsa Bowman etal., Women inVanuatu, Empowering Women through RightstoLand 55. 489 68

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 collateral willbeadecisionmadebytheclanorcommunity. Accordingly, decision makingofthecorporateentity. Allowingwomentouselandas shareholders and more importantly as directors who participate in the benefits throughsuchavehiclewillrequire,first,theinclusionofwomenas company is notguaranteedtoallmembers. Accordingly, accessing economic 490 change. Forexample,theconstitution couldbeamendedtostipulatethat practices inmanyPacificIslandcommunities. equality andcustomary necessarily changecommunity attitudestothetensionsthatexistbetween outcomes fromtheformal courtsystemorinternationaltreatybodies avenue isnoteasilyaccessible oraffordabletomanywomen.Nordolegal provides a legalframework for pursuing women’s rights to land, but this equality andtheratificationofrelevantinternational obligations in Vanuatu their economicempowerment.Theconstitutionalcommitment togender recognition ofwomen’s rightsto land inVanuatu withtheaimoffurthering In thisarticlewehaveanalyzedarangeofpossiblemethods tofacilitatethe Conclusion hierarchies. company merelyreplicatingtheexistingdiscriminatory allocation ofprofits,itisunlikelythatwomenwillreap anybenefits,withthe unlikely to beeasy. Unless there are rules thatprescribe membership and default arenotavailabletothelender. Shiftingthesebusinesspracticesis is greatreluctancetomakeloansastherightsofpossessionandsaleupon landascollateral.Currentlythere lending moneyonthebasisofcustomary Further, these reforms ignore the reluctanceamong financial institutions to norms. relevance toruralwomenwhoaremoretightlyboundbycustomary negotiations with both public and private institutions, they have little families andaresupportedbymenintheircommunitiestoconduct relevance tosomeurban womenwho aremembersofbusiness-oriented norms donotapplyacrosstheboardinVanuatu. Althoughtheymayhave institutions, includingfinancialtoinformitsstructure.These financial decisionsandenterintonegotiationswithadiverserangeof of Western developedstates,wherewomenareabletostartbusinesses,make it ignoresanumberoffundamentalissues.Firstreliesonthegendernorms create alawthatcanfitthedomesticcontextwhereitwillbeused.However, law hasbeeninplaceforthreeyears. such companieshavebeenincorporatedintheSolomonIslandswhere practices.Currentlyeight effect simplyreflectexistingcustomary in may profit sharingandleavesittotheclandeterminethesequestions,which rights or The proposed legislation does not mandate any such participatory not necessarilyguaranteearoleforwomeninmanagementorprofitsharing. like theincorporatedlandgroupsortrusts,creationofentitydoes Different methods have been put forward for effecting the necessary foreffectingthenecessary Different methodshavebeen putforward The communitycompanyisnotatransplantedlaw. Itisanattemptto Pacific Affairs: Volume86,No.3–September2013 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Publishing Technology to: University of San Francisco Library IP: 138.202.189.11 on: Fri, 10 Jul 2015 18:46:17 Land Summitcouldgosomewaytowardsfacilitatingwomen’s participation Island countries.AfullimplementationofalltheresolutionsNational a symbolicvictory, andhasnotprovedparticularly effectiveinotherPacific discrimination onthebasisofsex.However, thisisunlikelytobemorethan lawmustbesubjecttotheconstitutionalprohibitionagainst customary Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia, March 2013 gender dimension. or acustomlens.Debateon landmattersinVanuatu must articulatethat fundamental tenetofallland issues,whetheroneadoptsagenderequality or corporate arrangements. The participation of ni-Vanuatu’s womenisa and in any associated legal reforms to tribunal processes, registration systems Vanuatu mustbeacoreconsideration inthebroaderlandreformagenda in decision-making processes regarding land management and control in community members.To inthisarea,women’s moveforward participation assistance todoso,andacceptanceofthelegitimacy suchrightsbywider of womenwithincommunitiestoassertsuchrights, relevantadviceand not be realized in the absence of knowledge of such rights, empowerment some potential to secure better outcomes for women.But that potential will hierarchies. existing discriminatory appropriately acknowledged,butthereistheriskthattheywillreplicate a legalstructureinwhichwomen’s interestsinlandcouldbemore landgroups,trustsandcommunitycompanies,toprovide namely customary institution. Finally, this article assesses the option of using three legal vehicles, landownerstoapublic it isfoundedonshiftingpowerfromthecustomary lines ofthesystemoperativeinFijiisunlikelytogainsupportVanuatu as public bodies.Theimplementationofafullregistrationsystemalongthe its effectiveness will depend on institutional commitment from private and land tribunal system in Vanuatucustomary include a recordingaspect, but disadvantages thatemanatefromboth.Theproposedchangestothe that exist in other Pacific Island countries and the advantages and this articlewehavecanvassedsomeoftherecordingandregistrationschemes systems fortherecordingandregistrationofwomen’s interestsinland.In by womeninitsprocesses. land tribunal system also needto directly address the lackof engagement might incidentallybenefitni-Vanuatu women,butchangestothecustomary landtribunalsystem,which Moves arealsoafoottoamendthecustomary donor-funded Vanuatu LandProgramisregardedbysomewithsuspicion. scheme hasbeenanoutstandingissuesinceindependence,andthecurrent management issues.Butthequestionofacomprehensiveland in landdecision-makingprocessesandensuringwomenareconsultedon Looking atthevariousmechanismsexaminedinthis article,eachhas Alternatives waysoffurtheringrecognitionwomen’s rightsinclude Empowering Women through RightstoLand 491